Unit 1: Intermolecular Forces of Attractions and Solids and Liquids

Lesson 1.5
Structural Features of Solids Lesson 1.5

Contents Structural Features of Solids

Introduction 1

Learning Objectives 2

Warm Up 2

Learn about It! 4

Kinetic Molecular Theory of Solids 4
Structure of Solids 5
Crystalline Solids 5
Amorphous Solids 6
Properties of Solids 7
Melting Point 7
Heat of Fusion 8
Sublimation 8
Malleability and Ductility 9
Conductivity 10

Key Points 12

Check Your Understanding 12 Introduction

Challenge Yourself 14 Diamond came from the Greek word ‘Adamas’ which means indestructible or invincible. It’s
Bibliography 14 no wonder as they are known to be the hardest natural substance to exist in this world.
Solids, unlike liquid and gas, have definite shape and volume. But not all solids are like
diamonds, some are very soft and can be easily manipulated, while others are brittle and
have a strong resistance to any change in shape. Some conduct electricity, whereas others
do not. In this lesson, you will discuss the structural features of solids as well as the
physical properties associated with these features.

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Unit 1: Intermolecular Forces of Attractions and Solids and Liquids Unit 1: Intermolecular Forces of Attractions and Solids and Liquids

Procedure
1. Get a pinch of each material (sugar, salt, and pepper) and placed it on a clean tissue
Learning Objectives DepEd Competency
or paper.
Describe the difference in
In this lesson, you should be able to do the 2. Use different magnifying glasses with different powers to examine each material.
structure of crystalline and
following: amorphous solids
3. List your observations in Table 1.5.1.
● Describe the properties of solids. (STEM_GC11IMF-IIIa-c-104). 4. Place one piece of a candle on top of a clean mat or tissue. Break the candle using a
● Explain the effect of the hammer. Do the same with a piece of nail.
intermolecular forces of attraction on 5. List your observations in Table 1.5.2. Answer the guide questions below.
these properties. 6. Using a water bath, heat one piece of candle.
● Differentiate the characteristic 7. Do the same with a pinch of sugar. Record the melting point for both samples in
properties of crystalline and Table 1.5.3.
amorphous solids. 8. Answer the guide questions below.

Observation Table
Warm Up Table 1.5.1. Physical properties of salt, sugar, and pepper

Salt Sugar Pepper

Finding the Difference
Have you ever seen table sugar? How about salt? Have you accidentally mistook the sugar
from salt? This activity aims to study the structure of salt, sugar, and pepper.

Time Allotment
10 minutes

Materials Table 1.5.2. Physical properties of candle and nail

● magnifying glass
Candle Nail
● hammer
● water bath
● table sugar
● table salt
● pepper
● candle
● nail

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Unit 1: Intermolecular Forces of Attractions and Solids and Liquids Unit 1: Intermolecular Forces of Attractions and Solids and Liquids

Table 1.5.3. Observation on candle and sugar after being heated

Candle Sugar

Guide Questions Fig. 1.5.1. Particles in solids

1. Can you see the difference between the three solid samples? Which looks similar to
each other? Which looks different?
2. Which of the material looks like a crystal?
Structure of Solids
3. What happens to the materials when you break them using a hammer? Solids can appear in different forms. Structurally, it has two main categories—crystalline

4. Which sample melted first? Which sample has a definite melting point? solids and amorphous solids.

What is the difference between crystalline and

Learn about It! amorphous solids?
Kinetic Molecular Theory of Solids
The kinetic theory of matter is a simple microscopic model that adequately explains the Crystalline Solids
three different phases (solid, liquid, and gas) of matter and how it can change from one Crystalline solids are solids in which the atoms, ions, or molecules are arranged in a
phase to another. It also states that all matter is composed of particles that have a certain definite repeating pattern held together by uniform, strong intermolecular forces. These
amount of energy to make them move at different speeds depending on the temperature. solids usually have distinctive flat surfaces, or faces, that make fixed angles with one
Recall that temperature is the average kinetic energy of the particles in a system. another.
Neighboring particles have space and attractive forces between them. There are spaces
between the particles and attractive forces between particles when they come close The small repeating pattern in crystalline solids is called the unit cell. It is made up of
together. unique arrangements of atoms and represents the structure of solid. The crystal structure
can be built by piling the unit over and over. Hence, we can define the formation of a
In solids, the intermolecular forces between neighboring particles are held together by crystalline solid by the size and shape of the unit cell and the locations of atoms within the
strong covalent or ionic bonding to keep them in a fixed position and rotate and vibrate in unit cell.
place. Synonymous with liquids, they are not compressible due to the lack of spaces
between them, giving them a definite shape and volume. The orderly arrangements of atoms in crystalline solids lead to having highly regular shapes.
Some examples of crystalline solid are quartz and sodium chloride.

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Unit 1: Intermolecular Forces of Attractions and Solids and Liquids Unit 1: Intermolecular Forces of Attractions and Solids and Liquids

Remember
Crystalline solids consist of particles in an organized form, while the
particles of amorphous solids are not formed in an orderly manner.

Properties of Solids
Solids exhibit characteristic properties that are distinguishable from other states of matter.
These properties are, of course, dependent on the composition of the solids.

Melting Point
When solid is heated, it loses its definite shape and is converted to a liquid. This process is
called melting, and melting point is the temperature at which this occurs. Conversely,
Fig. 1.5.2. Silicon dioxide (SiO2), also known as quartz, is a crystalline solid. freezing occurs when liquid changes to solid, and the temperature at which it occurs is the
freezing point. The melting and freezing points of a substance are the same. At this
Amorphous Solids temperature, solid and liquid forms are in equilibrium with each other.
An amorphous solid (from the Greek words which mean “without form”) is the exact
opposite of crystalline solid. It lacks the order found in crystalline solids. The structures of Crystalline solids have a precise melting point, while amorphous solids may melt over a wide
amorphous solids at the atomic level are similar to the structures of liquids. However, the range of temperatures. The melting point of a solid also depends on the strength of the
atoms, ions, or molecules have little freedom to move, unlike in crystalline solids. interactions between its components: A stronger interaction has a higher melting point.
Amorphous solids do not have the well-defined shapes of a crystal. Some examples of this
include obsidian (volcanic glass) and rubber.

cristobalite soda-lime glass

Fig. 1.5.4. Cristobalite melts at 1,713 °C, while soda-lime glass, the most prevalent type of
glass, can melt between 550 °C and 1450 °C.
Fig. 1.5.3. Obsidian (typically KAlSi3O8) is an amorphous solid.

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Unit 1: Intermolecular Forces of Attractions and Solids and Liquids Unit 1: Intermolecular Forces of Attractions and Solids and Liquids

Consider the examples of solids shown in Fig. 1.5.4. Cristobalite, a type quartz polymorph, One of the most known solids with significant sublimation pressures is ice. Although the
melts at precisely 1 713 °C. On the other hand, sugar, also a crystalline solid, melts at 186 °C. temperature may not rise above 0 °C, the snow may disappear from the ground without
The difference in melting point shows that cristobalite has a stronger intermolecular force melting because it sublimes. The sublimation pressure of ice at 0° C is 4.58 mmHg.
(held together by covalent bonds) compared to sugar, which is held together by London
dispersion forces. Soda-lime glass, meanwhile, can melt anywhere between 550 °C and 1450
°C.

Heat of Fusion
As mentioned earlier, the melting point of a solid and the freezing point of its liquid are the
same, and they coexist in equilibrium at that temperature. If heat is added uniformly to a
solid-liquid mixture at equilibrium, the temperature does not change while the solid melts.
When all the solid is melted, the temperature begins to rise. On the other hand, if heat is
removed uniformly in the same mixture, the liquid also freezes at a constant temperature.
The quantity of heat necessary to melt a solid is the enthalpy of fusion. The enthalpy of
fusion can be expressed using the equation presented below.
Fig. 1.5.5. Ice exhibits an appreciable sublimation pressure.

Anisotropy is the property of substances where the physical and mechanical properties
vary with different orientation and molecular axes. On the contrary, when the physical and
Solids with stronger intermolecular forces have higher values compared with the weaker mechanical properties are equal in all directions, it is said to be isotropic. Crystalline solids
ones, such as London dispersion forces. For a crystalline solid, the heat of fusion is fixed and are anisotropic, while amorphous solids are isotropic.
definite. While for the amorphous solid, it has no precise value of the heat of fusion.
Malleability and Ductility
Sublimation Malleability describes the ability of the solid to undergo compressive stress without
Sublimation is the process of direct passage of molecules from solid to the vapor phase, breaking it. Compared to non-metals, metals are highly malleable. Hence, metals can be
bypassing the liquid state. The reverse process, deposition, is the immediate passage of shaped through forging, rolling, extrusion, and indenting.
molecules from vapor to a solid phase.
The ability of a solid to undergo tensile stress is called ductility. This property of a solid can
be measured and describes the extent to which the solid can be stretched without fracture.
When sublimation and deposition occur at equal rates, solid and vapor coexist in
The best depiction would be the ability of the solid to stretch into a wire when pulled at the
equilibrium. The quantity of heat to convert solid to vapor is called enthalpy of
end.
sublimation. Sublimation (solid → vapor) is equivalent to melting (solid → liquid), followed
by vaporization (liquid → vapor) at the sublimation point.

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Unit 1: Intermolecular Forces of Attractions and Solids and Liquids Unit 1: Intermolecular Forces of Attractions and Solids and Liquids

Most of the time, malleability and ductility properties coexist. Both silver and gold are highly
ductile and malleable. But sometimes, malleability can be higher while ductility is low or vice
versa.

Fig. 1.5.7. Copper is used to make coins since it is a good conductor.

Fig. 1.5.6. Gold is known to be the most malleable and ductile.

As mentioned earlier, crystalline solids are anisotropic, so properties such as malleability,
ductility, thermal and electrical conductivity vary on the direction from which the force is
Conductivity applied. For some types of crystalline solids, the bonds are non-directional, making the
Electrical conductivity is the measurement of the ability of atoms, molecules, or ions to movement easier between atoms, these results in having high malleability and ductility and
transfer electrons from one to another. Some solids have metallic bonds that make outer being good conductors. While others have very rigid bonds, making it more challenging to
electrons relatively free to move between adjacent atoms making an electrical current easy transfer. Solids with these types of bond rigidness are expected to be brittle and have low
to move from one end to another. While other solids have ionic or covalent bonds that are heat conductivity and are called heat insulators instead. Conversely, amorphous solids
very rigid, making it hard to conduct electricity. Solids that do not conduct electricity are exhibit isotropy because the amount of conductivity is equal throughout regardless of the
called electrical insulators. orientation from which force is applied.

Thermal conductivity is when the temperature is used as a measurement of the

movement of atoms, molecules, or ions. The movement of one molecule, ion, or atom
requires it to be easily transferable to its neighbor for a solid to conduct heat. Solids that Why is copper used to make electrical wires?
have metallic bonds are also a good heat conductor because of the non-directional nature
of such bonds. On the other hand, solids with bonds such as covalent have low conductivity
because of the rigidity between atoms.

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Unit 1: Intermolecular Forces of Attractions and Solids and Liquids Unit 1: Intermolecular Forces of Attractions and Solids and Liquids

___________________________ 2. It is the property of solid where the molecules

Key Points
transform from solid to vapor phase directly.
___________________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________ 3. It is the opposite process of melting.

● In solids, the molecules are being held by strong covalent and ionic
intermolecular forces between neighboring particles to keep them in a fixed ___________________________ 4. It is the quantity of heat needed to convert solid to
position and rotate and vibrate in place. vapor.
● Crystalline solids are arranged in a definite repeating pattern held together by
uniform, strong intermolecular forces. ___________________________ 5. It is the type of solid that does not have a repeating

● Amorphous solids do not have a repeating pattern arrangement and the exact pattern arrangement.

opposite of crystalline solid.

___________________________ 6. This is the property exhibited by crystalline solids
● Solids exhibit characteristic properties:
that is directionally dependent on the force being
○ The melting point is the temperature at which the solid loses its definite
applied.
shape and converts to liquid when heated.
○ The quantity of heat necessary to melt a solid is the enthalpy of fusion. ___________________________ 7. It is a measure of the ability of atoms, molecules, or
○ Sublimation is the process of direct passage of molecules from solid to the ions to transfer electrons from one to another.
vapor phase, bypassing the liquid state.
___________________________ 8. This is exhibited when properties such as
○ Malleability describes the ability of the solid to undergo compressive stress
conductivity and tensile strength are equal
without breaking it.
regardless of direction where the force is applied.
○ Ductility is the ability of a solid to undergo tensile stress.
○ Electrical conductivity is the measurement of the ability of atoms, ___________________________ 9. It is the quantity of heat needed to convert solid to
molecules, or ions to transfer electrons from one to another. liquid.
○ Thermal conductivity is when the temperature is used as a measurement of
the movement of atoms, molecules, or ions. __________________________ 10. It is the opposite process of sublimation.

___________________________________________________________________________________________

B. Write T if the following statement is true. Otherwise,

Check Your Understanding write F.

_______ 1. Amorphous solids have a precise melting point.

A. Identify the terms described in each of the following
items. _______ 2. There are two main categories of solids.

_______ 3. A weaker intermolecular force means a higher melting point.

___________________________ 1. It is the type of solid that does not have a repeating
_______ 4. Malleability and ductility properties can never coexist.
pattern arrangement.

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Unit 1: Intermolecular Forces of Attractions and Solids and Liquids Unit 8: Heats of Reaction and Chemical Change

_______ 5. The quantity of heat necessary to freeze a liquid is the enthalpy of fusion. Murphy, Patrick M. Woodward, and Matthew Stoltzfus. Chemistry: The Central
Science, 13th Edition. NJ: Pearson, 2015. Print.

C. State if the following accounts for a crystalline or an

amorphous solid. Petrucci, Ralph H. General Chemistry: Principles and Modern Applications. Toronto, Ont.:
Pearson Canada, 2011. Print.
__________________ 1. precise heat of fusion
Silberberg, Martin S. 2007. Principles of General Chemistry. McGraw-Hill Company.
__________________ 2. wide range of melting temperature

__________________ 3. cotton candy

__________________ 4. anisotropic

__________________ 5. dry ice

Challenge Yourself

Answer the following questions.

1. Give some differences between crystalline and amorphous solids. You may tabulate
your answer.
2. Explain why the crystalline solids exhibit anisotropy.
3. Explain why amorphous solids have irregular shapes.
4. Why do some solids are better in conducting heat?
5. Why do amorphous solids do not have a definite melting point?

Bibliography
Brown T.L. et al. 2012. Chemistry: The Central Science. Pearson Prentice Hall.Brown.
Chemistry: The Central Science. Prentice-Hall, 2005.

Ebbing, Darrell and Steven Gammon. 2016. General Chemistry. Boston: Cengage Learning.

Hill, James C., Theodore L. Brown, H. Eugene LeMay, Bruce Edward. Bursten, Catherine J.

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