Multiple Choice Questions (MCQS)

1) Computer vision is concerned with modeling and replicating human vision using computer
software and hardware.

a. TRUE

b. FALSE

c. Can be true or false

d. Can not say

Answer: a. TRUE

Explanation:

Computer vision is a field of artificial intelligence that aims to train computers to interpret and
understand visual information from the world, similar to how humans see. It uses software and
hardware to achieve this, making the statement TRUE.

=========

2. Computer vision is a discipline that studies how to reconstruct, interrupt and understand a 3d
scene from its

a. Id images

b. 2d images

c. 3d images

d. 4d images

Answer: b. 2d images

Explanation:

Computer vision often deals with analyzing the visual world captured through cameras or
sensors, which provide 2D images (flat images with width and height). While the goal might be
to understand 3D scenes, the initial information comes from 2D data.

========

3. What is the smallest unit of an image?

a. I sq. mm

b. DPI

c. Pixel

d. None of the above

Answer: c. Pixel

Explanation

A pixel (picture element) is the fundamental unit of a digital image. It represents a single point in
the image with a specific color value.

===========

4. How can we change the resolution of an image from 1280 x 720 pixel to 720 x 480 pixel?

a. image Cropping

b. image Resizing

c. Image Skewing

d. None of the above

Answer: b. Image Resizing

Explanation :

Image resizing refers to the process of changing the dimensions (number of pixels) of an image.
In this case, you would be reducing the image size from 1280x720 to 720x480 pixels.

Image cropping removes unwanted portions of an image, while skewing distorts the image.

==========

5. Which of the following combination of colors can be used to represent almost any color in
electronic systems?

a. Yellow-Red-Green

b. Blue-White-Green

c. Red-Yellow-White

d. Green-Red-Blue

Answer: d. Green-Red-Blue (RGB)

Explanation: The RGB (Red, Green, Blue) color model is the most common way to represent
colors in electronic systems like TVs, monitors, and digital cameras. By combining these three
primary colors in various intensities, you can create a vast range of colors.

Study the following :

1) Computer vision and Image processing

Image Processing:
  Focus: Manipulating and enhancing digital images.

 Goals: Improve image quality, extract specific features, or prepare images for further
analysis.

 Common Tasks: Noise reduction, sharpening, color correction, filtering, resizing,

cropping, and image segmentation (separating objects from the background).

 Applications: Photo editing, medical imaging analysis, industrial inspection, and

visual effects for movies.

Computer Vision:

 Focus: Extracting meaningful information from images and videos.

 Goals: Make computers "see" and understand the visual world.

 Common Tasks: Object detection (finding and identifying objects in an image),

object recognition (classifying objects based on their appearance), scene
understanding (interpreting the content of an image), and image retrieval (finding
similar images).

 Applications: Self-driving cars, facial recognition, robotics, medical diagnosis,

augmented reality, and surveillance systems.

Key Differences:

 Image processing is a fundamental step that often precedes computer vision tasks.
It prepares the image data for further analysis.

 Computer vision builds upon image processing and goes beyond to interpret the
visual content and extract meaning.

The Relationship:

Think of image processing as the foundation and computer vision as the building on top.
Image processing techniques are used to improve the quality and clarity of the image data,
making it easier for computer vision algorithms to understand the content.

2) Linear filters and Non-Linear Filters

Linear Filters:

 Behavior: Operate in a predictable, proportional way. The output is directly proportional

to the input. Think of it as a straight line.

 Key Characteristics:

o Scaling: Doubling the input results in doubling the output.

 o Shifting: Shifting the entire input signal by a constant value results in the output
being shifted by the same constant value.

o Superposition: The output for a sum of two inputs is the sum of the outputs for
each individual input.

 Common Examples:

o Mean Filter (averages pixel values in a neighborhood)

o Gaussian Filter (blurs the image with a bell-shaped function)

o Median Filter (replaces a pixel with the median value of its neighbors)

 Applications: Smoothing images (noise reduction), sharpening edges, blurring specific

regions.

Non-Linear Filters:

 Behavior: More complex, their output doesn't strictly follow a proportional relationship
with the input. They can create new information not present in the original image.

 Key Characteristics:

o Do not necessarily follow scaling, shifting, or superposition principles.

o Can introduce non-linearities like thresholding or replacing pixels based on

specific conditions.

 Common Examples:

o Median Filter (can be considered non-linear for certain edge cases)

o Bilateral Filter (preserves edges while smoothing)

o Canny Edge Detector (identifies and enhances edges)

 Applications: Sharpening edges while preserving details, noise reduction while keeping
edges intact, feature detection (like edges or corners).

Choosing the Right Filter:

The choice between linear and non-linear filters depends on the specific task:

 Use linear filters for tasks requiring noise reduction, smoothing, or basic feature
extraction while preserving overall image structure.

 Use non-linear filters for tasks requiring edge enhancement, noise reduction while
keeping edges, or feature detection where manipulating pixel relationships is necessary.

Additional Points:

 Linear filters are generally faster to compute compared to non-linear filters.

  Non-linear filters can be more powerful for specific tasks but might introduce artifacts or
distortions if not used carefully.

3) Convolution and Deconvolution

Convolution:

Imagine you have two signals:

 Input signal: Represents the original image or data.

 Kernel (filter): A small matrix containing weights that define the operation performed on
the input.

Convolution essentially slides the kernel across the input signal, element-wise multiplication is
done at each position, and the products are summed up. This results in a new output signal that
captures the effect of the kernel on the input.

Think of it like this:

 The input signal is like a sheet of music.

 The kernel is like a musical filter that emphasizes or de-emphasizes certain notes
(frequencies) based on the weights.

 By sliding the filter across the music (convolution), you create a new version with the
filter's effect applied.

Common Convolution Applications:

 Blurring: Averaging neighboring pixels (smoothing).

 Sharpening: Highlighting edges by emphasizing high-frequency components.

 Edge detection: Identifying strong intensity changes.

 Feature extraction: Extracting specific patterns from the image.

Deconvolution:

Deconvolution is like the inverse of convolution. It aims to recover the original signal (before
convolution) by removing the influence of the kernel. However, deconvolution is a more complex
process because it's often an ill-posed problem – there might not be a unique solution,
especially if the kernel is not carefully chosen or the signal is corrupted by noise.

Imagine it like this:

 You have the filtered music (convolution output).

 Deconvolution tries to remove the filter's effect and get back to the original music (less
like an inverse operation and more like an educated guess).
Common Deconvolution Applications:

 Image restoration: Removing blur caused by camera motion or lens imperfections.

 Microscopy image deblurring: Enhancing the resolution of microscopic images.

 Signal denoising: Removing noise introduced during image acquisition.

Key Differences:

 Convolution is simpler to compute and often has a well-defined solution.

 Deconvolution is more challenging due to the potential for multiple solutions and the
need for regularization techniques to handle noise and ill-posedness.

The Convolution-Deconvolution Duo:

Convolution is a powerful tool for manipulating signals, while deconvolution attempts to undo
those manipulations or recover lost information. They play a crucial role in various image
processing tasks, allowing us to enhance, analyze, and restore images for better understanding
and interpretation.

4) Sampling and Quantization

Sampling and Quantization: Converting the Analog World to Digital

In the realm of digital images, sampling and quantization are two fundamental processes
that bridge the gap between the continuous analog world and the discrete digital world.
Let's delve into how they work together:
Sampling:
Imagine a continuous image as a vast landscape with infinite detail. Sampling is like taking
measurements at specific points on that landscape. These points become the pixels (picture
elements) that represent the image in the digital realm.
 Sampling Rate: This determines the density of these measurements – how many pixels
are used to represent the image. A higher sampling rate (more pixels) captures more
detail but creates a larger file size.
Think of it like this:
 Discretizing a continuous curve – you capture key points but lose some finer details
between those points.
 The more points you capture (higher sampling rate), the closer your digital
representation gets to the original curve.
Quantization:
Once we have our sampled points (pixels), each point needs a digital value to represent its
intensity or color. Quantization is the process of assigning these discrete values.
 Number of Bits: This determines the number of possible intensity or color levels a pixel
can have. Fewer bits (e.g., 8-bit grayscale) result in fewer levels (less detail), while more
bits (e.g., 24-bit color) offer a wider range (more detail).
Think of it like this:
  Assigning brightness levels to each sampled point on the landscape – a limited number
of shades (fewer bits) vs. a vast spectrum of shades (more bits).
The Impact of Sampling and Quantization:
 Trade-off between Accuracy and Storage: Higher sampling rates and more bits per pixel
capture more detail but create larger files.
 Information Loss: Both processes introduce some information loss compared to the
original image.
Together, sampling and quantization are essential for converting analog images (like those
captured by cameras) into digital images that computers can process, store, and transmit.
Additional Points:
 Different sampling techniques (e.g., uniform, non-uniform) can be used depending on
the image content.
 Quantization errors can sometimes lead to visible artifacts in the image.

Explain the examples:

1) Pixel processing
Pixel processing refers to the manipulation of individual pixels within a digital image. It's a
fundamental technique in image processing that allows you to modify the image data to
achieve various goals. Here are some common examples of pixel processing:
 Noise Reduction: Techniques like averaging neighboring pixels or applying filters can
help remove unwanted noise that appears as random variations in brightness or color.
 Color Correction: Pixel processing can adjust the overall color balance, contrast, and
saturation of an image. You can brighten dark images, reduce washed-out colors, or
adjust the white balance for more natural-looking colors.
 Image Enhancement: Sharpening filters can emphasize edges and details, while blurring
filters can soften harsh transitions and create a smoother appearance.
 Image Segmentation: Pixel processing techniques can be used to identify and separate
objects from the background. This is crucial for tasks like object recognition and tracking
in computer vision.
 Special Effects: Pixel processing can be used to create various artistic effects like
applying a grayscale filter, creating a vintage look, or adding a soft glow.
Here's a breakdown of how these examples involve manipulating pixels:
 Noise Reduction: By analyzing the values of neighboring pixels, you can replace a noisy
pixel with a value that better reflects the surrounding area.
 Color Correction: You can adjust the red, green, and blue (RGB) values of each pixel to
achieve the desired color balance.
 Image Enhancement: Sharpening filters manipulate pixel values to increase the contrast
between neighboring pixels, highlighting edges. Conversely, blurring filters average pixel
values, creating a smoother transition.
 Image Segmentation: Techniques like thresholding can classify pixels based on their
intensity values, separating foreground objects from the background.
  Special Effects: By modifying pixel values according to specific algorithms, you can create
various visual effects by altering the color channels, applying filters, or blending pixels in
specific ways.

2) Template matching
Template matching is a technique in image processing used to find locations in an image
(larger image) that closely resemble a smaller reference image (template). It's like searching
for a specific pattern within a bigger picture. Here's how it works:
1. Define the Template: You choose a small image (template) that represents the object or
pattern you want to find in the larger image.
2. Slide and Compare: The template is then systematically "slided" across the larger image,
pixel by pixel. At each position, a similarity measure is calculated between the template
and the corresponding patch of pixels in the larger image.
3. Matching Locations: The locations where the similarity measure is highest are
considered potential matches for the template in the larger image.
There are different ways to define the similarity measure, such as:
 Sum of Squared Differences (SSD): Calculates the squared difference between
corresponding pixels in the template and the image patch. Lower SSD indicates a better
match.
 Normalized Cross-Correlation (NCC): Measures how well the template and image patch
correlate, considering their overall intensity variations. Values closer to 1 indicate a good
match.
Applications of Template Matching:
 Object Detection: Finding specific objects in images, like faces in a crowd, logos on
products, or traffic signs in road scenes.
 Visual Inspection: Identifying defects or anomalies in manufactured parts by comparing
them to a template of a good part.
 Pattern Recognition: Locating specific patterns in images, such as barcodes, QR codes, or
optical character recognition (OCR) for reading text.
 Image Registration: Aligning two images of the same scene taken from slightly different
viewpoints.
Here's an example to illustrate:
Imagine you have a template image of a specific car logo and a larger image of a busy city
street. Template matching can be used to find all instances of the logo appearing on cars
within the street scene image. The similarity measure would be calculated between the logo
template and various patches in the street scene image to identify potential matches.
Limitations of Template Matching:
 Variations in Appearance: The template matching might struggle if the object has
variations in size, rotation, or illumination compared to the template.
 Clutter and Background: Complex backgrounds or objects partially occluding the target
can lead to false positives or missed detections.

3) Fourier transforms
Fourier transforms are powerful mathematical tools used in image processing to analyze the
frequency content of an image. They essentially decompose an image from the spatial
domain (where we see pixels) into the frequency domain (where we see how much of each
frequency is present). Here's how understanding Fourier transforms helps with image
processing tasks:
Examples:
1. Image Filtering:
 Many image filters, like blurring or sharpening, can be designed and implemented more
efficiently in the frequency domain using Fourier transforms.
 By transforming the image to the frequency domain, you can isolate specific frequency
ranges that correspond to desired features (e.g., high frequencies for edges).
 You can then manipulate these frequencies (e.g., attenuate high frequencies for
blurring) and transform the image back to the spatial domain to achieve the filtering
effect.
2. Noise Reduction:
 Noise in an image often manifests as high-frequency components in the frequency
domain.
 By analyzing the frequency spectrum, you can identify and remove these unwanted
high-frequency components while preserving the low-frequency components
representing the actual image content.
3. Image Compression:
 Fourier transforms help understand which frequencies contribute most to the visual
information in an image.
 By discarding less important high-frequency information while preserving the essential
low-frequency components, you can achieve image compression without significant
visual degradation.
4. Frequency-Based Sharpening:
 Standard sharpening filters might amplify noise along with edges.
 Fourier transforms allow you to selectively enhance specific frequency ranges
corresponding to edges while keeping other frequencies less affected, leading to more
targeted sharpening.
Understanding the Analogy:
Imagine an image as a musical piece. The spatial domain is like listening to the entire song.
The frequency domain is like analyzing the individual notes and their prominence.
 Fourier transforms decompose the image into its "musical notes" (frequencies).
 Image processing tasks then become like manipulating the music – attenuating some
notes (blurring), boosting others (sharpening), or removing unwanted noise.
Benefits of using Fourier Transforms:
 Efficient Filtering: Frequency domain manipulations can be more computationally
efficient for certain filtering tasks compared to directly modifying pixels in the spatial
domain.
 Separation of Concerns: By analyzing frequencies, you can focus on specific image
features (edges, noise) and manipulate them independently.
However, there are also limitations:
 Computational Cost: While efficient for specific tasks, Fourier transforms themselves can
be computationally expensive for very large images.
 Shifting Issues: Operations in the frequency domain can sometimes cause artifacts in
the spatial domain due to the shifting property of Fourier transforms.

4) Edge Detection :

Edge detection is a fundamental technique in image processing that aims to identify

locations in an image where there is a significant change in intensity (brightness or color).
These changes often correspond to the boundaries of objects in the image. Here's a
breakdown of why edge detection is important and how it works:

Importance of Edges:

 Edges often represent the boundaries of objects in an image. By identifying edges, we

can extract important information about the shapes and locations of objects within the
scene.

 Edges can also hold crucial details about texture and surface orientation.

How Edge Detection Works:

The core idea behind edge detection is to find pixels where the intensity of the image
changes rapidly. Here are some common approaches:

1. Gradient-Based Methods: These methods calculate the derivative (rate of change) of the
image intensity at each pixel. A large derivative indicates a significant change in intensity,
suggesting a potential edge. Common examples include:

o Sobel Operator: Uses two masks to calculate the intensity changes in horizontal
and vertical directions.

o Prewitt Operator: Similar to Sobel but with different masks.

2. Laplacian of Gaussian (LoG): This method applies a specific filter to the image that
emphasizes edges while suppressing noise.

3. Canny Edge Detection: This popular algorithm combines multiple steps to achieve
robust edge detection:

o Smoothing the image with a Gaussian filter to reduce noise.

o Calculating image gradients.

o Applying non-maximum suppression to thin edges and remove multiple

responses to the same edge.

o Using hysteresis thresholding to identify strong and weak edges based on

connectivity.

Applications of Edge Detection:

  Object Recognition: Identifying and classifying objects in images often relies on edge
detection to delineate their boundaries.

 Image Segmentation: Separating objects from the background is a crucial step in many
computer vision tasks, and edge detection plays a key role in achieving this.

 Motion Detection: Edges can be used to track object movement in video sequences.

 Image Analysis: Edge detection helps extract structural features from images, useful for
various applications like medical image analysis or character recognition in documents.

Challenges in Edge Detection:

 Noise: Noise in the image can lead to false edge detection or mask real edges. Proper
filtering techniques are often needed before applying edge detection algorithms.

 Blurring: Blurred edges due to camera motion or lens imperfections can be difficult to
detect accurately.

 Low Contrast: Edges with low contrast between neighboring pixels might be missed by
some algorithms.

5) Canny Edge detector

The Canny Edge Detector is a widely used and well-regarded algorithm specifically designed
for robust edge detection in images. It addresses some of the challenges faced by simpler
gradient-based methods and aims to achieve the following goals:
 High Detection Rate: Accurately identify a high percentage of real edges present in the
image.
 Good Localization: Edges should be precisely located at the actual intensity transitions.
 Single Edge Response: Avoid detecting the same edge multiple times due to noise or
slight variations.
 Noise Immunity: Be resistant to noise in the image that could lead to false edge
detections.
The Canny Edge Detector achieves these goals through a multi-stage approach:
1. Smoothing: The image is first processed with a Gaussian filter to reduce noise. Noise can
lead to spurious edges, and smoothing helps mitigate this issue.
2. Gradient Calculation: Sobel operator (or similar) is applied to calculate the image
gradient (intensity change) in both horizontal and vertical directions. The gradient
magnitude and direction are computed at each pixel.
3. Non-Maximum Suppression: This step aims to thin out edges and remove multiple
responses to the same edge caused by noise or slight intensity variations. Only the pixel
with the highest gradient magnitude within a local neighborhood is retained as the edge
point, suppressing the weaker responses around it.
4. Hysteresis Thresholding: Two thresholds (high and low) are used to identify strong and
weak edges based on their connectivity. Pixels with a gradient magnitude above the high
threshold are directly classified as strong edges. Pixels with a gradient magnitude
 between the high and low thresholds are considered potential edges only if they are
connected to strong edges. This helps eliminate weak, isolated edges that might be
noise-induced.
Benefits of Canny Edge Detector:
 Robustness: The multi-stage approach makes it less susceptible to noise compared to
simpler methods.
 Accurate Localization: It aims to pinpoint edges precisely at the location of intensity
transitions.
 Single Edge Response: Reduces the possibility of detecting the same edge multiple
times.
However, there are also some limitations:
 Computational Cost: Compared to simpler edge detection methods, Canny edge
detection can be slightly more computationally expensive due to the multiple processing
steps involved.
 Parameter Tuning: The performance of the algorithm can be sensitive to the choice of
thresholds and filter sizes. These parameters might need adjustments depending on the
specific image characteristics.

6) Sift Detector
The SIFT detector (Scale-Invariant Feature Transform) is a powerful technique used in
computer vision for identifying and describing distinctive keypoints in images. These
keypoints act like visual fingerprints that can be used for various tasks, including:
 Object recognition: Matching keypoints between an object in a scene and a reference
image allows recognition of the object.
 Image retrieval: Finding similar images in a database by comparing their keypoints.
 Image stitching: Aligning multiple images of a scene by matching keypoints across them
to create a panoramic view.
 3D reconstruction: Recovering the 3D structure of a scene from multiple images can be
aided by matching keypoints.
What makes SIFT keypoints special?
SIFT detectors aim to find keypoints that are:
 Distinctive: They should be unique and easily distinguishable from other image regions.
This allows for robust matching across different viewpoints and lighting conditions.
 Scale-invariant: Their appearance shouldn't significantly change with image scaling,
allowing for recognition of objects at different sizes.
 Rotation-invariant: The keypoints should be identifiable regardless of the image's
rotation.
How does SIFT achieve this?
SIFT detection involves several steps:
1. Scale-Space Extrema Detection: The image is progressively blurred at different scales,
creating a "scale-space" representation. Then, keypoint candidates are identified as local
maxima or minima across these scales. This ensures the keypoints are stable across
different image magnifications.
 2. Keypoint Localization: Precise location and sub-pixel refinement are performed on the
candidate keypoints to ensure their accuracy.
3. Orientation Assignment: A dominant orientation is assigned to each keypoint based on
the local image gradient information. This helps achieve rotation invariance, as keypoint
descriptors will be computed relative to this orientation.
4. Keypoint Descriptor Calculation: A descriptor is created for each keypoint. This
descriptor captures the distribution of gradients around the keypoint, encoding its local
image information in a way that is robust to variations in illumination and viewpoint.
Benefits of SIFT:
 Robustness: SIFT keypoints are highly distinctive and resistant to changes in scale,
rotation, and illumination.
 Widely Used: SIFT is a well-established technique with extensive research and
applications in computer vision.
Limitations of SIFT:
 Computational Cost: SIFT can be computationally expensive compared to simpler
feature detectors.
 Sensitivity to Noise: While robust, SIFT can still be affected by excessive noise in images.

Explain the following algorithms:

1) Sequential labeling algorithm
The sequential labeling algorithm is a technique used in image processing for labeling
connected components in a binary image. A binary image only has two pixel values: 0
(usually representing background) and 1 (usually representing foreground objects).
Connected components refer to groups of pixels with the value 1 that are connected to each
other, either horizontally, vertically, or diagonally (depending on the chosen connectivity).
Here's how the sequential labeling algorithm works:
Steps:
1. Scan the image: The algorithm scans the image pixel by pixel, typically starting from the
top-left corner and moving row by row.
2. Check for a foreground pixel (value 1): If the current pixel is a foreground pixel (value 1):
o Check neighbors: Look at its immediate neighbors (usually the pixel above and
to the left).
o No labeled neighbors: If none of the neighbors have already been assigned a
label (value 0):
 Assign a new label:** Assign a new unique label (usually an integer
starting from 1) to the current pixel.
o Labeled neighbor(s): If one or both neighbors have already been assigned a
label:
 Assign existing label:** Assign the label of the first encountered labeled
neighbor to the current pixel.
 Equivalence record (optional): In some implementations, an
equivalence table might be maintained to track relationships between
labels that get merged. This can be useful for later processing.
 3. Continue scanning: Move on to the next pixel in the scan order and repeat steps 1 and
2.
Result:
By the end of the scan, each foreground pixel will be assigned a unique label, and all
connected pixels within an object will have the same label. This allows you to identify and
differentiate separate objects in the image based on their assigned labels.
Advantages:
 Simple and efficient: The sequential labeling algorithm is a relatively simple and efficient
way to label connected components in a binary image.
 Easy to implement: It can be easily implemented using basic programming techniques.
Disadvantages:
 Limited information: The algorithm only assigns labels and doesn't provide additional
information about the objects themselves (e.g., size, shape).
 Not suitable for grayscale images: This algorithm is specifically designed for binary
images and cannot be directly applied to grayscale images with multiple intensity values.

2) Hough Transform:
The Hough Transform is a powerful image processing technique used to identify specific
shapes, most commonly lines and circles, but also applicable to other parametric shapes,
within an image. It works by transforming the image from the spatial domain (where we see
pixels) to a parameter space, where votes are accumulated for potential instances of the
desired shape.
Here's a breakdown of the Hough Transform algorithm for lines:
Steps:
1. Edge Detection: The first step often involves applying an edge detection algorithm (like
Canny Edge Detector) to identify potential line segments in the image. This provides a
set of edge points to work with.
2. Parameterization: We define a line mathematically using two parameters:
o Theta (θ): Represents the angle of the line's normal vector (a line perpendicular
to the actual line) with respect to the x-axis.
o Rho (ρ): Represents the distance between the origin and the line.
3. Voting in Parameter Space: For each edge point in the image:
o Iterate through a range of possible theta and rho values.
o For each combination (θ, ρ), calculate the corresponding line equation based on
the parameterization.
o In the parameter space (often visualized as a grid), cast a vote at the cell
corresponding to the calculated (θ, ρ) values. This essentially indicates that the
current edge point could be part of a line with those specific parameters.
4. Peak Detection: After processing all edge points, identify cells in the parameter space
with a high number of votes. These peaks represent the most likely parameters for lines
present in the image.
5. Line Extraction: Based on the peak locations in the parameter space, back-calculate the
actual line equations using the chosen parameterization (θ and ρ). These equations
represent the detected lines in the original image.
Benefits of Hough Transform:
 Robust to Noise: By accumulating votes based on edge points, the Hough Transform can
be more robust to noise in the image compared to directly fitting lines to edge points.
 Can handle multiple lines: It can effectively detect multiple lines present in an image
simultaneously.
Limitations:
 Computational Cost: For complex shapes or large images, the voting process can be
computationally expensive.
 Parameter Selection: Choosing the appropriate range and resolution for the parameter
space can impact the accuracy of detection.
Variations of Hough Transform:
The basic idea of voting in parameter space can be extended to detect other shapes beyond
lines. Here are some examples:
 Circle Hough Transform: Uses similar principles but with different parameterization for
circles (center coordinates and radius).
 Generalized Hough Transform: Can be applied to detect more complex shapes by
defining appropriate parameterizations.