JANUARY 2022

TIER 3 COMPREHENSIVE
FUNCTIONAL BEHAVIOR
ASSESSMENT (FBA)
GUIDE
CENTER ON PBIS

Positive Behavioral Interventions & Supports (PBIS)

January 2022 1
 JANUARY 2022

Tier 3 Comprehensive Functional Behavior

Assessment (FBA) Guide
Center on Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports
U. S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs
and Office of Elementary and Secondary Education

January 2022

This document was supported from funds provided by the Center on Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports cooperative
grant supported by the Office of Special Education Programs (OSEP) and Office of Elementary and Secondary Education (OESE)
of the U.S. Department of Education (H326S180001). Dr. Renee Bradley serves as the project officer. The views expressed herein
do not necessarily represent the positions or policies of the U.S. Department of Education. No official endorsement by the U.S.
Department of Education of any product, commodity, or enterprise mentioned in this document is intended or should be inferred.

Rose Iovannone lead the development of this guide.

Suggested Citation for this Publication

Center on PBIS. (2022). Tier 3 Comprehensive Functional Behavior Assessment (FBA) Guide. Center on PBIS, University of Oregon. www.pbis.org.

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Table of Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Comparison of Levels of Functional Behavior Assessment/Behavior
Intervention/Support Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Teaming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Team Membership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Team Roles and Responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Team Processes for Reaching Consensus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Student Involvement as Team Member . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Identifying, Defining, and Prioritizing Behaviors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Progress Monitoring/Data Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Functional Behavior Assessment and Hypothesis Development . . . . . . . . . 16
Indirect Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Direct Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Building a Functional Behavior Assessment Based Behavior Intervention/
Support Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Task Analyzing Behavior Intervention/Supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Coaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
Training the Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Active Coaching Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Teacher Reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Providing Feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Measuring Fidelity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Data-based Decision Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Embedded Hyperlinks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

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Introduction
The purpose of this practice guide is to help teams success in and out of school. Comprehensive
conduct a comprehensive functional behavior approaches provide all the essential steps and
assessment, develop a function-linked behavior materials needed for implementation including
intervention/support plan, and make data-based progress monitoring tools, implementation fidelity,
decisions. Functional behavior assessments help and active coaching to support teachers implementing
teams to identify the relation of targeted serious and behavior intervention/support plans.
intense (i.e., challenging) behavior to the environmental
This guide includes key practices to be included in
events that occur before and after the behavior is
a comprehensive approach and is intended to help
performed. The information gathered is organized into
educators have a systematic process that can be
a statement, typically called a hypothesis, which is the
applied consistently throughout schools and districts
team’s roadmap to developing a behavior intervention/
while still retaining flexibility to meet the specific needs
support plan. FBA/BIPs have a wealth of research
of each individual student. This guide was developed
showing effectiveness in schools (e.g., Anderson &
as a part of a series of Tier 3 guides that focus on
Long, 2002; Dwyer et al., 2011; Iovannone et al.,
systems and practices for supporting students with
2009) and is considered the “gold standard” and the
intensive needs. If you are interested in the companion
core for individualized behavior interventions/supports.
guides, please review:
Tier 3 Comprehensive Functional Behavior
• Tier 3 School-level Systems Guide1
Assessments provides individualized, customized
• Tier 3 Student-level Systems Guide2
support to one student that meets his/her unique
needs. It is a team-based approach and is intended • Tier 3 Brief Functional Behavior
for students who have serious, chronic challenging Assessment (FBA) Guide3
behaviors that significantly interfere with student • Wraparound and Person-Centered Planning4

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Comparison of Levels of Functional Behavior Assessment/Behavior

Intervention/Support Plan
Although functional behavior assessment processes fits all” functional behavior assessment and instead
have been implemented in schools for several decades, think about a continuum of increasingly intensive levels
several challenges exist that impact the feasibility of (Scott et al., 2010). An efficient or brief functional
implementing it within typical school settings. Some behavior assessment5 process may be an entry
of the challenges are due to systems issues, including level for students with milder behavior challenges.
having enough resources (e.g., time) to meet the Comprehensive approaches (this guide) would be used
needs of students with intensive levels of behavior. for students with more serious challenging behaviors.
Others are skill-based, which includes having a cadre Finally, wraparound6 approaches would be used for
of trained educators who can effectively guide teams students who have complex, multiple needs that
to engage in functional behavior assessments and cannot be resolved with only a functional behavior
develop/implement behavior intervention/support assessment.
plans that will be effective.
Table 1 provides a side-by-side comparison of the
To help address the systemic issue of having enough different levels. To learn more about the Brief FBA
resources to effectively support students who need and/or Wrap Around approaches, please see the
functional behavior assessments, educators may companion guides listed above.
consider moving from the idea that there is a “one-size

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Table 1. Comparison of the Different Levels of Support

Feature Brief Comprehensive Wraparound

Behaviors • Mild, somewhat disruptive • Moderate/severe • Severe behaviors that require

• Number of prioritized behaviors • Disruptive enough to impact supports beyond the school
are few (one or two) and pattern student success and teacher • May require team members who
of occurrence is clear ability to instruct have expertise in specialized areas
• Behaviors that occur in one or • Multiple behaviors occurring in • Behaviors are impacted by
two settings or activities multiple environments, potentially complex issues (e.g., substance
for different functions abuse, family dynamics, mental
health needs)
Teaming • Small (teacher/coach) • Size expands to include multiple • Size expands to include people
• Other input sought outside of people in school, IEP team if from all areas of student’s life
meetings applicable, family, community, and who are vested in student success
student including IEP team members if
• Student included when applicable,
appropriate • Specific team roles and
responsibilities • Outside agencies and supports
• Consensus process established enrolled
• Includes person-centered
planning that leads to wrap-
around supports
FBA • Emphasis on indirect sources • Both indirect and direct methods In addition to FBA
of FBA information (typically of FBA used and from multiple • Strength-needs assessment
gathered from classroom staff). informants
• Goals/vision reflecting voices of
student and family
• Other assessment information
related to areas of concern
(medical, therapeutic)
BIP • Plan developed within FBA • Multiple component plan • Full range of intervention options
meeting including antecedent strategies, considered (beyond school)
• Centers on prevention strategies replacement behaviors, reinforcing • Integration of multiple disciplines
and teaching and reinforcing replacement behaviors, and to address multiple challenges
replacement behavior and desired changing responses to challenging
behavior • Action plan that addresses goals
skills developed from Person-Centered
• Plan addresses features that • Safety plan developed if Plan vision
enhance success and minimize challenging behavior is harmful
failure of plan
Progress • Student outcome data (baseline • Student outcome data (baseline • Involves coordination of multiple-
Monitoring and intervention) and intervention) agencies that includes consistent
• Implementation fidelity • Implementation fidelity follow-up to review progress on
action-plan steps
• Follow-up meetings within • Follow-up meetings within
reasonable timeframe (e.g., 2 reasonable timeframe (e.g., 1-3 • Student outcome data (baseline
weeks) to review data weeks) to review data and intervention)
• Decision-making based on data • Decision-making based on data • Implementation fidelity
• Social validity • Follow-up meetings within
reasonable timeframe (e.g., 1-3
• Coach/teacher alliance weeks) to review data
• Decision-making based on data
• Social validity
• Coach/teacher alliance
• Measures of broader outcomes
(e.g., Quality of Life)

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Teaming
Before starting to conduct a comprehensive FBA, • Family, teacher(s), para-educators, the student
a student-focused team is formed. The team is • Other people who provide supports (speech
responsible for implementing each step of the FBA pathologist, bus driver, guidance counselors,
process. Team formation should consider the following: etc.

• Team membership • Members with knowledge of the science (behavior

Note: For students who have individual education analysis) of functional behavior assessment
plans (IEPs), members from the IEP team should be
• This member is the coach who will guide the
included..
team throughout the steps of the FBA process
• Team roles/responsibilities and support the teacher in implementing the
behavior intervention/support plan
• Team processes for collaboration and reaching
consensus • This can be a behavior analyst, school
psychologist, behavior intervention specialist,
Team Membership etc. with expertise and experience with FBA
and function-linked behavior intervention/
Team membership for comprehensive FBAs can include
support planning
consistent members who participate and/or facilitate
in all FBA meetings (either within a school, across • Members with knowledge of the school/district
resources, policies, culture, etc.
the district, or a combination) or in IEP meetings, if
applicable; however, there is an ad-hoc nature to the • This member provides information for
team as the teacher(s) and parent/family members will accessing resources

be those who know the individual student and have a • This member describes policies that may
vested interest in the student’s success. The number of impact the FBA and assists with brainstorming
team members will vary depending upon the student how to adapt policies or processes to enhance
the success of a behavior intervention.
behaviors and others impacted by the behavior. It
is suggested that educators consider having team Team Roles and Responsibilities
members who represent the following areas of
Clear delineation of roles and responsibilities of each
expertise/knowledge.
team member can ensure that comprehensive FBA
• Members with knowledge of the student team meetings run more efficiently, and activities
identified are carried out as intended. Prior to
• These individuals provide the primary
information about the student and the relation determining the roles and responsibilities of team
of the environment to the challenging behavior member, it may be beneficial to decide if there will
be an extended team and a core team. An extended
• Interact with the student on a regular basis
team would consist of multiple team members who

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would provide information related to the targeted • Agrees to be trained by the coach to
student and challenging behavior, provide support to implement the plan
the teacher/implementor, review data, and participate • Participates in active coaching including
in broad decisions. The core team would primarily indicating the type of coaching that best
include the coach and the teacher or educator who will matches his/her context and gives reflections
on implementation.
implement the behavior intervention/support plan.
• Collects progress monitoring data
Examples of team-member roles and responsibilities are:
• Recorder
• Coach
• This role may be helpful with larger teams
• Keeps team discussion focused on data and
facts • Records discussions and decisions made

• Prepares agenda with meeting outcomes • This can be a rotating role

• Summarizes decisions and future actions • Timekeeper

• Helps team come to consensus • This role may be helpful in larger teams

• Supports the teacher to implement the • Keeps the team within time limits designated
intervention/support plan (see Active Coaching for specific topics
Process)
• Delivers prompts to team when time is about
• Guides team to review data and make next- to end or asks team where to take time from if
step decisions team wishes to continue discussion

• Primary Implementor(s) • This can be a rotating role

• Actively engages in discussion Having an agenda for each meeting/activity of a

• Provides information about student and comprehensive FBA/BIP process is very helpful in
behavior keeping teams on track. It also can give the team clear
outcomes for the meeting and information each person
• Agrees to collaborate with the coach in
developing behavior intervention/support is to bring to the meeting. An example of an agenda
procedures that will work in his/her classroom for the first meeting of the comprehensive FBA/BIP
process is shown in Figure 1.

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7
Figure 1. Example FBA/BIP Team Meeting Agenda

FBA/BIP Team Meeting Agenda-Meeting 1

Today’s Date: 3/3/20 Time: 2:00 Location: Library Coach: Joan Minute
Meeting: Taker: Tom
Next Meeting: Date: 3/10/20 Time: 2:00 Location: TBD Coach: Joan Minute
Taker: Cho

Today’s Agenda Items Next Meeting Agenda Items Potential Problems Raised
1. Come to consensus on team 1. Review data from
member representation (5 min.) progress monitoring tool
2. Come to consensus on student’s 2. Review FBA information
behaviors to be decreased and 3. Come to consensus on
increased (15 min.) hypothesis
3. Define behaviors (10 min.) 4. Begin to select
4. Prioritize behaviors for FBA (5 interventions
min.)
5. Set up progress monitoring tool
(15 min.)
6. Schedule date for meeting 2 (2
min.)
7. Assign/review tasks (FBA
interviews, observations, data) (5
min.)

Minutes

Action Items Discussion Decision/Task

(Who, When)

1. Team member representation •

2. Identify, define, prioritize, •

behaviors

3. Set up progress monitoring tool •

4. Schedule next meeting •

5. Assign tasks •

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Team Processes for Reaching Consensus Student Involvement as Team Member

Comprehensive FBA/BIP teams consist of diverse Teams are encouraged to include the student as a team
individuals who may have shared goals and outcomes member in the comprehensive approach. After all, the
but may disagree on the actions to take to achieve student has the most information about the conditions
them. Engaging in meetings to discuss challenging related to his/her behaviors. Students in upper
behaviors of a student can often result in discussions elementary and higher grades typically are considered
in which emotions are strong and opinions set. There for inclusion; however, younger students who can talk
are several team processes that can help move a team, about their behaviors (e.g., when they occur, what
even one that has struggled working collaboratively, they get after the behavior occurs) and communicate
to come to consensus. Consensus, as applied to the preferences about intervention strategies could also be
comprehensive process, means that all team members included.
can live with the decision and follow through with the
When including a student in the team, discuss how
activities that follow. Some methods that can assist
the student will participate. Students may not be
a team to come to consensus as well as effectively
comfortable attending a meeting with adult team
communicate include:
members while challenging behaviors are being
• Establishing meeting behavior norms discussed. Instead, the team can consider how to
• Encouraging all members to engage in discussion get input from the student that will help the team
better understand the challenging behavior from the
• Refraining from shooting down or criticizing
student’s perspective and may increase the student
statements
willingness to participate in the intervention/support
• Brainstorming plan developed.
• Nominal Group Technique 7

• Polling or voting

• Rank ordering

Note: An example of a teaming process is the Team

Initiated Problem Solving8 (TIPS) model.

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Identifying, Defining, and Prioritizing Behaviors

After the team is formed and processes are a separate FBA as it cannot be assumed that all
behaviors will occur under the same antecedent
established, the first step of the comprehensive FBA
events nor have the same functions (described in
is to identify, define, and prioritize the behaviors of
Functional Behavior Assessment and Hypothesis
the student that the team want to see decreased and Development). It is more feasible for teams to
increased. Although this step is one familiar to school- come to consensus on one challenging behavior
based teams, it may be beneficial to use a collaborative that, if decreased, will result in significant
improvements for the student, make the school
team process (e.g., round-robin, nominal group
day better for everyone and possibly have a pivotal
technique) that encourages input from every team
impact on other behaviors. The team can always
member, helps to identify the specific behaviors that conduct FBAs on other behavior of concern later.
primarily impact the student’s success, and establishes Furthermore, it is possible that the function that
consensus on the specific behavior to be prioritized maintains the occurrence of the prioritized behavior
selected for the FBA and BIP might also be the
as the focus of the FBA and BIP. The essential
function maintaining other behaviors of concern.
components for this step include:

• Identify behaviors of concern to be decreased and Note: Behaviors maintained by the same function are
define in measurable and observable terms: The described by a term called response class (Catania,
definition should describe the motor behaviors or 1998). Function-linked BIPs developed for the priority
other observable and measurable characteristics behavior may have a pivotal effect on other behaviors
we would observe the student performing when sharing the same function. It is recommended that
engaged in the behavior. if a student has multiple behaviors of concern, team
members should examine whether the intervention/
• Example 1: Hitting-uses hands to slap peers on support developed for one specific target behavior
their bodies at the intensity in which it leaves a appears to change the other behaviors, either
red mark while screaming “stop it”. positively or negatively (Willems, 1974).
• Example 2: Withdrawing— pulls sweatshirt • Identify behaviors to be increased and define in
overhead, puts head down, and remains silent measurable and observable terms: The behavior
when asked questions. selected for increasing should be an appropriate
behavior that replaces the challenging behavior
• Example 3: Self-injury—silently scratching the
prioritized for the FBA. Examples could be
inside of arms with fingernails or sharp object with
communicative behaviors that express needs (e.g.,
an intensity that scrapes skin or draws blood.
asking for breaks, access to objects/activities/
• Come to consensus on the behavior to focus attention) or alternate skills that enable students
on first for the FBA: Although it is possible to to be successful (e.g., being academically engaged,
address multiple behaviors of concern within raising hand to ask for assistance, problem-solving
a comprehensive process, it will require more novel problems, using self-calming strategies,
time. Each unique defined behavior would need appropriately joining in social activities). Definitions

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should again include the motor behaviors one Table 2. Behaviors Identified, Defined
would observe the student perform. For instance, and Prioritized for Student Named Royal
academic engagement might be defined as “eyes/
face turned toward speaker, interacting with task Traget Behavior Definition (clear and observable)

materials in a way that gets the task completed, BE HAVI ORS TO D EC RE AS E

raising hand to volunteer responses and ask for
Tantrums Shouts out negative comments (e.g.,
help, letting peers work”. Regardless of the specific
“No”, “this is stupid”), then kicks
behavior selected, replacement behaviors should objects (her desk; nearby chairs
be reinforced by the same function (i.e., result of peers), throws objects off desk
in the same maintaining consequence or type of outward toward others, screams “I
reinforcement) as the challenging behavior. won’t do this. You can’t make me”
while standing up.
• Come to consensus on the behaviors to be
Elopement Gets up from area and runs toward
increased: The behavior selected to be increased
door or exit, stops and looks back
should be those that would result in significant
over her shoulder to see if any
improvement for the student and make the school individual is following; can escalate to
days better for everyone. stepping outside of door or exit.

Table 2 is an example of a tool that can be used by Cursing Verbally states curse words toward
others using a loud volume (can be
the coach and team to record behaviors identified, heard throughout classroom).
defined and prioritized. This tool is an adaptation from
a manualized, research supported FBA/BIP process BE HAVI ORS TO I NC RE AS E

titled Prevent-Teach-Reinforce (Dunlap et al., 2019; Raising hand Putting hand straight up and quietly
waiting for an adult to respond prior
Iovannone et al., 2009); however, it can be used
to stating her need.
with any FBA/BIP model. The example summarizes
the behaviors identified and defined by the team. Using an inside voice Stating her needs by using an inside
voice volume.
Behaviors in bold font are the prioritized ones that the
team agreed to prioritize.
Academic Interacting with materials in a way
engagement that gets the task completed and/or
head/eyes oriented toward speaker,
raising his hand to ask for help,
answer a question, or volunteer a
response to teacher-led questions,
allowing his neighbors to work

Appropriately Asking for a break from a task and/

communicating his or attention in the form of adult or
need for a break or peer assistance
for attention

bold=prioritized behaviors

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Progress Monitoring/Data Collection by teachers for daily data collection. DBRs combine
features of direct observation and rating scales. A
Once the team has specific behaviors prioritized, a
common example of a DBR is the Daily Report Card
progress monitoring system that will be used throughout
used in Check-in/Check-out, a Tier 2 support (Crone
the comprehensive process (i.e., baseline through post-
et al., 2010). The Neag School of Education at the
implementation of behavior intervention/support plan) will
University of Connecticut has a website with examples
be identified that will provide data on student performance
of DBRs for individualized intervention/supports.9
of the challenging and replacement behaviors. These data
Individualized DBRs give the teacher a way to record
will let the team know if their intervention/support plan
behavior occurrence by circling a rating that represents
is successful. The progress monitoring system will also
a measurement dimension (e.g., frequency, percentage,
let teams identify target goals of behavior performance
duration). This recording is customized to get the data
for the student to obtain. The following questions can
that are needed. For example, a teacher can select to
be answered with a daily progress monitoring system:
record data across specific activities, subjects, time
• Is the challenging behavior one that should be periods or the entire day. Multiple teachers can use
targeted for the FBA and intervention/support?
the DBR to record behaviors in their settings, making
• How effective is the behavior intervention/support it easy to evaluate where behavior is improving,
plan on reducing the challenging behavior?
remaining flat, or worsening. DBRs can be made more
• Is the student increasing performance of the replacement efficient by setting them up in online platforms (e.g.
behaviors after implementation of the behavior plan? Excel Google Document) and giving a teacher a link to
record data daily.
When selecting a progress monitoring system, consider
feasibility of use by the teacher. There are many ways Figure 2 is an example of a DBR for Royal. The tool
to progress monitor including direct observations to is called the Individualized Behavior Rating Scale
record frequency, duration, or latency. This is the gold Tool (IBRST) and has been shown to be both reliable
standard for individual student data collection; however, and valid (see Barnes et al., 2021; Iovannone et al.,
the training that would be required for teachers to gain 2014). The IBRST can be a core-team meeting activity
competency in this method may exceed resources. It (between the coach and the team member who
can be challenging for teachers to provide instruction will be responsible for collecting data). The IBRST
and respond to behaviors while also recording behaviors uses a 5-point Likert Scale with a 5 indicating a lot
in real time. In these cases, the team may consider other of the behavior and a 1 indicating absence or no
ways to gather data that are research supported and behavior. For each prioritized behavior, the coach and
feasible for daily use by teachers. teacher work together to determine the scale and
measurement dimensions.
In recent years, Direct Behavior Ratings (DBR;
Chafouleas et al., 2002) have been increasingly used

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12

Figure 2. Example Individualized Behavior Rating Scale Tool (IBRST)

Individualized Behavior Rating Scale Tool (IBRST)

Student: Royal School: Main Teacher(s): Mrs. Reading

Dates

Rating
Behavior

<9 min 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
Tantrums-
Reading

6-9 min 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
3-5 min 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
1-2 min 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
0-1 min 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

80-100% 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
Engagement

60-79% 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
Reading

40-59% 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
20-39% 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
0-19% 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

>60% 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
Communicate-

45-60% 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
Reading

30-44% 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
15-29% 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
0-14% 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

KEY:
Problem Behavior Tantrum: Definition Shouts out negative comments (e.g., “no”, “this is
KEY
stupid”), then kicks objects (his desk, nearby chairs of peers), throws objects off her desk
outward toward others, screams “I won’t do this. You can’t make me” while standing up.
Problem Behavior: Tantrum
Time/Routine: All day Specific Time/Routine: Independent work in reading.
Rate your perception of how long Royal’s tantrums lasted overall during the independent work
Definition: Shouts out negative comments (e.g., “no”, “this is stupid”), then kicks objects (his desk, nearby chairs
routine.
of peers),
5= throws objects off
Exceptionally herday
bad desk outward
>9 min. toward others, screams “I won’t do this. You can’t make me” while
standing4up.
= Typical bad day 6-9 min.
3 = So-so day 3-5 min.
2 = Good day
Time/Routine:  All day  Specific 1-2 min.
Time/Routine: Independent work in reading.
1 = Fantastic day 0-1 min.

Replacement/Alternate
Positive Behavioral Desired(PBIS)
Interventions & Supports Behavior;
Academic Engagement. Definition Interacting with 14
materials in a way that gets the task completed and/or head/eyes oriented toward speaker,
 JANUARY 2022

Rate your perception of how long Royal’s tantrums lasted overall during the independent work routine.

5 = Exceptionally bad day >9 min.

4 = Typical bad day 6-9 min.
3 = So-so day 3-5 min.
2 = Good day 1-2 min.
1 = Fantastic day 0-1 min.

Replacement/Alternate Desired Behavior: Academic Engagement.

Definition: Interacting with materials in a way that gets the task completed and/or head/eyes oriented toward
speaker, raising hand to ask for help, answer a question, volunteer a response; allowing his neighbors to work

Time/Routine:  All day  Specific Time/Routine: Independent work in reading.

Rate your perceptions about the percentage of time Royal spent performing engaged behaviors during the routine.

5 = Fantastic day 80-100%

4 = Good day 60-79%
3 = So-so day 40-59%
2 = Typical bad day 20-39%
1 = Exceptionally bad day 0-19%

Replacement/Alternate Desired Behavior: Appropriately communicating his need for a break or for attention

Definition: Asking for a break from a task and/or attention in the form of adult or peer assistance.

Time/Routine:  All day  Specific Time/Routine: Independent work in reading.

Rate your perception of the percentage of opportunities Royal communicated her need for a break or attention.

5 = Fantastic day >60%

4 = Good day 45-60%
3 = So-so day 30-44%
2 = Typical bad day 15-29%
1 = Exceptionally bad day 0-14%

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Functional Behavior Assessment and Hypothesis Development

A functional behavior assessment (FBA) collects • Psychoeducational reports including outside
evaluation reports
information to help teams better understand the
relation of the student’s targeted challenging behavior • Other evaluations reports including speech/
to environmental events that predict and maintain the language, occupational and/or physical therapy, etc.)
target behavior occurrence. The outcome of the FBA
When reviewing records, teams should keep in mind
is a data-informed summary or hypothesis statement
that the information may or may not reflect what
that describes this relation. FBA data can be collected
is currently happening with the student. A record
by indirect and/or direct methods. Indirect methods
review cannot provide information on the current
include information from record reviews, interviews,
environmental events that trigger and maintain the
surveys, and questionnaires. Direct methods include (a)
targeted behavior of concern. It can, though, provide
descriptive assessment, which is a focused observation
additional information to better help understand the
of the individual in the settings in which challenging
student’s past experiences.
behavior occurs, and (b) functional analyses in
which observations are conducted in experimentally Interviews/Surveys/Questionnaires. Interviews,
controlled conditions to better confirm functions. surveys, and questionnaires help teams to come to
For this guide, the focus will be on indirect and consensus on the antecedent events, or triggers, that
direct descriptive methods, which are both used in a happen before the challenging behavior occurs and
comprehensive FBA process. the responses that typically follow the challenging
behaviors. There are many published interviews and
Indirect Methods
checklists appropriate for use by teams (e.g., sample
Record Reviews. Reviewing records can assist teams teacher interview form 110 and sample interview form
in identifying the student’s academic, behavioral, 211). In a comprehensive approach, team members
and medical history. Reviewing previous behavior who know the student well and have observed
intervention plans and data related to the plan can the behavior being performed will provide rich
identify strategies that were and were not effective. information about the environmental events. The
Records that could be reviewed include: team will want to consider interviewing the student

• Medical documents as well (examples of a student interview12). If multiple

people are interviewed or asked to complete surveys
• Previous behavior intervention/support plans and
and questionnaires, information can be compared to
related data
identify where there is agreement and disagreement.
• Previous IEPs and data related to progress on short One practical way to do this, particularly for students
and long-term goals (if it is a student with a disability)
who have multiple teachers, is to convert interview

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questions into a Google document or Qualtrics Survey becomes more reinforcing than completing academic
and provide each informant with a link to complete activities. Not all students have setting events, but
it as a survey or questionnaire. This will result in when they do, it is beneficial for the team to identify
graphs that show which information was confirmed by them, discuss the pattern that exists linking the
multiple people. setting event with challenging behavior occurrence
and including them in the hypothesis when the link is
Interviews are also helpful in identifying potential
established. For more information on setting events,
setting events. Setting events are antecedents;
see Iovannone et al., 2017.
however, they often have a time delay in triggering
challenging behavior and instead, set up the chain Direct Methods
of the immediate trigger, behavior, and responses of Observations. Information from interviews can help
others. Setting events have the following two features: determine in which environments the student should
(a) they are present sometimes but not all the time; be directly observed. Observations in the following
and (b) when they are present, there is a pattern of environments should be considered:
impacting the target challenging behavior. Common
• Environments in which there is a high likelihood of
examples of setting events include fatigue related to
the challenging behavior occurring
getting to bed late, having a fight with a boyfriend
before school starts, or feeling ill. Setting events • Environments in which there is a greater chance of
observing the most frequent triggers (e.g., demand
impact behavior performance because they temporarily
to do non-preferred activity, proximity to specific
change the value of the reinforcement or consequence peers, etc.)
(Michael, 1982). A simple illustration of this happening
• Environments in which there is a low or nonexistent
is when a student, who is typically actively engaged in
likelihood of challenging behavior occurring
school, decides to join a sports team or be in a play.
These new activities require the student to spend • Observing conditions in which there is no
challenging behavior can give information on
hours each evening practicing or rehearsing, resulting
potential interventions
in less sleep. The student starts to be less engaged or
even “withdraw” (e.g., fall asleep at their desk) because • Understanding the differences in the conditions
can help the team understand why triggers in
sleep deprivation sets the occasion and avoiding work
other environments set off challenging behavior

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After completing all assessments, draft hypothesis Behaviors can serve multiple functions. Below are a
statements are developed. Helpful templates for few examples:
developing hypotheses include the competing behavior
• A student’s challenging behavior can get the
pathway (see Tier 3 Student-level Systems Guide13 student escape while also getting attention. For
brief) and the Prevent-Teach-Reinforce (PTR) FBA example, Zoey screams when she is asked to stop a
Assessment Organization Table. During comprehensive preferred activity and transition to a less preferred
activity. After screaming, the teacher gives several
FBAs, the team will discuss the draft hypothesis, clarify
verbal redirects, followed by several verbal
any ambiguous or contradictory information, and
reprimands. This is followed by removal of Zoey
come to consensus on the final statement. Hypothesis to a time-out area within the classroom if Zoey
statements for challenging behaviors typically include continues to scream. While Zoey is in time-out, the
the following information from the FBA assessment: teacher sits with her and continues to give verbal
redirects. The FBA indicated that Zoey’s screaming
• The primary antecedents (setting events, if present, behavior effectively delayed the transition to the
and immediate triggers) non-preferred activity and secondarily, while Zoey
was delaying the transition, she received one-on-
• The behavior (challenging behavior)
one attention from the teacher.
• The function (based on the responses following the
• A student’s challenging behavior can serve to
challenging behavior and the triggers)
escape in one condition and to obtain in another
The function is the outcome that the student gets condition. For instance, Jonah’s cursing behavior
during non-preferred writing tasks that are
after performing the challenging behavior. Functions of
independent gets him out of the task when the
behavior are divided into two categories.
teacher sends him to the office. During free
• Escape/avoid/delay/terminate an activity, an time or social interaction times, both preferred
object, presence/attention of other people (peers activities, Jonah’s cursing behavior serves to get
and/or adults), and/or sensory conditions him attention from peers as evidenced by peers
laughing and making comments to him.

• Obtain/access an activity, an object, presence/ Table 3 shows an example of the PTR FBA Assessment
attention of other people (peers and/or adults), Organization Table and the final hypothesis for Royal.
and/or sensory conditions
This specific method of organizing FBA data has been
used in typical school settings within two randomized

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controlled trials (Harvey et al., 2021; Iovannone et Also note that a setting event (recurring ear infection)
al., 2009). Note that this example includes both the was identified as a slow trigger. In Royal’s case, the
challenging behavior and a replacement behavior team endorsed that when Royal has an ear infection,
hypothesis. It is helpful to have a replacement behavior the tantrum behavior is more likely to occur and will
hypothesis. One way to do this is to describe the escalate to hitting more quickly. Ear infections occur
antecedents and the functions that were included in about once a month and more often during warmer
the challenging behavior hypotheses but exchange the weather. Thus, ear infections met the standards for a
challenging behavior for the replacement behavior. setting event (e.g., event does not happen every day
The replacement behavior hypothesis helps teams and the target behavior is impacted when the setting
understand that the new behavior will be the only way event is in place).
the student can continue to obtain the same function
as the challenging behavior.

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Table 3. FBA Assessment Organization Table

(Sources: Interview with primary teacher and student, checklists with science teacher; direct observations)

Behavior Antecedent/Prevent Function/Teach Responses/Reinforce

Tantrum Activities/Specific Events • Delay/avoid • Verbal redirects (several)

non-preferred
• Reading, Math: Independent activities at desk • Verbal reprimands (several)
activities
requiring writing and are lengthy • Given assistance
• Delay transition
• Transitions from preferred activities (recess, art,
from preferred • Sent to time-out or the behavior
music) to non-preferred (independent reading
to non-preferred specialist* (when behavior escalates
and math) to hitting)
• Told “no”
*Royal enjoys time with the behavior
Setting Event specialist
• Ear infection
Note: Royal does have skills to do the academic tasks
Absence of Activities/Specific Events Skills to be taught • Computer time
Tantrum/ • Hands on/interactive activities and subjects • Communicate • Spending time with behavior
Prosocial need for a break specialist
• Science
Behavior or delay • Extra outside time, free time
• Cooperative or partner activities
• Recess, Art, Music
• On the computer

Hypothesis

Behavior When He Will As a Result

Challenging Royal is Tantrum He delays/avoids the independent work

Behavior activities or transitions from preferred
• assigned independent tasks to do at his desk
in reading and math that are lengthy or require to non-preferred by being given
writing, or redirects, reprimands, assistance and
• required to transition from preferred activities being sent to time-out or the behavior
(recess, art, music) to non-preferred activities specialist.
(independent reading and math), or
• has a recurring ear infection
Replacement Royal is • Be academically He delays/avoids the independent work
Behavior engaged activities or transitions from preferred
• assigned independent tasks to do at his desk
in reading and math that are lengthy or require • Communicate to non-preferred by being given
writing, or need for a break redirects, reprimands, assistance and
• required to transition from preferred activities being sent to time-out or the behavior
(recess, art, music) to non-preferred activities specialist.
(independent reading and math), or
• having a recurring ear infection

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Building a Functional Behavior Assessment Based

Behavior Intervention/Support Plan
The hypothesis is used to develop a multi-component teacher for a break instead of performing off-
task behavior to escape.
behavior intervention/support plan that includes
interventions to target the antecedents, explicitly teach b. An alternative skill-an alternative skill
replacement behaviors, and address the function of the is a behavior that is an appropriate and
incompatible behavior to the challenging
challenging behavior. Functional behavior assessment-
behavior. For instance, Jeannie would be taught
based behavior intervention/support plans have been
to be academically engaged rather than getting
shown to be more effective than plans that are non- off-task when given non-preferred tasks. The
functional behavior assessment-based (Ingram et al., 2005). academic engaged behavior can earn her
escape from the non-preferred task. This could
In developing comprehensive behavior intervention/ occur by having Jeannie perform the academic
support plans, teams will first want to select minimum engaged behavior for a specific time-period
of four FBA-based interventions as described below: (e.g., 2 minutes) or for a specific amount of
work (e.g., 2 math problems), which then earns
1. One intervention/support that directly modifies an her a brief escape from the task.
antecedent condition (trigger) so that it no longer
triggers the targeted challenging behavior, thus 3. One intervention/support that reinforces the
preventing the behavior’s occurrence. replacement behavior. This can include the
outcomes described in the replacement behavior
2. One intervention/support that directly teaches the example above. This can also include a more
replacement behavior that will effectively obtain powerful or supplemental reinforcer. For example,
the same outcome (i.e., function) as the challenging Jeannie can earn a longer break from a non-
behavior. The replacement behavior can be one or preferred task by being academically engaged for
both of the following: a longer period without asking for a break (e.g., 30
minutes).
a. A functional communicative behavior-
this teaches the student a direct way to 4. One intervention/support that prevents
communicate his function. For example, if reinforcement (i.e., changes the responses) for
Jeannie’s function of her off-task behavior is to challenging behavior. Behavior plans are effective
escape the task, she can be taught to ask the when the challenging behavior no longer gets

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the student the function. At a minimum, teams and contextual fit. When developing the specific
will want to develop an intervention/support procedures of each strategy, it will be important to
that describes how to redirect the student to
describe the behaviors that the teacher or implementor
use his/her replacement behavior instead of
will perform when implementing the strategy.
the challenging behavior to get the function.
In Jeannie’s case, the teacher can immediately
Table 4 contains examples of questions common across
redirect her to request a break after the first sign of
most strategies that can be used with the teacher to
off-task behavior.
describe when, what, and how the strategies will be
Task Analyzing Behavior Intervention/ implemented. These questions can be answered by the
Supports teacher in building the implementation procedures for
Working with the teacher to develop a lesson plan or selected interventions/supports. In addition, many of
step-by-step procedure that details the steps of each the questions can be asked of the student as well to
strategy will enhance the likelihood that the strategies ensure that the intervention/support procedures will
will be accurately implemented. Furthermore, asking be acceptable.
a teacher specific questions about how he/she would
like to implement the strategy increases its feasibility

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Table 4. Common Strategy Implementation Questions

Question Description Examples Questions

When will the Asking the teacher to identify when For a choice-making, prevention strategy, the teacher can be asked
strategy be within a routine or activity in which “When will be the best time to present the choice to the student? Right
implemented? the challenging behavior occurs. This before you give the direction for the writing assignment or right after you give
question should be aligned with the it?”
FBA/hypothesis.
For a replacement behavior strategy, the teacher can be asked “When will
be the best time to prompt the student to use his/her replacement behavior?
Immediately after the writing demand or immediately after seeing a first sign
of the off-task behavior?”

How will the Describing the exact procedures or steps For an intervention that needs a prompt given to the student, the
strategy be of the intervention. This could include teacher can be asked where he or she will be in relation to the student
implemented? specific physical/verbal behaviors the when delivering the prompt-e.g., “Do you want to walk over to the student
teacher or other implementors will when giving the prompt or do you want the student to come to your desk?”
perform.
Teachers can be asked how they want to deliver a part of the
intervention. For example, a teacher can be asked “Do you prefer to
prompt the student using words or would you prefer using a visual or a
gesture?”

Teachers can be asked what words they prefer to use when the
intervention includes verbal communication between the teacher and
student. For example, “What do you want to say when you deliver the
prompt? Do you want to say ‘remember to ask for a break by placing a break
card at the corner of your desk’ or is there some other way you’d like to say
that?”

Teachers can be asked how they want to provide verbal praise or

positive comments. For example, the teacher can be asked “What do
you want to say after the student makes a choice? Is this a good opportunity
to give a positive comment? If yes, what might you say to the student?” or
“After the student requests a break instead of engaging in a tantrum, do you
want to acknowledge that the student used her new behavior appropriately,
such as thank you for asking for a break or just thank you?”

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Question Description Examples Questions

What will be Identifying and describing the materials Teachers can be asked what might be made or purchased for a strategy.
needed to or other needs to be addressed to For example, a teacher can be asked the following questions about a
implement the make the behavior strategy doable. break card that will be used for a replacement behavior strategy: “How
strategy? This can include specific materials to be do you want the break card to look? Do you want the word break written on
developed or purchased (e.g., visuals, it? Do you want a picture of a break? How large do you want it? How many
timers, reinforcers, self-monitoring do you want? Does it need to be laminated? What color should it be?”
forms, etc.), or readiness preparation
Teachers can be asked what they want included on a visual support (e.g.,
(e.g., training the student, getting
schedule, checklist, self-monitoring form) and how it should look. For
consents from parents of peers who may
example, in developing a self-monitoring sheet, the teacher can be asked
be involved in the strategy, identifying
“Where do you want the goal to be placed on the sheet? At the top or right
school policies that may need to be
before the monitoring table?” Note: Consider including the student in this
checked prior to implementation, etc.).
development, particularly if the student will be using the support.
Note: Having team members volunteer to
Teachers can be asked about pre-requisite procedural or policy steps
assist the teacher in preparing materials
necessary before the strategy can be implemented. For example, if a
often ensures that the strategy will be
peer-modeling or mediation strategy (for increasing social interactions)
ready for implementation in a timely
is used, a teacher can be asked “Will the peers who will be part of the
manner. Action plans stating who will
strategy need parent permission to participate in the strategy? If yes, is there
be responsible for different assignments
a consent form available or do we need to prepare one? Does anyone else
can be beneficial for keeping everyone on
have to approve this beyond the principal?”
target.

Table 5 is an example of a complete task analyzed

behavior intervention/support plan developed for
Royal. The team decided to focus on the independent
task trigger for the first intervention/support plan and
to include a strategy to address the ear infections. The
plan below reflects the strategies selected by the team
to address the hypothesis.

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Table 5. Behavior Intervention/Support Plan

Hypothesis: When Royal is (a) assigned independent tasks to do at his desk in reading and math that are lengthy
or require writing, or (b) required to transition from preferred activities (recess, art, music) to non-preferred
activities (independent reading and math), or (c) having a recurring ear infection, he will tantrum. As a result, he
delays/avoids the independent work activities or transitions from preferred to non-preferred by being given
redirects, reprimands, assistance and being sent to time-out or the behavior specialist.

Intervention
Description and Steps
Strategy

PREVENT Intervention/Supports

Setting Event To address the days that Royal has his recurring ear infections, a communication system will be set up to let the
communication school know when Royal is experiencing an ear infection. This will be established with the parent and with Royal.
and changing When Royal is experiencing an ear infection, he will be offered choices related to demands.
demands
Setting Event Strategy Steps
(addressing
recurring ear 1. A communication system will be set up with the parent to know whether Royal is experiencing an ear infection.
This will be via a standardized text message sent by the teacher to the parent at 7 a.m. each morning asking the
infection).
parent to respond with a Y (yes) or N (no) to the question: Does Royal have an ear infection today?
a. If the parent does not respond to the text, the teacher will ask Royal upon arrival to school whether he has
an ear infection that day.
2. If Royal is not experiencing an ear infection, his day will proceed normally.
3. If Royal is experiencing an ear infection, upon arrival at school, the teacher will meet Royal’s bus, walk with him
to a quiet place in the library, and ask him to describe his discomfort, using a visual pain rating scale in which a 1
represents very little pain and a 10 represents a lot of pain. (“Hi Royal, I heard that you might have an ear infection
today. I’m sorry. I know it must hurt. Tell me how much it hurts by circling the face and number that best tells us how
you are feeling.”). (Note: Face pain rating scales can be obtained from Wong-Baker https://wongbakerfaces.org).
4. If the pain is mild (4 or less), the teacher will say, “You’re having some pain but it isn’t too bad. Do you think you can
come to class now and get ready for morning meeting? If it starts hurting more, you can let me know.”
5. If the pain is moderate (6-8), the teacher will give Royal a choice by saying, “It looks as if you’re having pain t
oday. Do you want to rest in the nurse’s office for 15 minutes first before coming to class or do you want to come to
class now?”
a. If Royal chooses to rest for 15 minutes, an adult will check on Royal after 15 minutes and repeat the choice
if necessary.
6. If the pain is severe (10), the teacher will ask the nurse to check Royal’s temperature (to make sure he does not
have a fever). If he has a fever, the parent will be called. If he does not have a fever, step 5 will be repeated.

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Intervention
Description and Steps
Strategy

Providing To address the non-preferred independent task demands that involve writing, a choice intervention will be
Choices implemented. Initially, a choice will be offered to Royal during language arts independent work times that involve
writing paragraphs that are lengthy (more than 5 minutes). This strategy can be gradually expanded to address other
events that trigger tantrum behaviors. Choice categories that will be offered include within-task (pen or pencil, color
of pencil, color or shape of eraser, color of paper) and where (at his desk, at the round table near the window).

Providing Choices Strategy Steps

1. Immediately after asking the class or Royal to do the independent writing activity, the teacher will walk over to
Royal and offer one choice from one of the two categories (within or where).
2. When offering the choice, the teacher will say “Royal, do you want to use the pen or the pencil to do your
writing today?”
3. Immediately after Royal makes his selection, honor his choice and provide a positive comment. “Thank you for
making a choice. Here’s the pen.”

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Intervention
Description and Steps
Strategy

TEACH Interventions

Replacement Royal will be taught to ask for a break by using a break card to briefly escape from independent writing tasks instead
behavior: of using tantrum behaviors. The break card will be kept on Royal’s desk during independent writing tasks.
Request a Break
Requesting a Break Strategy Steps

1. During the first week of implementing the break card strategy, the teacher will remind Royal after presenting the
choices (from prevention intervention) that he can use the break card when he needs to “chill” for one or two
minutes. The teacher will review with Royal how to use the break card. The teacher will say, “Remember, when
you’re writing and you think that you need to chill, you can use the break card to stop working for 2 minutes.
Just hold the break card in your hand and raise that hand so I can see it and know you’re taking a break. I’ll set
the timer for 2 minutes, and you can just sit back and chill. When the timer goes off, you can go back to working
or you can ask to take another break. If you do go back to work when the timer goes off, you will earn minutes
for free time at the end of the writing task.” This can be gradually faded after Royal starts using the break card
consistently or stays engaged during independent writing tasks.
2. The first few days of implementation, the teacher will be vigilant by noting if Royal is showing some early signs
that he is getting ready to tantrum or note that he is not engaging in the independent writing task. When this
situation occurs, the teacher will immediately go over to Royal and prompt him to use his break card by pointing
to the break card while saying “It looks like you need to chill. Let me know if you need 2 minutes by raising your
break card.”

Replacement Royal will be supported to engage in on-task behaviors during independent writing time. On task behaviors include
behavior: Be on the following:
task
• Interacting with task materials in a way that gets the task completed
• Returning to work within 5 seconds after a 2-minute break has ended
• Raising his hand to ask for help on his task
Writing time typically lasts 30 minutes. For each 3 minutes of on-task activity, Royal will earn 1 minute of free time
(total = 10 minutes) that can be used to end the writing task early and do a preferred activity instead. Each minute
earned will be represented by a token that will be placed in a clear jar. The teacher will monitor the jar and when
20 minutes of writing time has ended, the teacher will go over to Royal. Together they will count the tokens, add up
the minutes represented, and Royal will decide if he wants to use his free time until the end of the writing period
(contingent upon time earned) or if he wants to save it for later in the day. This strategy can be faded by increasing
the amount of engaged time to earn one-minute of free time.

Teaching On-Task Behavior Strategy Steps

1. At the beginning of the day (upon arrival to school and after visual rating of ear pain or confirmation that no
ear infection is present), the teacher will review the on-task behaviors with Royal. The teacher will state the
behaviors, ask Royal to demonstrate doing the behaviors and discuss/demonstrate non-examples. This can be
faded after Royal consistently displays on-task behaviors. The teacher will also review how Royal will earn tokens
for being on-task and what he can do with the tokens.
2. During independent writing time, the teacher will consistently observe Royal and set a smart phone for 3
minutes. After 3 minutes, the teacher will determine if Royal was on-task. If yes, the teacher will get a token, go
over to the clear jar (placed on a table by the window near Royal’s desk), and insert the token. The teacher will
signal to Royal a “thumbs-up” to recognize Royal for being on-task.
3. If Royal is observed getting off-task, the teacher will re-direct him by pointing to the clear jar.
4. When 10 minutes is left in the writing time (out of 30 minutes), the teacher will take the clear jar over to Royal’s
desk to review his on-task behaviors.

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Intervention
Description and Steps
Strategy

REINFORCE Interventions/Supports

Reinforce use Each time Royal holds his break card up, the teacher will provide him with a 2-minute break.
of replacement
Reinforce Use of Replacement Behavior Strategy Steps
behavior (ask
for break) 1. Immediately after Royal puts up his break card, the teacher will go over to Royal and say “Thank you for letting
us know you need a break. Take 2 minutes to chill.”
2. The teacher will set the timer for 2 minutes.
3. When the timer goes off, the teacher will prompt Royal to go back to his task if he has not done so
independently by pointing to his task assignment or by asking him, “Royal, are you ready to go back to work or do
you need another break? Let me know.”

Reinforce on- The teacher will provide 1 minute of free time for each 3 minutes out of 30 minutes of writing time that Royal is
task behavior on-task.

Reinforce On-task Behavior Strategy Steps

1. Immediately after Royal is on-task for 3 minutes or when he returns to his task after a 2-minute break, the
teacher will place a token in the clear jar.
2. When dropping the token into the jar, the teacher will provide a positive gesture to Royal (e.g., thumbs up).
3. After 20 minutes, the teacher and Royal will review on-task behaviors by counting the tokens.
4. The teacher will ask Royal when he wants to use the free-time minutes he has earned (right then, later in the
day, which activity)
5. The teacher will give Royal verbal positive reinforcement by saying “You worked hard and were on-task a lot today.
You can now (or later) take your earned free-time for being on-task.”

Change The teacher will redirect Royal to use his replacement behavior immediately after he engages in pre-cursor
responses to behaviors to tantrums (e.g., mild pushing away materials on his desk, ceasing working, beginning mild protest). This
challenging will remind Royal that the way to get a break is to use his replacement behavior.
behavior
Change Responses to Challenging Behavior Strategy Steps
1. Immediately after the teacher observes Royal performing a precursor behavior, the teacher will go over to Royal
and calmly point to his break card.
2. If Royal does not immediately hold up his break card, the teacher will deliver a verbal prompt-“It looks like you
need a break. Show me how you ask for a break”).
3. If Royal does not use his break card after the verbal prompt, the teacher will give a verbal direction by holding up
the break card while saying, “Take a 2-minute break”.
4. The teacher will set the timer for 2 minutes.
5. When the timer goes off, the teacher will prompt Royal to go back to his task if he has not done so
independently by pointing to his task assignment or by asking him, “Royal, are you ready to go back to work or do
you need another break? Let me know.”

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Coaching Training the Plan

After a behavior intervention/support plan is When preparing to train the teacher to implement
developed, the team will want to consider how to the behavior intervention/support plan, it is helpful
make sure that the teacher is able to implement the to identify the observable adult behaviors described
plan as intended and provide on-going assistance to in the plan and develop a visual checklist that can be
adapt the plan as necessary and use data to make used as both a training tool and a fidelity measure. The
next-step decisions. Although this guide is strongly checklist is prepared by identifying the interventions
suggesting that the teacher play an active role in steps one would be able to observe an adult perform
designing the strategy steps to be implemented in the for each strategy on the behavior intervention/support
classroom with the student, teams should not assume plan and listing them. Figure 3 is a sample training/
that the task analysis is sufficient for ensuring teacher fidelity checklist developed for Royal’s teacher. More
competence and comfort with the strategies. information on how to use the form as a fidelity
measure and calculate a fidelity score will be described
Coaching includes two components:
in the section Measuring Fidelity.
• Training the plan

• Active coaching-Measuring implementation

fidelity and providing ongoing support after
implementation

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Training the Plan
When preparing to train the teacher to implement the behavior intervention/support plan, it is helpful to
identify the observable adult behaviors described in the plan and develop a visual checklist that can be used as
both a training tool and a fidelity measure. The Checklist is prepared by identifying the interventions steps one JANUARY 2022
would be able to observe an adult perform for each strategy on the behavior intervention/support plan and
listing them. Below is a sample training/fidelity checklist developed for Royal’s teacher.

Figure 3. Training/Fidelity Checklist Training/Fidelity Checklist

Teacher____ Student _____ Date ____ Coach ____

Training Fidelity Self-Assessment Observation

Strategy Implemented? Impact?

(1 = none; 2 =
some; 3 = great)

PREVENT
Setting Event Strategy
1. Sent text message to parent or asked Royal upon arrival to Y / N / NA
school about presence of ear infection
2. Presented Royal with visual pain rating scale on days ear Y / N / NA
infection present
3. Provided options to Royal contingent upon pain rating Y / N / NA
(mild, moderate, severe)
Provide Choices
1. Immediately after writing demand presented, walked over Y / N / NA
to Royal and offered a choice (within or where).
2. Immediately after Royal made choice, honored choice and Y / N / NA
delivered positive comment.
TEACH
Request a break
1. After offering choice, reviewed how to use break card with Y / N / NA
Royal.
2. Immediately after observing pre-cursor behaviors (off-task, Y / N / NA
pushing materials), prompted Royal to use break card by
pointing and making factual statement.
Be on-task
1. At beginning of day, reviewed on-task behaviors with Y / N / NA
Royal and earning of tokens for free time.
2. Set smart phone for 3 minutes and placed token into clear Y / N / NA
jar if Royal observed being on task.
3. If Royal got off-task, prompted Royal to be on-task by Y / N / NA
pointing to clear jar.
4. Counted tokens in jar with Royal ten minutes prior to end Y / N / NA
of writing time.
REINFORCE
Reinforce use of break card
1. Immediately after Royal used break card, released Royal to Y / N / NA
2-minute break and provided positive comment.
2. Set timer for 2-minutes. Y / N / NA
3. Prompted Royal to return to task when 2-minute timer went Y / N / NA
off if Royal did not do so independently.
4. Placed token in clear jar if Royal returned to task prior to 2- Y / N / NA
minutes or independently when timer sounded.
Reinforce on-task behavior
1. Placed token in clear jar after every 3 minutes of on-task Y / N / NA
behavior
2. Provided positive gesture (thumbs up) Y / N / NA
3. After counting tokens earned, asked Royal when he wanted Y / N / NA
to do free time.
Changing responses to challenging behavior
1. Immediately redirected Royal to use break card upon Y / N / NA
observing precursor to challenging behavior.
2. Proceeded through prompting hierarchy as necessary Y / N / NA
(gesture, verbal, model).

Behavior Plan Assessment (Fidelity Score) = Y/(Y + N) x 100

Positive Behavioral Interventions & Supports (PBIS) 30

 JANUARY 2022

Table 6. Teacher Training Steps

The person responsible for coaching the teacher can schedule a 30-minute block of time without students present
for this activity. The following table outlines the typical sequence of steps used to train the teacher.

Coaching Step Definition Example

Explanation A discussion or description of the steps for The coach says to the teacher, “For the setting event strategy, we
each strategy is reviewed with the teacher. agreed to communicate with Royal’s mother by sending a text message
to ask if Royal is experiencing an ear infection each day, then meet Royal
upon arrival and on days she has an ear infection, have her rate her level
of pain. Then depending upon her rating, we will present choices. Does
that still sound okay?”

Modeling Demonstrate to the teacher how to The coach says to the teacher, “Let’s practice. First, I’ll be you and
implement an activity. This can be you be Royal.” The coach then demonstrates texting the parent,
accomplished through role-playing with presenting the pain rating scale, and presenting choices based on
the coach taking the teacher role and the the rating made by the teacher (role playing Royal).
teacher taking the student role.

Rehearsal The teacher performs the strategy steps The coach says to the teacher, “Let’s switch. I’ll be Royal. Practice
with the coach or another educator taking going through the setting event strategy steps with me.”
the role of the student.

Teacher The teacher reflects on his/her/their The coach asks the teacher, “How comfortable are you with the setting
Reflection performance and identifies areas of event strategy? What was easy? What was difficult?”
competence and need.

Feedback The coach provides the teacher with The coach responds to teacher reflection and observation of the
positive reinforcement for steps rehearsal by saying “I think you did each step exactly as written. I
implemented correctly and suggestions for agree that you were very comfortable presenting the visual pain rating
steps that were challenging for the teacher scale. And although you expressed some discomfort with presenting
to perform. the options based on the pain rating, I do think it will become less
challenging to remember as you begin to use the strategy each day. Is
there something that we can do to help you remember the different
options? One idea is to write the options on the back of the visual pain
rating. That way, you just turn it over after Royal tells you her rating, and
the options are there. Or is there something else that would
work better?”

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 JANUARY 2022

After training the plan and the teacher indicating routine/time identified. The coach will schedule a time
comfort with it, the next step is to train other to observe the teacher implement the plan and provide
individuals. This can include other educators who will active (ongoing coaching). Active coaching is an
be implementing the plan as well as the student. It is iterative cycle of observation, reflection, and feedback.
important to prepare the student before beginning Although it is ideal if the coach can be present the first
to implement the strategies so that the student day the teacher implements the plan, it may not always
understands what, when, and how teacher actions will be feasible for that to happen. If the coach will not
be changing in the upcoming days. Training the student be present the first day the plan is implemented, the
can follow some of the same steps as training the coach will determine how to check in with the teacher
teacher including (a) explaining the plan, (b) modeling to make sure that everything went well. This can be via
the plan, and (c) getting student input/reflection on text, email, or phone call.
the plan. Training the student also gives the teacher
If feasible, active coaching can occur at least once a
a chance to have the student buy-in to the plan as it
week. Observations are scheduled during times the
is a prime opportunity to deliver reinforcement to the
intervention will be implemented and will work for
student. For example, during the modeling of the plan
the teacher. Most observations are on-site; however,
with Royal, she can begin to earn tokens to be placed
they may also be performed via virtual methods or
in the clear jar, which she can then use to take a break
by having the teacher record a video and uploading
in class that day or the next day.
it to a secure website for coach review. Prior to the
When preparing to train the student, the coach will first coaching session, the coach can review how the
ask the teacher if he/she prefers for the coach or teacher wants the observations to occur. The coach
the teacher to train the student. It is best if both uses the Training/Fidelity Checklist while observing
the coach and the teacher are together during the to measure implementation fidelity. Table 7 describes
training regardless of who is taking the lead. Training the various options that can be used when training
the student should be scheduled for a block of time in the teacher in the plan (2nd column) and during active
which no other students are present. coaching (3rd column).

Active Coaching Process

Once all essential individuals are trained, the teacher

determines the start date to implement the plan in the

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 JANUARY 2022

Table 7. Active Coaching Options

Strategy Description Training The Plan Example Implementing The Plan Example

Modeling Demonstrate how to implement an The coach role-plays the coping strategy The coach demonstrates how to use the
activity with the teacher coping strategy with the student during a
1:1 activity

Prompting Use of a method for providing a reminder The coach makes the “thumbs up” sign to The intervention specifies that a student
cue to the teacher as to what to do next. indicate to the teacher that he correctly should have access to a small toy for
Prompting methods for implementation role-played using the student’s activity 2 minutes after completing several
of the plan should be agreed upon schedule. requests. The coach uses a gesture
between the teacher and coach. prompt by pointing to the clock on the
Prompting can be verbal, gestural, or wall to indicate that time has elapsed
visual methods. You can also use these
strategies to give feedback. The teacher is prompting a student to
use a communication card. She starts to
hand it to the student. The coach says,
“Guide Jenna to pick up the card.”

Observe Observe the teacher implementing the The teacher and the para-educator The teacher initiates using an activity
and provide activity and provide ongoing feedback role-play teaching the student to use schedule with a student during lunch.
feedback and suggestions as the coach watches. a break card to ask for escape. The The coach praises her for pairing her
The feedback can be verbal, visual, or teacher forgets to provide a prompt to verbal with gestural prompts.
gestural. the aide (student) to use the break card
at the time indicated in the intervention/ After lunch the teacher transitions to
Note: This method is used if the teacher support plan. The coach says “remember desk work but forgets to review the
identifies this as the method to use. to prompt the student to use the break schedule with the student. The coach
card as soon as you present the writing gently verbalizes to the teacher to
assignment.” show the schedule, which she does
immediately.
Observe and The coach observes the activity without The teacher role-plays the complete Several peers have been taught to
note interacting with the student or teacher. sequence of the intervention/support facilitate interactions with Ella during
Feedback is provided at the end of the plan with the para-educator. The coach recess. The coach stands off to the side
activity. waits until the sequence is finished and of the swings, where they are playing,
then provides feedback. and watches the interaction. At the end
Note: This method is used if the teacher is of the activity, the teacher and the coach
in agreement and has the time to meet with meet and review the notes.
the coach after the observation.
Scheduled The coach does not observe the The coach and teacher developed the The teacher and coach agree to run a
virtual teacher or classroom. Instead, the coach intervention/support plan but ran out of peer tutoring session during math. The
support schedules communication the teacher time to practice the plan. The teacher teacher emails the coach the day before
before implementation intervention (e.g., wants to implement the plan the next day confirming the steps to be used. After
setup, anticipated problems) and after the and not wait until the coach can come the session, the teacher emails the coach
session (e.g., questions, troubleshooting). back out to train the plan. The coach and and asks about what to do if the peer
teacher agree to a virtual meeting via tutor is also struggling with the academic
Note: This method may be best utilized Zoom to practice the plan prior to the material.
when fading active coaching. teacher implementing it the next day.
They schedule a virtual meeting for later
in the day during the teacher’s planning
time to talk about the plan. The coach
asks the teacher to complete a reflection
form for their conversation.

Positive Behavioral Interventions & Supports (PBIS) 33

 implementation coach can come back out to After the session, the
intervention (e.g., train the plan. The coach and teacher emails the
setup, anticipated teacher agree to a virtual coach and asks about
problems) and after meeting via Zoom to practice what to do if the peer
the session (e.g., the plan prior to the teacher tutor is also struggling
questions, implementing it the next day. with the academic
troubleshooting). They schedule a virtual material. JANUARY 2022
meeting for later in the day
Note: This method during the teacher’s planning
Teacher Reflection may be best utilized time to talk about the plan.
when fading active The coach asks the teacher to
Feedback is enhanced coaching. complete a reflection
when using teacher reflection form
the feedback portion of coaching. Figure 4 is a sample
as a foundation. This can occur informally or byfor their conversation.
teacher reflection form. Alternatively, coaches can
providing a structure so that it is consistent. Forms can directly ask teachers reflective questions during the
Teacher Reflection
be developed that the teacher can complete prior to scheduled feedback sessions.
Feedback
the active coaching is enhanced
session when
that will be usedusing teacher reflection as a foundation. This can occur informally or by
during
providing a structure so that it is consistent. Forms can be developed that the teacher can complete prior to the
active coaching session that will be used during the feedback portion of coaching. Below is a sample teacher
Figurereflection
4. Sample form.
Teacher Reflection Form

Over the past week, the strategies and parts of the behavior intervention/support plan
that I think I implemented well are:

Providing choices. It has been working really well, and it is easy to do.

Over the past week, the most difficult parts of the strategies and behavior
intervention/support plan to implement were:

Remembering to notice Royal doing those mild behaviors and prompting her to ask for a
break. I try to remember but sometimes I get so busy, I don’t catch the behaviors in time.

Overall, in the past week, the extent that I believe I implemented the behavior
intervention/support plan as intended is (circle one):
0 1 2 3
Not at all Minimally Mostly Fully
Overall, in the past week, the extent that I believe the behavior intervention/support plan
had a positive impact on the student’s behavior is: (circle one):
0 1 2 3
No effect Minimal effect Some effect Significant effect

Alternatively, coaches can directly ask teachers reflective questions during the scheduled feedback sessions.

Providing Feedback
When giving feedback, coaches will want to make sure that teachers view it as a positive activity, helping them
make collaborative decisions on next steps. The table below provides tips for giving feedback to teachers after
observing implementation of the behavior intervention/support plan.

Strategy Description Examples

Begin with one or Initiate the discussion with a “You did a great job prompting
more positive statement that describes Royal by pointing to the jar that
statements something the teacher did well. holds her tokens when she got off
It is fine to use general task for a moment. That prompt
statements such as, “You did a was subtle enough that I don’t think
great job(PBIS)
Positive Behavioral Interventions & Supports today” as long as anyone else even noticed but it 34
specific examples are given.
 JANUARY 2022

Providing Feedback

When giving feedback, coaches will want to make 8 below provides tips for giving feedback to teachers
sure that teachers view it as a positive activity, helping after observing implementation of the behavior
them make collaborative decisions on next steps. Table intervention/support plan.

Table 8. Teacher Feedback Examples

The person responsible for coaching the teacher can schedule a 30-minute block of time without students present for this
activity. The following table outlines the typical sequence of steps used to provide performance feedback to the teacher.

Strategy Description Examples

Begin with one Initiate the discussion with a statement “You did a great job prompting Royal by pointing to the jar that holds
or more positive that describes something the teacher did her tokens when she got off task for a moment. That prompt was subtle
statements well. It is fine to use general statements enough that I don’t think anyone else even noticed but it really helped
such as, “You did a great job today” as long Royal get back on task.”
as specific examples are given.

Ask for positive Either before or after identifying something “In your view, what do you think is going well? Either overall or just in the
reflection. positive, ask the teacher what he or she time I watched today?”
thinks went well. If the teacher focuses
Note: The “I agree that you presented the choices of the materials Royal would use
on how well the student is doing, try to
Reflection Form to do her writing task today was perfect! She seems to respond well to
prompt the teacher to identify something
can be used as the choices, and I like the calm yet warm way you presented them to
about their own implementation that was
part of this step her.”
positive.

Ask for Ask the teacher what he/she thought was “You said you are having challenges remembering to prompt Royal to use
reflection challenging, difficult, or less than perfect her break card when you noticed pre-cursor behaviors such as when she
on areas for when implementing the intervention. This gets off-task and pushes her materials away. I did see you do it a couple
improvement is a great entry into corrective feedback, as of times, and when you did prompt her, even if it was delayed, it seemed
teachers will either identify something that to remind her to use her break card or, at least one time, get back on
Note: The
was not implemented correctly or identify task without getting into more intensive behaviors.”.
Reflection Form
something else that may direct coach
can be used as
feedback.
part of this step.

Provide specific Identify exactly what occurred incorrectly “The strategy that we developed has you providing the prompt
corrective and, when appropriate, why immediately after you observe Royal in some mild off-task behaviors.
feedback. How do you think this is going overall?” (Teacher indicates that it is
hard to do the prompting right away with all the other students in
class needing support). “Right, I noticed a couple of times that other
students needed your attention when Royal got off-task. There is a
lot going on, so it is hard to stay on top of this. Royal seems to really
respond well to your prompts so I’m thinking that we might want to
figure out how you might do the strategy when you have so many
students needing you at one time.”

Positive Behavioral Interventions & Supports (PBIS) 35

 JANUARY 2022

Strategy Description Examples

Help the Use collaborative problem-solving to “Maybe we can come up with a way to make it easier to notice Royal
teacher identify improve performance. Begin by asking the getting off-task. What might help to make it easier for you to notice
strategies to teacher for ideas. Build upon what the Royal or scan the room when you are working with another student?” (If
improve teacher suggests. If the teacher cannot the teacher comes up with an idea). “That is a great idea. We might
come up with strategies, provide options have another student signal you when Royal begins to be off-task and
and ask the teacher to select the option move her materials around”. If the teacher does not come up with an
that would work best for them. idea—“Here are a couple of thoughts. We could train one or two peers
to assist by giving you a cue/signal when Royal gets off-task and you are
with another student. Or we can set a schedule for how often you will
scan the room to look at Royal, even when you’re working with another
student. For example, we could make sure that you’re reminded to scan
the room once a minute or some other interval? Do you think one of
those ideas will work? If so, which one do you prefer?”

Build fluency Don’t overwhelm the teacher with “You just identified five things that you could work on. There are
slowly by corrective feedback. Identify one or at probably always things we can improve but let’s pick just one or two
working on most two things to work on at a time. things. On your reflection form, you indicated that remembering to
one or two prompt Royal to use her break card is challenging. How about working
components at on that first”
a time.

End with Feedback should conclude with another “We spent a lot of time talking about how to remember to prompt Royal
positive positive observation to use her break card at the right times and that is important. I think it
feedback is important though that we also recognize how much went right. You
know, I really liked how you counted the tokens with Royal at the end of
writing time and gave her praise. She beamed when you did that! I think
she appreciated that even more than the earned break time.”

Positive Behavioral Interventions & Supports (PBIS) 36

 JANUARY 2022

Measuring Fidelity

Measuring implementation fidelity can occur during Active coaching support continues until agreed
the active coaching sessions. Using a form such as upon goals are met. These could be based upon a
the Training/Fidelity Checklist to indicate whether student meeting behavior improvement criterion
strategy steps were implemented allows one to or when it is determined that a student no longer
calculate an implementation fidelity score and can needs individualized behavior interventions. It is
be used, as described in the previous section, for recommended that active coaching occur a minimum
providing performance feedback. Fidelity can also be of once a week initially, and as behaviors improve and
self-assessed by the teacher. The Training/Fidelity the teacher expresses confidence in implementing
Checklist can serve as a visual prompt to the teacher strategies, active coaching can gradually be decreased.
by reminding him/her of the steps needed to be Regardless, it is helpful to schedule regular progress-
performed for each strategy. Calculation of the fidelity monitoring meetings with the teacher and other team
score is accomplished by dividing the number of “yes” members to review the data and make next-step
checks by the sum of all “yes” and “no” checks and decisions.
multiplying by 100. This will provide the percentage of
steps accurately implemented by the teacher.

There are other considerations or alternatives for

measuring fidelity. These include:

• Rating fidelity adherence using a Likert rating

instead of a dichotomous yes/no

• Including quality of intervention delivery as part of

the measure

• Including student response (e.g., engagement,

acceptance) as part of the measure

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 JANUARY 2022

Data-based Decision Making

Progress monitoring the impact of the implementation Here are considerations for teams while making data-
of the behavior intervention/support plan leads teams based decisions:
to make informed next-step decisions. It is helpful for
• Make sure that a criterion or goal for student
teams to have systematic guidelines in place for when behavioral improvement has been established
progress monitoring meetings will occur (e.g., every for making decisions on whether the student has
three weeks after a plan is implements, once a month, achieved the goal. Some options are:
etc.) and have a structured agenda for reviewing data • Average or mean score of behavior ratings/
and decision options based on the data trend. measurement at or above target goal across a
specified number of days or weeks
Progress monitoring meetings should include both
• A specific number of consecutive days in which
student outcome data and implementation fidelity
behavior reaches or surpasses established goals
data. Without having these minimal data measures,
it will be challenging for a team to make informed • Visual examination of trend lines
decisions. For example, if the student’s behavior is • Establish a pre-determined fidelity measurement
not improving, yet the team has no data indicating to score that will be acceptable. For example, a team
what degree the teacher is implementing the behavior can state that teacher implementation fidelity must
be 80% or higher to be considered as adequately
intervention/support plan as intended, it is difficult
implemented.
for team members to problem solve. If the teacher is
not implementing the plan as intended, the problem- • Data-based decision-making is a cyclical process.
After making decisions based on data, teams
solving focus will be on addressing the issues that
will want to develop actions for implementing
impact teacher implementation fidelity. However,
the decisions and meet again to review the data
if the team have data indicating that the teacher is outcomes after implementing the decisions. For
implementing the plan with high fidelity, then the additional resources, tools, and descriptions of
problem-solving needs to focus on adapting the plan. using data to make decisions, visit the National
Center on Intensive Intervention.14

Positive Behavioral Interventions & Supports (PBIS) 38

 JANUARY 2022

• Remember, even if the plan is resulting in • Alliance. The relationship between the coach
behavior improvement, plans are never abruptly and teacher can be measured to determine
discontinued. Gradual fading of plan features whether higher alliance leads to higher
can occur or shaping of behavioral goals (e.g., implementation fidelity. See Johnson et al.,
increasing criteria) might be next-step decisions. 2016 and Johnson et al., 2018 for further
information about teacher-coach alliance.
• If the team determines individualized supports
are no longer necessary, ensure that there is a Figure 5 is an example of a structured process for
continuum of behavioral supports that will be
facilitating a progress-monitoring meeting along with
provided to the student. For example, some
options for next-step decisions based on data.
students may be provided with a Tier 2 support
for three weeks prior to providing primarily Tier 1
supports only.

• Consider collecting other data to evaluate

effectiveness. Some other data to be considered
include:

• Social validity. Social validity measures the

degree to which the teacher and the student
find the behavior intervention/support plan to
be acceptable, functional, useful, and effective.
The University of Connecticut has several
Usage Rating Profile measures15 that can help
measure implementor or student perceptions
of the plan.

Positive Behavioral Interventions & Supports (PBIS) 39

 JANUARY 2022

Figure 5. Decision-making Guide for Progress Monitoring Meetings

Positive Behavioral Interventions & Supports (PBIS) 40

 JANUARY 2022

Summary
This guide described considerations for school-
based teams to implement a comprehensive FBA/
BIP process. The guide describes activities teams can
take to come to consensus on decisions throughout
the process. It highlights methods for enhancing
teacher buy-in to implementing interventions and
provides guidance for coaches to be effective and yield
improved outcomes for students with the most intense
behavioral needs.

Positive Behavioral Interventions & Supports (PBIS) 41

 JANUARY 2022

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1. http://www.pbis.org/resource/ 10. https://www.doe.virginia.gov/support/student_
tier-3-school-level-systems-guide conduct/fba_interview_forms.pdf

2. http://www.pbis.org/resource/ 11. https://dds.dc.gov/sites/default/files/dc/sites/dds/

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Assessment%20Interview%20Form.pdf
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tier-3-student-level-systems-guide
6. https://www.pbis.org/pbis/tier-3
14. https://intensiveintervention.org/
7. https://chess.wisc.edu/niatx/content/contentpage.
15. https://urp.uconn.edu/forms/
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