Study of Solar Cell I-V and C-V Characteristics

Hrishikesh Malladi, Lab Partner: Konnark Dey

I. OBJECTIVE: which can be calculated using the expression:

 
kT NA ND
1. Study of I-V Characteristic of a solar cell illumi- Vbi = ln (2)
nated by an incandescent lamp, at different fre- q n2i
quencies
where k is Boltzmann’s constant, T is the temperature,
2. Study of I-V Characteristic of a solar cell illumi- q is the electronic charge, NA and ND are the doping
nated by sun, at different frequencies concentrations of the acceptor and donor atoms, respec-
tively, and ni is the intrinsic carrier concentration of the
3. : The C-V measurement experiment of a solar cell semiconductor material.
is to study how the junction capacitance varies with
applied reverse bias and to estimate the doping den-
sity as well as the built-in potential.

II. APPARATUS: 2. Current Flow

• Constant Current Source The current-voltage relationship of the solar cell can
be described using the diode equation:
• Schering bridge setup with RF generator
 qV 
• MLCC and Disk Ceramic capacitors I = Idark − Ilight = I0 e nkT − 1 − Ilight (3)

• Inductors (50 mH) and Capacitors (50 and 150 nF) where I0 is the dark saturation current, V is the voltage
across the terminals of the solar cell, n is the ideality
• Heating Oven factor, and Ilight is the light-generated current.

• BaT iO3 sample

• Temperature sensor - PID controller

3. Parameters and Efficiency

III. THEORY

A. I-V Characteristics of Solar Cell The short-circuit current ISC can be obtained by set-
ting V = 0 in the diode equation.
tionPhotovoltaic Effect and Semiconductor Properties The open-circuit voltage VOC corresponds to the volt-
The photovoltaic effect generates electron-hole pairs age across the solar cell when the current is zero.
within the semiconductor material, which can be quan-
The fill factor F F can be calculated as:
tified by the number of electron-hole pairs generated per
unit time and unit volume, denoted as G. Pmax
The generation rate G can be expressed as: FF = (4)
VOC × ISC
G = αIlight (1) where Pmax is the maximum power output of the solar
cell.
where α is the absorption coefficient of the semiconductor
material and Ilight is the intensity of incident light. The efficiency η of the solar cell can be determined
using the formula:
Pout
1. Establishment of Potential Difference η= (5)
Pin
The potential difference Vbi across the depletion region where Pout is the electrical power output from the solar
of the p-n junction is related to the built-in potential Vbi , cell and Pin is the incident solar power.
2

(a) Working of Solar Cell

(a) Experimental Setup

(b) I-V plot of Solar Cell

Figure 1

(b) Solar I-V Characteristics Circuit Diagram

Figure 2
B. C-V Characteristics of Solar Cell

2. Capacitance of the Junction

1. Formation of Space Charge Region

The capacitance (C) of the junction is given by:

ϵs ϵ0 A
C= (7)
When a p-n junction is reverse biased, the width of the xd
depletion region (xd ) is given by:
where:
s
2ϵs ϵ0 (VDC + Vbi ) A is the area of the p-n junction.
xd = (6)
qNd

where: 3. Capacitance Variation with Voltage

ϵs is the dielectric constant of the semiconductor,

The reciprocal of the square of the capacitance ( C12 )
ϵ0 is the permittivity of free space, can be plotted against the applied reverse bias voltage
VDC is the applied reverse bias voltage, (VDC ) to determine the doping density and built-in po-
Vbi is the built-in voltage, tential of the junction.
q is the charge of an electron, 1 xd 2 2(Vbi + VDC )
Nd is the doping density. =[ ] =[ ] (8)
C2 ϵs ϵ0 A qNd ϵs ϵ0 A2
 3

Figure 3: Solar C-V Characteristics Circuit Diagram

4. Experimental Setup for C-V Measurement

The voltage (VDU T ) across the Device Under Test

(DUT) is given by:

R R
VDU T = −( VDC + VAC ) (9)
R1 RAC
where:

VDC is the applied DC voltage,

VAC is the applied AC voltage,
R is the resistance,
R1 is the D.C resistance,
R2 is the A.C resistance.

We use a trans-impedance amplifier (I to V converter)

so that the current flowing through the capacitor is
converted into voltage. The trans-impedance amplifier
generates a voltage output that is proportional to the
DUT capacitance (CDU T ) and VDU T . The magnitude
of the AC component of output voltage is given by
following equation:

CDU T 1
Vout = VDU T q (10)
CF 1 + (ωRF1CF )2
4

IV. OBSERVATIONS:

Table I: Normalised I-V Data of Solar Cell exposed under Sunlight

Filter: No Filter Blue Purple Green Yellow Red

Sl No V(v) I(mA) V(v) I(mA) V(v) I(mA) V(v) I(mA) V(v) I(mA) V(v) I(mA)
1 1.00 0.01 1.00 0.02 1.00 0.01 1.00 0.02 1.00 0.03 1.00 0.02
2 0.98 0.19 0.99 0.13 0.98 0.24 0.99 0.09 0.97 0.28 0.98 0.23
3 0.94 0.43 0.95 0.38 0.97 0.39 0.99 0.18 0.92 0.57 0.95 0.45
4 0.91 0.58 0.89 0.60 0.94 0.62 0.98 0.29 0.90 0.65 0.90 0.68
5 0.88 0.65 0.84 0.71 0.92 0.61 0.97 0.40 0.85 0.79 0.89 0.63
6 0.84 0.70 0.81 0.78 0.90 0.72 0.95 0.59 0.82 0.84 0.87 0.79
7 0.81 0.73 0.77 0.83 0.89 0.81 0.94 0.65 0.76 0.92 0.87 0.70
8 0.77 0.83 0.75 0.85 0.88 0.91 0.91 0.84 0.72 0.94 0.83 0.89
9 0.74 0.89 0.73 0.88 0.84 0.95 0.90 0.90 0.66 0.96 0.79 0.94
10 0.71 0.92 0.71 0.90 0.81 0.93 0.85 0.95 0.66 0.96 0.72 0.97
11 0.68 0.94 0.68 0.92 0.78 0.95 0.81 0.94 0.60 0.97 0.72 0.92
12 0.63 0.96 0.65 0.93 0.77 0.94 0.77 0.94 0.57 0.97 0.71 0.91
13 0.60 0.98 0.61 0.95 0.67 0.95 0.72 0.94 0.54 0.97 0.67 0.98
14 0.55 0.99 0.59 0.95 0.64 0.95 0.72 0.94 0.46 0.98 0.61 0.97
15 0.51 1.00 0.56 0.96 0.54 0.94 0.63 0.94 0.39 0.98 0.56 0.98
16 0.44 1.00 0.54 0.95 0.46 0.96 0.56 0.95 0.35 0.99 0.53 0.98
17 0.40 1.00 0.52 0.95 0.34 0.97 0.55 0.95 0.29 1.00 0.49 0.98
18 0.34 0.99 0.47 0.95 0.30 0.98 0.53 0.95 0.29 0.98 0.43 0.99
19 0.30 0.98 0.44 0.95 0.25 0.98 0.48 0.96 0.22 1.00 0.35 1.00
20 0.27 0.96 0.41 0.94 0.21 0.99 0.43 0.96 0.18 1.00 0.32 0.99
21 0.24 0.95 0.34 0.93 0.17 1.00 0.42 0.96 0.11 0.99 0.26 0.99
22 0.19 0.93 0.32 0.89 0.37 0.97 0.07 1.00 0.21 0.99
23 0.23 1.00 0.34 0.99 0.17 0.99
24 0.22 1.00 0.29 0.99 0.14 1.00
25 0.10 1.00 0.23 0.98 0.10 1.00
26 0.18 1.00
 5

Table II: Normalised P-V Data of Solar Cell exposed under Sunlight (i)

Filter No Filter Blue Purple

S. No Voltage (V) Power (mW) Current (mA) Voltage (V) Power (mW) Current (mA) Voltage (V) Power (mW) Current (mA)
1 1.00 0.01 0.01 1.00 0.02 0.02 1.00 0.01 0.01
2 0.98 0.19 0.19 0.99 0.13 0.13 0.98 0.23 0.24
3 0.94 0.41 0.43 0.95 0.36 0.38 0.97 0.38 0.39
4 0.91 0.52 0.58 0.89 0.54 0.60 0.94 0.58 0.62
5 0.88 0.57 0.65 0.84 0.60 0.71 0.92 0.56 0.61
6 0.84 0.59 0.70 0.81 0.63 0.78 0.90 0.65 0.72
7 0.81 0.59 0.73 0.77 0.64 0.83 0.89 0.72 0.81
8 0.77 0.64 0.83 0.75 0.64 0.85 0.88 0.79 0.91
9 0.74 0.66 0.89 0.73 0.64 0.88 0.84 0.79 0.95
10 0.71 0.65 0.92 0.71 0.63 0.90 0.81 0.75 0.93
11 0.68 0.64 0.94 0.68 0.62 0.92 0.78 0.74 0.95
12 0.63 0.61 0.96 0.65 0.61 0.93 0.77 0.72 0.94
13 0.60 0.58 0.98 0.61 0.58 0.95 0.67 0.63 0.95
14 0.55 0.54 0.99 0.59 0.56 0.95 0.64 0.61 0.95
15 0.51 0.51 1.00 0.56 0.53 0.96 0.54 0.51 0.94
16 0.44 0.44 1.00 0.54 0.51 0.95 0.46 0.44 0.96
17 0.40 0.40 1.00 0.52 0.50 0.95 0.34 0.33 0.97
18 0.34 0.34 0.99 0.47 0.44 0.95 0.30 0.29 0.98
19 0.30 0.30 0.98 0.44 0.41 0.95 0.25 0.24 0.98
20 0.27 0.26 0.96 0.41 0.39 0.94 0.21 0.21 0.99
21 0.24 0.23 0.95 0.34 0.32 0.93 0.17 0.17 1.00
22 0.19 0.18 0.93 0.32 0.28 0.89
23 0.23 0.23 1.00
24 0.22 0.22 1.00
25 0.10 0.10 1.00
26

Table III: Normalised P-V Data of Solar Cell exposed under Sunlight (ii)

Filter Green Yellow Red

S. No Voltage (V) Power (mW) Current (mA) Voltage (V) Power (mW) Current (mA) Voltage (V) Power (mW) Current (mA)
1 1.00 0.02 0.02 1.00 0.03 0.03 1.00 0.02 0.02
2 0.99 0.09 0.09 0.97 0.28 0.28 0.98 0.22 0.23
3 0.99 0.18 0.18 0.92 0.53 0.57 0.95 0.43 0.45
4 0.98 0.28 0.29 0.90 0.58 0.65 0.90 0.62 0.68
5 0.97 0.39 0.40 0.85 0.68 0.79 0.89 0.56 0.63
6 0.95 0.56 0.59 0.82 0.69 0.84 0.87 0.69 0.79
7 0.94 0.61 0.65 0.76 0.70 0.92 0.87 0.61 0.70
8 0.91 0.77 0.84 0.72 0.67 0.94 0.83 0.74 0.89
9 0.90 0.81 0.90 0.66 0.64 0.96 0.79 0.74 0.94
10 0.85 0.81 0.95 0.66 0.64 0.96 0.72 0.70 0.97
11 0.81 0.76 0.94 0.60 0.58 0.97 0.72 0.66 0.92
12 0.77 0.73 0.94 0.57 0.55 0.97 0.71 0.65 0.91
13 0.72 0.68 0.94 0.54 0.52 0.97 0.67 0.65 0.98
14 0.72 0.68 0.94 0.46 0.45 0.98 0.61 0.60 0.97
15 0.63 0.60 0.94 0.39 0.39 0.98 0.56 0.55 0.98
16 0.56 0.54 0.95 0.35 0.35 0.99 0.53 0.52 0.98
17 0.55 0.52 0.95 0.29 0.29 1.00 0.49 0.48 0.98
18 0.53 0.51 0.95 0.29 0.28 0.98 0.43 0.43 0.99
19 0.48 0.46 0.96 0.22 0.22 1.00 0.35 0.35 1.00
20 0.43 0.42 0.96 0.18 0.18 1.00 0.32 0.32 0.99
21 0.42 0.40 0.96 0.11 0.11 0.99 0.26 0.26 0.99
22 0.37 0.36 0.97 0.07 0.07 1.00 0.21 0.21 0.99
23 0.34 0.34 0.99 0.17 0.17 0.99
24 0.29 0.29 0.99 0.14 0.14 1.00
25 0.23 0.22 0.98 0.10 0.10 1.00
26 0.18 0.18 1.00
6

Table IV: Normalised I-V Data of Solar Cell exposed under Incandescent Light

Filter: No Filter Blue Purple Green Yellow Red

Sl No V(v) I(mA) V(v) I(mA) V(v) I(mA) V(v) I(mA) V(v) I(mA) V(v) I(mA)
1 1.00 0.27 1.00 0.44 1.00 0.37 1.00 0.74 1.00 0.38 1.00 0.49
2 0.98 0.37 0.94 0.61 0.93 0.58 0.96 0.78 0.95 0.56 0.97 0.57
3 0.93 0.55 0.88 0.73 0.88 0.69 0.89 0.85 0.90 0.72 0.91 0.70
4 0.89 0.69 0.83 0.81 0.83 0.78 0.82 0.87 0.85 0.81 0.86 0.78
5 0.84 0.80 0.77 0.87 0.79 0.82 0.75 0.89 0.80 0.87 0.80 0.85
6 0.79 0.86 0.71 0.92 0.73 0.88 0.68 0.89 0.75 0.90 0.74 0.88
7 0.75 0.90 0.66 0.94 0.67 0.91 0.61 0.91 0.70 0.90 0.69 0.92
8 0.70 0.92 0.61 0.96 0.62 0.94 0.55 0.91 0.65 0.91 0.63 0.92
9 0.65 0.93 0.55 0.96 0.57 0.96 0.48 0.91 0.60 0.93 0.57 0.93
10 0.61 0.94 0.50 0.96 0.52 0.97 0.41 0.93 0.55 0.94 0.51 0.94
11 0.56 0.95 0.44 0.97 0.47 0.98 0.34 0.93 0.50 0.95 0.46 0.95
12 0.47 0.97 0.39 0.98 0.41 0.98 0.27 0.96 0.45 0.96 0.40 0.95
13 0.42 0.97 0.33 0.96 0.36 0.98 0.20 0.98 0.40 0.97 0.34 0.95
14 0.37 0.97 0.28 0.99 0.31 0.98 0.14 0.98 0.35 0.97 0.29 0.97
15 0.33 0.97 0.22 0.98 0.26 0.99 0.07 0.98 0.30 0.98 0.23 0.97
16 0.28 0.96 0.17 0.99 0.21 0.99 0.00 1.00 0.25 0.98 0.17 0.97
17 0.23 0.96 0.11 0.99 0.16 0.99 0.20 0.98 0.11 0.97
18 0.14 0.97 0.06 0.99 0.10 1.00 0.15 0.98 0.06 0.98
19 0.01 1.00 0.01 1.00 0.05 1.00 0.10 0.98 0.01 1.00
20 0.05 0.99
21 0.01 1.00

Table V: Normalised P-V Data of Solar Cell exposed under Incandescent Light (i)

Filter No Filter Blue Purple

S. No Voltage (V) Power (mW) Current (mA) Voltage (V) Power (mW) Current (mA) Voltage (V) Power (mW) Current (mA)
1 1.00 0.27 0.27 1.00 0.44 0.44 1.00 0.37 0.37
2 0.98 0.36 0.37 0.94 0.57 0.61 0.93 0.54 0.58
3 0.93 0.52 0.55 0.88 0.65 0.73 0.88 0.61 0.69
4 0.89 0.61 0.69 0.83 0.67 0.81 0.83 0.64 0.78
5 0.84 0.67 0.80 0.77 0.67 0.87 0.79 0.65 0.82
6 0.79 0.68 0.86 0.71 0.65 0.92 0.73 0.64 0.88
7 0.75 0.67 0.90 0.66 0.62 0.94 0.67 0.61 0.91
8 0.70 0.64 0.92 0.61 0.58 0.96 0.62 0.58 0.94
9 0.65 0.60 0.93 0.55 0.53 0.96 0.57 0.55 0.96
10 0.61 0.57 0.94 0.50 0.48 0.96 0.52 0.50 0.97
11 0.56 0.53 0.95 0.44 0.43 0.97 0.47 0.46 0.98
12 0.47 0.45 0.97 0.39 0.38 0.98 0.41 0.40 0.98
13 0.42 0.41 0.97 0.33 0.32 0.96 0.36 0.36 0.98
14 0.37 0.36 0.97 0.28 0.27 0.99 0.31 0.31 0.98
15 0.33 0.32 0.97 0.22 0.22 0.98 0.26 0.26 0.99
16 0.28 0.27 0.96 0.17 0.16 0.99 0.21 0.21 0.99
17 0.23 0.22 0.96 0.11 0.11 0.99 0.16 0.15 0.99
18 0.14 0.14 0.97 0.06 0.05 0.99 0.10 0.10 1.00
19 0.01 0.01 1.00 0.01 0.01 1.00 0.05 0.05 1.00
 7

Table VI: Normalised P-V Data of Solar Cell exposed under Incandescent Light (i)

Filter Green Yellow Red

S. No Voltage (V) Power (mW) Current (mA) Voltage (V) Power (mW) Current (mA) Voltage (V) Power (mW) Current (mA)
1 1.00 0.74 0.74 1.00 0.38 0.38 1.00 0.49 0.49
2 0.96 0.75 0.78 0.95 0.53 0.56 0.97 0.55 0.57
3 0.89 0.75 0.85 0.90 0.65 0.72 0.91 0.64 0.70
4 0.82 0.71 0.87 0.85 0.69 0.81 0.86 0.67 0.78
5 0.75 0.67 0.89 0.80 0.70 0.87 0.80 0.68 0.85
6 0.68 0.61 0.89 0.75 0.67 0.90 0.74 0.66 0.88
7 0.61 0.56 0.91 0.70 0.63 0.90 0.69 0.63 0.92
8 0.55 0.50 0.91 0.65 0.59 0.91 0.63 0.58 0.92
9 0.48 0.44 0.91 0.60 0.56 0.93 0.57 0.53 0.93
10 0.41 0.38 0.93 0.55 0.52 0.94 0.51 0.48 0.94
11 0.34 0.32 0.93 0.50 0.48 0.95 0.46 0.44 0.95
12 0.27 0.26 0.96 0.45 0.43 0.96 0.40 0.38 0.95
13 0.20 0.20 0.98 0.40 0.39 0.97 0.34 0.33 0.95
14 0.14 0.13 0.98 0.35 0.34 0.97 0.29 0.28 0.97
15 0.07 0.07 0.98 0.30 0.29 0.98 0.23 0.22 0.97
16 0.00 0.00 1.00 0.25 0.24 0.98 0.17 0.17 0.97
17 0.20 0.20 0.98 0.11 0.11 0.97
18 0.15 0.15 0.98 0.06 0.06 0.98
19 0.10 0.10 0.98 0.01 0.01 1.00
20 0.05 0.05 0.99
21 0.01 0.01 1.00

Table VII: Observation Table, C-V Characteristics, Incandescent Light

V DC (V) V OUT (Dark) (V) V DUT(mV) DC V DUT (V) AC V OUT (Light) (V) V DUT(mV) DC V DUT (V) AC
0 0.113 1.3 0.028 0.545 1.2 0.035
0.1 0.111 -131.2 0.042 0.544 -97 0.042
0.2 0.108 -240 0.042 0.543 -195 0.042
0.3 0.106 -328 0.042 0.54 -373 0.042
0.4 0.105 -430 0.042 0.541 -446 0.042
0.5 0.103 -512 0.042 0.542 -501 0.042
0.6 0.102 -614 0.042 0.542 -600 0.042
0.7 0.1 -741 0.042 0.542 -724 0.042
0.8 0.099 -825 0.042 0.542 -816 0.042
0.9 0.097 -912 0.042 0.542 -922 0.042
1 0.096 -975 0.042 0.541 -1000 0.042
1.1 0.094 -1157 0.042 0.542 -1115 0.042
1.2 0.093 -1206 0.042 0.541 -1270 0.042
1.3 0.092 -1334 0.042 0.541 -1326 0.042
1.4 0.091 -1383 0.042 0.541 -1390 0.042
1.5 0.09 -1525 0.042 0.542 -1572 0.042
1.6 0.089 -1590 0.042 0.541 -1632 0.042
1.7 0.088 -1690 0.042 0.541 -1703 0.042
1.8 0.087 -1827 0.042 0.541 -1820 0.042
1.9 0.086 -1905 0.042 0.541 -1967 0.042
2 0.085 -2017 0.042 0.541 -2046 0.042
8

Table VIII: Incandescent light, C-V

C REF 0.000000005 Freq 5000 R f 10000

V DC V OUT (Dark) V OUT (Light) V DUT(Dark) V DUT(Light) C DUT(Dark) C DUT(Light)

0.10 0.111 0.544 -131.2 -97 017.44e-09 115.62E-09 3287250366423660.0000

0.20 0.108 0.543 -240 -195 009.28e-09 057.41E-09 11619462599854800.0000
0.30 0.106 0.54 -328 -373 006.66e-09 029.85E-09 22529265177056900.0000
0.40 0.105 0.541 -430 -446 005.03e-09 025.01E-09 39461117780445500.0000
0.50 0.103 0.542 -512 -501 004.15e-09 022.30E-09 58140202824460900.0000
0.60 0.102 0.542 -614 -600 003.42e-09 018.62E-09 85260420200375400.0000
0.70 0.1 0.542 -741 -724 002.78e-09 015.43E-09 129195529411765000.0000
0.80 0.099 0.542 -825 -816 002.47e-09 013.69E-09 163398692810458000.0000
0.90 0.097 0.542 -912 -922 002.19e-09 012.12E-09 207997099147875000.0000
1.00 0.096 0.541 -975 -1000 002.03e-09 011.15E-09 242704503676471000.0000
1.10 0.094 0.542 -1157 -1115 001.67e-09 010.02E-09 356469256783746000.0000
1.20 0.093 0.541 -1206 -1270 001.59e-09 008.78E-09 395676072718369000.0000
1.30 0.092 0.541 -1334 -1326 001.42e-09 008.41E-09 494705882352941000.0000
1.40 0.091 0.541 -1383 -1390 001.36e-09 008.02E-09 543466333278874000.0000
1.50 0.09 0.542 -1525 -1572 001.22e-09 007.11E-09 675562817719681000.0000
1.60 0.089 0.541 -1590 -1632 001.15e-09 006.83E-09 750974698678866000.0000
1.70 0.088 0.541 -1690 -1703 001.07e-09 006.55E-09 867798979095771000.0000
1.80 0.087 0.541 -1827 -1820 981.69e-12 006.13E-09 1037647058823530000.0000
1.90 0.086 0.541 -1905 -1967 930.67e-12 005.67E-09 1154527089364680000.0000
2.00 0.085 0.541 -2017 -2046 868.78e-12 005.45E-09 1324905841644620000.0000
 9

V. GRAPHS:

A. Normalised I-V & P-V Curves of Solar Cell under Sunlight

(a) Current(mA) v/s Voltage(V) (b) Power(mW) v/s Voltage(V)

Figure 4: I-V & P-V Curves of Solar Cell under Sunlight with various Filters. Legend of plot matches with filter
colour, Black Indicates No Filter.

B. Normalised I-V & P-V Curves of Solar Cell under Incandescent Light

(a) Current(mA) v/s Voltage(V) (b) Power(mW) v/s Voltage(V)

Figure 5: I-V & P-V Curves of Solar Cell under Sunlight with various Filters. Legend of plot matches with filter
colour, Black Indicates No Filter.
10

2
Figure 6: 1/CDU T vs VDC , C-V characteristics

Figure 7: CDU T vs VDC , C-V characteristics

 11

VI. CALCULATION AND ERROR ANALYSIS: – Area of the solar cell = 100 cm2
– Therefore, doping density is given by Nd =
1. The computations are incorporated alongside the 1.7869 × 1013
observation plots. – Uncertainty in Nd = 1.3286 × 1013
2. We apply the formula for linear regression to es- – Biasing voltage Vbi = -2.46833 V
2
timate the regression values of the graph 1/CDU T – Uncertainty in biasing voltage ∆Vbi = -1.0397
versus VDC . V
VII. RESULTS,INFERENCE AND
The general formula for linear regression is: CONCLUSION:
X X
Yi = nA + B( Xi ) (11)
• Our analysis involves determining the doping den-
sity and biasing voltage of the solar cell by exam-
X X X ining its measured C-V characteristics. Addition-
Xi Yi = A( Xi ) + B( Xi 2 ) (12) ally, we conduct a qualitative assessment of how
the solar cell’s performance varies with frequency
by studying its I-V characteristics.
The uncertainty in the value of Y is given as follows: • It’s essential to note that the I-V characteristics
cannot reliably infer results due to the readings be-
r ing taken under sunlight, which varies in intensity
X (Ymean − Yi )2
δy = ( ) (13) and frequency depending on factors such as time of
N −2 day and location on Earth.
Now, we can compute the uncertainties in the slope • However, by normalizing both current and voltage
and intercept to be to 1, we can qualitatively observe that frequencies
s near the middle of the spectrum, such as yellow
and green, demonstrate maximum power output
P 2
X
δA = δy P 2 P (14) under both sunlight and incandescent light. Con-
((N X ) − ( X)2 )
versely, no discernible pattern emerges when av-
eraging measurements across different frequencies
s without a filter.
N
δB = δy (15)
• Utilizing C-V characteristics, we determine the
P P
((N X 2)− ( X)2 )
doping density of the solar cell to be on the or-
der of 1013 , with its biasing voltage estimated at
approximately −2.5 V. We compute the associated
r
Σi (Ymean − Yi )
σ= (16) error using both propagation and least square fit
N −1
methods, both of which yield an error margin of
Thus, the uncertainties are: about 50%.

• For 1/CDU
2
T versus VDC
VIII. REFERENCES:
17
– Slope (B) = 6.6694 × 10
• Introduction to Solid State Physics – C. Kittel, Wi-
– ∆B = 4.959 × 1017
ley Eastern Limited (5th Edition).
– Intercept (A) = −2.7202 × 1017