P

TY O G R AP HIC TE C HN IC AL I
S E R ES F O R APP RENTI C ES -
PA RT V I . N O. 3 2

WO RD S TU D Y
AN D
E N G LIS H G RA M M A R
A P R I MER f
o I N F O RMA TI ON A BO UT
WO RDS T HE I R RELATI ONS
AND T HE I R USES

"
J

é
I
y
‘
o
,

F REDER I C K W I A M ILTO N , L L.D.

E D UC A TI O N A L D I RE C TO R

UN I TE D TY POTH BTB OF A M E RI C A

PU B LI S H ED BY TH E C O M M I TT E E ON ED UCAT I O N
U N IT E D TY P OT I I E T A E
-
OF A M ERICA
1 91 8
 Ge r m a i n . 19 18

U m
zo Tv po mu s
'
n OF AM E RI C A

CH I C A G O. l u.
 PRE F A C E

HI S um e a n d th ose w h ic h f ollo w it i n Pa rt V I of
vol
this serie s i s a c om
,

, p i lati o n f rom v a rio us s o urc e s T h e .

oc casio n doe s n ot call for a n ori gi na l treati se b ut it doe s c a ll ,

for som eth i n g somew h at di ff ere nt from e xi sti n g text books -

.

Th e books prepa red for sc hool use a re too aca demi c a n d

too l ittl e re l ated to th e spe c i fi c n e ed s of th e a ppre nti c e to
serve th e tu rn of those for w hom th is book i s i nte n ded O n .

th e oth e r h a n d th e boo ks f or w ri ters a nd pri nt e rs are as a

ru le too a d va nc ed for th e b e st se rvic e to th e begi nn er The .

au thors of th i s Pa rt there f ore h a ve tri e d to c ompil e f rom

, ,

a w i d e ra n g e of au thor itie s su c h m a te r ia l a s w o uld be suite d

to th e n e e d s a n d th e experi e n c e of the yo u n g a ppre nti c e .

The Rul e s f or th e Use a n d A rra ngeme nt of W ord s

“

ar e ta k e n w ith some modi fi c a t i o n s f rom How to Write

C l e a rly E d w i n A A bbott Bo sto n ; Roberts Bros Thi s
”

, .
, .

is a very e xc elle nt little book b u t i s n ow I believe ou t of

pri nt The ta bles of irre gula r ve rb s are the sam
, ,

. e a s those
“
use d 1n E ngli sh Gra mmar f or C ommo n Sc hool s Rob e rt ,
”

C a n d Th omas M etc a l f N ew York , A meri ca n Book C o

.
,
.

The stud e nt i s re c omm e n ded to study some good gra m

ma r w ith great ca re The re a re ma ny good gr’a m ma rs
. .

The one used i n th e sc hool s i n th e a ppre nti c e s lo c a l ity

w i ll prob abl y do a s w ell a s a ny
’

The stude nt should lear n to use th e dictio na ry i nte lli

ge ntly a n d sho u ld acc ustom him se l f to usi n g it f re e ly a nd
f re q u e ntly .

The stud e nt should a l so l ea rn to use w ord s c orre ctly a nd

f re ely The re are ma ny good books d evoted to th e stud y
.

of w ord s some of whi c h o u

,
gh t to b e ea sily ava ilabl e O ne .

tna m 8 W ord Book

“ ’
of th e l a te st a n d one of th e be st i s Pu
”

p ubli sh e d by Putna m s, N e w York It c osts a bo ut a dollar .

a nd a ha l f .
 C O N TE N TS

IN T RODUCT ION : IM P ORTANCE OF T H E S UBJECT

TH E W ORD FAM ILIES
N O UNS
A DJE CT I VES
A RTICLES
V E R Bs
PRONO U NS
A D V E RBS
PR E POS I T ION S
C O N j UNC T IONS
I N T E RJECTION S
G EN E RAL N OT ES
R ULES FOR C O RRECT W RI T ING .

TH E S EN T ENCE
TH E PARAG R A P H
R UL ES F O R TH E US E AND A R RANGEM EN T OF WO RDS
C OM M ON E RRO RS IN TH E US E OF WO RDS
TABLES OF I RREGULAR V ER BS
S U PP L E M ENTAR Y R EADING
R E VI E W !UESTIONS
G LOSSARY OF TERMS
 WORD ST UD Y AN D ENGL I S H GRAMM A R
m
I por ta nce f
o th e Subj ect

O RD udy
st E n gli sh gra m m
a nd a r a re i m porta nt to
th e yo u n g pr i n te r f or seve ral r ea so n s I n th e fi rst
.

plac e d isre ga rd of th e c orre ct use a n d c ombin a ti o n of w ord s

,

i s a d isti nc t m a rk of i n fe riority a n d a se riou s b ar to b u si n e ss

A ma n s use of w ord s i s c om
’
a n d so c ia l a d va n c e m e nt

monly ta ke n a s a m ea sure of h is kn o wl edge a n d even of his

.

i nte ll i ge n c e C a re l e ssn e ss i n th i s re gar d o fte n ca u

. se s a m an

to b e h e ld i n m u c h l e ss e st e e m th a n h e rea ll y d e se rve s .

I n th e se c o n d pla c e it i s q uite a s importa nt th at th e

,

pri nte r sho uld kn o w som eth i n g a bo ut th e w ord s a n d sen

te n c e s w h i c h h e p u ts on p a p e r a s it i s tha t h e sho u ld kn o w
som ethi n g a bo u t th e p a p e r on w h ic h h e p u ts th e m or th e ,

typ e i n k a n d pre ss by m e a n s of w hi c h h e p u
, ,
ts th e m t h e re .

I n th e th i rd pla c e kn o w l e dge of w ord s a n d the i r u

, se s i s

i n di spe n sa bl e to c orre ct proo frea di n g whi c h i s itse l f a bran c h

’
of th e pri nte r s c ra ft A worki n g kn o w l e dge of word s a n d
.

th e i r r e la tio n s t h a t i s of rh etori c a n d gra mm a r i s there f or e

a t ool a n d a ve ry i m
, ,

porta nt tool of the pri nter .

Th i s l ittl e book i s n ot i nte n d e d to b e e ith e r a rh etoric or

a gra mm a r . It i s o n ly i nte n d e d to re vi e w so m e o f th e

simpl e st pri n c i pl e s of both su bj e c ts to po i nt ou t a few

of th e c o m mo n est m ista kes a n d to S how the i mporta nc e
,

to th e a ppre nti c e of th e c a re f u l stud y a n d c o nsta nt use of

so m e of th e m a n y books on w ord s t h e ir c om b i n atio n s a n d
, ,

th e 1 r u se s .

The Word F mi li es
a

A ll t he w ord s i n th e E n gli sh l a n gu a ge b e lo n g to on e or

an o th e r o f n i n e fa m i l i e s, ea c h of w h i c h fa m
i ly ha s a sp e c ia l
m
d uty I f youw i ll a l wa ys re e mb e r to w hi c h fa mily a word
m
.

b e lo n gs a n d j ust w hat th at fa i ly do e s, you w i ll b e sa ved

f rom m a n y ve ry c ommo n errors. The se n i n e fa m i lie s are
2 NOUNS

1 , n ou n s; 2 , a dj e cti ve s; 3 , a rti c le s; 4 , ve rb s; S, pro n o u n s;

6 , a d ve rb s; 7 , pre po sitio n s; 8 , c o n j unc ti o n s; 9 , i nte rj e c

ti on s . Th is ord e r of e n u e ratio n i s n ot exa ctly the sa e m m
a s w ill b e fo u n d i n th e gra mm a rs It i s use d h e re b e c a use .

it i n di c ate s ro ughly th e ord e r of th e a pp ea ra n c e of th e n i n e

m
fa ili e s i n th e logic a l de ve lopm e nt of l a n gu a ge Som e f orm s
m
.

of i nterj e c t io n s, how e ve r , a y ve ry prob a bly h a ve pre c e d e d

a ny l an gua ge properly so c a lled .

N o nsu
A n o un i s a word use d a s th e n a m e of anythi n g that c an
b e tho ught of Jofin boy paper cold f ea r cr owd Th e re a re
, , , , , ,
.

thre e th i n gs a bo u t a nou n whi c h i n d ic ate its r e l a tio n to o th e r

w ord s its nu mb er its gen d e r a n d its case Th e re are two

mbers s1n gula r mean 1n g on e an d plura l mean 1n g more
.
, , ,

nu , ,

th an on e .

Th e plura l is ge n era lly form e d by a dd i n g s to th e

si n gu la r Th ere a re a sma ll n um
. b er of n o uns whic h form
th e ir pl u ra l s di ff e r e n tly m ou se m i ce ; cfiild cfii /dr en ; f oot fi et .

The se m
, , , ,

ust be l ea rn e d i n d i vid ua lly from a di ctio n a ry or

sp e ll i n g book Th e re are som
. e nou n s wh ic h u n d e rgo

c h a n ge s i n th e fi n a l syll able w h e n th e s i s a dd e d tor cfi , ,

The se a l so m ust be l ear n e d

’

tor e/zes; stafl stoves fly fli es , , , .

i n di vi d u a lly Th e re a re some n o uns whi c h h a ve n o si n

.

gul a r suc h a s ca ttle clotfies som e w hic h h a ve n o pl ura l suc h

m
, , , ,

a s pa y si cs fi one
,
s ty n e w s a
,
n d s o e w h,
i c h a re t h e sa m e i n

both si n gula r a n d pl ura l suc h as deer tr out ser i es C a re

m ust b e ta ke n i n th e use of th e se n o uns a s i n so m
, , , .

e c a se s

ma tfiema tics pfiysics

,

th e i r a pp e a ra n c e i s m i sl e a d i n g e g ,
. .
, ,

a n d th e l i k e a re si n gu la r n o un s ha vi n g no pl ura l b ut o wi n g
to th e i r f or mth e y a re o fte n mi sta ke n f or pl u
,

ra l s .

Com poun d n o un s th at i s to sa y n o un s f ormed by th e

, ,

c ombi n atio n of tw o or three w ord s w hi c h joi ntl y e xpre ss a

si n gle id e a g e n e ra lly c h a n ge th e pri n c i p a l w ord i n th e f orm

,

i n g of th e pl u ra l ba nger s ou i n!r oller s b ut i n a fe w case s

-

both word s c h a n ge f or e xa m pl e m
, , ,

en ser va n ts Th e se form s -

m ust b e l ea rn e d by ob se rvatio n a n d pra c ti c e It i s ve ry i m

.
, ,

porta nt ho we ve r that th ey b e thoro ughly l earn ed and c or

, ,
 NOUNS

re c tly use d . D o n ot mk a e s cuh mi t sa k e s a s br otfier -

i n la ws,
-

m a n- ser va nts.

Pe rha p s th e mo t i mport
s use of n um b e r i s i n t h e r e la
a nt

ti o n b etwee n th e n o u n a n d th e ve rb Th e ve rb a s w e ll a s
mb e r form s a n d th e n umbe r of the n oun
.

th e n o u n ha s n u

use d a s subj e ct sho uld a l ways a gree w ith that o f th e ve rb

“
w ith w h i c h it i s c o n n e cte d Su c h e xpre ssio n s as
. p i gs i s
“
p i gs h ow b e y ou? a n d th e like a re a mo n g th e mo st
” ”

marked e vi d e n c e s of i gn ora nc e to b e foun d i n c o m

, ,

mo n
s pe e c h . W h e n th is p a ra gra ph wa s origina lly w ritte n a
gro up of high sc hool bo ys w e re playi n g f ootba ll un d e r th e
’
w rite r s w i n do w Sc ra p s of th e ir ta lk f orc e d th e m se l ve s
.

Alm
u
‘
po n h is atte nti on
y ou w a s
“
,
t h”
e y w a s
.o st i nva riably such e xpre ssi on s a s
“
h e do n
’
t
,
”“
i t a i a n d t h
,
e
”
m
,
”

l ike took th e pla c e of th e c orre spo n d i n g c orrec t f orm s of

sp e e c h .

C oll e c ti ve n o un s th at i s th e n o un s w h i c h i n d i cate a
mb e r of units c o nsid e red a s a w hol e suc h
,

c o n sid e rab l e n u ,

as n er d cr owd cong r ess p r

, , e se nt som e d i ffi c u
,
ltie s b e ca use the
id ea of the i n d i vi d ua l s i n th e c oll e cti o n i nte rfe re s w ith
th e id e a of th e c oll e c ti o n itse l f Th e c oll e c ti ve n o uns
.

c a ll f or th e si n gu la r form of th e ve rb e xc e pt wh e re th e
tho u ght a ppl i e s to th e i n d ivid ua l pa rts of th e c olle cti o n
rath er tha n to th e c oll ec ti on a s a w h ol e f or i n sta nc e , ,

we sa y ,

Th e c ro w d looks l a rge .

but we sa y ,

Th e c ro wd look h a ppy .

b e ca use i n on e c a se w e a re th i nki n g of th e c ro w d a n d i n
th e oth e r of th e p e rso n s w h o c o m po se th e c ro wd So i n
spe a kI n g of a c o m m itte e w e m
.

a y sa y ,

Th e C ommi tte e th i n ks th at a c e rta i n th i n g sh o uld b e do ne .

or th at
Th e C omm itte e th i n k th at a c e rta i n th i n g sho uld b e do n e .

Th e fi rst p h ra se w o uld i n d ica te that th e c o m mitte e ha d

c o n si d e r e d a n d a ct e d on th e su b j e c t a n d th e sta te me nt

repre se nte d a form a l d e c i si o n Th e se c o nd phra se w o uld

.

i n d i cate th e i n d ivi d u a l opi n i o n s o f t h e m e mb e r s of th e

 NOUNS

c ommitte e w hi c h might b e i n a greem e nt b ut ha d n ot b ee n

expre sse d i n f orm a l actio n I n do ubtful case s it i s sa fer to
.

use th e pl ura l .

E ntire a c c ura cy i n t h e se ca se s i s n ot a ltogether easy A s .

in th e c ase w ith a ll th e n i c e poi nts of usa ge i t re q uire s pra c

t i c e a n d c o nt i n ua l sel f ob se rvatio n
-
By th e se me an s a sort
.

of l a n gu a ge se n se i s de ve loped w hi c h m a k e s th e u se of th e

right w ord i n sti nct ive . It i s some w ha t a n a logous to that

se n se w hi c h w ill e nabl e a n experi e n c e d b a n k tell e r to

thro w ou t a c ou nter f e it bill i n sti nct i ve ly w he n ru nning

over a la rge pile of c urre nc y even tho ugh he m ay b e at

some pa in s to pro ve its b a d n e ss wh e n c h a ll e n ged to S ho w

th e re a so n f or its rej e cti o n .

The yo un g Stude nt sho uld n ot permit hi m sel f to b e di s

c ou ra ge d by th e a pp a re nt d i ffi c u lty of th e ta sk of form ing

th e h abi t of c orre ct spe e c h . I t i s h abit a n d ra pidly be c om e s
easier a fte r th e fi rst e ff orts .

Th e re latio n of a n o un to a verb to a n other n oun or to

, ,

a prepo siti o n i s ca lled its ca se There a re thre e c ase s c a ll e d

.

th e n om i n at ive ob j e ct i ve a n d po sse ssi ve Wh e n the n oun

.

does so m
, ,

eth i n g it i s i n th e n omi nati ve c ase a n d i s c all e d th e

su bject of th e verb
Th e m
.

a n cu ts .

W he n th e n oun has som eth i n g don e to it it i s in th e obj ec

i e
t v e
ca s lled th e obj e ct of th e verb
a n d is ca .

Th e m an c u ts p a p e r .

Whe n a n oun depen d s on a prepo siti o n it i s a l so i n th e ,

objecti ve c a se a n d is c a ll e d th e obje ct of th e prepositi o n .

Th e pa p e r is c ut by m a c h i n ery .

The pre po siti o n on w hi c h a no un d e p en d s i s o ften o m i tte d

when n ot n ee ded for c l ea rn e ss .

Th e f or e m a n ga ve ( to) th e m en a hol i da y.
He ca m e ( on ) Sun day .

N ea r ( to ) press
th e .

He wa s ten mi nute s late ( l ate by te n mi nutes) .

He i s 1 8 yea rs old ( old by or to th e exte nt of 1 8 y ears) .

Th e nomi native a nd obj e ct ive case s of n ouns do n ot di Pie r

 —
NOUNS A D JE CTI V ES S

i n f orm . They a re d istin gui sh e d by th e ir po siti on s i n th e

se nte n c e a n d th e i r r e l ati o n s to o th e r w ord s .

W hen on e n oun o wn s an oth e r the on e ow n i ng 1s in th e

po ssessive c ase .

Th e m a n s p a p e r i s c ut
’
.

Th e po sse ssive c ase i s sho wn by th e f orm of th e n oun I t .

is f orm e d by a dd i n g s pre c e d e d by a n a po stroph e to th e

n om i n a tive ca se th u ,
s ,
’
Joh n s h at .

There i s a c o nsi d e ra ble di Pieren c e of usa ge re gard i n g th e

f ormati o n of th e po sse ssive s of n o un s e n din g i n s i n th e
si n gu la r The ge n e ra l rul e i s to pro c e e d a s i n oth e r n o un s
.

by a dd i n g th e a po stroph e a n d th e o th e r s as Ja m
’
es s fra t .

D e vi n n e a d vi se s f ollo wi n g th e pro n un c ia ti o n Where th e .

se c o n d s i s n ot pro n o u n c e d as o fte n h a ppe n s to a vo i d th e

,

prolo nge d hi ssi n g soun d of a n oth e r s h e re c omm en d s ,

omitti n g it i n print
M ose s h at for M oses s h at
’
,
’
.
’
For c o n sc i e n c e sa ke .

Pl ura l n o un s en di n g i n s a dd th e a po strophe o n ly ; e n d in g
in oth e r l ette rs they a dd the a po str ophe a n d s l i k e sin gul ar
’ ’
n ou n s t/ze f ones lzou
, se t/ze c/zi ldr en s to
, ys .

Th e po sse ssive pro n o un s n e ve r ta ke th e a po stroph e W e .

’
say lzer s t/zei rs i ts
, ,
I t s i s a n a bbrevi atio n for i t i s
. .

C are sho uld be ta ke n i n f ormi n g th e po sse ssive s of phrases

c o nta i n i n g n o un s i n a ppo sitio n or si m il a r c ompo u
,
n d phrase s .

W e should say I ca lle d at Brow n the pri nter s or si nc e

” ’ “

W illia m the C on que ror S tim e ’

.
”

A dj ecti ves
An djecti ve is a word use d to q uali fy lim it or d efi n e a
a , ,

n ou n or a w ord or phr ase w h ic h h as th e va l u

,
e of a n o u n .

N o un s a re ord i na rily very ge n e ra l a n d i n d efi n i te i n m ea n

i n g for exa mpl e m
, a n c o n veys o n ly a ve ry ge n e ra l id e a
, .

To m a ke th at idea d e fi n ite w e n ee d th e h e lp of on e or
more d e sc r ipti ve w ord s suc h a s bla ck ta ll stout good , , , .

I sa w a m an .

g ives no d e fi n ite id ea of th e p e rso n se en .

6 A D JE C TIVE S

I sa w a ta ll th i n da rk old m
, , an
,
.

pre sents a ve ry d efi n ite pi cture I t w i ll be n oted th a t th e se

.

d e sc ripti ve w ord s h a ve a way of f orm in g c omb inati o n s

am o n g th e m selve s I t m ust b e r e m
. em b e re d how e ve r , ,

th a t a ll th e w ord s th u s u se d de sc ri b e th e n o u n A dj e c ti ve s.

are som eti m e s u sed a s su bstitutes for n o un s Th i s i s on e of .

th e m a n y ve rba l short c u ts i n w h i c h th e E n gl i sh l a n gu a ge

a bo u n ds

Th e good di e youn g
mea n s good p eopl e die yo un g .

W e sh ould se e k th e good a n d b e auti ful

me a n s w e sh ould se e k go od or b e a uti ful th i n gs or p e rso ns , ,

or q ua l i ti es or p e rh a p s e ve ryth i n g good a n d b e a uti ful

,
.

Wh e n a dj e ctive s i n dic ate a q ua l ity th ey h ave thre e form s

c a ll e d de gre e s i n di cati n g th e e x te n t or a m ou n t o f th e q u al ity

po ssesse d by th e n oun e sp e c i ally as c omp ar e d w ith oth e r

obj ec ts of th e sa m e sort a big m a n a bigg er m an tbe biggest
ma n Th ese d e gree s are ca ll e d po sitive i n dic atin g pos
, , ,

.
,

se ssi o n of big n e ss; c omp a ra ti ve i n d i c a ti n g po ssessi o n of

more b ign ess tha n som e oth e r ma n ; sup erlative i ndicatin g
,

po sse ssio n of more b i gn e ss th an a ny o th e r m

,

an Whe n we .

w i sh to te ll th e a mo u n t of th e q u a l i ty w itho u t c omp a ri n g
th e po sse ssor w i th a ny o th e r obj e ct or gro u p of obj e cts w e
use a mo di fyi n g w ord la te r to be d e sc r ib e d c all e d a n a d ve rb .

I sa w a ve ry b i g m an

i n d ic ate s th at th e m t m
,

a n po sse sse d m u c h b i gn e ss b u a ke s

n o c omp a r i so n w ith a ny o th e r m p of m
,

a n or g ro u en .

C omp a r iso n i s ge ne ra lly i n d i ca te d i n tw o w a ys fi rst by , ,

a dd i n g to th e a dj e c ti ve s th e te rm i na ti o n s er a n d est a s big /z

big /zer big /zest or se c o n d by usi n g th e w ord s m or e a n d m

,

ost

plendid m plendi d m
, , , , ,

as s , or e s ,ost splendi d Th e q ue sti o n w h i c h

.

of th e t wo m ethod s sho u ld b e use d i s n ot al ways ea sy to

'

d e c i d e It d e p e n d s somew h at on usa ge a n d on e upho ny

.

or a gre eabl e ne ss of soun d .

A dj e c tive s of thre e or more sy ll abl e s use th e lo n g f or m

W e should n ot say bea utif uler
,

th a t i s th e a dd iti o n a l w ord
or bea utif ulest A dj e c ti ves of two syll abl e s m
, .

. a y o fte n b e

c omp a r e d e ith e r w a y ; f or e xa mpl e it w o uld b e e q ually

,
 AD JEC TI VES 7

c orrec t to say nobler a n d noblest or m or e noble a n d most noble

pl e of th e i nfl ue nc e of e upho ny m
.

A n e xa m ay b e fou nd in

th e a dj e c tive bonest W e m igh t say bonester w itho ut h e si

.

ta ti on b u t w e sho u ld be l ess like ly to say bonestest on a c c o unt

of th e a w k wa rd c omb i n a ti o n of syll abl e s i n vol ve d Ad .

j e c tive s of on e syll able usua lly ta ke th e sho rt f orm b ut n ot

i n va r ia bly .Th e exc e ptio n s ho w e ve r ar e more c ommo n , ,

i n po etry th a n i n pro se W h e n a ny que stio n ri se s it is

.

usually sa fe r to use the lo n g form of c omp a r iso n i n th e c ase

of tw o syll able a dj e c ti ve s a n d to u
-
se th e sho rt f orm i n th e

c a se of on e syll a ble a dj e ct ive s

-
Th e prop e r use of th e lo n g
.

f ormi s on e of tho se n ic et i e s of d ic ti on w h ic h c om e o n ly
w ith c a re f ul ob se rvati o n a n d w i th tra i n i n g of th e e a r a n d of
th e l i te ra ry se n se .

Th e w ord m ost sho u ld n eve r b e use d a s it o fte n i s i n th e

pla c e of a lm C a re l e ss pe opl e sa y I a mmo st r e a d y
,
”
ost
mea n 1n g I a ma lmost or n e“a rly rea dy The phra se I
.
a a

a mm o st r e a d y r ea lly m I a mi n the gre a te st p ossibl e

.
,
”
ea n s

Suc h use of m
,

re a d i n e ss .
”
ost i s c ommo n i n old E n gl i sh
bu t mu c h l e ss so i n mo de r n sp e e c h .

Tw o very c omm on a dj ec t ive s a re irre gula rly c o m pa re d .

They a re good better best a n d ba d wor se wor st I n sp ite

of th e fa c t th at th e se a dj e c ti ve s a re a mo n g th e mo st c om
, , , , , .

mon i n use a n d th e i r c ompa riso n may b e suppo se d to be

k n o w n by e ve rybo dy on e o fte n h e a rs th e e xpre ssi o n sgooder
mo
, ,

g oodest,
better , bestest, ba der , ba dest, wor ser , a n d wor sest.
re

N e e dl e ss to say , th e se e xp re ssi o n s a re w i tho ut exc use e xc ep t

th at w orser i s som et i m e s f o u n d i n old E n gl i sh .

Ill ite rate p e opl e som etim e s try to m ake th e i r sp e ec h more

f o rc e ful b y c ombi n i n g th e two etho ds of c o pa ri so n i n m m
su c h e x p re ssi o n s as or e pr etti er , most s p lendi dest. S uc h m
c omp oun d s sho uld n eve r be use d .

So m e a dj e c t i ve s a r e n ot c omp a re d They a re e a si ly .

id e n tifi e d by th e i r m e a n i n g They i n dic ate so m e qu

. a l i ty

w h i c h i s of suc h a n ature th at it m ust b e po sse sse d fu lly or

n ot a t a ll yea r ly dou ble a ll Some a dj e c tive s h a ve a pr e c i se
.

mea n in g i n wh ic h th ey c a n n ot b e c ompa re d a n d a loose or

, , ,

pop ula r on e i n w h i c h th e y c a n b e ; for exa m pl e a th i n g ,

e ith e r i s or i s n ot r ou n d or squ a re N e ve rth e l e ss w e use th e se

.
8 —
ARTI CLES VERBS

w ord s i n such a loo se ge n e ra l w ay th a t it i s n ot a b sol utely

i nc orrect to say r ounder a n d r oundest or squ a r er a n d squ
a r est.

Suc h e xpre ssio n s should be used with great ca re an d avoid e d

as far as po ssible N o n e b ut th e very ign ora nt w o uld say
.

onliest b u t on e o fte n see s th e e xpre ssio n s m

, or e an d m
ost u ni que .

Thi s i s pa rtic ula rly ba d E n gli sh Un ique doe s n ot m e a n .

ra re unusua l; i t m e a ns on e of a ki n d a b solutely un l ike

, ,

a n ythi n g el se C l e arly thi s i s a q ua l ity w hi c h c a nn ot be

.

posse sse d i n degree s An objec t e ith e r do e s or do e s n ot

i
.

l ave It.

A rti cles
An r
a ti c little a dje cti ve whic h i n d ivid ua liz e s th e
le i s a
n ou n a b oy a n a ppl e tbc c ro w d
, , ,
.

I w h ic h i s use d be fore c on so n anta l so un d s a n d a n

w hi c h i s u se d b e f or e vo w el sou n d s a re c a ll e d i n d e fi n ite

a rti c le s be ca u se th e y i n divid u a liz e w itho u t sp e c i a l iz i n g .

Tire i s c a ll e d th e de fi n ite a rti c le bec ause it both i n di vi d ua l izes

an d sp e c i a l iz e s .

A m a y be u se d b e f ore o a n d ui f th e so u n d i s r ea lly c on

so n a nta l as i n su e/z a one a u se a u ti li ty

, f lu m ,
ay be u se d .

b e fore b i f th e b i s n ot so un ded for exa mple a n bour but , ,

a bor r or .

A rb i s a word whi c h asserts or dec la res I n other

ve .

word s i t ma ke s a n o u
,
n or pro n o u n te ll some thi n g Jo/ m .

ppa er te ll s n o thi n g J obn wa stes.

pap er t e ll s som e thi n g .

V e rb s a re th e mo st diffi c ult of a ll th e p arts of spee c h to u n

de rsta n d a n d to use prop e rly A s a ru le a n E n gl ish verb

.
,

h as someth i n g more th a n fi fty p a rts w hi c h w ith the i r u se s , ,

sho u ld b e thoro ughly l earn ed f rom a gra mmar Thi s i s n ot .

so d iffi c u lt a m atte r a s it m i ght a pp e ar exc ept to those ,

w ho se n ative sp e ec h i s n ot E n gl i sh N e verthele ss you .

sho u ld be on th e guar d a ga i n st suc h bl un ders a s I seen 1 ,

seed f or I sa w I r u
,
nned f or I r a n 1 et for I a te 1 tbr owed
, , ,

for I tbr ew an d th e like ,

I n mo st ve rb s the se p arts a re
.

re gula r I n some they are irregular A list of irre gula r

. .

ve rb s w ill be f ou n d a t th e e n d of thi s vol u me .

 VERBS 9

Wh ile th e pla n of th is book do e s n ot c a ll for a syste m

a ti c st u dy of ve rb s a ny more th a n of a ny oth e r word s it i s ,

de si rable to c all a tte nti o n to som e poi nts as b e i n g th e

o c c a si o ns of fre que nt mi sta ke s .

A si mple se nte n c e c o n si sts of a ve rb its su bj e ct a n d its

, ,

obj e c t Th e ve rb in d ic ates th e a c ti o n th e subj e c t i s the

.
,

nou n ( n a me of a perso n or th i n g ) w h ic h do e s th e a c t th e ,

obj ec t i s the n oun to w h ic h th e thi n g i s do n e V e rb s ha ve .

form s de n oti n g perso n a n d n umber for e xa mpl e :,

Si n gul Pl ura l
l st I lovc 1 st W e lo ve
zud Y oulove (tho ulo ve st) zud Y oulove
form a l a n d a rc h a i c .

3 rd He loves 3 r d They love

Si n gula r Pl ura l
l st I w a s l st W e w e re
2 ud Y ouw ere ( thouwast) 2 ud Y ouw e re
3 rd He w a s 3 rd They w e re
V erb s a gre e w ith th e ir su bj ects i n perso n a n d n umb e r. W e
a ll k n o w th i s b u t w e do n ot a l w a ys r e memb e r i t. U n l e ss

y o u a r e ve ry c a r e f ul , y ou w i ll fi n d yo u r sel f u si n g a s i n gul a r
su bj ec t w ith a pl ura l ve rb or th e re ve rse . M ista kes of th i s
sort a re pa rti c u l ar ly l ia ble to h a pp e n i n th e c ase of c oll ec t
ive n o un s, i n th e u se of p e rso n a l pro n o u n s as su bj e c ts, a n d
i n c ase s w h e r e th e su bj ec t a n d th e ve rb are far se pa rate d
i n th e se nte n c e .
Tho se form s of th e ve rb whic h te ll w hether th e subj ec t
i s a c t i n g or i s ac te d u po n are c alled vo i c es. Wh e n th e
su bj ec t i s a c tin g th e ve rb i s sa i d to b e i n th e ac tive voic e .
Wh e n the subjec t is ac te d upo n the verb is sa i d to be i n th e
p assive voic e . V e rb s i n th e p assive voic e h ave n o objec ts
b eca use th e subj ect, b e in g ac te d upon , is itse l f i n th e pla c e
of a n obj e ct.
Tho se form s of th e ve rb wh ic h te ll w h ether th e tim e of
th e ac ti o n i s p ast, pr e se nt, or fu tu re , a r e c a lle d ten ses They .

ar e si x , viz .

Pr e se nt, I pr i nt ( a mp i i ) th e book .
r n t ng

Pa st or imp e rf e c t, I pr i n ted th e book .

10 VERBS

Future , I s/za ll pr i nt th e book .

Pe r fe ct, or pre sen t p e r fe c t, I More pr n i

ted th e
book .

Plup e rf e c t or p ast p e r fe c t I ba d pr i n ted th e book

,

b e fore youwrote .

Fu ture p e r fect I wi ll n oti fy you wh en I s/za ll

'

ba ve pr i n ted th e book
‘
.

W h e n a dve rb s d e notin g ti m e a re i n dic ate d c a re should

b e ta k e n to se e th at th e ve rb i s c o n si ste n t w ith th e a dve rb .
“
I pr i nted it yeste rd ay not I ba ve pr i n ted it ye ste rday
,
”
,
“
I /ta ve not y et pr i n ted It
f
n ot I di d n ot pr i nt it y et ;
“
I ba ve pr i nted it a lr e a d y, n ot I pr i n ted it a lrea d y .

m
Tro uble i s som eti es f o un d i n c hoo si n g th e ri ght f orm s
of th e ve rb to b e u se d i n su bord i n ate C l a use s. Th e rul e i s:
V e rbs i n subordi n a te se nte n c e s a n d c la use s m ust be
gove rn e d by th e te nse of th e pri n c ip a l ve rb .

Th i s rul e re sts on th e e xac t m e a n i n g of th e form s a n d

w ord s use d a n d its appl ic ati o n c a n b e c h e c k e d by c a re ful
e xa
“
m i n a ti o n of th e se m e a n i n gs.
”
H e sa i d h e di d it. ”

He sa i d h e would do i t. ”
He says h e wi ll do it .

N o te th a t w h e n th e sta te m e n t i n th e subo rdi n ate c l a use

is of un ive rsa l a pplic atio n th e pre se n t te n se i s a l w ay s use d
”
w h ate ve r th e te n se of th e p r i n c i p a l ve rb . The l e c ture r
sa i d th a t w a r m
w e ath e r a l wa ys so fte n s roll e rs.
Tho se form s of th e ve rb w h ic h te ll w h eth e r th e a c ti o n
i s a n actua l fact, a po ssib i l ity, a c o n diti o n , or a c o and mm
a re c a ll e d mood s.

Th e r e a re t hre e mood s, th e i n cI Ic ati ve , ubj un c ti ve

s , an d
imp e ra tive .

Th e i n dic a ti ve m ood i n di c ate s th a t th e a ctio n i s a fac t.

I t i s a l so use d i n ask i n g q ue st i o n s .

Th e subj unc tive mood i s l e ss use d in mod e rn th a n i n old

E n gl i sh . I t is mo st c ommo n ly f o un d i n c l a use s b e g i n n i n g
w ith if ; tho ugh if i s n ot to b e r e ga rde d a s th e S i gn of th e
su bj un cti ve i n a ny suc h sen se a s to i s th e sign of th e
i n fi n itive .

Th e subj un ctive wer e sho uld b e use d i n p ure ly hypoth et

“
ica l c l a use s suc h a s I f I w e re i n yo ur pl ac e
”
.
12 VERBS

Ou
g lzt whi c h is sometime s c o n foun de d with m ust i n
phrase s of th is sort expresse s mora l obl i gati o n as d isti n
gu i sh e d f rom n e c e ssity .

Y ouo ugh t to obe y th e rul e s of th e offi c e ,

in di cate s th a t it i s your du ty to ob e y b e ca u se i t i s th e righ t

th in g to do e ve n tho u gh n o pe n alty is atta c hed .

Youm ust ob e y th e rule s of th e offic e ,

i n d i cate s th at y ouw ill b e p un ish e d i f y oudo n ot ob ey .

Tho se f orm s of th e ve rb wh ic h e xpre ss th e t i me of th e

a c ti o n ar e ca ll e d te n se s N o p a rt i c ula r diffi c ulty atte n d s th e
.

use of th e te n se s e xc e pt i n th e c ase of s/za ll a n d wi ll a n d

sbo uld an d wou ld.
Sba ll a n d wi ll a re use d a s f ollo ws : I n simple stateme n ts '

to e xpre ss m e re fu tu rity, use sba ll i n th e fi rst p e rso n , wi ll

i n the se c o n d a n d third ; to expre ss vol iti on , prom i se , pur
po se , determi n ati o n , or a c ti o n wh ic h th e spea ke r m e a ns
to c o ntrol u se wi ll i n th e fi rst perso n , s/za ll i n th e se c o n d

a n d th i rd .

Th e f ollo w in g ta ble s should b e l ea rn e d a n d pra cti c e d in

a l a r ge va r i ety of c ombin a ti o n s.

Futuri ty V ol iti o n , etc .

We sh a ll I w i ll W e w ill
Youw i ll Yoush a ll Y oush a ll
Th e y w ill He sh a ll Th ey sh all

A good xa mpl e of th e mi suse of th e w ord s i s f oun d i n

e

th e old sto ry of th e f ore ig n e r w h o f e ll i nto th e w a te r a n d

“
c ri e d ou t i n terror a n d de sp a i r I wi ll drown n obody s/za ll
help m
,
”
e .

I n aski n g q ue sti on s for th e fi rst p e rso n a lways use s/i a ll

, ,

for th e sec o n d a n d th i rd u se th e a u x i l i a ry exp e ct e d i n th e

a n sw er .

Futurity
Sh all I ( I sha ll ) Sh a ll we ( W e sh a ll )
Sh a ll you ( I sha ll ) Sh a ll you ( W e sha ll )
W i ll h e ( He will ) Wi ll th ey (Th ey w ill )
 VERBS 13

V ol iti on , e tc .

W i ll you( I will ) W ill you(We will )

Sh a ll he ( H e sh a ll ) S h a ll he ( He sh a ll )
I n a ll oth e r c a se s, as i n subordin ate c la use s s/za ll i sused i n all
pe rso n s to e xpre ss mere fu turity, wi ll to e xpre ss voliti o n , etc .
I n in d i re c t di sc ourse , whe n the subj e ct of th e pri nc ip a l
Clau se i s d i ff e re nt f rom th e n o u n c la use , th e u sa ge i s lik e

th a t i n d i re c t sta teme nt, for e xa mpl e ,

The te a c her y
sa s th at Ja m e s w i ll med al
w i n the .

( futuri ty ) .
bu t w h e n th e su bj ect of th e pri n c i pa l c la use i s the sa me as
th at of th e n ou n c la u se the u
,
sa g e i s l i k e th at i n subordi nate
c la use s,

The te ac her says tha t h e sh a ll soo n re sign .

( futurity )
E x c e ptio ns ”471 i s o ften use d i n th e se c o n d perso n to
.

e xpr e ss a n o ffi c i a l c omm a n d .

Y ouwill report to th e superi nte n de nt a t o nc e .

Sba ll i s sometim e s u se d i n th e se c o n d a n d th i rd p e rso n s

i n a proph eti c se n se .

Y e sh a ll kn o w th e truth a n d th e truth sh a ll ma ke
yo u f ree .

Th e use of sbould an d would i s i n ge ne ra l th e sa m e as

th a t of sha ll an d will i n i n d i re ct state me nt .

Futurity .

I Sho uld We would

Youwould Yousho uld
He would Th e y sho uld
I n aski n g q u e stio n s use sbould in th e fi rst p e rson to expre ss
m e re f uturity a n d would to e xpre ss volition etc ; i n th e ,

se c o n d a n d third perso n s u se th e f orm th at i s exp e ct e d i n

th e a n sw er .

Futurity
Should I ( I sho uld ) Should we (W e should )
Sho uld Y ou ( I sho uld ) Sho u ld You ( We should )
W ould he ( He w o uld ) Would th ey ( Th e y would )
14 VERBS

V ol iti o n , etc .

W ould I ( I w ould ) W ould ( W e wo uld )

we
W o uld You(Y ouw o uld ) W o uld Y ou ( W e w o u ld )
Sho uld h e ( He s ho uld ) Sho uld th e y ( Th e y sho uld )

In ubord i n ate c lause s sbould is use d i n a ll p e rso ns to

s

e xpr e ss f u tu rity would to e xpress vol iti o n e tc

, ,
.

I n i n d i re c t d isc o urse th e usa ge i s si m i l a r to th at i n

d i re c t em e nt
sta t .

Th e te a c h e r sa id th at Joh n w o uld w in the m e d a l .

E xc e ptio n s Sbould i s o fte n use d t o e xpre ss mora l ob

.

l i ga ti o n .

Youshould b e ho n e st un d e r a ll c o n d iti o n s .

bI ou
/ ld i s som eti me s use d
x r to e p e ss f re qu
o e n tive a ct i n .

He w o uld wa lk th e floor n i ght a fter n i ght .

M ista ke s a re o fte n m a d e i n th e use of c o m po un d te n se s

on a c c o un t of f a i l ure to gra sp th e m ea n i n g of th e w ord s
use d .

I should h ave like d to h ave se e n you ,

is c orre c t gra m a r b um t prob a bly n ot c orrec t sta te m e n t of fa ct ,

as it sta te s a p ast d e sire to h a ve do n e som eth i n g a t a p e r i od
“
st i ll f urth e r r e m ote , th a t i s to sa y , I sho uld h a ve l ik e d
( y e ste rd a y ) to h a ve se e n you ( day b e fore y e ste rd ay ) .
m
W h at Is ge ne ra lly “ ea nt i s e ith e r I should h a ve li ke d ”to
see y ou ,
th at i s I ( th e n ) w ish e d to se e y ou ,
or I
“
sho u ld l ike to h ave see n y ou, th at i s I ( n ow ) w i sh I h a d
”

se e n y o u( th e n ) .

E ve ry w o rd h a s its own va l ue a n d n ear ly a ll our m i sta k e s

a ri se f rom l a c k of re ga rd f or th e exa ct va l ue of th e w ord s
to be use d .

W h e re a pa rtic ip ia l c o n struct i o n is use d a s th e obj e c t of

a ve rb th e n o u
, n or p ro n o u n i n th e obj e c t sh odld b e I n th e

po sse“ssive c ase a n d n ot i n th e obj e ctive Y ou sho uld n ot

I obje ct to him w atc h i n g m
.

bu I obj e ct to h is
”
sa y e t
w atc h i n g m
, ,

e .

C a re sho uld b e ta k e n n ot to g ive obj e cts to p a ssive ve rb s

Th e m
.

Th e ve ry c om m
“
on e xpre ssi o n a n w as g i ve n a
 —
VERBS P RONOUNS 15

C ha nc e i s i nc orre ct. It hould b e

s A c ha nc e was gi ve n
to th e m
an.
”

C are sho uld l o be ta k e n to a void the omission of the

a s

prepositi on s w h i c h a re n e e d e d w ith c erta i n ve rb s f or ex

mp’le bewa re the dog Wh at h a ppen ed him should
’ “

W h at h appe n ed to him
,

b e b ewar e of th e dog ,
.

O n th e other h a n d su perfluo us prepositi o n s a re some

ti me s u se d i n su c h phra se s a s consi der of a c p f
ce t o a n d th e ;

l ike
.

Suc h e rrors a re to be a vo i d e d by c are ful study of th e

mea n i n g of w ord s an d ca re ful ob servati on of th e best
writte n a n d sp ok e n sp e e c h .

Pr onouns

Pro n o uns ubstitute s f or n o uns Th ey a re la bor

a re s .

sa vi n g d e vi c e s W e c ould say e ve ryt hi n g whic h w e n e e d to

.

say w itho u t th e m bu t at th e e xp e n se of m u
, c h r e p et iti o n of
“ ’
lo n ge r word s A c h ild o fte n says Joh n wants Hen ry s
.

ba ll i nstea d of I wa nt yo ur ba ll
”
C o nsta nt re mem
.

bra nc e of th i s si mple fact tha t a pro n o un i s o nl y a sub stitut e

,

for a n o un i s rea lly abou

, t all t h at i s n e e d e d t o sec u re
c orre ct u sa ge a fte r th e pro n o u n s them sel ves h a ve o nc e

bec om e fa m i l ia r A c o nstruc ti o n w hic h a ppea rs doubtful

.

ca n o ft e n b e d ec id e d by su b stituti n g n ouns f or pro no uns

a n d vi c e ve rsa .

A ve ry c ommo n error i s th e use of the pl u ra l po ssessive

pro nouns with th e word s a ny every ea clz som ebody every body
, , , , ,

a n d nobody a ll of w hic h are a l wa ys si n gu

,
lar .

W e c ould ac c ompl ish th is i f every on e w ould do

their pa rt .

i s wro ng . It should be
W e c ould acc ompl i sh th is i f every on e w o uld do
h i s p a rt .

A n other c ommo n mi sta k e i s the c o n fusio n of the nom

1n at 1ve a n d obje c ti ve c ase s I n obj ec t i ve c la use s w her e two

pro nouns or a n o un a n d a pron o un oc c ur .

16 —
P RONOUNS ADVERBS

All thi s was do n e for youa nd I .

is a ve ry c ommo n b u t e ntire ly i n exc usable mista ke . O ne
wo u ld ha rdly thi nk of sayi n g
“
A ll thi s was do n e for I .
I sa w Joh n a n d he l e avi n g the hops .

is almo st e q ua lly c ommo n a n d q uite e q u a ll y ba d D o n ot .

a llo w yo u rse l f to be c o n fuse d by a doubl e obj e c t .

I n ge n e ra l gre at c a re should be ta ke n to avo i d a mbiguity i n

th e u se of pro n ou n s I t i s ve ry e asy to m ulti ply a n d c ombi n e
pron oun s i n suc h a wa y tha t w h ile gra mm atic a l rul e s m
.

ay

n ot be broke n th e re a d e r m ay b e le ft hop e l e ssly c on fuse d .

Suc h a mbiguous se nte n c e s sho uld be c le a re d up eith e r by a ,

re a rra n gem e nt of the w ord s or by sub stitution of n o un s for

som e of th e pro n ou ns
.

A dver bs
An adve rb i s a help e r to a verb , I fea r greatly tha t ,

pre ss w orks b a dly A dve rbs mod i fy or h e lp ve rbs a dj ec

.
”
,

ti ve s a n d other a d verbs j u
,
st a s a dje c ti ve s mod ify n o uns

a n d pro n o u ns. The use of a d ve rbs pre se nts some diffi

cu lties m a in ly a ri si n g f rom th e a dverbi a l use of m any other
,

p arts of spee c h an d f rom th e c lose r e lation between

a d verb s a n d a dje cti ve s .

It sho uld n ever be f orgotte n that whil e a d ve rb s n e ver

modi fy n ouns or pron oun s a djectives n ever modi fy any
,

thi n g b u t n ou n s or pro n o u ns . Rem e mbra n c e of thi s

simple fac t w ill sett le mo st q u e stio n s as to th e u se of

a d verb s or a dj ecti ve s . C a re ful observati o n a n d c ar e i n

f ormi n g c orrec t h abits of e xpre ssio n w ill do t he re st .

D o n ot m ultiply n ega tive s They c a nc e l e ac h other like

.

th e fa ct ors i n a n a rith m
“
et i ca l problem . He n ever did
wron g i s c orre c t i n state me nt a n d c l e a r i n me a n i n g
”
.
“
He n eve r did n othi n g w ro n g do e s n ot a dd f orc e it ,

reverse s th e m ean i n g Th e“ n egative s h a ve c a n c ell e d e ac h

.
“
other a n d y oua re say i n g He did wro ng ”
. He n e ver
did n oth in g wro ng to n obody leave s us w ith a n odd
n e ga ti ve a n d bri n gs u s b a c k t o th e fi rst sta t eme nt very ,

ba dly expresse d.
 —
P RE P OS ITI O NS C ONJUNC TI ONS 17

Pr eposi ti ons
A pre positi o n i s a hook for a n oun or pron o un to h a n g
on . I t usually pre c e d e s th e n o un or pro n oun w hic h ha n gs ,

or d e p e n d s upo n it a s i n d icate d by its n a m e w h i c h i s de

,

r ive d from th e Lati n pr e b e for e a n d pono I plac e

- -
.

Joh n i s b e h i n d th e pre ss .

I sh a ll w o rk until Sun d a y .

A prepo sitio n sho w s th e r e l a ti o n of a n o un or pro n o un

use d a s its obj e ct to som e oth e r w ord or w ords i n the sen
te n c e or a s i t h a s b e e n o th e rw i se sta te d
,
ma kes the n oun ,

or p ro n o un to w h i c h it i s jo i n e d e q uiva l e nt to a n a dj e ct i ve
or a n a d ve rb Th e expre ssi o n Joh n i s b e h i n d th e pre ss
.
”

uiva l e n t to a n a dj e cti ve d e sc rib i n g Joh n Th at i s h e

i e
s q
Joh n b e h m
.
,
.

d th e pre ss Pre pos1t1on s a re go ve r n i n g

”
1S - -
.

w ord s a n d th e w ord s go ve rn e d by or d ep e n d i n g on them

a r e a l wa y s i n th e obj e c t i ve c ase .

Conj uncti ons

A co n j un ctio n is th e c o uplin g l ink b e tw ee n the p arts of
a tra i n of tho u ght I t is of n o p urpo se wh ate ve r exc e pt to
.

c o nn e c t .

I a mc ol d a n d h un gry a n d ti re d an d I a mgo i n g home .

C ar e sh ould b e ta k e n to a void co n fusi n g a nd a nd but a n d

a nd a n d or
He se e s th e ri gh t a nd d oe s th e w ro n g.
sho uld be
He ri gh t but do e s th e wro n g
se e s th e .

Th e id eas a re c o n tra ste d not a sso c ia te d, .

I did n ot se e Thom a s an d Joh n .

sho u ld b e
I did n ot se e Tho m a s or Joh n .

Th e fi rst phra se m e a n s th a t I did n ot se e th e m to geth e r ,

i t sa ys n othi n g a bo ut se e in g th e m sep a ra te ly .

E i t/ter — ar a n d nei tber

— nor a re ca ll e d c orr e l a ti ve c on

j un ct io n s Th ey should a l w a ys be p a ired i n this way N ei tber

. .

sho u ld n eve r b e p a ire d w ith or n or ei tber with nor E ac h .

18 —
I NT ERJEC TI ONS GENERAL NO T ES

me mbe r of th e p a ir should be pl ac e d in th e sa me re lati ve

position th at i s be fore th e sa me pa rt of sp e ec h .

I c ould n eith e r se e hi mn or hi s fath e r

,

i s wro n g I t sho u
. ld be
I cou ld se e n either him n or h i s f ather .

Thi s rule a ppli e s to all oth e r c orrelati ve s th at i s sin c e th e y ,

a re c orrel ati ves i n f orm th ey sho u ld b e c orrel ative s i n po

siti on a l so I t i s c orrec t to say
.

It b e lon gs both to youa n d to m e .

It b e lon gs to b oth yo ua n d me .

but n ot

It b e lo ngs both to yo uan d me .

I nterj ecti ons

An i nte rj e ctio n i s a word or soun d expre ssi n g e mot I O n

o nly suc h as a shout a groa n a b 1ss , , , a sob or th e l1ke
, ,

su c h as a la s bu s/z. ,

Gener a l N otes

Th e po si t i o n of w ord s i n a s e nte n c e i s o fte n ve ry i m

porta nt M i spla c ement w ill f re que ntly c ause a mbiguitie s

.

a n d a b su rd ities whi ch pun c tuatio n w ill n ot re move . Wh at

“ ”
doe s th e p hrase I o n ly saw him m e an ? A n ewspap e r
a d ve rti sem e n t d e sc ribi n g a c erta i n dog w hi ch wa s ofi e re d
“
for sale says He i s thorou ghly ho u se broke n w ill eat a n y
-
,

thi n g, i s ve ry f on d of c hildre n A s a rule modi fi ers should

.

b e kep t c lose to th e words c l a u se s or phrase s whi c h th e y

, ,

modi fy b ut due re gard should be give n to sense an d to ea se

,

of expre ssio n .

A word or ph rase wh i c h ca n be ea si ly supplied f rom th e

c o n text m ay o fte n be om i tte d Ca re m ust be used i n m
. ak

i n g the se omi ssion s or th e re su l t will be e ither a mb i guous

or slove n ly .

Washin gt o n i s n ea re r N ew York than C hi ca go

Wh at exa c tly do e s thi s mea n ? O ne m i ght g“et i nto se rio us
.

tro u ble ove r th e i nterpreta ti o n of th e p h rase He l i ke s me

better th an you .
”
 ’
20 CAM P BELL S CANONS

D o n ot use lo n g un usua l words Use S ho rt an d si mpl e

, .

w ords wh e n e ve r th e y w ill se rve y o u r turn I t i s a m istake .

to su ppo se th at a fl ue nt use of lo n g words i s a ma rk e ith e r

of d e pth of tho u g ht or of exte nt of i n forma ti o n Th e fol .

low i n g b it oi n o n se n se i s ta ke n from th e n e w s c ol um n s of
“
a n e w sp a p e r of good sta n d i n g : Th e topogra p hy a bo ut
Puebl a a va il s i tse l f e a sily to a forc e w h i c h c a n ut i l i z e th e
h e i gh ts abo ve th e c ity with c a n n on Wh at wa s m ea nt .
”

Th e situa tio n of Pue bl a

”
was prob a bly som eth i n g lik e th i s ,

is su c h a s to gi ve a gr e a t a d va n ta g e to a f orc e w h i c h c a n

pl a nt c a n n o n on th e h i gh gro un d o ve rloo ki n g th e c ity .

”

D o n ot u se i nfla ted or e xa ggera te d word s .

A bea u y s/zower i s n ot a clou d bu r st ; a g a le i s n ot a bli zza r d ;

a fi r e i s n ot a confl a g r a ti on ; a n a cci dent or a de fi a t i s n ot a

di sa ster ; a flzta l a ccident i s n ot a boloca u st ; a sba rp cr i ti ci s is m

n ot a n ex cor i a ti on or fla yi ng , a n d so on .

Rulesf or Cor r ect Wri ti ng

M ore tha n a c e ntury a go th e great Sc otc h rh etoric i an
C a mpb e ll f ra med fi ve c a n on s or ru le s for c o rrec t w riti n g .

They h a ve n e ver b e e n i m p ro ve d Th ey sho uld b e l ea rn e d

.

by h ea rt thoro ughly m a ste re d a n d c o nsta n tly prac ti c e d by

, ,

eve ry writer a n d Sp ea k e r Th e y are as f ollo ws:

.

C an o n 1 — Wh e n of two w ord s or phra se s i n eq uall y

.
,

good use on e i s susc eptibl e of tw o si gn i fic ati on s a n d th e

,

oth e r of b ut on e pre fe ren c e sho uld be gi ve n to th e l a tter :

a dm i tta nce i s better th a n a dm
,

e g
. . i ssi on a s th e l a tte r word ,

a l so me a n s confi ssi on ; r ela ti ve i s to be pre f e rr e d t o r ela ti on ,

a s th e l a tte r a l so me a n s th e t elli n g of a st ory .

C ano n 2 — I n do ubt ful c ase s rega rd sho u

. ld be gi ve n to
th e a na lo gy of th e l a n gu a ge ; m tg/i t better S h o u ld be pr e fe rred
to ba d better a n d wou ld r a tber i s b ette r th a n ba d r a tber .

—
,

C a no n 3 Th e si m
. pl e r a n d bri e fer f orm sho uld be pre
f erred o ther th i n gs b e i n g e q ua l e g om it th e bra c kete d . .

m
, , ,

w ord s i n ex pre ssi o n s su ch as o p en ( up) eet ( tog etb e r )

m
, , ,

fi llow ( af ter ) ex a i,ne ( i n to) t r a,ce ( ou t ) b r i dg e ( ove r ) cr,

a v e ,

(fi r ) e tc .
 —
SENT ENCES PARAGRA P HS

Ca non 4 —. Betw ee n two form s of e x pre ssi o n i n e q ua ll y

good use pre f e r th e on e wh ic h i s more e upho n i o us : e g . .

most bea utif ul i s bette r tha n bea utif ul/est a n d moref r ee i s to

, ,

b e pre ferre d to f r eer .

Ca n on 5 — . I n c ase s n ot c o vere d by th e f o ur pre c e d i n g

c a n o n s pre f e r th at w hi c h c o n f orm s to th e old e r u sa ge :

e g begi n i s b ette r tha n com mence

,

. . .

The Se
ntence

Th e p roper c o n struc tio n of se nte n c e s i s very importa nt

to good w ri ti n g Th e follo w i n g si mple rul e s w ill b e of
great a ssi sta n c e i n se nte nc e f orm
.

a ti o n . Th ey sho uld b e
c a re fu ll y l e a rn e d a nd th e p upil sho uld be dri ll e d i n th e m .

1 Le t e ac h se nte n c e h a ve on e a n d o n l y on e pri nc ip a l
. , ,

su bj e c t of thought A vo i d heteroge n e o us se nte nc es

.

2 Th e c o nn e ct io n betw ee n d i ff e re nt se nt e nc e s m
.

. ust
be ke pt u p by a d ve r b s us e d as c o n j un ct i o n s or by m ea ns
of so m
,

e o th er c o nn ec ti n g w ord s at th e begi n n i n g of th e

se nt e nc e .

3 . The c o nn ec tio n b etwe e n two lo n g se nte nc e s or p a ra

gra ph s sometime s re q uire s a short i nte rve n i n g se nte nc e
S ho wi n g th e tra n sit io n of tho u ght .

The Pa r a gr aph
Th e proper c o nstruc tio n of p a ra gra p h s i s a l so of gre at
imp orta nc e Th e follo w i n g r ul e s w i l l se rve a s gui d e s for
.

pa r a g ra phi n g T h
. e y S ho uld be l e a r n e d a n d th e p up i l sho uld
be drille d i n th e i r a pplicatio n .

1 A se nte nc e w hi c h c o nti n ue s th e top ic of th e se nte nc e

.

w h i c h prec ed e s it ra ther th a n i ntrod uc e s a n e w topi c sho u ld

n eve r be gi n a p a ra gra ph .

2 E a c h pa ra gra ph sho uld po sse ss a S i n gl e c e ntra l topi c

.

to w hi c h a ll th e sta tem e nts i n th e p a ra gra ph sho u ld re late .

Th e i ntrod uctio n of a si n gl e sta te m e nt n ot so re la ted to th e

c e n tral topi c vi ol a te s th e un i ty .

3 A se n te n c e or sho rt p a ssa ge m
. a y b e d eta c h e d f rom

th e p a ra gra ph to whi c h i t prop e rl y belo n gs i f th e w ri te r

w i sh e s p a rti cula rly to emp hasiz e it .
22 USE AN D ARRANGEMENT O F WO RDS

4 . F or e ase i n re a di n g, a pa ssa ge wh i c h exc e e d s th r ee

hun dre d w ord s i n l en gt h may be broken into tw o pa ra
gra ph s e ve n though n o n e w top ic h as bee n d evelop e d
, .

5 A ny digre ssi o n f rom th e c e ntral top i c or a ny c h a n ge

i n th e vi e wpo i nt i n c o nsid e ri n g th e c e ntra l top i c de m
.
,

and s
,

a n e w p ar a gra ph .

6 C oh e re n c e i n a para gra ph re qui re s a n atural a n d

.

logic a l ord e r of d evelopm ent .

7 Smooth n e ss of d i cti o n i n a p a ra gra ph c a ll s f or th e

.

i nte ll i ge nt use of prop e r c o nn e cti ve w ord s b etw e en c lo se ly

r e late d se nte n c es A c ommo n fa ult how e ve r i s th e i n
.
, ,

c orr e ct u se of su c h w ord s as a nd or bu t b etw e e n se nten c e s

w hi c h a re n ot c lo sely re l ate d .

8 I n de ve lop i n g th e p a ra graph empha si s i s se c ure d by

.
,

a c a r e fu l c o n si d era ti o n of the r elati ve va l ues of th e i d e as

e xpr e sse d ,
gi vi n g to ea c h id e a spa c e propo rtio nate to its
i mporta n c e to th e w hol e Thi s se c u
. r es the prop e r c l i ma x
9 Th e pa ra gra p h l ike th e c o m
.

.
,
po siti on i tsel f sho uld ,

po sse ss c l ea rn ess un ity c oh er e nc e a nd e mph asi s I t i s a

, , ,
.

gro up of r e la te d sente n c es d e ve lopi n g a c e ntra l topi c Its .

l e n gt h d e pe n d s upo n th e l e n gt h of th e c ompo sitio n a n d upon

th e n u mber of top i cs to b e d isc ussed .

Rulesf or the Use a nd A r r a nge m t of Wo d

en r s

The follo w i n g rule s for the use a n d arran ge m e nt of word s

w ill b e foun d h e lp ful i n se c uri n g c le a rn e ss a n d forc e .

1 . Use word s i n their prop e r sen se .

2 . A vo i d use le ss c irc umloc uti o n a n d fi n e w riti n g .

3 . A void e x a gge ratio n s.

4 . Be c a re fu l i n th e use of not . a nd, a ny , but, only ,
not . or , tha t.

5 . Be c a re ful i n th e use of a mb i guo us w ord s, e . g.,

6 . Be c a re ful i n th e u se of he, i t, they, these, e tc .

7 Report a sp eec h i n th e fi rst perso n wh e re n ec e ssa ry

m
.

to a void a b i gu ity.
8 . Use th e third p e rso n wh e r e th e e xac t w ord s of th e
sp ea k e r are n ot i nte n d e d to b e g i ve n .
 USE AN D ARRANGEMENT O F W O RDS 23

9 . W h e n you u se a p a rti c ipl e impl yi n g w hen, while,

thou h
g , or tha t , sho w c l e a rly b y t h e c o n te x t w h a t i s impl i ed .

1 0 . W he n u si n g th e re lati ve pro nou n, u se who or whi ch,

i f th e mea n in g i s a nd he or a nd i t , fi r he or fi r i t.
1 1 . D o n ot u se a nd w hi ch f or w hi ch.

1 2 . Rep eat the a nte c e d e nt b e f ore th e re lati ve w h e re

th e n on re p e ti tio n ca u
-
se s a ny a mb i gu ity.
1 3 . Use p arti c u lar for gen e ral te rm s. A void a bstract
n o un s
1 4 . A void ve rb al n o u n s w he r e ve rb s c a n b e u se d .

1 5 Use p arti c u
. la r p e rso n s i n stea d of a c l ass.
1 6 D o n ot c o n fuse meta phor
m
. .

1 7 . D o n ot ix m eta phor w ith l ite ral sta te m e n t.

1 8 . D o n ot use po eti c me ta phor to i ll u stra te a pro sa i c

s ubje c t .

19 . E mpha ti c w ord s m ust sta nd i n e mpha ti c po sitio ns;

i . e ., for th e mo st p a rt, at the b e gi nn i n g or the e n d of th e
e
se n t n c e .

20 . Un e mphatic w ord s m ust, as a rul e b e ke pt from

,

th e e n d.
21 . Th e Subje ct, i f unusua lly e mph a ti c , s ho u
ld o fte n be
r
t a n sfe rred from the begin n i n g of th e se nte n c e .

2 2 Th e obje ct is som eti m e s pl ac ed b e f ore the

. ve rb for
tn n p h a ds.
2 3 . W h e re severa l word s are e mphati c m ak e it c l e ar
w h ic h i s th e mo st emph ati c . E mph asi s ca n som etim es be
gi ve n by a dd i n g a n epith et, or a n i n te nsi fyi n g word .
24 . W ord s sho u ld b e as n e a r a s po ssibl e to the w ord s
m
w ith w hi c h th ey ar e gra m a ti c a lly c o nn e cted .
2 5 . A d ve rb s sho uld b e pl ac e d n ext to th e w ord s th ey
a re i nte n d e d to q u a li fy .

2 6 . Only ; th e strict ru le i s th at only sho uld be pla c e d

b e fore th e w ord it a ff e cts.
2 7 . W h e n not only prec e d e s but a lso see that e ac h is
follo w e d by th e sa m e p a rt of sp e e c h .
2 8 A t lea st, a lways, a nd oth e r a dverb i a l a dj un cts som e
.

ti m e s prod u c e a mb i gu ity .
2 9. N o u n s sho u ld b e pl ac e d n e ar th e n oun s th at th ey
d efi n e .
24 USE A N D ARRANGEMEN T O F WO RDS

3 0 . Pro n o un s sho uld follo w the n o uns to w hi c h th e y

re f er w itho ut th e i nte rve ntio n of a ny oth e r n oun .
3 1 . C l a use s th at a re gra mm ati ca lly c o nn e cted sho u ld be
kept a s c lo se together as po ssible . Avo i d p a re nthese s.
3 2 . I n c o n ditio nal se nte n c e s th e a nte c e de nt or if
c la use s m ust be k e pt di st i nc t from th e c o n se q ue nt c l a use s .

3 3 . D e p e n d e nt c l a use s pr e c e d e d by tha t sho uld b e k e pt

di sti nct from tho se that a re i n d e pe n d e nt.
3 4 . W h e re there are seve ra l i nfi n itive s t ho se that a re
depe n d e nt on th e sa m e w ord must be ke pt di sti nc t f rom
tho se th at a r e n ot.

3 5 . I n a se nte nc e wi th if ; when, thou g h, etc . pu t th e

i f—c l au fi rst.
”
se

3 6 . Re p ea t th e su m
bj e ct w h e re its o i ssi o n w o uld c a use
obsc urity or a mbiguity .

3 7 Re p ea t a pr e po sitio n a fte r a n i nter ve n i n g c onj unc

.

ti o n e sp ec i a lly i f a verb a nd a n obj e c t a l so i nte rve n e .

3 8 Re p e at c o nj u
. n ct io n s a uxil ia ry ve rb s a nd pro n o m
, ,

i na l a dj ectives .

3 9 Rep ea t verb s a fte r th e c o nj unc tio n s tha n a s e tc

bj ec t or so m
. , , .

4 0 Re p e at th e su
. ,
e o th e r e mph ati c w ord ,

or a summa ry of wh at ha s b ee n sa id i f th e se nte nc e i s so ,

lo n g th at it i s diffi c ult to ke e p th e thre a d of me a ni n g un

brok e n .

41 . C lea rn e ss i s i n c re ase d whe n th e b e gi nn i n g of th e

se nte nc e pre p a re s th e w a y f or th e middl e a n d th e m i ddl e
for th e e n d the whol e f ormi n g a ki nd of a sc e nt Th i s
,
.
”
asc e nt i s c a ll e d c l i max .

4 2 W h e n the tho ugh t i s expe c te d to a sc e nd b u

. t de

sc e n d s f eebl e n e ss a nd som etime s c o n f u

, ,
si o n i s th e re sult , .

The d esc e nt i s ca lled b atho s

”
.

4 3 A n ew c o nstru
. ctio n S ho u ld n ot b e i n trod u c ed u n ex

pe ct e dly .

Co mm
o n E r r or s i n the Use of Wor ds

The follow i ng pa ge s c o nta i n a short l i st of th e more

c ommo n errors i n th e use of w ord s Suc h a li st mi ght b e
.

exten ded almo st i n d efi n ite ly . It is o n ly a tt empted to c a ll

 COMMON ERRO RS 25

att e nt io n u h mi sta ke s a s a re f or va ri ous r e a so ns most

to s c , ,

l ia ble to o c c ur .

A sho uld be re peate d for eve ry i n d i vi d ua l A red a n d

.
“
bla c k book ”
m ea n s on e book a re d a n d a bl a c k book
m
,

ea n s tw o.

A bbrevi a te, a n d a bri dg e ; a bbr evi a ti on i s th e shorte n i n g of

a pie c e of w rit i n g n o m a tt e r how a c c o m pl ish e d . A n
m
a br i dg e ent i s a c o nde nsa t io n .

Abi li ty, pow e r to do someth i n g, sho u ld be d i sti n gu i sh e d

from capa ci ty , pow e r to re c e ive som eth i n g.
A bove sho u ld n ot b e use d a s a n a dj e c ti ve , e g., The .

sta te m e nt m a de i n a bove p a ra gra ph . Substi tute pr ecedi ng ,

fi g g
r e oi n ,
or som e S im i l a r a dj e c t i v e .

Accept, n ot a ccept o f:
Accr edi t, to gi ve one c re de ntia l s sho uld b e d i sti n gui sh e d
f rom cr edi t, to b e lie ve wha t on e says.
m m
Ad i ni ster i s o fte n m isused . O ne a d i ni ster s a do se of
m e di c i n e, the l aw s, a n oath , or t he gove rn m e nt ; on e doe s
m
n ot a d i ni ster a blo w .

m m
Ad i ni ster to i s o fte n i nc orre c tly use d f or i ni ster to, e . g .,
m
Th e r e d c ro ss n urse a d i ni ster s to the w o un ded . ”

m
Ad i r e sho uld n ot be used to expre ss d e light, as i n the
“
m
phra se I sho uld a d i r e to do so .
”

m
Ad i t sho u ld b e d isti n guish e d f rom conf ess.
Adven t sho uld be d ist i n gu i sh e d f rom a r r i va l, a dvent
m
m ea n i n g a n epoc h a k i n g a r r i va l.
-

Afi ble me a n s easy to sp e a k to a n d sho u ld not be

c on fu se d with ag r eea ble.

Afi ct sho uld b e di sti n gui sh e d f rom W et. To afi ct i s to

i nflu e nc e ; to ej ect i s to c ause or bri ng about.

Aggr a va te should not be u se d f or a nno y or vex or pr ovohe.
“ ”
I t mea n s to m ake w orse .
’
Ai n t i s a c orru p tio n
’
o f a m n o t . I t i s i n e l e ga nt tho ugh
gra mm atic al to sa y I a i n t b ut a b sol ute ly i nc orre c t i n oth e r
perso n s a nd n umbers.
Ali he S ho uld n ot be a c c ompa n i e d by both a s i n th e phrase
They a re both a li he i n thi s re sp e ct.
All, All r ight sho uld n ever be w ri tte n a lr i ght. All a nd
uni ver sa lly sho uld neve r be used togeth e r. All sho uld not
26 CO MMON ERRO RS

be acc ompa ni e d by of , e g . He r ec e i ved a ll of the

.
,

vote s Be c a re fu l a bo u t th e u se of a ll i n n e gati ve state

”
.
“
m e nts D o n ot sa y A ll prese nt ar e n ot pri nte rs whe n
.
”

“
y o u m e a n N ot a ll pr e se n t a r e pri n te rs T h e fi r .
”
st sta te

me n t m ea n s th e re a re n o pr inte rs pr esent th e se c o n d m ea ns ,

th e r e a re som e pri n te rs pr e se nt .

Alleg e i s a c ommo n e rror f or say sta te a n d th e l ik e I t , ,

.
“ “ “
m ea ns to d e c la re ,
”
to a ffi rm or to a sse rt w ith th e
,
”

id ea of po sitive n e ss an d i s n ot a ppl ic abl e to ord i n ary sta te

”

m e n ts n ot n e ed i n g e mpha si s .

Allow m e a ns per m i t n ever thi nk or a dm it .

de to i s n ot th e sa m e as m
,

Allu enti on A p e rso n or th i n g

.

a ll uded to i s n ot m e ntio n e d but i nd i rec tly impl i e d .

Alone w h ic h m e a n s u na ccom p a ni ed S ho u ld b e d i st i n gui sh e d

f rom only w h ic h m ea ns no other .

A lter na ti ve sho u ld n eve r b e use d in sp ea ki n g of more than

tw o th i n gs .

m
Altogether i s n ot th e sa e a s a ll tog ether .
m
A ong S ho uld n ot b e use d with one a nother , e . g Th e y
mo
.

m
d ivi d e d th e spo i l a ong one a nother . I t should b e
”
a n g
th e mse lves .

A nd sho uld n ot b e pla c e d b e f ore a re l ative pro n o un i n

su c h a po sitio n a s to i nte r f e re w i th t h e c o nstru c tio n It .
“
sho u ld n ot be substitute d for to i n suc h c a se s as Try a nd
ta ke m ore ex e rc ise ”
.

A nd w hich S ho uld n ot b e used f or which .

A nother sho uld b e follo w e d by tha n n ot f r ome g M en . .

of a n other te mper r om( tha n ) th e G reeks

,
”

f .

Answer i s th at whi c h i s give n to a q ue stio n ; r eply to a n

a sse rtio n

A nti ci a te sho u ld n ot b e use d i n th e se n se of expect I t

p .

m e an s to fore sta ll .
”

A nxi ou s sho u ld not b e c o n fused w ith desi r ous I t mea n s .

f e e l i n g anxi e ty
”
.

Any i s li a bl e to a mbiguity un l e ss it i s use d w i th c a re .

A ny of th e m m
“
a y b e e ither si n gu l a r or pl ura l It i s
”
.

n ot i nte n d e d f or a ny m ac hi n e may m ea“n There i s

” ”

no ma c hi n e f or w hi c h it i s i nte n d e d or I t i s n ot i n ,

te n ded for every m a c hi n e b u

”
t o n l y for a sp e c i a l type
,
.
28 CO MMO N ERRO RS

Ba dly sho u m
l d n ot be use d for very uch. I t sho uld n ot
be c o n fused with th e a dj ecti ve ba d.
”
He looks ba dly ”

m ea n s he m akes a ba d use of h is ey es, say He looks ba d. ”

Ba nh on i s sl an g. Sa y r ely on or tr u st i n .

Beg i s o fte n i nc orre c tly u se d i n th e se n se of beg lea ve,

I beg to say but I beg lea ve to say.

a cc ”
n ot
’
Besi de, mea n i n g b th e side of sho uld not b e c o n fuse d
y‘
w it h besi des m e a n in g i n a dd iti o n to.
Between a ppl i e s o n ly to tw o p e rso ns or thi n gs.
m
Bla e on as a ve rb sho uld n eve r be use d .
—
Both, w he n both a nd a r e use d be sure th ey c o n n e ct th e
“ “
ri ght w ord s, He c a n both S p e ll a n d punctuate n ot He ”

both c a n S p e ll an d p unc tuate .

”
D o n ot use suc h e xpres
“
sio n s a s They both r ese mble ea c h othe r. Be ca re ful to”

a vo d c o n fu sio n i n th e u se of n e ga ti ve stat em e n ts.

sa y
i Both c a n not go w h e n youm ea n th a t on e c a n go
”
D o n ot

m
.

Bound i n t he se n se of deter i ned i s an A m e ri ca n i sm a n d

i s b e tte r a vo i ded . W e sa y he i s bou
“
nd to do i t m ea ni ng
”

“
m
h e i s deter i ned to do i t, b u
”
t th e phrase re a lly m e a n s He
”

is u n d e r bo n d s, or obli ga t i o n t o do i t
”
.

Br i ng shou ld b e c a re full y d i sti ngui shed from fi tch, ca r ry

a n d ta ke. Br i ng m e a n s to tr a n sfe r to wa rd th e sp e ak e r . Fetch

m ea n sto go a nd bri n g bac k Ca rry a n d ta he m ea n to tra nsfe r

.

f rom the S ea ke r, .e : g , Br i ng a book hom e from th e

p
m
.
’
l ibra ry. Fetch e a gl a ss of wa te r. Ca r ry th i s proo f
” ”

Ta he th is book hom e .
”
to th e proo f rea d e r.
”

Bu t i s someti m e s u se d as a pre po sitio n a n d w h e n so u se d

“
ta k e s t he obje c tive c a se . Th e boy stood on th e b urn i n g
dec k whe nc e all but h i m ha d fled . Bu
”
t sho u ld not be
use d i n c o n ne c tio n w ith tha t unle ss i nte n d e d to e xpr e ss th e
m
opposi te of wh at th e ea n i n g would be witho ut it, e . g. ,
“
I h a ve n o do ubt but tha“t h e w ill die i s i nc orr ec t b ec a use
”

hi s de ath i s exp ect e d . I ha ve n o fea r but th“a t h e w ill

c ome
”
i s c orre c t, a s th e m e a n i n g i nte n ded i s I a m sure
he w ill c ome .
”

But wha t i s o fte n i nc orrec tly used for bu t tha t. I can

t wha t h e i s gu
”
not belie ve bu
”
il“ty prob ably m e a ns I ca n
bu t belie ve th at h e i s gu I ca nnot but b e li e ve m ea ns
”
ilty . ”

I m ust belie ve .
”
 CO MMON ERRO RS 29

Ca lcu la te do e s n ot m ea n thi nh or su pp .ose

Ca lcula ted do e s not m ea n li hely . I t m ea ns i nte n d e d or

pla nn e d for the purpose . ”

Ca n w hi c h i n di c ate s a bil ity i s to b e d i sti n gu i sh e d f rom

m a y wh ic h i n di c a te s permi ssio n .

Ca nnot but sho u ld be ca re full y d i sti n guish e d from ca n but,

“ “ “
e. g I ca n but“try me a ns All I c a n do 18 try.
” ”
l ca nnot
m
.

but try
”
e a ns I c a n n ot h e lp t ryi n g.
’
m
Ca n t see should not b e u se d for see m
una ble, e . g. , I
’
ca n t see m to se e i t.
Childli he sho u ld be c a re fully d i sti n gui shed from chi ldi sh.
Chi ldi sh re fe rs p a rtic u l arly to th e w e a kn ess of th e c hild .
m
Co e should n ot be c o n fu se d w it h Go. Co e d e n ote s 1 0
2 m
ti o n t o w a rd th e spe a k e r ; g o moti o n f rom th e spea k e r , If
u ll om me I W ll go e y ou
”
y o w i c e to se e i t o se .

m
,

Co mm “
on S ho u ld be di sti n guish e d from utua l. Co on
“
mm
m e a n s shar e d I n c ommo n . M utua l m ea ns re c i proc a l
'
”

a n d ca n r e fe r to b u t two p e rso ns or thi n gs. A co on fri e n d mm

i s a fr i e n d tw o or more f ri e n d s h a ve i n c ommo n . M u tu al

fr i e n d ship i s th e frie n d ship of two p e rso ns f or e ac h oth e r .

m
Co pa r e to, ! m
then to, co pa r e w i th, me a n s
o

me asur e by
m
or po 1nt out S I IIa rI tI e S a nd d1 ff e re nc e s. ”

Condtg n m ea n s su ltable or d ese rved , n ot n ec e ssa rIIy

o 0
”

Condone mea ns to f or give or n ulli fy by w ord or ac t

ma ke a m ends for
,
”
n ot .

Consi der I n th e se n se of r eg a r d a s Sho uld n ot usu a lly be

I c on si der hi ma w i se m
” ’’
f ollo we d by a s e g . . an n ot as

a w i se m
, ,
’
an .

Contem p ti ble i s u sed o f a n obj e c t of c o ntempt a n d it sh o u ld

b e d i st i n gui shed from contem p tu ou s w hi c h 1 8 use d o f w hat
He 1s a contem
“
i s d i re cte d a t su c h a n obj e c t e g p ti ble
I gave h i ma contem
. .
,
“
f e llo w ptu ou s look
” ”
. .

Conti nu a l sho u ld n ot be c o n f use d w i th conti nuous Con .

fre q u
”
nu a l m e a ns e ntly re p ea te d Conti n u ou s m ea n s
”

ti .

un1nterrupte d .

Convene whi c h m ea ns to c o m e t o g e th e r sho u ld n ot

b e c o n fuse d with convol e whi c h m
, ,

ea n s to bri n g or c a ll to
30 CO MMON ERRORS

gether . A legi sl ature convenes I t ca n n ot b e convened by

.

a n o ther b u t it c a n b e convohed .

Cr i m
,

e i s o fte n u
’
sed f or O ff e nse s a ga i nst th e sp ea ker s se nse
Properly cr i m
“
of ri gh t e i s a tec h ni c a l word me a n i n g of
A mo st i n noc e nt a c ti o n m
.

f e n se s a ga i nst la w . a y b e a cr i m e

i f i t i s c o ntra ry to a sta tu te Th e mo st si n ful c rue l or dis

.

ho n e st ac ti o n i s n o cr i m
, ,

e u n l e ss prohibi ted by a sta tu te .

D a nger ou s S hou ld n ot b e use d f or da nger ou sl

y i ll .

l‘ural .

th at w hi c h i nfli ct s de ath sho u ld n ot b e c on

“
fu se d w ith dea thly th a t w hi c h re sembl e s d e a t
,

D eci ded m ust n ot b e c o n f used w ith deci si ve A deci ded vic .

tory i s a c l e a r a n d u n m i sta ka ble vi c tory A deci si ve vic tory

.

i s on e w hi c h d ec id e s the o u tc ome of a wa r or of a ca mpa ign

D eci m
.

a te me a ns to ta ke a w a y one te nth -
I t i s n ot prop
.

erl y use d i n a ge ne ral wa of th e i n fli c tio n of severe losse s

y .

D efi ni te w hic h mea n s w e ll d e fi n ed S ho u ld n ot be c on

”

“
fused with defi ni ti ve w hi c h m ea n s fi nal .

D em ea n i s rel a ted to dem ea nor a n d me a n s behave It .

sho u ld b e ca re fully di sti n guish e d f rom deg r a de or lower .

D i e W e di e qf a c erta i n d ise ase not wi th or f r omi t

‘
.
,

D ifi r i n the se nse of d isa gree i s f ollo w ed by wi th I .

Z r wi th y ou B if er as i n di c ati n g unlike n ess is f ollo wed

”
dtfi .

D ifi ho uld b e f ollow ed by f r omn e ve r by wi th tha n

r ent s , ,

or to.
D i rectly sho uld n ot be u sed f or a s soon a s .
“
D i scover , to fi nd som e thi n g w hi c h pre vi o usl y ex iste d
ld b e di sti n gu
sho u i shed from i nvent someth i n g f or th e fi rst
time .

D i si nter ested mea ns havi ng n o fi na nc ia l or materi a l i n

te r est i n a thi n g . I t sho uld be c a r e fully d i sti n gui shed from
”

“
uni nterested w“h ic h me a ns ta k i n g no i ntere st i n a thi n g
”
.

D i spense, to di st ribu te sho u ld n ot b e c o n f u sed w i th

”

“
di spense wi th, to do w itho u
”
t.
D i sposi ti on i s n ot th e sa me as di sposa l .
“
D i sti ng u i sh w hi c h me an s to perc ei ve d i ff e re nc e s sho u ld
n ot be c o n fu se d w i th difl
'
er enti a te whi c h e a ns
“
m
to m a ke or
c o nsti tu te a di ffere n c e
”
.
 CO MMO N ERRO RS 31

D i vide shou ld b e c ar e full y d i sti n gu i sh e d f rom di str i bute.

’ ’
D on t i s a c o ntra ction of do n ot. D oesn t i s th e c ontra c
’ ’ ’
ti o n for do e s n ot. I don t, they don t, he doesn t.
Du e S ho u ld n ot b e use d for owi ng to or beca use of
E a ch i s distributive a n d i s a l wa ys si n gu la r . E a ch other
whic h i s a ppl i c abl e t o tw o o n ly sho uld n ot b e c o n fuse d with
one a nother w hi c h i s a ppl i ca bl e to more th a n two .

Eg oti st, a m
a n w ith a high or c o n c e i te d op i n io n of h i
’

m
sel f, sho u ld n ot be c o n fuse d w ith eg oi st w h ic h i s the na m e
for a b e l i e ve r i n a c e rta i n ph ilo sophi cal do c tri ne .
E i ther i s d i str ib u ti ve a n d th e r e f ore si n gu l ar a n d sho uld
n e ve r b e u se d of mo r e th a n tw o .

E leg a n t d e n ote s d e l i c a c y a n d re fi ne m e nt a nd sho uld n ot

be u se d a s a te rm of ge n e ra l a ppro va l .

E lse sho uld b e f ollo w e d by tha n n ot by bu, . t N o on e

el se tha n ( not but ) h e c o uld h ave do n e so muc h .

m
E ig r a n t, on e w h o go e s ou t of a c o u ntry sho u ld n ot be
c o n fu se d wi th i mmig r a nt, on e w ho c om e s i nto a c o untry .

m
E nor i ty i s u sed of w i c k e d n e ss, c ru e l ty , or horror , n ot

of gr e a t s1ze , f or wh 1c h enor ou m sness sho u ld be used W e

m
.

sp e a k of th e enor i ty of an o ff e nc e b u t of th e enor ou m
sness

of a c ro w d .

E n thu se sho u ld n ot be used as a verb .

E qu a lly a s w e ll ; sa y equ a lly well, or a s well.

E very pla ce use d a d ve rb ia lly sho u ld be every wher e .

E xcept S ho uld n eve r b e use d i n t he se n se of u nless or bu t

m
.

E xceptiona l w h i c h m e a ns un usu al , f or i n g a n ex
”

c epti o n
”
u
S ho ld n o t b e n u
c o f sed w i th exceptiona ble w h i c h

mea ns ope n to obj ecti o n .

”

E xpect wh ic h i nvol ve s a se nse of th e f u ture should not b e

c o nfu se d w i th su pp ose a n d S imila r w ord s, a s i n th e phra se
“
I expect youkn o w all a bout it .
”

Fa ctor 1s n ot to b e c o n fo u n d e d wi th ca u se.

Fa lsi ty a ppl i e s to thi n gs, f a lseness to p e rso ns

m
.
“
A t f a ult e a n s at a lo ss of wh at to do n ext . In f a ult
mea n s i n th e w ro n g ”

m
.

Fa vor sho uld n ot b e use d i n th e se nse of r ese ble .

m m
Fe a le sho uld n ot b e use d for w o a n . Th e w ord sf e a le, m
32 CO M MON ERRO RS

wo ma n, and ho uld b e used with c ar e ful atte ntio n to

la dy s

th e i r r e spe cti ve S ha d e s of m ea n i n g .

Few wh ic h empha size s th e fact tha t th e n umb e r i s sm

,
a ll

sho u ld b e di sti n gui sh e d f rom a f ewwhic h e mphasize s th e

fa ct th at t here I s a n umb e r tho u gh i t be sma ll Few sh a ll .
“
pa rt wh e re m an y me et A f ew p e rso n s we re save d i n
.
”

”
th e a rk.
Fewer a ppl i e s to n umb e r ; less to q u a nt ity .

Fi r stly sho uld n ot b e use d for fi r st a ltho ugh se c o n dl y a n d

th i rdly m
ay b e use d to c ompl et e th e se ri e s .

Fi x sho u ld n ot b e use d i n th e se nse of r epa i r , a r r a ng e, or

For m er a n hould ne ve r be use d w h e re m

d la tter S ore th a n
tw o th i n gs are i n vol ve d .

Fr equ en tly sho u ld b e di sti n gui shed f rom com monly g en

mm
,

er a lly p per etua lly usua lly C o only i s th e a n t i t h e si s o f

mg
.
, ,

l f
r a r e y, u
r eq ently of seldo , ener a lly of occa si ona lly, usua lly of

Fu nny S ho uld n ot b e used to me an str a ng e or r e a r ka ble m .

m
Gentle a n Fr i end an d La dy Fr i end a r e e xp r e ssi o n s w h i c h
sho uld b e a void e d , say a n or w om a n f r i e n d
”
m
or an m
m “
or w oma n of y ac qua inta nc e or eve n ge ntl e ma n or la dy
”

of my q u mt ac a a nc e .
”

Good sho uld n ot b e use d i n th e se n se of well. I fee l

”
g ood
mo t mi ued word i
.

Got i s sa id to b e th e s la n gua ge
s s n th e .

Th e ve rb me a ns to sec ure by e ff ort a n d should b e use d onl y

“
w ith thi s m e a n i n g e g I h a ve g ot th e c o ntra ct H a ve
”
. . .
,

g ot t o i n di ca t e m e r e po sse ssio n i s obj e c t i o n a bl e M e r e p o s

A n oth e r c om m on m
.

se ssi o n i s i n d ic a ted b y ha ve a lo n e . is
ta k e i s th e u se of g ot to expr e ss obl i ga tio n or c o n stra i nt .
“
I h a ve g ot to do it .
”

Gu ess S ho u ld not b e used i n th e se n se of thi nh or i m ag i ne .

H a ndy S ho uld n eve r b e use d to expre ss n ea r ne ss .

H a ng ed sho uld b e use d to expr ess th e e x ec uti o n of a hu

m a n b ei n g H ung i s th e past pa rtic i pl e i n a ll oth er use s
.

’
.

H a r dly I ca n ha r dly se e it n ot I ca n t ha r dly see it ”

. .

H ea lthy whic h m
,
“
ea ns po ssesse d of h ea l th should b e ”
 CO MMON ERRO RS 33

d i sti n guish e d from hea lthf ul a n d wholesom e w hi c h m ea n

h ea lth gi vi n g .
”

H ig h sho uld n ot be c o n fuse d with ta ll .

H om e i s n ot a sy n o ny m f or hou se A b ea uti ful hou

. se i s a

ve ry d i ff e r e nt th i n g f rom a b ea u t i fu l hom e .

H onor a ble as a titl e should a l ways be pre c ed e d by the .

How shou ld n ot be use d for w ha t or for tha t. I t m ea n s,

i n w h at m a n n e r
”
.

H ow tha t sho uld n ot be use d wh en e ith e r on e w ill do

Suc h a se nte nc e a s W e h a ve a l r ea d y n ote d how
”
a lo n e.

th at TIIIO tson d e fi e d ru bri c a l ord e r i s ve ry b ad .

If sho u ld n ot be u se d i n th e se n se of w her e or tha t .

“
1lh m ea n s th e sa m e n ot hi nd or sor t
”
.

I ll i s a n a dve rb a s we ll as a n a dj e ct i ve D o n ot sa y i ll y .

ld not b e used for i n to wh e n m

.

I n sho u oti on i s impl i e d .

Y our i de i n a c a r b u t y ouget i n to i t .

I na u g u r a te s ho u ld n ot b e u se d f or begi n .

I ndi vi du a l sho u ld not be use d f or per son .

I nsi de of sho uld not be use d a s a n expre ssi o n of ti m e .

“
I nva lu a ble me a n i n g of ve ry gre a t va l u shou ld n ot b e”
,
e
“
c o n fu se d w i th va lu eless m e a n i n g of n o va l u
”
, e .

I nvi te sho u ld not be u sed f or i nvi ta ti on .

“
Ki nd i s n ot pl ura l D o n ot sa y The se or tho se ki nd
.

of thi n gs Ki nd o f sho u ld n e ve r be follo we d b th e i ndefi

y‘
Wha t hi nd of ma n i s he ? n ot W ha t hi nd
.
“
n ite a rti c l e
”

m
.

f
o a a n i s h e ? K i
”
nd f
o or so r t of sho u ld n ot b e use d i n
th e se n se of r a ther or som ew ha t .

Ki ndly i s o fte n m isuse d i n suc h expre ssio n s a s Y oua re

ki ndly r e q ueste d to r e c omm e n d a c ompo sitor Undo ubte dl y .

th e id e a of ki n d n e ss i s a tta c h e d to th e r ec omm e n d a tio n n ot

to th e r e qu e st a n d th e se nte nc e sho uld be so f ra med a s to
e xpr e ss i t

Lost i s o fte n m
.

i sused for la test The la st numb e r of the

.

pa p e r i s not th e one th at a ppeare d th i s morn i ng but th e

”

on e th a t fi na lly c lo se s pu bli cation .

La tter a ppli e s o nly to th e l a st of two I f a lo n g e r se ri e s

.

th a n tw o i s re f e rred to say the la st ,

.

La y w h i c h i s a tra nsi ti ve verb sho u

,
ld n ot b e c o n fuse d
,

w ith li e Lay i s a verb wh i c h e xpre sse s c a u

. sitive a c ti o n ; li e
34 COMM ON ERRORS

e xpre sse s p a ssi vity . He lays pl a ns .

”
He lies do wn . Th e
past t e n se of lay i s la i d, t h at of li e i s lay.
Lea r n shou ld n ot b e use d i n pl ac e of tea ch .

Leng thy i s a very poor sub st itu te for long , w h i c h n ee d s n o

su b stitute .
Li a ble sho uld n ot b e u se d f or li kely. Li a ble e an s a n u n m
pleasa nt proba bility. Li kely m e a n s a ny proba b ility . Li a ble
i s a l so use d to express obl i gatio n . H e i s li a ble f or thi s debt.
“
Li ke m ust n e ver b e use d i n th e se n se of a s. D o li ke I
“
do should b e D o a s I do. ”

Li ter a lly implie s th at a Sta te m ent to wh i c h it i s att ac h e d

i s a cc urate ly a n d pr e c ise ly t rue . I t i s f re que ntly m i suse d .
Loa n i s a n o un , n ot a verb .
Loca te sho uld n ot b e use d i n th e se nse of settle.
Lot or lots sho u ld n ot be use d to i n d i cate a g r ea t dea l.
Love expre sses a ff e c ti o n or, i n i ts b i bl i ca l se n se , ea rn e st
b en e vol e n c e. Like expre sse s taste . D o n ot say I sho uld
’ ”

’
love to go .
Lovely m e an s worthy of a ff e ct io n a n d, l i k e eleg a nt,
,

sho u ld n e ver be used a s a te rm of gen e ra l a pprob ati on .

“
Lu xu r i a n t w hi c h m e a n s su p e ra b un da nt i n growt h or
p rod u c t i o n
’
s ho uld n o t b e c o n f o un ded w i t h lux u r i ous w hi c h
“
m ea n s given ove r to l uxury. Ve getatio n i s lux ur ia nt, en
”
m
a re lu xu r i ou

m
s.

M a d e a n s i nsa ne a n d is n ot a syn o ny m for a ngry .

M ea ns m a y be eith e r si n gu l a r or pl ura l .

M eet sho uld n ot b e use d I n th e sense of m eeti ng e x c ept i n

th e c ase of a f ew sp e c i a l expre ssio n s su

’
c h a s a r a c e m eet .

M ig hty sho uld n ot b e used I n th e se n se of very .

M i nd should not b e use d i n th e se n se of obey .

M i n us should not be use d i n th e se n se of wi thout or

M ost sho u ld n ot b e u se d i n ste a d of a lmost a s i n suc h ex

pre ssi o n s a s It ra i n e d m
,
“
ost eve ry da y
”
.

M ust sho uld n ot be use d for ha d to or wa s obliged I n its .

prop e r u se i t r e f er s t o th e pre se nt or f utur e on ly .

N ecessi ties sho u ld b e c a re fully di sti n gui sh e d from

36 C OMMON ERRO RS

Pa r ta ke o
f ho uld not b e use d i n th e se n se of ea t I t
s .
“
mea ns to sha re with oth e rs .
”

Pa r ty sho uld n eve r be use d for per son exc e pt i n l e ga l

doc uments .

Per sho uld b e use d i n c o n n ec ti o n w ith oth e r w ord s of

Lati n formb u t n ot w ith E n gl i sh w ord s Per di em per .

m and the like are c orrect Per day or per yea r a re

,

a nn u , .

i nc orre ct I t should be a day or a yea r

. .

la r w hi c h mere ly m
,

Perpendicu ean s at ri ght a n gl es to

,

someth i n g else me ntio n ed sho u ld n ot b e use d f or ver ti ca l

,
.

Plenty a n o un sh ou
, ld not be c on fuse d with th e a dj ec ti ve

Poli tics i s si n gu
la r
m
.

Post do e s not ean i nf or . m

Pr edi ca te should not be used i n th e se n se of pr edi ct or in
e
th e s nse of or f oundba se
Pr em
“
a tu r e me a n s be fore th e prop e r ti me I t sh o ul d .

n ot be u se d i n a gen e ra l way as e q u iva l e nt to f a lse .

Pr etty sh ou ld n ot be use d In th e m odi fyi n se n se n or as

a syn ony m f or very

,

i n su c h phra se s as pretty good ”

,
“ ”
pretty n e ar and th e l ike ,
.

Pr even ta ti ve n o su c h w ord say pr even ti ve .

Pr om
, ,

i se sho u ld n ot b e used I n th e se nse of a ssur e .

Propose mean i n g to off er sho uld n ot b e c o n f use d w ith

”
,

pu rpose me a n in g t o i nt e n d
”
.

Pr oposi ti on sho u ld n ot be c o n foun d e d w ith pr oposa l A

proposi ti on i s a sta tem e nt of a sta te m e nt or a pl a n A pr oposa l .

i s th e pre se nta tio n or sta te m ent of a n o ffe r .

Pr ovi di ng sho uld n ot be used for pr ovi ded .

! yu a li t s ho uld n e ve r b e u s e d as a n a dj e ct i ve or w ith a n

!
“
a dj e ct i ve se n se u a li ty c
. lo th e s i s m e a n i n gl e ss :
”
C lo t he s

of qu a l ity e q ua lly so All c lothes ha ve q uality a n d th e ex

”
.

pressi o n has m ean i n g on ly whe n th e q ua l ity i s d e fi ne d a s

good ba d h i gh low an d so forth
, , , , .

!
“
u i t ,
to go a w a y f rom i s n ot t h e s a me”
as sto p .

!ui te m ean s e ntire ly wholly a n d Should n eve r be

“ “ ” ”

sed I n th e modi fy i n g se n se as i f me a n i n g r a ther or som

, ,

u ewha t .
“
! u it e a f e w i s n on sense .
 CO MMON ERRO RS 7

Ra i se i s a m uc h a buse d w ord . I t i s n e ve r a n o un A s a .

ve rb i t sho u ld be di sti n gui sh e d f rom r ea r a n d i ncr ea se, as i n

“ “
su c h p hrase s a s H e was r a i sed i n Te xas. Th e l a n dlord
”

r a i sed my r e n t.

Ra r ely ever shou ld n ot be used for r a r ely or ha r dly ever .

Rea l shou ld n ot be used i n th e sen se of very .
Ref er ence should b e use d w ith wi th ra th e r tha n i n . Say
wi th re f e re n c e to, n ot i n re f er e n c e to. Th e sa m e ru l e ap
“
pl i es to th e w ord s r ega r d an d r espect. D o n ot say i n r eg a r ds
” “
to, sa y wi th rega r d to.
mm
Re e ber i s not th e sa m e as r ecollect, wh i c h m e a n s to
r e m e mber by a n e ffo rt ”
.

Rendi ti on sho uld n ot b e use d f or r ender i ng .

Resea r cher ha s no sta n d in g a s a w ord .

Resi de i n th e sen se of l i ve , a n d re si den c e i n th e se nse of

ho use or d we lli n g a re a ffe cta tio ns a n d should n e ve r b e use d .
“
Reti r e S ho u ld n ot b e use d i n the se nse of go to b ed. ”

“
Rig ht S ho u ld n ot be use d i n th e se n se of duty . Youha d
a r ight to wa rn m
e, sho u
“
ld be I t was yo ur d uty to wa rn
m e , or youo u m
ght to h ave wa rn e d e . Rig ht should not
”

be use d i n th e se nse of very . Suc h expressi o ns a s r ig ht now ,

r ig ht w] ; gr i h t a w ay, r ig ht her e a r e n ot n ow i n good use .
m
Sa e sho uld n ot b e use d a s a pro n o un . Thi s i s a c o m
m on u sa g e i n b u si n e ss c orre spo n de nc e bu t it i s n ot good
E n gli sh a n d c a n be e asi ly avoided witho u t sa c ri fi c i n g e ith e r
m
brevity or se nse Sa e a s i n th e se n se of j ust a s, i n the sa e
. m
m a nner sho u ld b e avo i ded .
Scor e sho u ld n ot be u sed f or a chi eve or a cco pli sh. m
Set sho u ld n ot be c on fused with si t. To set m ea n s to
ca u
”
se to si t.

Sewag e, me an i n g th e c o nte nts of a sewe r, sho u ld n ot b e

c o nfu se d w ith sewer ag e w hi c h m e a n s th e syste m .

Show should n ot b e used i n th e se nse of play or perfi r m

a nce. Show u p sho u ld n ot be u sed fo r exp ose.

Si nce sho uld n ot b e used f or ag o.

Size u p sho u ld not be used for esti a te or we h. m i g
m
So e should n ot b e use d for so ew ha t as I f ee l so e m m
bette r .
”

Sor t o
f S ho uld not be used f or h
r a t er .
38 CO MMO N ERRO RS

Splendi d me ans shi ni ng or br illi a n t a nd sho uld not b e use d

as a term of ge n era l c omm e n d atio n.
“
Sta ndfi r mea ns be re sponsible for. Its rec e nt use as
mean i n g sta nd, end r e, u or per mi t sho uld be avoided
, .
“
Sta r t ho uld not
s be use d for beg i n e g He sta r ted
, . .

( bega n ) to speak
”
.

Sta te should not b e u se d f or say .

Stop S hould not b e u sed f or stay .

Su ch sho u ld n ot be used for so Say I h ave n ever se e n

.
“
ti fu
’
so b e a u l a book b e fore n ot I h ave neve r see n suc h a
b e a uti ful book b e fore .
”

Su r e S ho u ld n ot be used as a n a d verb Say sur ely . .

Ta ke is supe rfluous i n c on nectio n with oth e r verbs e g ,

. .
,

Suppo se we ta ke a nd u se that type Ta ke sho u ld n ot be

”
.

c o n fu sed w ith br i ng . Ta ke stock i n sho uld n ot be use d for

r ely or tr u st i n
.

Tha t sho u ld not be used i n th e se nse of so I di d n ot .

kn o w it was tha t big .

”

Thi nk should n ot h ave th e w ord fi r a dded e g It i s ,

. .
,

more impo rta nt th a n youthi nkfi r .

Thi s sho uld not be used as a n a d verb Th i s m uc h i s

“
c l ea r
”
shou ld be Th us m uc h i s c lear .

Thr ou g h s ho u ld n ot be u s e d f or fi ni shed .

To is supe rfl u ous a nd w ro n g i n suc h expressi o n s a s

W here did yougo to? ”

Too a lo n e shou ld n ot modi f y a past pa rti c i ple He w as .

too ( m u c h ) exc i ted to r e ply

”
.

Tr a nspi r e do e s not m e a n happen I t mea ns to c om e to .

l i ght or bec om e known .

Tr ea t shou ld b e f ollowed by of rather than on Thi s vol .

um e tre ats o f g ra mm ar n ot on gra mma r

,
.

Try sho uld be follow e d by to rather tha n a nd I wi ll try .

“ ”
to go I will try a nd go
”
not
ld n eve r b e use d In the se nse of ba d tem
.
,

Ug ly sho u p er ed
“
or vi ci ous It mea ns rep ul sive to th e eye
. .
”

Uni qu e doe s n ot m ea n r a r e odd or u nu

, sual I t m e a ns
,
.

a lo n e of its ki n d

ld not b e used i n the sen se of m

.

Upwa r d of shou or e tha n .

Vena l sho u ld not be c o n f use d w ith veni a l .

 COM MON ERRO RS 39

Ver ba l should be c on fuse d w ith or a l A ver ba l m

n ot es .

sa ge me a n s o n ly a me ssa ge i n w ords; a n or a l m e ssa g e i s a

me ssa ge by word of mo uth

I t i s a w ord of gre at e m
.

Very S ho uld be u sed spa ri n gly .

ph asi s an d l i ke all suc h word s d e f ea ts its p urpose wh e n used

too f r e qu e ntl y .

Vi si tor i s a h uma n ca ller Vi si ta nt a sup e rna tura l c a ller:

.

Wa nt sho uld not be“ use d i n the se n se of wish e g I “

, . .
,

wa n t it r ea lly m ea ns I f e e l th e wa nt of it or I l ac k it
”
.

Wa nt wi sh an d need should b e ca re fully d istin guished .

Way sho uld

, ,

n ot be u se d i n th e se n se of a way i n su c h ex

pressi o n s a s Way do wn E ast

“
.

Ways S hould not be use d for way e g It i s quite a , . .

,

wa ys ( w a y ) off
”
.

Wha t i s o ften misused for tha t e g. He ha s n o doubt , .

,

bu t w ha t ( th a t ) he will su cc e e d
”
.

Whence m ean s from what plac e or ca use a n d sho ul d

“

n ot b e pre c e d e d by f r om . Th i s a ppl i e s e qu a lly to h e n c e

“
w h i c h m e a ns from thi s pl a c e
”
.

Whi ch should n ot be use d with a c la use a s its a nte c e d en t ,

g He replied ho tly which wa s a m ista ke sho uld b e ”

e
He re pl i e d b ody ; thi s wa s a m
. .
,

Which b e i n g a
,
‘
i sta k e
”
.

n eu te r pro n o u n shou ld n ot b e use d to re pre se nt a masc ul i n e

or f emini n e n oun Use wh o Betw e e n th e two n e ute r pro
. .

n ou n s w hi ch a n d tha t le t e u pho n y d ec i d e .

Who should n ot be mi suse d f or who“mor whose e g . .

Who ( w hom ) did youwi sh t o see ? Wa shi n gt o n tha n

, ,
”
,

who ( w ho se ) n o gre ate r n a m e i s r e c ord e d Imp e rso na l ”

.

obj e cts sho uld be re ferre d to by which rather th a n who .

Wi thout should not be used for unless e g I w ill n ot go “

. .

n l e ss) y ougo wi th m
,

wi thou t (u
”
e .

Wi tness should not be use d for see.

Wor st ki nd or wor st ki nd of way sh ould n ot be use d f or
Wom ly m n an ea s belo n gi n g to wom a n as woman .
Wom h me n a nts a s ( f emrna te.
40 I RREGULAR VERBS

Ta bles of I rr egula r Ver bs

Tabl e 1 o nta i ns th e pri nc ipa l parts of all irregula r ve rb s

c

who se p ast te n se a n d perf ec t pa rti c ipl e a re u n l i ke .

M o st e rrors i n th e use of irregular ve rb s o c c ur w ith those

i n Ta ble 1 . Th e past te n se m u st n ot be u sed w ith ha ve

( ha s ha d) D o not use suc h expre ssi on s as ha ve dr ove a n d

, .

ha s went Equ. a ll y di sa gree a ble i s th e use of th e p e r f ec t

pa rti c iple f or the pa st te n se ; as she seen they done , , .

Pr esent Ten se Perf . Pa rt.

a ri se a rose i e
ar s n

b e or a m was bee n
”
b ea r br i ng fi
,
h
rt bore born borne,

bear ca rry
,
bore born e
b e at b eat beaten b e at ,

b e gi n be ga n begun
bid ba de bid
,
bidde n b i d ,

b ite bit bitt e n bit

,

blow bl e w blo wn
brea k broke broke n
c hid e c hid c hidd e n c hid ,

c hoose c ho se c ho se n

c l e ft c love c l e ft c l e a ve d
l
c eave
, , ,

c lo ve n

ca me c om e

did do n e
drew d ra w n
dra n k drun k drunk e n
,

drove dri ve n
ate ( e a t ) e at e n ( e a t )
f e ll fa lle n
fle w flow n
forbore forborn e
Bor n i s used on ly i n th e pa ssi ve voi c e .

words i n pa renthese s i n thi s a nd th e

Th e f ollow i ng ta b le s rep
r e sen t f orms wh i c h t h oug,
h a t on e t i me c ommon ,
a r e n ow seldo m
used.
 I R R EGULAR VERBS

—
TA BLE I ( Conti n ued)
Present T ense Pa st Te n se Pe rf . Pa rt .

f orgo tte n , f orgot

f orsa ke n
f rozen
give n
go n e
grown
hidde n hid
,

kn o wn
l ai n
ridde n

m
“ g
ri se n
ru n
sa w see n
shook sh a ke n
shr an k, shru nk shru n k shru
, n ke n

su n g sa n g
,
su ng

sa nk su
,
nk su nk
sle w sl ai n

slid slidde n sl i d
,

smo te smi tte n

spoke ( spa k e ) spoke n

spra n g spri n g
,
spr u ng
stole stole n

Strode stridd e n

stru ck st ru c k stri c k e n
,

strove stri ve n

sw or e ( swa re ) sworn

swa m swu ,
m swu m
ta ke n
torn
thro wn
trodde n trod ,

worn
wove n
wri tte n
42 I RREGULAR VERBS

TABL E II
Th i s bl e c o nta i n s
ta th e pri nc i pa l pa rts of a ll irr e gula r
ve rb s wh o se p a st te n se a n d p e rf e ct p a rti c i pl e s a re a l i k e
.

Pa st T en se a n d Pa st Ten se a n d
Pr ese n t Te n se Pre sen t Te n se
Pe rf . Pa rt . Perf . Pa rt .

ab o de m ea n t

b e h e ld mt e

be so ught pa id
bo un d put
bl e d rea d
bre d ren t
bro ught sa i d

b ui lt so u gh t
burst sold

bo ugh t se n t

c a st set

ca ugh t h
s ed

c lung shod

c o st S ho t

c re p t sh ut
C UIZ sa t

d ea lt sel pt
fe d sl u ng

fel t sl u nk

f o ugh t sp e n t

fo u nd sp u n ( sp a n

fle d sp i t ( sp a t )

fl un g spl it

got g o tt e n ) spr ea d

gro und stood

ha d Stu ck

h ea r d stu ng

h it stru ng

h e ld sw e p t

h urt swu ng

ke pt ta u g ht
la i d t old
44 I RREGULAR VERBS

TABLE III ( Conti nued)

Pre sent T ense Pa st Ten se Pe rf . Pa rt .

pe n shut u
p p e nn e d pe nt ,
penn ed pe nt ,

pl ea d e d ( plea d or plea d e d ( plea d or

pled ) pl e d )
prove d prove d prove n ,

reave d r e ft , r eaved r e ft ,

rived ri ved rive n ,

sa w e d saw ed sa w n,

seeth e d ( sod) se ethed sodd e n ,

sh a p e d sh a ped sha p e n ,

sha ve d shave d sh a ve n ,

sh ea r e d shea r e d shorn ,

sme ll e d sm e lt , sm ell e d sm e lt ,

so w e d so w e d so wn ,

sp e ll e d sp e lt , spell e d sp e lt ,

spilled spilt , spill e d sp i lt ,

spoil e d spoilt , spoil e d S poil t ,

sta ve d S tove , sta ve d sto ve ,

stay e d sta id , sta y e d sta i d

,

sw e lled sw e ll e d Sw oll e n ,

wa k e d wok e , wa ked w ok e ,

wax ed wax ed wax e n )

we dd e d w edd e d we d ,

w h ett ed wh et , whette d wh e t ,

work e d w ro ugh t , work e d w ro ugh t ,

B
V e rb s i n whi c h th e irre gul a r form pre f erre d .

Present Tense Pa st Ten se Perf . Part.

a wa ke aw ok e a wa k e d , a wa ked awoke ,

b e lay b el a id b e la y e d
, b e l a id belaye d
,

b et bet b ett ed
,
b et b ette d
,

crow c re w c ro we d
, c ro w ed

dar e du rst da red

, da red
di g dug d i gge d
,
du g digg
,
e d
d w ell d we l t dwelled , dwe lt d w elle d
,
 I R REGULAR VERBS 45

TA BLE I I I Con ti n ued )

Pre se nt Tense Pa st Te n se Pe rf . Pa rt.

gi rd girt gi rd e d
,
girt girded,

gra ve gra ved graven gra ved ,

ha n g h un g ha n ge d,
”
h ung h a n ged ,

kn e e l kne lt kn e el e d
,
kn elt k n eeled ,

kn it kn it knitted
, kn it kn itt ed,

quit quit q uitted

,
quit q uitte d ,

ra p ra pt ra pp e d
,
ra pt ra pped ,

rid rid ridde d

, rid ridd e d
,

sh i n e sho n e ( sh i n e d ) sho n e ( shi n ed )

sh ow sho w e d S ho w n sho w ed ,

shre d shred shre dded , shr e d shredd e d ,

S hri ve S hri ve d shro ve , S hri ve n shri ve d ,

slit slit slitt ed

,
slit sli tt ed
,

sp e e d sped speed e d
, sp e d speeded ,

S tr ew str e w ed stre wn str e w e d ,

stro w stro wed stro w n stro w e d ,

sw e at swe a t sw e a ted , swe a t sw e ate d ,

thrive thro ve th rived ,

thri ve d thri ve n ,

w et wet ( w ette d ) wet ( wette d )

win d wo u n d ( w i n ded ) wo u n d ( wi n de d )

Ref e rri ng to ex e c uti on b y suspen si on, ha nged i s pr e f e ra b le to

Th e verb s of th e follo w i n g l ist a l so a re irregula r ; b ut as

th ey lac k on e or more of th e pr i n c i p a l p a rts th ey a re c a ll e d ,

d e fec ti ve ve rb s .

Pr esent

metho ught
46 I RREGULAR VERBS

All th e pa rtic iple s ar e wa nti n g in de f ec ti ve erb s

v .

Th e rb ou
ve g ht w h e n u
, se d to e xpr e ss p ast d u ty or obli

ga ti on i s f ollo w ed by w h at i s ca lled th e p e rf ect i nfi n i ti ve

m
,

a u se pe c u lia r to itsel f b ec a use ou g ht h as n o p ast f or .

m
E xa ple : I o ught to ha ve g one yesterd ay.
O th er rbs expre ssi n g past time a re u
ve se d i n th e p ast

e
t n se f ollow e d by th e root in fi ni tive .

Exa m ple I inte n d e d tog o yeste rda y .

 BO O KS RECO MM ENDED 47

S UPPLE M E N TA RY R E A D I N G

m
Co posi ti on a n d Rhetori c . By Loc kwood a n d E m e rson . G inn 8: Co.
Boston .
Th e A rt of W ri t i n g an d S pea ki ng th e E ng li sh Lang u
ag e . By
Sher wi n C ody . Th e Old G ree k Pr ess, Chi ca go.
The Wr i ter s D e sk Book By W i llia mD ana Orcutt F rederi c k
’
.

Stoke s C om
.

a
p yn N ew
,
Y or k .

A M an ua l f or W ri t ers By John M a tth ew s M a nly an d John A rthu

. r
Pow ell .The Uni ver sity of Chi cago Pr ess C hi ca go ,
.

A n y good G ra mm ar .

Putna m W o d Book
’
s r . By Lou i s A . F le mmi gn . G . P. Putna m ’
s
Son s, Chi ca go. ( F or ref erence.)
48 R EV I EW !UESTI ONS

!UESTI ONS
In to the qu
a ddi ti on e sti ons h e re gi ve n th ere sh ou ld b e con sta nt and
t horou g h d ri ll i n t h e u se of g ra mma ti cal f or m
s a n d t he c hoi ce of

w ords. F requ en t sh ort the m

e s shou ld b e requ i re d. I n the se the es m
a tt enti on sho uld b e gi ve n to g mmti
ra a cal u
c onst r ct i on , c hoi c e of
w ords, spe lli ng , ca pi ta li za ti on, pun ctua ti on ,
sent en c e c on str ucti on,
a nd pa ra gra phi ng .

Why is the ubje ct importa nt ?

s

How ma ny fa mili es of w ord s a re th e re a n d wha t are ,

th e y ?
W hat i s a noun ?
W hat a re th e thre e thi ngs about a n oun wh ic h i n di
c at e s i ts re l a t io n to oth e r w ord s?

How m a ny n umb e rs a re th e re a n d w h at do th ey ,

m ean ?
How do ordi na ry n o uns f orm their plurals?
How do c ompo un d n o un s f orm their pl ura l s?
W hat i s on e very importa nt use of n umb er ?
W h at can yousay of th e use of th e verb w ith c ol
le ctive n o u n s?

W hat i s c ase ?
How m a n y c ase s a re th e re a n d w h at do e s e ac h i n
,

dic ate ?
W h at c an you sa y a bout th e re l atio n of a n o un to a
prepo sitio n
A re pr e positi o n s eve r omitte d a n d why ? ,

How a re th e n om in ati ve a n d obj e c ti ve c a se s di s

ti ng uish e d?
How i s th e po sse ssi ve ca se f orm e d in th e pl ura l ?
D o po sse ssive pro n o un s ta k e an a po stroph e ?

. W hat is i t s?
’

How ompo un d n o un s
are c ,
a ppo sitive s ,
etc . , r
t e a te d
i n th e po sse ssi ve ?
W hat i s a n a djec ti ve ?
 REV I EW !UESTI ONS
How ar e sha ll a n d wi ll used in direc t d isc o urse ( a )
in imple
s sta t em ents, ( b ) in q ue sti on s ( c ) in oth e r
,

case s?

How wi ll used i n i n dir ect di sc o urse ?

ar e sha ll a n d
W hat ar e the exc e ptio ns i n the use of sha ll a nd wi ll?
W hat i s the ge neral use of should a nd would
How are should a n d would use d in subordinate c l a use s,
i n i n dire ct di sc o u rse ?
W hat exc eptions a re th e re i n the use of should a n d
wou ld ?
W hy do we ma ke mi sta kes i n the use of c ompoun d
te n se s?
W hat is th e c ase of the obj e ct i n pa rtic ipial c on
stru ct io n ?

W hat sho uld be avoide d i n the use of prepositions?

D o p assive verb s ever h ave obje cts?
W hat is a pron oun ?
W hat c ommon error o cc urs in th e use of pl ura l pos
se ssi ve pro n o u n s?

W hat c ommo n e rror oc c urs in the use of ca se s in

su bordi n ate c l a use s?
W hat d a n ge r is th e re i n the use of pron oun s, an d how
c a n it b e a voided ?

W hat is a n a dverb ?
W ha t is the importa nt distin ct io n i n the use of a d
verb s a n d a dje c t i ve s?
W hat rule is to be ob se rved i n the use of n egatives?
What i s a pre positio n ?
W h e re i s it pla c ed i n th e se nten c e ?
Wh at is a c o nj unctio n ?
W hat is sa i d of a nd a n d but ?
How sho uld w e p a ir ei ther , nei ther , or , a n d nor ?
What i s th e rule abo ut plac i n g c orre lative s?
W hat is an i nterjecti on ?
D o e s it m a ke m uc h d i ff e re nc e wh e re w ord s are pu t
i n a se nte nc e ? W hy ?
W hat is the ge n e ra l rule for plac i ng word s?
m
W h e n ay w ord s be om itte d ?
W hat i s the d a n ger i n suc h omi ssio n ?
 REV I EW !UESTI ONS 51

M e nti o n so me obje ctio nable abbre vi ati o n s of th is sort

.

Wh at is the write r s ta sk ?
’

What thr ee abuse s a’re to be avoided ?

What are Ca mpbell s five can ons?
Wh at a re th e rules for th e f ormati on of sente nc e s?
W hat a re the rul es for the formati o n of para gra phs?
52 GLOSSARY

GLOSSARY

—
A M BIGUI TY The po ssib i l ity of more th an on e mea n i n g .

—
A PPOS I T I O N Whe n th e mea n i n g of a n oun or pro n o un is
ma d e c l e a r or emphatic by th e use of an oth e r n o un or
pro n o un th e tw o are said to be i n a p po siti o n e g Joh n , . .
,

th e old pr e ssm an .

—
A UX ILIARY V ER B A ve rb used to help to e xpre ss th e mean
i ng of a n to her verb by sho wi n g its voic e mood or tense , .

—
C LAUSE A group of w ord s c o nsisti n g of a subj ec t a n d pred
i cate w ith their m od1fi e rs a n d f ormi n g a p a rt of a se n
te n c e : a se nte nc e Withi n a se nte nc e .

—
C OLLECT I VE NOUN A n oun i n di cati n g a c oll ecti o n of un its
c onsi dere d as a whole , e g
. . cr owd.

C OM POUND —
WORDS W ords ma de up of two or more
word s use d together to expre ss on e id e a .

CO N TEX I ' h
Th e e nt ire w riti n g f rom whic h a te t x or pas
sa ge is ta ke n .

—
C ORRELAT I VE A term a ppli e d to pa irs of c o nj unctio ns or
oth e r word s or phra se s wh 1c h 1mply or In vol ve e ac h other .

—
D I CT I O N The choi c e a nd use of w ord s .

—
G RA M M A R The ie n c e that treats of th e pri nc iple s that
sc
govern th e c orrect use of l a n guage In e i ther spoke n or
writte n form ; th e sc 1e nc e of the se nte nc e a n d Its eleme nts .

—
HETEROGENEOUS SE NT E N CES Sente nc e s c o nta i n i ng unre
l ated id ea s or deali ng w 1th a va ri ety p
of se arate th I n gs.

—
HYPOTH ESI s A suppo si ti o n or im a gi na ry sta te of t hi n gs
mg
,

ass um e d as a ha s for re ason .

—
HYPOT H ETI CA L C LA USE A c l a use c o nta i ni n g a suppo sitio n .
 GLOSSARY 53

—
M ETA P HOR A fi gu re of sp e e c h i n w h ic h on e thi n g is
lik e n e d to a n oth e r by S p ea ki n g of it a s i f it w e re th at oth e r ,
-

or c a ll in g it that other .
—
NOUN C LAUSE A c la use used as a n o un .

—
O BJECT ( or A V E RB ) Th e th i n g acte d on .

—
PART ICI PIAL C ONST RUCT ION A p a rtic iple a n d its m od ifi e rs
use d a s the subj ec t or obj e c t of a ve rb .

—
PH RASE A n e xpressio n c o n si sti n g usually of b ut a f ew
,

w ord s d e n oti n g a si n gl e I d e a or f orm i n g a se p a ra te p a rt

, ,

of a se nt e n c e .

PREDICAT E ( or A SE NT E N C E ) —Th a t wh i c h is sa i d of th e
subjec t Se e subj ec t
. .

—
PRI NCI PAL VE RB Th e ve rb in th e ma i n sta t e m e nt of a
se nte n c e .

—
PRONOMINAL A D JE CTI VE A n a dj ec ti ve use d a s a pro n o un .

—
RH ET ORI c Th e a rt of p e r fe c ti ng ma n s po w er of c om
’

mu n 1c a ti n g oth ers h is m e nta l ac ts or sta tes by m

to ea n s
of l a n gu a ge : art of d i sc o urse .

—
S UBJECT or A S ENT ENCE ) The th ing spok e n abo ut in th e
se nt e n c e Se e pre d ic ate
. .

—
SU BJECT ( OF A V E R B ) Th e th in g a c ti n g .

S UBORDINAT E C LAUSE A — l use expl a i n i n g or oth e rwi se

c a

m odI fy In g th e a mm
sta t e m e nt of th e se n te n c e .
 TYPOG RAPHI C TE C HN I CA L S E RI E S
F OR A PPR E N TI C E S

T HE followi ng li st of pu m
b li ca ti ons, co prisi n g the TYPOGRAPHI C
TE CHN I C AL S E RI E S F OB A PP RE N TI CE S , has b een prepared
under the super visi on of th e Commi ttee on E du ca ti on of th e
Uni ted Ty poth etae of Am er i ca f or use i n tr ad e classes in cou, rse of
pri nti ng i nstr ucti on and b y i ndi vi dua ls.
,

E ach pu b li ca ti on h as b een com piled b y a com petent a uthor or

gr ou p of a u th o rs a n d c aref ully edi ted th e purpose b ei ng to pro
— em ploy ers j ourneym
, ,

vi de th e p ri n te rs of th e U ted S ta tes
n i
— m
, en ,
a n d a ppr en ti ces wi th a co pr eh ensi ve seri es of ha ndy a nd
m m
in expensi ve co pendi u s of reli a b le, u p-
t o-
m
d a te i nf or a ti on upon
the va ri ou s b r an ch es a nd spec i a lti es of th e pri nti n
g cra ft, a ll
ar ra n ged i n or der ly f ashi on f or pr ogressi ve stu dy .
The pub li ca ti ons of the seri es are of unif or mi s ze, 5
8 i n ch es.
x
Thei r genera l m
a ke u p, i n typogra ph y , illu
-
stra ti ons, etc . h as
m
b een , as far as pr acti ca b le, kept i n h a r ony throu gh ou t . A b ri ef
sy nopsi s of th e pa rti cula r con ten ts a nd oth er chi ef f ea tures of ea ch
m
volu e will b e f ou nd u n der ea ch ti tle in th e f ollowi n g li st .
‘

E ach topi c is tr ea ted i n a con ci se m

a n n er , th e a i m
b ei ng to
m
e b ody in ea ch p u m
b li ca ti on as co pletely a s possi b le a ll the
rum m
di en ta ry i nf or a ti on a n d essenti a l f a cts necessa ry to a n u n der
sta ndi ng oi th e su b j ect . Car e h as been ta ken to m a ke a ll sta te
m en ts a ccu r a te a n d clear , wi th th e pu rpose of b r i n gi ng essen ti a l
m
i nf or a ti on wi thi n the u nderst a n di n g of b egi nn ers i n th e diff er n t
e
fields of stu m
dy . Wh er ever pr acti ca b le, si ple a n d well defi ned -

dr a wi n gs a n d illu stra ti ons h a ve b een u sed to a ssi st i n gi vi n g

ad di t i on a l clea rn ess to th e text .

I n order th a t th e pa phlets m m
a y b e of th e gr ea test possi b le

h elp f or u se i n tr a de sch ool classes a n d f or self i nstru

- -
cti on , each

m
ti tle i s a cco p an i ed b y a li st of Revi ew !
uesti ons coveri n g
m
essen ti a l i te s of th e su b j ect m
a t ter . A sh or t Glossa ry of tech

m
ni ca l ter s b elon gi n g to t h e su m
b j ect or depart en t trea ted i s also
ad ded to m a n y of th e b ooks.

Th ese are th e Offi ci a l Text b ooks of the Uni ted Ty pothetae of

-

A mi er ca .

Addr ess a ll orders a n d in qui ri es to COM E ON EDUCATI ON ,

UN ITE D TYPO I HE TA E or AME RI C A CHI C A GO

’‘
, , ILLI N OI S , U. S . A .

i
TYPOGRAPHI C TECHN ICAL S ERIES f or APPREN TI CES

PA R T I — Types , Tools, M a chi nes, a nd MC

ter i a ls

1. e : a Pri
l
e a ti n g to t h e ec a ni ca
mm h
er of lnf or a ti on .
ea t ues of
m
lf
ri n t i g t pes; t ei r si zes. on t p
,

y h f
sc e hm es, e t c ., wi t a ri e e sc r
r .
t h n
on of t e i r b fd
a n ua ct ure. 44 . ip i h m f pp
ll
i ustr a te ; 7 4 rev i e d uest ons; ossa r .
.
wq i gl y
m
2 . Co posi tors Tools an d ’
M a teri al s By A. A . S tewar t
A p i m of i nf orm t i n a b ou t om sm t i k a lleys. l ea d . b ra ss
ut ti g a nd m
o
i teri ng m
r
a er o p g “ c s c s s
rul es c a hi n
n t 4 7 pp ; 1] ust r a ted ; 5 0 evi ew c es, e c . . r
que ti on ; g lo sa ry
s
n
s s .

3. Type Ca ses, Com p o s i ng R oo m F ur ni tu r e B y A A S t ew ar t

A p im of i form
. .
r
.
a ti on
er bout typ n wo k sta nds ca binets ase a e ca se s, r c
k g ll y ra k t a n di ng g a lley t 4 3 pp ; llust a ted ; 3 3 revi w
, ,

ra c s, a e c s, s s, e c . . I r e
qu ti on ; glossa ry
es s .

4. m
I posi ng Ta b les an d Loc u A li enees By A . A . S tewa rt
k -

De sc ri bin g t h e t ools a nd a teri s m

i n looki n g up for s f or t h e p ress. m
i n c lu m
di ng some odern ut i li ti es f or speci a l pur poses. 5 9 pp.; i ll ustr a ted ;
7 0 re v i ew q uesti ons ; glossa ry .

B A . A . S teWar t
A pr i m er Of in fo mra t i o a bout n met hod ;a nd machi es f or n
ta i nk g pri n ters O
’
p oof 4 0 pp ; i llut
r s. . s r a te d ; 4 1 re v i ew q uesti ons ; g lossa r y .

6 . Pla ten Pri nting Presses D ani el Ba ker By

A p i m of i nf orm a t i on eg ar di n g t h e hi t o y a d m ec h a ni ca l con t ru
t i o of pl te n p ri n t i n g presses f om t h e or i g i a l ha nd p ress to t h e m
r er r c s r n s
od n
tom a t i c presses of sm
n a r n er
.t o w hi c h i s a dded
,

j ob p ress c ha pte o a u a a ll i ze r n s .

5 1 pp ; i ll ust r a te d ; 4 9 revi e w q u
. est i ons ; gl ossa ry .

lin der Pri n Pr esses Herb ert L Ba ker

dy of t e mecha ni sm d
.
i g a tu t he pri n ci pa l typ of
c l i n d e pr i n ti ng m
c n s an es
r a c hi n es 64 pp 4 7 revi ew q u t i on ;
. . es s
ossa ry .

8. M ech ani cal F eeders and Folders By Willi amE

hi sto y a nd Opera ti on of mod n feedi ng d foldi g m
.
Th e
hi n t on t hei r ca e a nd adj ut m t I ll ut a ted ; revi w qu sti on
r n ac er an
s r s e n s. s r e e s
glos a ry s .

9. P ower f or M achi nery i n Pri ntin g Hou se s By Ca rl F S cott

t i se on t h e mth od of a pplyi g pow
.

A t i n tin g re eses n d lli ed

to
m hi e y wi t h pa rt icula refe ce to l t i g ve
re a e s n er a a a
pp ; i llut a t d ;
'

ac n r r re n e ec r c . . s r e
69 vi w qu
re est i ons ; g lossa ry
e .

P a per Cu tti ng M a chi nes By Ni el Gr a Jr .

A p i m of i n form a ti on a b ou t p per d c rd tr i m m ers b a l
utom a ti c m
r er
n v a a a n e er
-

ower cu
,

t ters a n d ot h a c hi n es f or c utti g p a pe
.
c ut t er s, er a n r,
ustra ted ; 1 1 5 revi ew questi on ; gl o a ry
,

7 0 pp
.
s ss .

’
Prin ters Rollers By A A S tewart
flmr of i nf o m posi ti o ma nufacture .a d c re of
. .
a t i on a b dut t h c om
iA
e r e n, n
fi g oll rs 4 6 pp ; i llustra t d ; 6 1 evi w questi on s; glo a y
a
l n r e . . e r e ss r .

Pri nti ng lnk s By Phi li p Ruxton

Th i ompo i ti on .p o t i a d m ufa c tu ( eprin ted by p m i ssi on
f omC i ul N o 5 3 ni ted S ta t B uea uof S ta nd rd ) ; tog et h wi t h
e r c s r r es n an re r er

om h lp fu
r rc ar . es r a s er
l sug g esti ons b out t h v yd y use of pri nt in g i n k by
,

s e e a e e er a s
P hi li p B uton 8 0 pp ; 1 0 0 vi w que t i on ; glossa ry
r . . re e s s .
TYPOG RAPHI C TECHN ICAL SERIES f or A PPREN TI CE S

PART I (con ti nued) —Pa per a nd P r i nti ng P la tes

How P a per i s M a de ByWilli a mBond Wheelwri gh t

p m
A r i er of i n or ati on a b out t he f m ‘

mt i l nd p o
a er a s a of m uf tu r cesses an ac r
p p
i ng a er f or ri n t ng a n d ri ti n p i w o

g . 68 pp.; i llutra t d ; 6 2
s e revi e w qu es
g
t i ons ; lossa r . y
Reli ef E ngr avi ngs By Joseph P . Don ova n
B i f hi to y a nd n on t ch ni ca l descri pti on of mod n mt hod of eng ra v
r e s r -
e er e s
i ng ; w ood cut i n c pl a te h lfto e ; ki n d of opy f o p oducti on ; t hi n g s
0 re mm
z a n C r re i
ber w hen ord ring eng av n gs Illut te d ; evi ew questi ons ;
, ,

£1
e e r i . s ra r
ossa r y .

E lectrotypi ng and S tero

By B . Ha tch a nd A A
A p i m of i f ormt i on
r er n a a bout t he processes of le t otyping a nd e c r st ereo
t ypi n g 94 pp ; i ll ust
. t . ra e d ; 1 29 evi w questi on ; g lossa ri s
r e s e .

PA R T —
I I Ha nd a nd M achi ne Composi ti on

By A . A . S tewar t
a b out ju stif sp a ci
to t ypesett i ng . I ustra
re v i e w qu t on ; glo es i
0

s ssa r y .

A A . S tewar t By
Th m et h ods b y w hi h t h ey a re m a de m
0 0 0 0 .
e a r k ed cd correc ted wi t h an
ob serv t i ons on p r oof ea di n g I ll ust ra te d ; rev i w q u st i ons ; g lossa r y
, , ,

a r . e e .

Fi rst S teps i n
Su mpo ito i tti Job m
Co posi ti on
pp g
m
By C a i lle D eVé ze
b
gg est i ons f or t h e ren t i ce hi s fi rst j o
m t t li ttl thi g w hi h g o to m
a co s r n se n s,
p lly b
es e ci a a ou t t he a k e g ood
pp ; x m
i r an e n s c
d pl y yp g phy
is a i n t o ra pl ; 5 5 i w qu . . e a es rev e est i ons; gl ossa r y .

General Job Co pos

i ti on m
H ow mpo ito h dl u si n ess s a t i on er y p r ogra m
the j ob co
b t a nd
mi ll
s r an es s
u w ork I llustra ted ; revi ew quest ions; g lossa ry .
,

sc e a n eo s .

B J W Bothwell
M od rn Methods of gook C omposi ti o
0 0 0 0 0 e

"
s e n,
t hi i s of te xt b ook by J W B ot hwell of
Th D vi n ne Press N w Y o k P ar t I C om
-
s ser e s . .

po iti o of pag s Pa rt II
e s
I mposi t i on of pages 2 29 pp ; i llustra ted ; 5 2 5 ren ew questi ons; glossa ry
e e , r . : n e .

. . .

Ta b ula r Com po si ti on B y Robert Seaver

A tu dy of t h e elemen t y fo m
re c
s of ta ble com
'
po i ti on wi t h exa mples of
mo di fi ult compo iti o 3 6 pp ; exa m e ; 4 5 vi ew que ti ons
s
s
ar
n.
r
. m s
s
re
,

s .

22 . A li ed Ari th
m t y it
mti
hm
e c By E . E . S heldon
eti c a pp i ed to p roblemof t h e pri n t i ng t ra de ca l cu
0

l
ar
l
t o of mt i l
e en a r a
pa per weights a nd si zes wi t h st a n dard ta bles a nd r ules
,

om bj ect a mpli fi ed wi t h exa mples a nd exerci ses.

i n a e r a s,
ea c h su
,

fo put ti o
r c a n,
15 9 pp .

23 . T m d Com po i W Fi nla y Edi tor

T an s ng
p
g —
.
yp By L A Ii orn tein
II—T M
ct i on I h e Li n ot e . . s
yp B y Joseph Ha ys
S e ti o
c
III — n
I y
he on ot e
By H n y W C o ons
S e ct i o IV — h
Sec t i o n Th e n tert pe e r . ss
Typ Typeset ti g M achi
0 t er e c ast i n g a n d
By F nk H S mi t h
n n ne s

A b i ef h i story of t yp set t i n g m
ra .

ac hi n es wi th descri pti ons of thei r

mch ni ca l pri nci ples nd op a ti ons I llust a ted ; revi ew questi ons;
r e ,

e a a er . r
glossary .
TYPOG RAP HI C TECHN ICAL S ERIES f or APPRE NTI CE S

W m
mh
3 4 . Ca pi tals By F . Ha ilto n
w t h om p
.
A pri er i s e r act i ca l typ o
r a ph i c
0

i n ts as to th e pp.; 9 2 ren e w qu t ion es s;

gl
3 5 . Di fi d on Of Words By F
w h m k on
0 o o o

l d
R ues f or t h e i vi si on of word t s a t h d
e en s of i nes, i l
t re ar s
p ll
S e i ng , s yll b
a i ca ti on a n d p o un
r n
.
c i a ti on . 4 2 pp.; 7 0 revi e w qu t i on es s.

3 6 . Co poum nd Words By F . W. Ha i lton

dy of t he pri n ci ples of compoundi ng th e components of com
m
A st u
poun ds a nd t he use of t he hyphen . 3 4 pp.; 62 revi ew questi ons
,

, .

Ab b revi a ti ons and S igns

p m f m a ti o a bou d
a bb r evi a ti ons a n si gns wi t h
F . W. Ha mi lt on
d
A ri er of i t c la ssi fi e
in m
n or
ost com mon use 5 8
n
l 3 2 revi ew q u
,

h
ists of t ose est i on
. pp.; s.

3 8 . Th e Uses of I tali c
p m f ma ti n a bou
0

hi story
By
u
F . W Ha
ita li c
m
l
i lt on
A ri er of
in or o t th e a nd ses of et ters.
3 1 pp.; 3 7 revi e w qu t ons es i .

3 9 . Proofrea di ng
Th tech ni cal p hases of t h
e
rev i si n
exam
e tc ; m
.
et h ods of b n
.

p es 5 9 pp ; 6 9 ev i ew q u
.
g pr oofs a nd copy
est i ons ; g l ossa ry
r
a
e
m
Arnold Levi tas
f rea der s w or k ; read i g m
0 O

a rk i ng
Illust ra ted by
0
'
By

.
.
n , ,

40 . Pr epara ti on of Pri n
th ors
ters’
Copy
di to
By F . W. Ha
g d
m
p p
i lto n
Su g g est i ons f or a u a n d a ll wh o in a r i ng
py f or the compo mg
e rs, are en a ge re
m w qu
,

co s r oo . 3 6 pp.; 6 7 revi e esti ons.

u
an sl of S tyle
f
A re eren ce co mp l
i a ti on of a r ov e ru les, pp d
l g
re a t in to u ni f or it m in p
un ctua t i on , ca i p
m l
n u er a s, a n d in k d fea t ur es of c o osi ti on mp
’
42 . Th e Prin Di cti onary
ter s By A . A S tewar t
nd m s i n form
.
A h ndb ook of defi n i t i on i scell a n eou a t i on a b out v i ou
p ocesses of pri n t ing a lpha bet i a lly a rran ged Techni ca l term
a s a s ar
r , c s ex .

plai ned Illust ra ted

. .

—
PAR T VI P D esi gn ,
Color , a nd Letteri ng
43 . A pli ed De f or Pri nter s y Ha r r y L G
ph db k age
.
oo o t h e pri n ci les of a rr a n g e en t , it m w h b f mm
ri e co e n t on
m
an
pd d g wh h g
eri o s of esi n ic ost i n fl ence u dp
ri n t i n . g T
r ea t s of b a r
h y hm m y mm
a ve
mybl p p
a a n ce . r o or t i on , a n d r t ot i on ; s e tr a nd v a ri et ; y
m
on ,
ymb l y
'

orn a h
en t , est et i c a n d s o i c. 3 7 i st r a ti ons; 4 6 r ev e llu
esti ons ; i w qu
l y b b g phy
g ossa r ; i li o r a .

44 . E le mt
en s of Ty ogra ph i c esi gn DL G H -

p p i pl m
e
y a g
B lgy
er
m l
.
A d d
li ca ti ons of t e r n ci es of ecor a ti v e esi ui a te ri a
0 t y pog ra phi p p yp
a er , t d
es, i nk , l
e cora t i on s a nd d g
ust ra t i ons. H a n li n
h p
of s a es. s mpl b k
i esi g n of co et e hp
oo , t rea ti ng ea c Desi g n of
me ci al forms a nd i ngl un i t Illustra ti ons; revi ew q ue t i ons
a rt .
com r s e s. s .

g lossa ry ; b i bli ogr phy a .

TYPOGRAPHIC TE C HN IC AL S ERI ES f or APPRE NTICE S

PART VI I ( con tin —

ued) Desi gn , Color , a nd Letteri ng
Rudi
Use
m tl en s of
of c o or : f or
Color i n Pri nti ng
e c or a t i on of d a nd b dp
i te , f or r oa bl k
oste r e ff ec t ,
0

wh
By Ha rry L Gage
.

mb m
ac
i n co h
i n a ti ons of t w o, t ree , or w hp
ore r i n t i ng s i t r ocess e ng ra
u l h m l T m wh h l
S c i en t ifi c n a t re of c o or , h y si ca l a n c e i ca . s in i c c o or
ma y b e di scussed h ue v Sue i nten i ty Di a g a m i n colo sca les a nd
er

om E xpe imn ts wi t h
: , s . r s r,
b i na t i o C ol o t h o y of p ocess engra vi ng
,

c ns. r e r r . r e
c olo I llust a ti ons i full col or and on v ari ous p pers Revi w ques
r. r n , a . e
t i on ; gl ossa y ; b i bli ogr a p hy
.
s r .

‘‘
46 . Lettering i n l i ogra ph y .B H a rry L . G age
Pri n ter s use 0
'
n
etteri n g : ad a ta b ili t y a n d
y
ecor a ti v e efi ec t . Dev e o d l p
m en t of h w
i st ori c r i t i ng a n d e tteri n g a n d i ts i n flu en ce on t e si g n . yp d
lf m
e
l
C assifi ca ti on of g en er a i pli ca t i on of l d
F yA
or s i n et teri n esi g n to
let t eri D r a wi n f or re r o u ct i on . lu p d
st ra ted ; revi e ues f wq
t i ons ; ossa ry ; b i b og r a ph y .

grDesi gn i n Adverti
phi
a ’ c By Ha rry L Gage .
p n te fun t i o i a dv e ti mg pts upon whi h a dv rt i i g
Em
e ri r s c
e n n r s . r ce c e s n
i b sed
s a P ri te . n a ly i of h in opy
'
r sa phasi legi b i li ty a tte t i on
s s sc . s, n
olo M t hod of tudyi ng adv ti si ng typogr a p hy Illust t i on ;
, ,

c r. e s er . ra s
v i ew q u t i ons ; glossa y ; b i bli og a phy
re es r r .

48 . M ak ing Du
A l you t th
m m i es an d Layou ts By Ha rry L G a ge
hi te tu l pl n A dummy : t h imit t i on of p oposed
.

mmy i a le wo k Use of l yout Fun ction of

a : e a rc c ra a . e a a r

m
fi a l fi ect U e of d u
l yout ma n B i ndi ng sc h m f o d um i mm
n e . s n s s r . a .

a . Du y envelopes
e es r es. .

Illut t i ons; rev i ew qu st i o ; glo sa r y ; bi bli ogra p hy

s ra e ns s .

—
PA R T VI I I Hi stor y of P ri nti ng
Book s Bef ore Typogr a ph y
er of i nf orm
By F . W. H a i lton m
A p ri m a t i on a b ou t t h e i n v en t i on of t h e a lph a be t a nd t h e
history of b ookma ki n g up to t he i nv ent i on of mova ble types 6 2 pp.; .

illust ra ted ; 64 revi ew q u est i ons.

50 . Th e Inventi on of Typogra ph y
A rie b f k
s e tc h of t h e i n v e n t on of i pri nti ng a nd
By F . W. H a
h ow i t ca
mi lto
m bue a
n
o t.
64 pp . ; 6 2 re v i e wq uest i ons.

A pri m
—
Hi story of Prin ting Par t I
f mti o bout t h begi nni ng s of p i n ti ng
e r of i n or
By F . W. Ha
t he
mi lto
d l p
eve o
n

m t of t h b ook t h d v lopm t of p i n t mt i l
a n a e r
wo k
,
’
en e e e e en r e rs a e r a s, a nd th e r
i w q u ti on
,

of t h g t pi o
e 6 3 pp ; 5 5
r ea n eers. . r ev e es s.

—
Hi story of Pri nting Pa rt H By F . W. Ha ilton m
b f k h
A r i e s e tc of t h e ec on o i c c on i ti ons of m d t h e p ri n t i ng i n d u
O

st r y fr om
l d
1 4 5 0 t o 1 7 8 9 i n c u i ng g ov ern en t re g ua t ons, .censor s i , i n te rna m l i h p l
d
c on i t i ons a n di n u d
str i a re a t ons. 9 4 pp.; 1 2 8 r e v el l i
uest i ons. i wq
53 . Pri nti ng i n E ngland By F . W. H a milt on
h
A s ort i stor of
y h p i n t i n g in E ngla n d fr omC a xto
r n to th e p rese n t ti me.
8 9 pp . ; 6 5 I e V l eW q u t i on
es s.

5 4 . Pri n
’
in A m i er ca By F . W Hami lton
m
.

A bi kt r e s e c h of t h e ev e o
pd l m en t of th e n e wpp s a er a
nd so e n ote s on
publi h wh o h s ers a ve es e c ap i lly con t ri ute b d to p ,
ri n t n g . i 9 8 pp .; 8 4
v i w q u t i on
re e es s.

55 . Type
A
an d Pr e sses i n A eri ca
b fh
ri e i st ori c a s e t c of t h e ev elo l k h
m d pm en t of
By F . W. Ha
p
t y e ca st i n g a n d
milto
p
n
ress
b ld
ui i ng i n t h e Uni t e S t a t es. 5 2 pp.; 6 1 d rev i e wq uest on s. i
VI
TYPOGRAPHI C TE C HNI CAL S ERIES f or APPRE NTI CE S

PA R T —
I X Cost F i ndi ng a nd A ccoun ti n g

5 6 . E le mt en s of Cost i n Prin ti ng By Henry P. Porter

Th e S ta n a r d d
C ost - i n i ng F d F m nd t h i uses. Wha t th ey sh ould
f m
or s a e r
sh ow . How to ut i i se t h e i n or l a ti on t h y e gi v e . Revi ew que ti o
s ns.
G lossary .

Use of a Cost S yste

d d
Th e S ta n ar C ost - i n din F
m gF orm d th i
By Hen ry P. Por ter
uses. Wha t t hey should
f mti o t h y
s an e r
hw
s o . How to uti i se t h e i n l or a n e gi v e . Revi e w que ti o
s ns.
G lo sa ry
s .

5 8 . Th e Prin ter M erch ant Henry P Porter

B
as a
Th e l
se ect i on a nd pu hase of mteri a ls a nd “ y fo pri nt T
w m
es
nd th e selfi
rc a r
l
re a t i on of th e c ost of a teri a l
ra ng p i ce of th e
a r ed
p odu t R vi
r c . e e w q uest i ons G los ary. s .

Fun dam ental Pri nci ples of E sti m ati ng By Henry P . Por ter
Th ti ma t o a n d hi
e es wo k ; form to use ; g
r s r s en era l r ules f or
Revi w q u e ti on
e G loss y
s s. ar .

60 . E sti mtih g
a n and S elli ng
A n i n si g t ‘
i nto t e et ods u se i n h mh
a i ng d '

mk esti
By Hen ry P. Por ter
mt a e s, a n d l
th ei r re a ti on
ll
to se i n g . Revi e uesti ons. G ossa r . wq l y
61. Accou n f or Pri nters By Hen ry P . Porte r
A bri e f ou e of a n a c c o n ti ng s st eu y mf o p i r r n t ers ; n ecessa r y books a nd
a ccesso y r re c or d s. Rev i e w qu est i on s. l
G ossa r y .

—
PA RT X M i scella n eous

H eal‘
tl ' S ani tati o S a f ety and B’Henry P . Por ter
i
H y g ei i e i n th e pri n hg t ra d e ; a st u li
dy of condi t i on s ld a nd n ew ; pra ct i ca l b
sugg esti ons for i mprov ement ; protecti ve a nd rules f or sa fety .
63 . Topi cal Index
A book f
of re er en ce cov e th e tOpi cs tr ea t Ey F . W. Ha
in the Typ
milt
ph
og ra
on
ic
T e ch ni ca l S e ri es, a lph a b et i a rra ng e d .

64 . Course s of S tudy
wi t h outli nes
By F . W. Ha milto
m d
n
A gui d book f o
e r tea ch ers, a nd s uggesti ons f or classroo an
sh op w or k .
 A C KN OWLE D G M E N T

phi c Text b ooks is th e result of the

T
HIS ser i es ofTy p ogr a -

splen di d co opera ti on of a la r ge n u b er of fi r
-
m s and i n m
di vi dua ls en ga ged i n th e pr i n ti n g b usi n ess a n d i ts alli ed i ndustri e
s

in th e Uni ted S ta tes of A eri ca . m

Th e Co mmi tt E du
ee on ca ti on of th e Uni ted Ty poth etae of

m
A eri ca , un der wh ose a uspi ces t h e b ooks ha ve b een pr epar ed a nd
pub li sh ed, a ckn owledges i ts i ndeb tedn ess f or th e gen er ous assist
a n ce r en der ed b y th e m
a ny a u th ors, pri nters, a n d oth ers i den tifi ed
wi th thi s wor k .
Whi le due a ckn owledgmen t is ma de on th e ti tle a n d copyri gh t

pa ges of th ose con tri b uti n g to ea ch b ook, th e Com mi ttee n ever

th eless f elt th a t a group li st of co oper a ti n g fir m
-
s wou ld b e of

Th e f ollowi ng li st is n ot co mpl t e e, a s i t i n cl udes only th ose who

ha v e p
co-o er a ted i n th e producti on of a porti on of th e volu es, m
consti t uti n g th e fir st pri n tin g . As soon as th e
b ooks e n ti r e list of
m
co pr i si n g th e Ty pogr a ph i c Techn i ca l S eri e
s h as b een co pleted m
(whi ch th e C o mm
i ttee h opes will b e a t a n early da te) , th e f ull li st
will be pr i n ted i n e a ch volu e. m
Th e Co mmi tt ee a lso desi r es to ackn owledge i ts i n deb tedn ess to
th e m an y sub scri b ers to thi s S eri es who h a ve pa ti en tly a wa i ted i ts
pub li ca ti on .

COMM ITT E E ON ED UC ATION ,

UN ITE D TY POTHE TAE OF AM E RI CA .

HE N RY P . PORTE R, Cha i r m an ,

E . LA WRE N CE F E LL ,
A M . GLOS S B RE N N E R ,
.

J. C LYD E O S WA L D ,
TOBY RUB OVI TS .
FRE DE RI C K W . HAM I L TON , E duca t i on
 C O N TR I BUTO RS
m
For Co posi ti on and E lectr otypes
IS AAC H . BLAN C HA RD C OM PAN Y, N ew York, N . Y.
S . H . BU RBAN K Co., Phila delphia , Pa .
J. S . CUS HI N G C o., N or wood, M ass.
THE DE VIN N E PRE S S , N ew York N . Y .
R . R . DON N E LLE Y S O N S Co., Chi ca go, Ill.
GE O. H . E L LI S Co., Boston , M ass.
E VAN S -WIN TE R- HE BB , Detroi t , M i ch .
F RA N KL I N PRI N TIN G C OM PAN Y, Phi la delphi a , Pa .
F . H . GI I S ON C OM PAN Y, Boston , M ass.
STE PHE N G RE E N E Co., Phila delphi a Pa
W . F . H ALL PRI N TI N G C o. C hi ca o I l
, g , l.

J. B. LI PPI N C OTr C o.,

M CC ALLA CO . I N C .,
THE PATrE S ON PRE S S ,
THE PLI M PTO N PRE S S ,
POOLE BRO S ., C hi c o, Ill .
E DWA RD STE RN o., Phi la del hi a Pa .
THE STO NE PRI N TI N G M F G . o., Roanoke, Va .
C . D . TRA PHA GE N , Li n coln , N eb .
m
THE UN IV E RS I TY PRE S S , C a b ri dge, M ass.
m
For Co posi ti on
BOS TO N TYPOTHE TA E S CHOOL or PRI N TIN G, Bost on , M a m .
WI LLI AM F . F E LL Co., Phila delphi a , Pa .
THE KA LKH OF F C OM PAN Y N ew York, N . Y .
OX F ORD P RI N T, Boston , ass.
-

TORY R UROVI TS , C hi ca go, Ill.

F or E lectrotypes
BLOM GRE N BROTHE RS Co., Ch i o, Ill.
FLO WE R STE E L E LE CTROTYPI N G 0 . N ew York , N . Y.
C . J. PE TE RS SON Co., Boston , ass.
ROYAL E LE CTROTYPE Co. Phila del hi a , Pa .
H. C. W HI TC OMB C o., B oston , ass.

AME RI C AN TYPE F OUN D E RS Co. Boston , M ass.

C . B. C oTrRE LL W
S O N S Co. esterly , R . I .
GOLDI N G M A N UF A C TUR I N G Co., Fr a nklin , M ass.
m
HARV A RD UN I V E RS I TY, C a b ri d e, M ass.
I N LAN D PRI N TE R Co., Chi ca go,
LA N S TON M O N OTYPE M A C HI NE C OM PAN Y , Ph i la del hi a , Pa .
M E RGE N THALE R LI N OTYPE C OM PA N Y , N ew York , Y.
GE O . H . M ORRILL C o., N or wood, M ass.
OS WALD PUB LI S HI N G Co., N ew York , N . Y.
m
THE PRI N TI N G ART, C a b ri dge, M ass.
B. D . RI S I N G PA PE R C OM PA N Y , Hou m
sa to c, M ass.
THE VAN DE RC OO K PRE S S , Chi ca go, Ill.
For Book Pa per
AME RI CAN W RI TIN G PAPE R C o., Holy oke, M .
W E S T VIR GI N I A PUL P m
PA PE R Co., M echa cvflle, N . Y.
IX