Getting it Right!

Unit Topic: Navigation

Grade Level: 7th grade (with suggestions to scale for grades 6 to 8)
Lesson No. 4 of 10
Lesson Subject(s): Calculation, approximation, geometry, trigonometry
Key Words: Accuracy, precision, calculation, approximation, geometry,
trigonometry

Lesson Abstract —

In this lesson, students will investigate error. As shown in earlier activities, without
understanding how errors can affect your position you cannot navigate well. Introducing
accuracy and precision will develop these concepts further. The students will also learn about
how computers can help in navigation. Often, the calculations needed to navigate accurately are
time consuming and complex. By using the power of computers to do calculations and repetitive
tasks, one can quickly see how changing parameters likes angles and distances and introducing
errors will affect their overall result. These concepts will be reviewed in the following activities:
• Close Enough – students will learn about the difference between accuracy and precision.
Using a computer, they will see how much accuracy is needed for various activities. If
going to the moon, one needs to have a very accurate flight path or the moon might be
missed completely!
• Computer Accuracy – students will see how small errors can drastically affect their
results. This is done using an MS Excel® spreadsheet to measure how a small angle error
in their course will change their final landing point.
• Sextant Solution – students will see how computers can help us work more effectively
with complex calculations. Using MS Excel®, the students will be able to compute
detailed corrections for a sextant measurement.

Lesson Opening Topics / Motivation —

How Close is Close Enough
Often, when doing activities, how well we do them is very important. For example, if you are
playing baseball and your teammate is not good at throwing you the ball, you might have to run
to get the ball. In fact, if you are playing a game, your team might lose a couple of runs. The
difference between where your teammate was supposed to throw the ball (to your glove) and
where they actually threw the ball (somewhere in left field) is called the error. When is error too
much? (Possible answer: each situation is different, it depends on the result of the error.) If your
friend throws the ball to you, how much error is okay, and when does the error get large enough
to be a problem? (Possible answer: when the throw is off enough that you cannot reach the ball.)
We will look at this in Activity 1.
Navigation, Math, and Computers
Even when you think you know where you are going and are not actively using math, you are
probably using simple geometric concepts in your head. Mathematical concepts are inherent in
navigation, but writing down equations or using a computer to do math is not usually necessary
in our everyday lives. In some cases, though, we need to find places that are very far away, we
need to find a spot as quickly as possible, or we need to be exact about a location. Doing the
math in our heads or on paper can take a long time. Fortunately, computers can help — as you
will see in Activity 2.
Major improvements to navigation initially involved creative mathematical thinking and
engineering. Before computers existed, engineering was the prime tool to make navigation
easier. The sextant used angled mirrors, graduated scales, and sturdy materials to make
astronomical measurements much more accurate than previous methods. The sextant is a
convenient, reliable, and accurate tool still used today. Even the sextant can use the assistance of
computers when they are available, as demonstrated in Activity 3.
Things to Remember when Using Computers
Currently, we take computers and calculators for granted. We use them to help us with our
homework, play games and even talk to friends. It was only 25 years ago that buying a calculator
cost over $500, and desktop computers, like the ones in your classrooms or homes, did not even
exist.
Before that time, the math needed to perform accurate navigation had to be done either by hand
or by looking up information in tables. This task can be very tedious and is prone to errors.
Today, luckily, we have computers and calculators to help us with math. Computers are really
fast at figuring out calculations and repeating tasks, but we still need to understand how the math
works so that we can efficiently use the computer. Electrical engineers and computer scientists
write the programs that help us in our daily use of computers. For example, an electrical
engineer designed the activities you will do today. True, the computer will help you, but you still
need know how things work so that you can tell the computer what to do and verify that your
results make sense.

Lesson Desired Student Outcomes —

Students will understand that mathematical concepts are required when navigating. Computers
are useful for this because they calculate more quickly. Computers allow insight into equations
because variables can be repeatedly changed, and the affect on the solution is seen immediately.
Science: Students should be able to:
• Predict (hypothesize). (1)
• Use protractors to measure angles. (1)
• Use meter sticks to measure metric lengths. (1)

2
 • Characterize how a moving object is affected by the moon’s gravitational force. (2)
• Describe the advantages as well as disadvantages of using a computer. (5)
• Describe how a computer can be used to help people get to the moon. (5)
• Describe how people used tabulating machines to determine the US census. (5)
Math: Students should be able to:
• Use numbers to count, measure, label, and indicate distances on a map. (1)
• Describe the difference between accuracy and precision. (5)
• Recognize basic trigonometric functions. (4)
• Demonstrate the meaning of square roots. (1)
• Analyze functional relationships. (2)

Colorado State Standards Met

http://www.mcrel.org/compendium/search.asp
• Science Standard 1, 2, 5
• Math Standard 1, 2, 4, 5

Lesson Background & Concepts for Teachers —

Accuracy and Precision in Measurement

There are two basic concepts to any collection of measurements, accuracy and precision.
Accuracy is how close the measured data is to the actual value. For example, if you know that
you have a mass standard that is 50.00 grams, and you measure it to be 49.98 grams, then your
measurement is very accurate. On the other hand, if you measure it to be 43.24 grams, your
measurement is not very accurate.
Precision is how close your measurements are relative to each other, not the actual value. For
example, let say you measured that same mass standard and came up with the values:
43.24, 43.30, 43.20, 43.25, 43.32
You could say that your measurement was very precise because all the values are very close to
each other. On the other hand if your measurements were:
50.03, 43.40, 53.01, 47.54, 30.23
Your measurements would not be very precise because they are all far apart relative to each
other.

3
A dartboard is a common example of showing the difference between accuracy and precision
(please see dartboard diagrams below). Let’s say that someone throws 4 darts at a dartboard. If
they are far apart and unevenly spaced, they have no precision or accuracy (upper left). The
closer the darts are to the center, the better accuracy they have. The closer the grouping of the
darts are, the better precision they have (upper right). If the darts are evenly spread around the
center, they have low precision but high accuracy because they are not close to each other but all
of the darts average to equal the center (lower left). And finally, if you have all your darts
closely grouped in the center you have both high accuracy and precision (lower right).

Diagram created by: Matt Lippis, University of Colorado, Boulder

Accuracy of measurement in navigation depends very much on the situation. If a sailor’s target is
an island 200 km wide, being off center by 10 or 20 km is no problem. But, if the island were
only 1 km wide, it would be missed if off center at all! Many of the measurements made in
navigation involve angles, and a small error in the angle can become a large error in position
when traveling long distances.

4
Tabulating Machines
In the 1880s, it was estimated that the next American census in 1890 would need tally the data
from more than 62 million Americans. This was not only expensive, but the existing system of
tallying marks in small squares on rolls of paper and then adding the marks together by hand was
extremely time consuming. Workers realized that continuing to take the census with this method
would be impossible and that, somehow, the system would have to be automated. An American
inventor, named Herman Hollerith, developed the solution to this problem.
Cards punched by a tram conductor's ticket punch were fed into a mechanism that could read the
presence of holes in each card by using spring-mounted nails that passed through the holes to
make electrical connections. An electrical connection would move a clock-like counter that
accumulated the results!
In addition to solving the census problem, Hollerith's machines were useful for a wide variety of
statistical applications. Subsequently, these same techniques were significant in the development
of the computer. In February 1924, Hollerith's company changed its name and continued to
grow; it is still around today. It is very unlikely you have not heard of it: International Business
Machines. Doesn’t ring a bell? Perhaps you know it by its initials: IBM.
Old and New Techniques

The earliest explorers did not have computers or satellites to help them know their exact location.
The most accurate tool developed was the sextant, used to determine latitude and longitude.
Although sextants are still used today, even they can benefit from computers. The basic use of a
sextant is described here, but the concept of its accuracy will be looked at in detail in Activity 2.

How to Use a Sextant

The sextant is a complex device, but luckily it is very easy to
use. Basically, a sextant measures the angle between two
objects, with at least one being celestial. (Remember, never
look directly at the sun! Shields and filters on sextants protect
against eye injuries.) The user looks through an eyepiece and,
after adjustments, sees both objects superimposed on each
other. The measurement of the angle is then taken through the
use of two mirrors.
The user looks through the sextant’s eyepiece directly at the
first object (usually the horizon). There is actually a mirror in
the line of sight, but because it is only partially silver, the
user can see beyond it (to the horizon). The other mirror is
connected to a movable arm and directs light from the second object (usually the sun or moon)
and reflects it into the half-silvered mirror. The movable arm is adjusted until you can see both
the first object (the horizon) and the second object (the sun or moon). Then you read the
measurement of the angle located on the movable arm.
The most common way of using a sextant is to measure the angle between the horizon and the
sun. By knowing this angle and your local time you can determine what your latitude is. If you
also know the Greenwich Mean Time (GMT), you can also determine your longitude. There are

5
many things you can determine from a sextant but we will use it to determine your latitude for
this exercise. Follow the steps below to use the sextant:
1. Do this exactly at noon, when the sun is at the highest point during the day.
2. Look through the eyepiece.
3. Adjust the angle of the sextant until you see the horizon.
4. Now adjust the movable arm until you see the sun. Because you should never look at the
sun directly, the sextant has a number of filters that will block out most of the sun’s light,
but will let enough through to still see it. Make sure to always use the filters so that you
do not hurt your eyes.
5. Adjust the arm until the sun rests just on the horizon.
6. Now measure the altitude of the sun by reading the angle on the movable arm.
7. Write down the exact local time.
Optional for Determining Longitude: Write down the exact GMT (Greenwich Mean Time).
This gives you all the information you need to find your latitude and longitude. Knowing that the
measurement was taken when the sun was at its highest point in time, you know that it was noon.
This, and the angle of the sun off of the horizon, can tell you your latitude. If you also did Step 7,
you could determine your longitude. Knowing the GMT time and the time where you are tells
you the difference in time between your location and Greenwich, England (zero degrees
longitude). You can relate this time difference to the distance and find your longitude. To
actually compute your latitude and longitude, you need to do a number of long calculations —
another way that computers can help.

Lesson Vocabulary List —

• Geometry – The mathematical relationships of points, lines, angles, surfaces, and solids.
• Trigonometry – The mathematical relationships between the sides and the angles of
triangles.
• Sextant – A navigational instrument containing a graduated 60-degree arc, used for
measuring the altitudes of celestial bodies to determine latitude and longitude.
• Accuracy – a measure of how close the data comes to the correct answer.
• Precision – a measure of how close the data points are relative to each other. In other
words, how well grouped your data set is.
• Computer – A programmable device that processes information.
• Equation – A statement usually written as symbols that are separated into left and right
sides and joined by an equal sign.
• Altitude – The angle between two points. For example, the angle between the horizon
(on the ground) and the sun.

Activity Attachments —
Activity 1: Close Enough – The concept of accuracy in measurement is introduced.

6
Activity 2: Computer Accuracy – Students use an excel spreadsheet to understand how the
accuracy of measurements effects navigation.
Activity 3: Sextant Solutions – Students use an excel spreadsheet to facilitate complicated
corrections for a sextant measurement.

Suggestions to Scale Activity for Grades 6 to 8 —

• 6th Grade: Do Activities 1 and 2.

• 7th & 8th Grade: Do Activities 2 and 3.

Lesson Closure and Follow-up —

Computers are taken for granted today. They are smaller and pack more power every year.
Understanding how computers fit into the world is important even if you do not want to know
how they work. Recognizing parts of navigation that are facilitated by computers is a step in the
right direction, and the advantages were seen in these activities. It is also important to recognize
the importance of learning and understanding the mathematical concepts that precede the
computing. Only when understanding how right triangles can be used, when curved lines can be
considered flat, and when to keep a curved line to increase accuracy can you use a computer to
its fullest advantage.

Lesson Extension Activities —

• For students with web access, the following PBS site has a great shockwave-based
interactive story that lets you try simplified sextant readings and learn about the amazing
survival of Shackleton and his crew:
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/shackleton/navigate/escape.html
• Have students research the story of Apollo 13 and perform the calculations — without
computers! — that the astronauts had to do in flight to save their lives.
• Using the knowledge from the “Dip of the Sea” portion of Activity 2, have students
check the theory by measuring their desk’s latitude as in Lesson 2, Activity 2: North Wall
Star. This time they should measure the angle all the way from the floor-wall junction up
to the “North Star.” How far off are these new measurements from those taken without
the “dip?”

Lesson Assessment and Evaluation —

Pre-Lesson Assessment

• Discussion Question:
o Computers are everywhere, but do we really need computers? Do you need a
computer to tie your shoe? Can a computer help you brush your teeth? Are
computers required for navigation? What do you think?

7
Post-Introduction Assessment
• Voting: Ask a true/false question and have students vote by holding thumbs up for true,
and thumbs down for false. Count the number of true and false, and write the number on
the board. Give the right answer.
o True or False: With enough time and supplies, you could navigate anywhere in
the world without the help of a computer. (Answer: True, but you would have to
have a lot of time.)
Post-Lesson Assessment
• Voting: Ask a true/false question and have students vote by holding thumbs up for true,
and thumbs down for false. Count the number of true and false and write the number on
the board. Give the right answer.
o Computers are not absolutely necessary for navigation, but after these activities,
who thinks GPS is a good idea?
• Bingo: Provide each student with a sheet of paper containing a list of the lesson
vocabulary terms. Have each student walk around the room and find a student who can
define one vocabulary term. Students must find a different student for each term. When a
student has all terms completed s/he shouts “Bingo!” Continue until all students bingo.
Homework
Internet Search: Have students research a few of the concepts from the lesson on the
Internet and lead a brief discussion of the findings during the next class period.

Lesson References —
Other interesting information you might like to look at:
http://www.nps.gov/jeff/LewisClark2/Education/ForTeachers/PatrickGassJourney/GassLtrPg21.
htm

Sextant Technique
http://www.sailnet.com/sailing/97/tecjan97.htm
http://www.dade.k12.fl.us/lifeskills/crew/sextants.html
http://www.techdirections.com/TEP2pro15.pdf
http://www.scsc.k12.ar.us/1999outwest/members/MockK/lesson_plan.htm

Treasure Hunt: (navigation graphics)

http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/geology/leveson/core/linksa/treasurehunt.html

History of the Sextant

http://home.earthlink.net/~nbrass1/cardart.htm

8
Activity: Close Enough?

This activity is planned for 28 students working both

individually and in groups of two.

Activity Materials List —

• 28 Accuracy By Hand Worksheets
• 1 Protractor (or print out paper half-protractors)
• 1 piece of string or rope (exactly 10 meters long – use
one color to mark the zero point and other colors to
mark the 6 and 8 meter points as well)
• Small Dixie cups for markers (if available or you can use masking tape)
• Masking tape

Activity Equipment and Tools List —

• Calculators (not absolutely necessary but helpful)
• Trig Tables (if calculators are not available)
• Pencils
• Tape measure or meter stick.

Activity Cost Estimate —

$0

Activity Time Estimate —

40-50 min.

Activity Procedure —
A. Background:
Accuracy and Precision in Measurement
There are two basic concepts to any collection of measurements, accuracy and precision.
Accuracy is how close the measured data is to the actual value. For example, if you
know that you have a mass standard that is 50.00 grams and you measure it to be 49.98
grams, your measurement is very accurate. On the other hand, if you measure the mass
to be 43.24 grams, your measurement isn’t very accurate.
Precision is how close your measurements are relative to each other, not the actual value.
For example, let say you measured that same mass standard and came up with the values:
43.24, 43.30, 43.20, 43.25, 43.32
you could say that your measurement was very precise. This is because all the values are
very close to each other. On the other hand if your measurements were:
50.03, 43.40, 53.01, 47.54, 30.23
your measurements wouldn’t be very precise, because they are all far apart relative to
each other.
A common example of the difference between accuracy and precision is looking at a
dartboard. Let’s say that someone throws 4 darts at a dartboard. The closer the darts are
to the center, the better accuracy they have. The closer the grouping of the darts are, the
better precision they have (upper right). If your darts are evenly spread around to the
center, they have low precision but high accuracy because they are not close to each other
but all of the darts average to equal the center (lower left). And finally, if you have all
your darts closely grouped in the center you have both high accuracy and precision
(lower right).

Accuracy of measurement in navigation depends a lot on the situation. If a sailor’s target

is an island 200 km wide, being off of the center by 10 or 20 km is no problem. But if the
island is only 1 km wide, the sailor would miss the island all together. Many of the
measurements made in navigation involve angles, and a small error in the angle can
become a large error in position when traveling long distances.
Trigonometry Review
Trigonometry is a branch of mathematics dealing with relationships of the angles and
sides of triangles. The three basic trigonometric relations that we are concerned with
here are: sine, cosine, and tangent (abbreviated as sin, cos, and tan). They are ratios of
the lengths of two sides of a particular triangle. The particular type of triangle that is
most useful in mathematics is the “right” triangle, which has one angle equal to 90
degrees. By definition, the 90-degree angle is made by two lines that are perpendicular to
each other (like the corner of a square) and third side of the triangle is made by a sloping
line connecting the two perpendicular lines. This sloping line is called the hypotenuse
and the name comes from the Greek hypo (meaning under) and teinein (meaning to
stretch). It is easiest to show this visually:

B Side z is the Hypotenuse

Side x is Adjacent to angle B z
x for both angles A and B
Side x is Opposite to angle A 90° A
y

Side y is Adjacent to angle A

Side y is Opposite to angle B

For Angle “A”: For Angle “B”:

Opposite x Opposite y
sin(A) =  =  sin(B) =  = 
Hypotenuse z Hypotenuse z

Adjacent y Adjacent x
cos(A) =  =  cos(B) =  = 
Hypotenuse z Hypotenuse z

Opposite x Opposite y
tan(A) =  =  tan(B) =  = 
Adjacent y Adjacent x

SOH CAH TOA. These letters can help students remember which sides go with which
functions (Sine = Opposite / Hypotenuse, etc.). Mnemonics may help 6-8th graders to
memorize the relations: “Some Old Hag Caught A Hippie Tripping On Art”; or “Some
Oaf Happily Cut A Hole Through Our Apartment”. SOH CAH TOA.
A navigation example using trigonometry is shown here:
http://www.staff.vu.edu.au/mcaonline/units/trig/ratios.html
B. Before the Activity
1. Print out the worksheets, trig tables, and paper protractors if needed.
2. Decide whether activity will be performed indoors or outside. You need a space that
is at least a 10 meter square of floor/ground space.
3. Measure and mark string or rope (see materials list).

C. With the Students:

In the classroom:
Ask the students how accurately things have to be measured. Should everything be
measured down to the millimeter? Can we round off all measurements to the nearest
foot? Explain that the needed accuracy of a measurement depends on what is being
measured. When navigating, how accurately do we need to measure an angle? Let’s
investigate:
1. Give each student an Accuracy By Hand Worksheet.
2. Have students use calculators or Trig Table sheets to do the Sailing to an Island
problem.
3. Have students use calculators or Trig Table sheets to do the Rocket to the Moon
problem.
4. Help students answer the question on the bottom of the worksheet: Why must the
rocket be more accurate? A: Because the target is smaller relative to the distance
traveled than the island is. This can be seen by looking at the ratio of the size of
the target and the distance to it: Island = 50/1000 = .05 and Moon = 1738/382700
= .0045.
Now the students will try this in real life. Explain that you have a navigation mission for
them that requires accuracy of measurement. They are going to try and locate an
Invisible Island!
5. Divide class into teams of two and hand out markers (small cups with tape on
them so students can mark their names or just pieces of tape will work as well. If
outside, some sort of weight should be put in cup – gram weights, rocks, etc.)
6. Take students to the test area (field outside, gym, or large enough classroom).
7. Choose a natural straight line (edge of field, sidewalk, line in gym, or even a wall
will work) that is at least 8 meters long (25 feet) and mark the start point with an
“X” of tape or object that can be stuck into the ground and place the protractor on
the start point. (See below)

Start Point!
X
Make sure baseline is at least 8
meters (~25 feet).
Tell students that the Invisible Island is located exactly 10 meters away and 37º off of the
baseline from the start point.
Note: Students must stay in line to have their turn – those getting out of line should be
sent to the back.
8. One partner will line up the protractor and hold the zero end of the string at its
center point. The other partner, carrying the team cup, will take the end of the
string and walk out at a 37º angle until the rope is tight. When both partners think
they are close to having the final position at a 37º angle from the baseline, the cup
is set down.
9. Have each group place their cup where they think the island is, but caution each
group not to just put their cup by another groups, they may be wrong!

Once all groups have placed their cups it’s time to reveal the location of the Invisible
Island:

10. Use the marked string to measure exactly 8 meters along the baseline from the
start point and mark this spot.
11. Use the protractor to measure a 90º angle at this spot.
12. Use the string to measure exactly 6 meters along this line (see below:
perpendicular to the baseline toward all the cups) and mark this spot as the island.

Cups
Invisible Island!

Exactly 6 meters

Protractor Start Point!

X X
8 meter mark

13. Use a meter stick or tape measure to measure the distance of each cup from the
actual island location and write the distance on the tape on the cup.
14. Have the teams return to the classroom with their cups.
15. Have the students look at the Accuracy By Hand Worksheet again and notice that
the numbers for the “Sailing to an Island” problem are similar to the ones just
used: Instead of the island being 1000 km away, the invisible island was 1000 cm
 away (there are 100 cm in a meter so 10 x 100 =1000cm). From this information,
have them estimate how far off their angle measurement was.
(For ambitious students: work the equation backward to find how far off the angle they
were. This will require using the ‘arcsin’ or ‘inverse sin’ function on a calculator.)

Math Skills Reinforced —

6th, 7th, 8th: Students use right triangle trigonometry and angle measurements to calculate
distances. Students will also explore accuracy and precision

Activity Troubleshooting Tips —

This activity requires a large open space to complete. You will need at least a 10m square
of ground or floor to work in. If not, the students may run into a wall or desk and not be
able to find the “mystery island.”

Activity Desired Student Outcomes —

After this activity, students should understand a mistake in measuring an angle could
make a huge difference if the target is far away. The needed accuracy of a measurement
depends on what is being measured.

Activity Assessment & Evaluation —

Pre-Activity Assessment
• Discussion Question: Solicit, integrate, and summarize student answers.
o Ask the students how accurately things have to be measured. Should
everything be measured down to the millimeter? Can we round off all
measurements to the nearest foot? (Answer:Explain that the needed
accuracy of a measurement depends on what is being measured. See Part
C, With the Students.)
Activity Embedded Assessment
• Worksheet: Accuracy calculations: Students follow and complete the worksheet.
Post-Activity Assessment
• Questions/Answers:
o Why was it hard to get the angle right to find the Invisible Island?
(Answer: Many possible reasons: the string or rope was much thicker than
the divisions on the protractor, the protractor only had divisions of 5
degrees, it was hard to get the string tight, it was hard to keep the
protractor lined up, etc.)
o What would need to be done to get close to a spot a kilometer away?
(Answer: A more accurate angle measurement would need to be made, the
easiest would be to use something like a 5-foot long protractor that
showed divisions down to the 1/100 of a degree. Finding a rope this long
would be a problem though.)
Suggestions to Scale Activity for Grades 6 to 8 —
6th Grade: Use or make a fairly large protractor (photocopier enlargement is an
option).
7th Grade: Do as is.
8th Grade: Have students use a compass to stay on the correct angle until the string is
tight.
 The Importance of Accurate Measurements

Sailing to an Island
1000 Name:________________________

37º Date: ________________________

Angle Find sine of Angle Within 50km
Angle off by: Exact Mult by Length of Side Subtract Final distance
mistakenly (use trig table or a of the island
(degrees) Angle 1000km Opposite Angle Exact Value off by: (km)
used calculator) center?

5.0 + 37.0 = > * 1000.0 = - 600.0

2.0 + 37.0 = > * 1000.0 = - 600.0

0.0 + 37.0 = 37.0 > 0.60 * 1000.0 = 600.00 - 600.0 0.0 Yes

-2.0 + 37.0 = > * 1000.0 = - 600.0

-5.0 + 37.0 = > * 1000.0 = - 600.0

Rocket Ship to the Moon

382,700 km

37º
Angle Find sine of Angle Within 1738
Angle off by: Exact Mult by Length of Side Subtract Final distance
mistakenly (use trig table or a km of the
(degrees) Angle 382,700 km Opposite Angle Exact Value off by: (km)
used calculator) Moon center?
1.0 + 37.0 = > * 382700.0 = - 230314.6

0.2 + 37.0 = > * 382700.0 = - 230314.6

0.0 + 37.0 = 37.0 > 0.6018 * 382700.0 = 230314.6 - 230314.6 0.0 Yes

-0.2 + 37.0 = > * 382700.0 = - 230314.6

-1.0 + 37.0 = > * 382700.0 = - 230314.6

Why must the rocket be more accurate?_________________________________________________________________

L4-A1-Accuracy By Hand Worksheet.xls

 Half Protractors:
50° 45° 40° 35°
60° 55° 30°
65° 25°
70° 20°
75° 15°
80° 10°
85° 5°
90° 0°

Center
Center Hole
Hole

90° 0°
85° 5°
80° 10°
75° 15°
70° 20°
65° 25°
60° 55° 30°
50° 45° 40° 35°
 Navigation Trigonometry Tables

Angle Angle
Sine Cosine Tangent Sine Cosine Tangent
(deg) (deg)

0 0.0000 1.0000 0.0000 Continued

1 0.0175 0.9998 0.0175 46 0.7193 0.6947 1.0355
2 0.0349 0.9994 0.0349 47 0.7314 0.6820 1.0724
3 0.0523 0.9986 0.0524 48 0.7431 0.6691 1.1106
4 0.0698 0.9976 0.0699 49 0.7547 0.6561 1.1504
5 0.0872 0.9962 0.0875 50 0.7660 0.6428 1.1918
6 0.1045 0.9945 0.1051 51 0.7771 0.6293 1.2349
7 0.1219 0.9925 0.1228 52 0.7880 0.6157 1.2799
8 0.1392 0.9903 0.1405 53 0.7986 0.6018 1.3270
9 0.1564 0.9877 0.1584 54 0.8090 0.5878 1.3764
10 0.1736 0.9848 0.1763 55 0.8192 0.5736 1.4281
11 0.1908 0.9816 0.1944 56 0.8290 0.5592 1.4826
12 0.2079 0.9781 0.2126 57 0.8387 0.5446 1.5399
13 0.2250 0.9744 0.2309 58 0.8480 0.5299 1.6003
14 0.2419 0.9703 0.2493 59 0.8572 0.5150 1.6643
15 0.2588 0.9659 0.2679 60 0.8660 0.5000 1.7321
16 0.2756 0.9613 0.2867 61 0.8746 0.4848 1.8040
17 0.2924 0.9563 0.3057 62 0.8829 0.4695 1.8807
18 0.3090 0.9511 0.3249 63 0.8910 0.4540 1.9626
19 0.3256 0.9455 0.3443 64 0.8988 0.4384 2.0503
20 0.3420 0.9397 0.3640 65 0.9063 0.4226 2.1445
21 0.3584 0.9336 0.3839 66 0.9135 0.4067 2.2460
22 0.3746 0.9272 0.4040 67 0.9205 0.3907 2.3559
23 0.3907 0.9205 0.4245 68 0.9272 0.3746 2.4751
24 0.4067 0.9135 0.4452 69 0.9336 0.3584 2.6051
25 0.4226 0.9063 0.4663 70 0.9397 0.3420 2.7475
26 0.4384 0.8988 0.4877 71 0.9455 0.3256 2.9042
27 0.4540 0.8910 0.5095 72 0.9511 0.3090 3.0777
28 0.4695 0.8829 0.5317 73 0.9563 0.2924 3.2709
29 0.4848 0.8746 0.5543 74 0.9613 0.2756 3.4874
30 0.5000 0.8660 0.5774 75 0.9659 0.2588 3.7321
31 0.5150 0.8572 0.6009 76 0.9703 0.2419 4.0108
32 0.5299 0.8480 0.6249 77 0.9744 0.2250 4.3315
33 0.5446 0.8387 0.6494 78 0.9781 0.2079 4.7046
34 0.5592 0.8290 0.6745 79 0.9816 0.1908 5.1446
35 0.5736 0.8192 0.7002 80 0.9848 0.1736 5.6713
36 0.5878 0.8090 0.7265 81 0.9877 0.1564 6.3138
37 0.6018 0.7986 0.7536 82 0.9903 0.1392 7.1154
38 0.6157 0.7880 0.7813 83 0.9925 0.1219 8.1443
39 0.6293 0.7771 0.8098 84 0.9945 0.1045 9.5144
40 0.6428 0.7660 0.8391 85 0.9962 0.0872 11.4301
41 0.6561 0.7547 0.8693 86 0.9976 0.0698 14.3007
42 0.6691 0.7431 0.9004 87 0.9986 0.0523 19.0811
43 0.6820 0.7314 0.9325 88 0.9994 0.0349 28.6363
44 0.6947 0.7193 0.9657 89 0.9998 0.0175 57.2900
45 0.7071 0.7071 1.0000 90 1.0000 0.0000 Infinity
Angle Angle
Sine Cosine Tangent Sine Cosine Tangent
(deg) (deg)

L3-Trig Tables.xls
Activity: Computer Accuracy
This activity is planned for 28 students working in groups equal to the number of
computers available.

Activity Materials List —

• Computer Accuracy Excel File

• Computer Accuracy Worksheet

Activity Equipment and Tools List —

• Computers with Microsoft Office Excel

• Pencils

Activity Cost Estimate —

$0 (assuming computers are available)

Activity Attachments —
Computer Accuracy Excel File
Computer Accuracy Worksheet

Activity Time Estimate —

40-50 min.

Activity Procedure —
A. Background

Accuracy and Precision in Measurement

There are two basic concepts to any collection of measurements, accuracy and precision.
Accuracy is how close the measured data is to the actual value. For example, if you
know that you have a mass standard that is 50.00 grams and you measure it to be 49.98
grams, your measurement is very accurate. On the other hand, if you measure that mass
to be 43.24 grams, your measurement is not very accurate.

Precision is how close your measurements are relative to each other, not the actual value.
For example, let say you measured that same mass standard and came up with the values:

43.24, 43.30, 43.20, 43.25, 43.32

you could say that your measurement was very precise. This is because all the values are
very close to each other. On the other hand if your measurements were:
50.03, 43.40, 53.01, 47.54, 30.23
your measurements would not be very precise, because they are all far apart relative to
each other.
A common example of the difference between accuracy and precision is looking at a
dartboard. Let’s say that someone throws 4 darts at a dartboard ─ The closer the darts are
to the center, the better accuracy they have. The closer the grouping of the darts are, the
better precision they have (upper right). If your darts are evenly spread around to the
center, they have low precision but high accuracy because they aren’t close to each other
but all of the darts average to equal the center (lower left). And finally, if you have all
your darts closely grouped in the center you have both high accuracy and precision
(lower right).

Accuracy of measurement in navigation depends a lot on the situation. If a sailor’s target

is an island 200 km wide, being off of the center by 10 or 20 km is no problem. But if the
island is only 1 km wide, the sailor would miss the island all together. Many of the
measurements made in navigation involve angles – and a small error in the angle can
become a large error in position when traveling long distances.
Trigonometry Review
Trigonometry is a branch of mathematics dealing with relationships of the angles and
sides of triangles. The three basic trigonometric relations that we are concerned with —
sine, cosine and tangent — are ratios of the lengths of two sides of a particular triangle.
A very useful type of triangle is a right triangle, which has one angle equal to 90 degrees.
By definition, the 90° angle is made by two lines that are perpendicular to each other
(like the corner of a square), and the third side of the triangle is made by a sloping line
connecting the two perpendiculars. This sloping line is called the hypotenuse, and the
name comes from the Greek words hypo (meaning under) and teinein (meaning to
stretch). Essentially, hypotenuse means to stretch under the 90° angle. It is easiest to
show this visually.

B Side z is the Hypotenuse

Side x is Adjacent to angle B z
x
Side x is Opposite to angle A 90° A
y

Side y is Adjacent to angle A

Side y is Opposite to angle B

For Angle “A”: For Angle “B”:

Opposite x Opposite y
sin(A) =  =  sin(B) =  = 
Hypotenuse z Hypotenuse z

Adjacent y Adjacent x
cos(A) =  =  cos(B) =  = 
Hypotenuse z Hypotenuse z

Opposite x Opposite y
tan(A) =  =  tan(B) =  = 
Adjacent y Adjacent x

SOH CAH TOA. These letters can help students remember which sides go with which
functions (Sine = Opposite / Hypotenuse, etc.). Mnemonics may help 6-8th graders to
memorize the relations: “Some Old Hag Caught A Hippie Tripping On Art”; or “Some
Oaf Happily Cut A Hole Through Our Apartment”. SOH CAH TOA.

To see a handy navigation example using trigonometry, check out this website:
http://www.staff.vu.edu.au/mcaonline/units/trig/ratios.html
B. Before the Activity

1. It is suggested that a trial-run of the activity be performed beforehand.

2. Print out Computer Accuracy Worksheets for each group or individual (may be
printed double sided).
3. The excel files are protected from changes (with the exception of the data entry
boxes) but the protection can be removed. If students are fairly computer savvy, a
password may be added to guard the protection. If you are going to do this – do it
and save before loading onto other computers!

a. On the Tools menu, point to Protection, and then click Unprotect Sheet.
b. On the Tools menu, point to Protection, and then click Protect Sheet.
c. When prompted, leave all boxes checked and enter the protection password
for the worksheet. Passwords are case sensitive. To unprotect the sheet again,
you must type the password exactly as it was created, including uppercase and
lowercase letters.

4. Load the Computer Accuracy Excel File onto all computers and put it in an easy to
access place (Desktop for instance) or better yet – have it opened up when students
arrive.
5. MAKE SURE to start the students on the excel file with answers that are incorrect! If
necessary, input “10” into all of the yellow boxes before the students arrive.

C. With the Students

Before students go to the computers:

1. Divide the class into groups (depending on the number of computers available)
and give each student or group the Computer Accuracy Worksheets.
2. Discuss the concepts of the “Sail to an Island Harbor” problem in terms of the
increased accuracy needed compared to just finding the island. Remind the
students that they know the exact measurements from their ship to the center of
the island. However, they don’t want to reach the center of the island, they want
to find the harbor! Students will need to adjust the angle so that they are 1 km
north of the island. This will allow the ship to get close enough to the harbor to
see it with the naked eye if they are slightly off. What happens if it is foggy
outside? The ship now needs to be within 100m (0.1 km) of the island to be
able to see it. How accurate does the new angle need to be?
3. Discuss the concepts of the “Rocket to a Moon Orbit” – this problem shows how
the error in the navigation measurement of the initial angle can greatly affect the
final destination. Remind students that they will run this experiment twice. Once
with an accuracy error of ± 0.1°, and again with an accuracy error of ± 0.01°. (A
new angle of around 37.38° will work well. Students will not be able to launch
successfully with a error of ± 0.1° because all three outcomes are possible with
the given error).
At the Computers:

4. Have students do the “Sail to an Island Harbor” problem and come up with
creative things to search for on the mystery island..
5. Have students do the “Rocket to a Moon Orbit” problem and answer the
questions at the bottom of the Worksheet.
6. Each group or individual should print out the Excel file with the correct angles
(assuming printers are available – otherwise students could write their numbers on
the worksheet).

(For ambitious students: work the equations backward to find the needed angles without
all the guess work – this will require using the ‘arcsin’ or ‘inverse sin’ function on a
calculator. Is it faster to solve the equations backward or guess on the computer?)

Math Skills Reinforced —

6th, 7th, 8th: Students will understand the difference between accuracy, precision, and
error. They will also recognize basic trigonometric functions and analyze functional
relationships.

Activity Troubleshooting Tips —

These worksheets could be confusing if not explained thoroughly from the start. Remind
students that in the case of both the ship and the rocket, there are known distances and
angles and they have to make corrections to them to reach a target (harbor or orbit).

Activity Desired Student Outcomes —

After this activity, students should understand that Math is fundamental to navigation.
Computers are much faster at doing math calculations than humans. When higher
accuracy is needed, calculations become more difficult so using computers is even more
practical.

Activity Assessment & Evaluation —

Pre-Activity Assessment
• Discussion:
o (Hold up protractor if you have one) When we sent astronauts to the
moon, do you think it mattered if they were off by 1 degree? How about if
they were off by 1/10 of a degree – would they still make it? Should we
worry if they are off by 1/1000 of a degree? (Answer: Depends on the
mission requirements , but have students keep these thoughts in mind
during the activity.)
Activity Embedded Assessment
• Worksheet/Computer calculations
o Students follow and complete the excel file and worksheet.
Post-Activity Assessment
 • Questions/Answers for Moon problem:
o Why can't you get three "yes" boxes when the accuracy is equal to 0.1? A:
Because the difference of the final distances calculated by the angle you
guessed and its possible error angle is larger than the window of safe
arrival.
o For the example of the moon problem, can the students better answer the
pre-activity questions? A: For this case, 1/100 of a degree mattered and
1/1000 did not.

Suggestions to Scale Activity for Grades 6 to 8 —

6th Grade: Do as is.
7th Grade: Have the students find the largest accuracy error that still allows a safe
launch (i.e. the rocket arrives at exactly 2000 km and has +/- error equal to 99 km).
8th Grade: Have the students do the “Sail to an Island Harbor” by hand first (give
them a first guess of 37.1º and tell them they should try to get an opposite side length
within 0.1 km of 602.8) and then check their answer with the excel file. Hopefully
they will only have to do the calculations three times: 37.1 – see it needs to be
smaller. 37.05 – see it needs to be bigger. 37.075 – bingo!
 Increasing the Accuracy of Measurements
Sailing to an Island Harbor!
Name:__________________________________

Harbor Date: __________________________________

Island
1 km Center

1000 km 600 km

37 + ? º
37º
Final distance
Angle Find sine of Angle Within 0.1 km
Known Corrected Mult by Length of Side Subtract away from
Adjustment (use trig table or a from the
Angle Angle 1000km Opposite Angle Known Value Island Center:
(in degrees) calculator) harbor?
(km)
? + 37.0 = ? > ? x 1000.0 = ? - ? = 1.0 Yes

0.0 + 37.0 = 37.0 > 0.60 x 1000.0 = 600.00 - 600.0 = 0.0 No

To do this problem by hand would mean guessing and doing all the calculations multiple times until the proper distance is found. While the
calculation is not that difficult, doing it over and over is time consuming. Instead, a computer can be used to do all the calculating (once the
equations have been programmed in).

AT THE COMPUTER:
To solve the problem, you simply supply the guesses in the highlited box → press ENTER → get the calculated result immediately (computers do
math much faster than humans). As the captain of the ship, you know that you are exactly 1000 km from the center of the island and at an angle of
37º. You also know that the harbor is 1km north of the center. Therefore you need to adjust the 37º angle so that your ship arrives within 1km of
the center of the island, and 0.1km of the harbor!

Have each person in your group write down something they would search for on this mystery island!:
__________________________________________ __________________________________________
__________________________________________ __________________________________________
__________________________________________ __________________________________________

Navigation: Lesson 4, Computer Accuracy Activity - Worksheet

 Increasing the Accuracy of Measurements
Rocket Ship to a Moon Orbit!

If your ship is only accurate to +/- 0.1º, then you will +0.1º
1900 to
actually have an angle slightly higher or lower than the 2100 km
original 37 + ?º guess. That can make a big difference
after 382,700 km! -0.1º

230,315 km
382,700 km 37 + ?º
37º

Accuracy
= 0.100
Error
Plus and Roughly 1900
Find sine of Angle
Minus Known Mult by Length of Side Subtract Final distance to 2100 km
Angle used (use trig table or a
Errors Angle 382,700 km Opposite Angle Exact Value off by: (km) from the
calculator)
(degrees) Moon center?
0.1 + 37.1 = 37.1 + ? > ? x 382700.0 = ? - 230,314.6 km = ?

? + 37.0 = 37 + ? > ? x 382700.0 = ? - 230,314.6 km = 2000.0 Yes

-0.1 + 36.9 = 37.1 - ? > ? x 382700.0 = ? - 230,314.6 km = ?

AT THE COMPUTER:
First, your engineers know the distance and the angle from the Earth to the center of the Moon very accurately. You are trying to get your rocket
into orbit around the Moon, so you need to adjust your 37º angle. However, you cannot be entirely sure of your new measurements. That means
your measurement will be within +/- 0.1º. First: Enter this number in the highlited outlined Accuracy Error box. Will this +/- 0.1º make a difference?
Try to find the needed adjustment to the 37º angle that puts your rocket in orbit.
Is it possible to launch safely if you can only aim your rocket to within +/- 0.1º? _____________________
What is your best angle? _______________________________

Second: Upgrade your navigation system so it is accurate within +/- 0.01º (enter this number in the Accuracy Error box).
Can you get both the plus and minus errors within the safe zone? _______________________
Is it possible to launch safely now? _____________________ What is your best angle? _________________________________

Navigation: Lesson 4, Computer Accuracy Activity - Worksheet

Activity: Sextant Solutions

This activity is planned for 28 students working individually or in

groups according to the number of computers available.

Activity Materials List —

• Sextant Corrections Excel File
• Sextant Corrections Worksheets (The teacher can decide
whether each student will be given a worksheet to
complete or students will complete one worksheet per
group)

Activity Equipment and Tools List —

• Computers with Microsoft Office - Excel
• Pencils
• Calculators (if available)

Activity Cost Estimate —

$0 (assuming computers are available.)

Activity Attachments —
Sextant Corrections Excel File
Sextant Corrections Worksheet

Activity Time Estimate —

40-50 min.

Activity Procedure —
A. Background:
The earliest explorers did not have computers or satellites to help them know their exact
location. The most accurate tool developed was the sextant to determine latitude and
longitude.
Continuing with the concept of trying to measure small angles accurately, introduce the
sextant and discuss it with the class. Instead of trying to line up a separate horizon line
and sun line, the sextant allowed the two images to be moved together — greatly
increasing the accuracy of the angle measured.
A sextant's accuracy is expressed in "seconds of arc." A degree is divided into 60 minutes
(noted as 60') and a minute is divided into 60 seconds (noted as 60''). A good thing to
remember is that each minute of angular measurement represents a distance of one
nautical mile. A sextant scale can generally read out to one-fifth or one-tenth of a minute
— that seems pretty accurate! But that reading is not the final accuracy, as there are
several corrections that must be made to that angle. At this point the navigator must do
what amounts to a full page of corrections and calculations using astronomical tables and
charts. The accuracy of the correction values affects the final result and the calculations
offer ample opportunity for human error.
Depending on the accuracy of the corrections, the final angular measurement could easily
be off by several minutes or more, so most navigators (assuming they were skilled and
had good weather) could expect at best an accuracy of within a few miles.
Today refined manufacturing techniques and robust materials make sextants last longer
but cannot improve the accuracy. The accuracy is limited by the fuzzy edges of celestial
objects. Skill in use and better understanding of the math and geometry involved can
improve accuracy slightly compared to the past. But there is still the large chance of
error in the pages of calculations needed! This is where a modern advantage finally
comes in — the computer.
When used properly by an experienced navigator and under ideal weather conditions, a
well-made sextant can measure an angle with precision to the nearest ten seconds of arc
(10 seconds of a degree is about 0.003 degrees of a 360-degree circle!). A computer can
do the corrections and calculations quickly and an accuracy of 0.2 miles in final position
is possible. More likely it will be about twice that under normal weather conditions (0.4
miles) and in poor conditions it may still be 1-2 miles off. No better than in good
weather conditions hundreds of years ago, but thanks to the computer you did not have to
do all that math! This activity will show how computers can be used to understand
equations even when people don’t know how to do the math.
Sextant Use and Error
The sextant is a high precision
instrument. Be very careful when
handling one. Even shaking it roughly
might cause damage. The movable
arm has an arc range of 60 degrees,
and this is why it is called a sextant.
You double this measurement to 120
degrees to find your altitude angle.
Every sextant has an inherent error,
which is called its offset. Sextants can
be calibrated to find out their offset.
Once you know this you can correct
for the error of the sextant when you
do your calculations.
What are the Other Errors?
Besides the sextant offset, there are many other sources of error. We will look at the 2 of
them.
1. If you look at the picture above, you can see that the person that looks at
the horizon isn’t actually looking straight, but down a bit. This is because
of the earth is round, not flat. The angle that you look down depends on
how tall you are. If you were on top of a building that was in the middle
 of a big field, you would have to look down quite a bit to see the horizon.
If you lying on your stomach in the field, you wouldn’t have to look down
at all. You can see this by looking at the Sextant Corrections Worksheet).
It’s easier to use a sextant when you’re standing, so the angle that you’re
measuring is actually larger than the true altitude. This error is called the
“dip of the sea horizon.” Luckily, it is really easy to figure out using the
formula below:

H is the height of your eye in meters and DIP is the correction in

minutes of arc. Subtract this from the angle you measure off the
sextant.

2. Another source of error is the refraction effect of the atmosphere. The

atmosphere of the earth bends the light coming from the sun. The sun
might be below the horizon, but the atmosphere will bend the sunlight so
that you still see it. Just like the DIP, this makes the altitude seem larger
than it is. The amount of bending depends on the atmospheric pressure,
the temperature and your altitude. A good approximation for this error is:

The triangle is called delta and is in minutes of arc

P is the atmospheric pressure in millibars (1 atm = 1013 millibars)
T is the temperature in degrees Kelvin
Alt is the altitude in degrees (reading from the sextant corrected for dip.)

B. Before the activity:

1. Print out Worksheets for each group or individual.
2. The Excel files are protected from changes (with the exception of the data entry
boxes), but the protection can be removed. If students are fairly computer savvy, a
password may be added to guard the protection. If you are going to do this, do it and
save before loading onto other computers.
a. On the Tools menu, point to Protection, and then click Unprotect Sheet.
b. On the Tools menu, point to Protection, and then click Protect Sheet.
 c. When prompted, leave all boxes checked and enter the protection password
for the worksheet. Passwords are case sensitive. To unprotect the sheet again,
you must type the password exactly as it was created, including uppercase and
lowercase letters.

3. Load the Sextant Corrections Excel File onto all computers and put it in an easy to
access place (Desktop, for instance), or better yet, have it opened up when students
arrive.

Note: In the “Refraction of the Atmosphere” section, the Temperature and Pressure data
boxes are not protected. This is to allow the option of investigating these variables but
they are not highlighted to keep the basic lesson more focused. See Suggestions to Scale
Activity for Grades 6 to 8.

C. With the Students:

Before students go to the computers:
1. Divide class into groups (depending on the number of computers available) and
give each student or group the Sextant Corrections Worksheet.
2. Discuss the concepts of the “Dip of the Sea” correction. If students have
calculators have them check the 2-meter height example answer.
3. Discuss the concepts of the “Refraction of the Atmosphere” correction. Reassure
them they will NOT have to do this calculation by hand! Emphasize that the
computer will be doing that calculation every time they put in a new number.
This allows students to try many angles and look for trends in the results.
At the Computers:
4. Have students do the “Dip of the Sea” correction and answer the questions on the
worksheet.
5. Have students do the “Refraction of the Atmosphere” correction and answer the
questions at the bottom of the Worksheet.
6. Each group or individual should turn in the worksheet when complete. No print
out is needed.

(For ambitious students: try doing the Refraction example equation. The 10 degrees
Celsius temperature must be converted to Kelvin (283.15 degrees) when used in the
equation, and all other values are as shown. Note the results are given in minutes of arc,
and there are 60 minutes of arc in 1 degree.)

Math Skills Reinforced —

6th, 7th, 8th: Students will use basic trigonometric functions to determine angle
measurements. In addition, they will analyze functional relationships and examine how a
change in one variable results to chance in another.
Activity Desired Student Outcomes —
After this activity, students should know that computers are much faster at doing math
calculations than humans. When higher accuracy is needed, calculations become more
difficult so using computers is even more practical. Computers allow you to try many
numbers in an equation quickly — giving the operator a better chance to understand what
the equation represents.

Activity Assessment & Evaluation —

Pre-Activity Assessment
• Discussion:
o Who would believe me if I told you that when you are looking at a sunset,
the sun has actually already set? (Answer: Encourage discussion: How
much can we trust our eyes? Is the sun setting or are we? How could the
sun have already set if we can still see it?) It is a true statement because
the Earth’s atmosphere refracts (bends) the rays of sunlight over the
horizon so we still see them for a while after the sun has geometrically set!
Activity Embedded Assessment
• Worksheet/Computer Calculations: Students follow and complete the Excel file
and worksheet.
Post-Activity Assessment
• Questions/Answers:
o Would someone using a sextant on the moon need to make these same
corrections? Why or why not? How might they be different? (Answer:
The horizon dip effect would still need to be corrected on the moon and it
would be larger because the moon is smaller than Earth so its horizon
“dips” away even faster than Earth’s. Imagine standing on a basketball!
Looking down you can see almost 90 degrees around the horizon of the
ball. This is a HUGE dip error. The refraction of the atmosphere
correction would not be needed since the moon has almost no
atmosphere.)

Suggestions to Scale Activity for Grades 6 to 8 —

• 6th Grade: Have the students do one worksheet per group and help each other.
• 7th Grade: Do activity as is.
• 8th Grade: Let students try varying the temperature and atmosphere values for
the refraction correction. A normal range for these is -15 deg C to 40 deg C,
and 970 mbar to 1030 mbar. Taking data and plotting these is a good way to
see which affect the equation the most. Challenge students to determine why
these values increase or decrease the refraction. A: Cold air is denser than hot
air and high-pressure air is denser than low-pressure air; therefore, a denser
atmosphere creates more refraction.
 Sextant Corrections Worksheet

Name : _______________________
Date: _________________________
"Dip of the Sea Horizon"

Angle measured from horizon Height (H) of eyes above "Dip of the Sea" Divide by 60 to Corrected
(degrees) sea or ground (in meters) in arc minutes convert to degrees Measurement
20 2 2.4791 0.0413 19.9587

Corrected Angle: 19.959 degrees

SEXTANT Angle Measured:

20 degrees

Must subtract
"Dip of the Sea"
Height above
angle: 0.0413 degrees
sea: 2 meters
Draw a picture of a
navigator in the boat! HORIZON

AT THE COMPUTER: Input these heights and record the "Dip" Correction to see how increasing height affects a sextant measurement!

Height above Sea "Dip" Correction Does the "Dip" correction get bigger or smaller as height is increased? _________

2 m (in the row boat) At what height does the corrected measurement become a negative value? _____
5 m (swabbing the deck)
10 m (Captain's helm) If the sun had set and was 10 degrees below the horizon (so the corrected angle
50 m (up the mast) would be -10 degrees!) - how high (in meters) would you have to fly to see it rise to
100 m (shot out of a cannon) a 20 degree angle? _____________ You just made the sun rise (and are well into
300 m (hot air balloon) orbit)!
1000 m (you're in an airplane!)

L4-A3-Sextant Correction Worksheet.xls

 Sextant Corrections Worksheet

"Refraction of the Atmosphere"

For this correction, the math is a bit more complicated and there are 3 inputs to the equation:
1. (Alt) - the angle from the sextant - corrected for horizon dip!
2. (P) - the atmospheric pressure
3. (T) - the atmospheric temperature Apparent Sun
Position
Must subtract angle
"Refraction of Atmosphere"
Actual Sun
Refraction of sunlight Position
due to atmosphere
SPACE

ATMOSPHERE

Final Corrected Angle

Original Angle
Measured Must subtract
"Dip of the Sea"

HORIZON

Example Calculation - without these corrections, their final position would be off by 5 miles (1 arcsec = 1 mile)
Refraction of Final
Temperature - Celsius Original Angle "Dip" corrected
Normal Sea-Level Atmospheric atmosphere Correction in Corrected
(equivalent to 50° Farenheit Mesured angle from before
Pressure (millibars) correction degrees Angle
or 283.15° Kelvin) (degrees) (degrees)
(arc minutes) (degrees)
1010 10 20 19.959 2.605 0.043 19.916
AT THE COMPUTER: Change the value in the outlined box. What happens to the correction if the sun is close to the horizon? ____________
What happens if the sun is high in the sky? ___________ Why is the correction larger at lower sun angles? __________________________
At what angle does the sun have a correction of about 1.0 arc minute (1 mile)? ___________

L4-A3-Sextant Correction Worksheet.xls