TOPIC 1.

1
Structure of Water and Hydrogen Bonding
The subcomponents of biological molecules determine the properties of that molecule.

Water is composed of 2 main elements, oxygen and

hydrogen, in a 1:2 ratio respectively

Covalent bond is the term used to describe the bond

type in which atoms share electrons

Oxygen is more electronegative compared to

hydrogen, resulting in an unequal sharing of electrons
between oxygen and hydrogen

Covalent bonding can result in polarity when there are

differences in atomic electronegativities, a water
molecule has polarity

COVALENT BONDS HYDROGEN BONDS

Covalent bonds are chemical bonds that are Hydrogen bonds are attraction forces that occur
formed due to the sharing of electrons between between two atoms of two different molecules
atoms
Intermolecular chemical bonds Intermolecular chemical bonds
Intramolecular chemical bonds Intramolecular chemical bonds
Formed between two atoms Formed between two atoms of two different
molecules
Bond strength may vary from 100 to 1100 kJ/mol Bond strength may vary from 5 to 50 kJ/mol

The subcomponents of biological molecules determine the properties of that molecule.

A hydrogen bond is a weak bond interaction between the negative and positive regions of two separate
molecules

Water can form hydrogen bonds with other water molecules or with other charged molecules

When two of the SAME molecules

COHESION

form hydrogen bonds with each other

When two DIFFERENT molecules

ADHESION

form hydrogen bonds with each other

The hydrogen bonds between water molecules can result in surface
tension

Cohesion, adhesion and surface tension allow for water to

demonstrate additional chemical behaviors known as emergent
properties

Life depends upon water's properties

Surface tension is a result of increased hydrogen bonding forces

between water molecules at the surface

Water's adhesive property gives water a high solvency ability in its

liquid state

Water's cohesive property allows for unique hydrogen bond

interactions to occur when water is in a solid state, making ice (solid water) less dense than liquid water

Water's cohesive property allows it to absorb a lot of thermal energy before changing chemical states,
resisting sudden changes in temperature

Capillary action is a result of both the adhesive and cohesive properties of water

Properties of water that support life

- Solvency

- Cohesion and adhesion

- High surface tension

- High heat capacity

- High heat of vaporization

- Varying density

High Heat Capacity

Water's heat capacity, the amount of heat energy required to increase its temperature, is relatively high.

Because of the multiple hydrogen bonds between water molecules, it takes a large amount of heat
energy to cause those molecules to move faster and raise the temperature of the water.

Large bodies of water, such as oceans and lakes, can absorb large amounts of heat with only small
changes in temperature. This protects organisms living within from drastic changes in temperature.

IMPORTANT IMPORTANT IMPORTANAT IMPORTANAT POIINTSSS

1Water contains 1 oxygen atom covalently bonded to 2 hydrogen atoms

2. Oxygen has a higher electronegativity compared to hydrogen resulting in a water molecule having
polarity
3. Polarity allows molecules to form hydrogen bonds when oppositely charged regions of two molecules
interact

4. The term cohesion refers to molecules of the same type forming hydrogen bonds with one another
and adhesion refers to different types of molecules forming hydrogen bonds with one another

5. Living systems depending upon water's properties, like surface tension

ANSWER THE QUETSIONSSSSSSSS

1. What is the chemical structure of water?

ANS:

2. How does the chemical structure of water result in polarity?

ANS:

3. How does water's polarity result in cohesion and adhesion through hydrogen bond interactions?

ANS:

4. What chemical characteristics of water result from its cohesive and adhesive properties?

ANS:

5. How do living systems depend on the chemical properties of water?

ANS:
 TOPIC 1.2

Elements of Life
Living systems require a constant input of energy.

The law of the conservation of energy states that energy cannot be created or destroyed only
transformed

Living systems follow the laws of energy

Living systems need a constant input of energy to grow, reproduce and maintain organization

Living systems mainly use the energy stored in chemical bonds

Atoms and molecules from the

environment are necessary to build
new molecules

Carbon is used to build biological

molecules such as carbohydrates,
proteins, nucleic acids and lipids

Nitrogen is used to build proteins

and nucleic acids

Phosphorus is used to build nucleic acids and certain lipids

Carbon is used to build macromolecules.

Carbon can bond to other carbon atoms creating carbon skeletons to which other atoms attach

Carbon skeletons allow for the creation of very large and complex molecules

Carbon containing molecules can be used to store energy

Carbon containing molecules can be used to form basic cell structures

IMPORTANT IMPORTANT IMPORTANT POINTSSSSS

1. Living systems need a constant input of energy to grow, reproduce and maintain organization.

2. Atoms and molecules from the environment are necessary to build new molecules.

3. Carbon is used to build all macromolecules, store energy and form cells.

4. Nitrogen is used to build proteins and nucleic acids.

5. Phosphorus is used to build nucleic acids and certain lipids.

 ANSWER THE QUESTIONSSSSS

1. Why do living systems require a constant input of energy?

ANS:

2. Why must living systems exchange matter with the environment?

ANS:

3. What role does carbon have in the building of biological macromolecules?

ANS:

4. What role does nitrogen have in the building of biological macromolecules?

ANS:

5. What role does phosphorus have in the building of biological macromolecules?

ANS:
 TOPIC 1.3
Introduction to Biological Macromolecules
Monomers have important properties.

Monomers are chemical subunits used to create polymers

Polymer is a macromolecule made of many monomers

A covalent bond is formed between two interacting monomers

Monomers have specific chemical properties that allow them to interact with
one another

Polymers are specific to the monomers they consist of

Dehydration Synthesis Hydrolysis reactions

reactions form covalent bonds. cleave covalent bonds.

reactions are used to create macromolecules Polymers are hydrolyzed (broken down) into
monomers during a hydrolysis reaction

are used to create macromolecules Covalent bonds between the monomers are
cleaved (broken) during a hydrolysis reaction

The subcomponents of a water molecule (H and A water molecule is hydrolyzed into

OH) are removed from interacting monomers and subcomponents (H and OH) and each
a covalent bond forms between them subcomponent is added to a different monomer

The H and OH join together to form a molecule of

water, water is a byproduct of this reaction can undergo Proteins hydrolysis reactions.

creates carbohydrates.
One monomer will lose an entire hydroxide while the other monomer will only lose the hydrogen from a
hydroxide

A covalent bond will form where the hydroxide and hydrogen atom were removed

The hydroxide (OH) and hydrogen (H) join forming a water molecule (H₂O)

A dehydration synthesis creates proteins.

Protein monomers are called amino acids

Each amino acid has an amino group (NH2) terminus and a carboxyl group (COOH) terminus

A hydroxide (OH) is lost from the carboxyl group of one amino acid and a hydrogen atom (H) is lost from
the amino group of another amino acid

can undergo Proteins hydrolysis reactions.

Covalent bonds between amino acids can be cleaved (broken)

A water molecule is hydrolyzed and each subcomponent of water (H and OH) will be bonded to different
amino acids

bond that will be broken

OH

The result is separate amino acid monomers