Solutions

DESIGNED

By

Edustudy point
Solution: The mixture of two or more components is called solution.

• The component present in the large quantity is referred to as solvent.

• the components of a solution present in the lesser amount is referred to as solute.

Types of solutions: Solutions can be broadly categorized into two types:

1) Homogeneous solutions: Solutions with uniform composition and properties throughout the
solution are known as homogenous solution. E.g. solution of salt or sugar in water.

2) Heterogeneous solutions: Solutions with non-uniform composition and properties

throughout the solution are known as heterogeneous solution. E.g. solution of water and sand.

Type of solution Solute Solvent Example

Gaseous Gas Gas Oxygen and nitrogen
mixture
Liquid Gas Chloroform with
nitrogen gas
Solid Gas Camphor in nitrogen
gas
Liquid Gas Liquid Oxygen in water
Liquid Liquid Ethanol in water
Solid Liquid Glucose in water
Solid Gas Solid Hydrogen solution in
palladium
Liquid Solid Amalgam of mercury
with sodium
Solid Solid Dissolved copper in
gold

Concentration of solution: Concentration of a solution is the measure of the composition

of a solution.

➢ Mass percentage(w/w): The ratio of Mass of the solute to the total mass of the solution
multiplied by 100.

Mass % = (mass of solute / total mass of solution) X 100

➢ Volume percentage(v/v): The ratio of Volume of the solute to the total volume of the
solution multiplied by 100.

Volume % = (volume of solute / total volume of solution) X 100

➢ Mass by volume percentage(w/v): The ratio of mass of the solute to the total volume of
the solution multiplied by 100.

Mass by volume % = (mass of solute (g) / total volume of solution (ml)) X 100

➢ Parts per million (ppm): ppm is the ratio of mass of solute to the volume of solution
multiplied by 106.

Parts per million = (mass of solute (g) / volume of solution (ml)) X 106

➢ Mole fraction (X): Mole fraction is defined as the ratio of number of moles of solute to
the total number of moles of solution.
No. of moles of solute
Mole fraction =
Total no. of moles of solution

• Let us consider a binary mixture of A and B. let the number

of moles of A and B be n A and nB respectively, then,
𝑛𝐴
Mole fraction of A = XA =
𝑛𝐴 + 𝑛𝐵

Mole fraction of B = X B = 𝑛𝐵𝑛𝐴+ 𝑛𝐵

• The sum of the mole fractions of all the components is unity.

• Mathematically, X1 + X2 …. + Xn = 1

➢ Molarity (M): Molarity is defined as the ratio of number of moles of solute to the volume
of solution in liter.
moles of solute
Molarity =
volume of solution (L)

➢ Molality (m): Molality is defined as the ratio of number of moles of solute to the mass of
solvent in kg.
moles of solute
Molality (m) =
mass of solvent (kg)

Note: Molarity is dependent on temperature because volume is depend on temperature whereas

Mass %, ppm, mole fraction and molality are independent of temperature because mass does not
depend on temperature.

Solubility: Solubility is a physical property of a solution. It can be defined as the measure of

maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved in specific amount of solvent.
Factors affecting Solubility of gas in liquid: -

• Nature of gas: The gases which can be easily liquified, are move soluble in common
solvents.

• Nature of solvents: The gases which are capable of forming ions in aqueous solution are
much soluble in water than in other solvent.

• Temperature: the solubility of gas in liquid decrease with increase in temperature.

• Pressure: the solubility of a gas increase with increase in pressure.

Henry’s law: The partial pressure of the gas in vapour phase (p) is proportional to the mole
fraction of the gas (X) in the solution.

p = KH X where, KH = Henry’s law constant

• At same temperature different gasses have different KH

• Value of KH increases with the increase in temperature therefore solubility of gases

increases with decreasing temperature. Due to this reason cold water is more sustainable
for aquatic life than warm water.

Applications of Henry’s law

• Sealing of soft drink bottles at high pressure increases the solubility of CO 2 in soft drinks
and soda water.

• In deep sea diving, scuba diver breath at high pressure which increases solubility of N2 in
blood. When diver comes out on surface, pressure decreases and N 2 released in blood result
the formation of bubbles in blood which block the capillaries.

To protect the divers from such situation scuba jumpers are loaded with diluted air
containing 11.7% helium, 56.2% nitrogen and 32.1% oxygen.

• At high heights low concentrations of oxygen in the blood and tissues of climbers. Low blood
oxygen causes climbers to feel feeble and not able to think plainly, indications of a condition
known as anoxia.

Vapour pressure: pressure formed by the vapour of the liquid over the surface of liquid.

• Vapour pressure is inversely proportional to the intermolecular force of attraction.

• Vapour pressure is directly proportional to the temperature.

Raoult’s law: The law states that for a solution of volatile liquids, the partial vapour pressure
(P) of each component in the solution is directly proportional to its mole fraction (x).
 P∝x OR P = P 0x

• Where P0 is the vapour pressure of pure component at the same temperature.

• Let P total = Total vapour pressure

P1 = Partial vapour pressures of component 1

P2= Partial vapour pressures of

component 2
x1 = Mole fractions of component 1.
x2 = Mole fractions of component 2

• According to Dalton’s law of partial

pressures,

P total = P1 + P2

• The minimum value of ptotal is p10 and the maximum value is p 20, assuming that p10 < p20.

• Let y1 = Mole fractions of the component 1 in vapour phase.

y2 = Mole fractions of the component 2 in vapour phase .

• According to Dalton’s law of partial pressures:

P1 = y1 Ptotal & P2 = y2 Ptotal

Ideal solutions and Non- ideal solutions:-

Ideal solution: obey Raoult’s law at all temperature & concentration.

• P 1 = P 1 0x1 & P 2 = P 20x2

• Δmix H = 0 and Δmix V = 0

• A-B interaction = A-A interaction & B-B interaction

• Example: n-hexane and n-heptane, bromoethane and chloroethane, Benzene and toluene.

Non-ideal solution: don’t obey Raoult’s law at all temperature & concentration.

• P 1 ≠ P 1 0x1 & P 2 ≠ P 20x2

• Δmix H ≠ 0 and Δmix V ≠ 0

 • A-B interaction ≠ A-A interaction & B-B interaction

• Non-ideal solution categorized into two parts

1) Positive deviation:
• A-B interaction < A-A interaction & B-B interaction

• ΔmixH > 0 and ΔmixV > 0

• P 1 > P 1o x1 and P2 > P2ox2

• Example: ethanol and acetone.

2) Negative deviation:
• A-B interaction > A-A interaction & B-B interaction

• ΔmixH < 0 and ΔmixV < 0

• P 1 < P 1o x1 and P2 < P2ox2

• Example: phenol and aniline, chloroform and acetone.

Azeotropes: Azeotropes are binary mixtures having same composition in liquid and vapour
phase and boils at constant temperature.

• Azeotropes can be broadly categorized into two types-

1) Minimum boiling azeotrope: Solutions showing positive deviation from Raoult’s law.
Example: H2O + HCl.
2) Maximum boiling azeotrope: Solutions showing negative deviation from Raoult’s law.
Example: C2H5OH + H2O

Colligative properties: the properties of solution which depends on the no. of solute
particles.

• Relative lowering of vapour pressure of the solvent

• Depression of freezing point of the solvent

• Elevation of boiling point of the solvent

• Osmotic pressure of the solution.

1) Relative lowering of vapour pressure: when a non volatile solute is added to solvent,
vapour pressure of solvent decreases.

• The above equation can be written as:

• For dilute solutions n 2 << n1, hence ignoring n2 in the denominator we get

OR

w1 and M1 = Masses and molar masses of solvent.

w2 and M2 = Masses and molar masses of solute.

2) Elevation of boiling point: It is the increase in boiling point of a solvent due to the
presence of non-volatile solute.

• elevation of boiling point = ΔTb = Tb – Tb0.

ΔTb ∝ m

ΔTb = kb m where, m = Molality

Kb = constant of proportionality

The unit of Kb is K kg mol-1.

• Let w2 and M2 = Masses and molar masses of solute and w1 = Mass of solvent

3) Depression of freezing point: It is the increase in boiling point of a solvent due to the
presence of non-volatile solute.

• depression in freezing point = ΔTf = Tf – Tf0

ΔTf ∝m

ΔTf = Kf m where, Kf = Proportionality constant.

The unit of Kf is K kg mol-1.

• Let w2 and M2 = Masses and molar masses of solute and w1= Mass of solvent
 Putting this value of molality in the equation ΔTf = Kf m

4) Osmosis: The process of flow of solvents from the pure solvent to the solution through a
semipermeable membrane is termed as osmosis.

Semi permeable membrane: membrane which allow only solvent molecules to pass through.

Example: cell membrane, animal bladder.

Osmotic pressure: pressure applied on

solution to stop osmosis is called osmotic
pressure. It is denoted by π.

π=CRT

where, C = molarity of solution

R = gas constant

T = temprature

Classification of solutions on the basis of osmotic pressure: solution can be classified

into three broad categories.

1) Isotonic solutions : Two solutions possessing same osmotic pressure at a given

temperature are termed as isotonic solution.

2) Hypertonic solutions: one solution has higher osmotic pressure than other. In this
manner the cell will shrink.
3) Hypotonic solutions : one solution has lower osmotic pressure than other. In this
manner the cell is prone to swell up.

Reverse osmosis: Reverse Osmosis is just the

reverse process of Osmosis.
Abnormal molar mass: In some cases, observed colligative properties deviate from their
normal calculated values due to association or dissociation of molecules.

• Van’t Hoff factor(i): It can be defined as the ratio of Normal molar mass to the
abnormal molar mass. Mathematically,

In case of association, value of i is less than unity.

In case of dissociation value of i is greater than unity.

• Relative lowering of vapour pressure of solvent =

• Elevation of Boiling point, ΔTb = i Kb m

• Depression of Freezing point, ΔTf = i Kf m
• Osmotic pressure of solution, π = i CRT

KHATAM