virsY vjr I

A Complete Course for CAPE

Unit 2

Raymond Toolsie BSc, MACP

Mathematics Department
Couva East Secondary School
Formerly Head of Mathematics Department
Holy Faith Convent
Penal
Trinidad and Tobago

Caribbean
Educational publishers
© Caribbean Educational Publishers (2003) Ltd

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted
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Pure Mathematics: A Complete course for CAPE Unit 2

Text © Raymond Toolsie
ISBN 978-976-648-329-6
First published 2014

Caribbean Educational Publishers (2003) Ltd,

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Educational publishers
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Pure Mathematics A Complete Course for' CAPE: Unit 2 is a text written to cover all the Specific
Objectives and Content of the CXC CAPE Pure Mathematics syllabus (Revised 2012) which will
become effective for examination at the Advanced Proficiency Level from May-June 2013.
In each topic the theory is presented with pertinent definitions, formulae, principles, proofs,
concepts and diagrams as appropriate. This fact enables the student to understand the theory.
Each worked example directly satisfies an objective in the syllabus. Step by step explainations are
given to facilitate the understanding of th'e solution to an example and to make it both student
friendly and understandable. Where appropriate, more than one method is explained.
Each exercise has graded questions that are pertinent to the previous work recently explained.
Sufficient questions are given to enable students to master the topic. Almost all the questions in
this text were tested at the Couva East Secondary School.
At the end of each chapter, there is a Revision exercise which contains numerous questions, both
multiple choice and essay type, to cover the work taught.
Each chapter concludes with Essential Facts, which serves as a reminder of the important facts
that should be remembered by a student and as a quick and efficient revision guide.
May you use this work to the best of your ability and achieve the required results.
Raymond Toolsie

FOR

ALL THE STUDENTS OF

OUR BEAUTIFUL CARIBBEAN

CULTURES.
 UNIT2
Complex Numbers, Analysis and Matrices
Module 1
Complex Numbers and Calculus II
1 Complex numbers ............................................... 3
Imaginary numbers ..............................................................3
Powersofi ...................................................................... 4
Properties and operations ....................................................... 5
Complex numbers ................................................................ 7
The discriminant ................................................................. 8
Conjugate pairs of complex roots .................................................. 9
Sums and product of roots of a quadratic equation ................................. 11
Equality of complex numbers .................................................... 13
Algebraic operations on complex numbers ........................................... 14
Addition of complex numbers ..................................... .............. 14
Subtraction of complex numbers............................................... 14
Multiplication of complex numbers .............................................. 15
Product of a pair of complex conjugates ........................................ 16
Division of complex numbers .................................................... 18

Conjugateof p + qi............................................................ 20
Square roots of a complex number ............................................... 20
Quadratic equation with complex coefficients ...................................... 21
TheArgand diagram ............................................................ 24
Cartesian form: complex number as a point ........................................ 24
Polar form: complex number as a vector ......................................... 25
Conjugate ofz=r (cos o+i sin o) ............................................... 26
Argand diagram: addition of vectors ..... .... .......................... . ............. 40
Argand diagram: subtraction of vectors .................................................. 42
Argand diagram: multiplication of vectors ................................... . ....... 43
Product of complex numbers in polar form ........................................ 45
Argand diagram: division of vectors ................................................. 48
Quotient of complex numbers in polar form ........................... ........... 48
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Loci in the complex plane ........................................................56

Locus of z when I z - r, r c .............................................. 56
Locus of z when I z z1- z z2 ............................................. 58
-

Locus ofzwhen z-z11 =kIz-z 2 I,kEP,k1 ................................. 60

Locus ofz when arg(z-z 1)=O where -it<8: ~ t .................................62
Z1
e .............................................. 64
-

Locus of z when arg1 =

)
Intersecting loci .............................................................69
Argand diagram and inequalities ..............................................74
De Moivre's theorem ...............................................................83
Exponential form of a complex number ....................................... ...... 92.

Euler's formula .............................................................92

Exponential form............................................................94
Revision exercise 1 ................................................................98
Essential facts..................................................................102

2 111
Differentiation of the exponential function ef ...................................... 111
Differentiation of the logarithmic function lnf(x) ................................... 121
Differentiation of parametric equations ............................................ 132
Parametric equations: equations of tangents and normals............................135
Implicit differentiation .......................................................... 139
Differentiation of a combination of functions ....... ............................... 147
.

Extended chain rule ......................................................... 147

Combination of functions .................................................... 150
Differentiation of inverse trigonometric functions ..................................154

[k siir1f(x)] where k is a constant ..........................................154

dx
[k cos'f(x)] where k is a constant ..................... ................... 158
.

dx
[k tan 1 f(x)] where k is a constant.........................................159
dx
Second derivative of a function ..................................................164
Higher derivatives..........................................................164
Polynomial functions ........................................................164
Trigonometric functions .....................................................165
Exponential functions .......................................................167
Logarithmic functions.......................................................168
Parametric functions .........................................................169
Implicit functions...........................................................170
First partial derivatives .........................................................179
Limit...................................................................... 179
Continuous function ........................................................179
 Contents =

First principles .............................................................179

Partial derivatives ..............................................................180
Second partial derivatives .......................................................183
Revision exercise 2 ..............................................................192
Essential facts .................................................................. 198

3 Integration II .................................................. 203

Partial fractions .................................................................... 203
Proper and improper fractions ................................................ 203
Decomposing .............................................................. 204
Distinct linear factors ....................................................... 204
Repeated linear factors ...................................................... 210
Distinct quadratic factors .................................................... 212
Repeated quadratic factors ................................................... 216
Integration of rational functions .................................................. 221
Repeated linear factor ......................................................... 226
Integration of trigonometric functions ............................................. 229
Basic trigonometric functions ................................................... 229
Even powers of sin x, cos x and tan x ............................................ 230
Odd powers of sin x, cos x and tan x ............................................ 231
Product of the form sin mx cos nx............................................. 233
Integrals of tan x, sec x, cot x and cosec x........................................ 234
Integration of the exponential function ef ......................................... 238
Integration of the logarithmic function Jnf(x) ......................................... 240
Integration by substitution ...................................................... 243
Integration by parts ............................................................ 255
Proof using De Moivre's theorem ...................................................... 264
Integration of inverse trigonometric functions ........................... ........... 266
Integrals involving inverse trigonometric functions ................................ 266
Partial fractions: Distinct quadratic factors ..................................... 271
Integration of inverse trigonometric functions .................................. 273
Partial fractions: Repeated quadratic factors.................................... 275
Integration by reduction formula .................................................. 278
Trapezium rule ................................................................... 288
Revision exercise 3 ................................................................ 293
Essential facts ................................................................. .. 300

Module 2
Sequences, Series and Approximations 307
41 Sequences ......................................................309
Concept of a sequence {a }.............................................................. 309
Sequence defined by recurrence relations..........................................310
Convergence, divergence and limit of a sequence...................................312
L]IIU Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Limit of a sequence .........................................................312

Convergent sequence .......................................................312
Divergent sequence .........................................................313
Periodic sequence ...........................................................314
Oscillating sequences .......................................................315
Application of mathematical induction to sequences ................................319
Sum of n terms in a sequence.................................................319
Recurrence relation and explicit formula.......................................321
Revision exercise 4 .............................................................324
Essentialfacts .................................................................. 326

5 Series .......................... . 331

Series and summation notation ()................................................ 331
Arithmetic sequence and arithmetic series .........................................338
Divergence of an arithmetic series .................................................341
Geometric sequence and geometric series .......................................... 342
Convergence and divergence of a geometric series .................................. 344
Sum to infinity of a convergent series .............................................345
The method of differences .......................................................352
Taylor's theorem and Taylor series................................................361
Maclaurin series ...............................................................374
Applications of mathematical induction to series and factorials ....................... 379
Revision exercise 5 ..............................................................385
Essential facts..................................................................388

6 ']I'lie binomial theorem ............................... 393

Meaning and properties of n .................................................... 393

Meaning and properties of = ................................................395

Pascal's triangle ................................................................ 400
Binomial theorem ..............................................................403
Expanding (a + b)n when n E .................................................. 406
Finding a coefficient and the constant term ........................................410
Expansion of a product......................................................413
Trinomial expansion............................................................414
Binomial expansion of a complex number......................................415
Expanding (a + b)n when n E Q ..................................................417
Validity of a binomial expansion and approximations ...........................419
Approximate value of an irrational number........................................429
Binomial expansion and partial fractions ..........................................435
Revision exercise 6 .............................................................448
Essentialfacts..................................................................451
 Contents

7 Roots of equations ............................. . . . . . ......... 455

Intermediate value theorem ......................................................455
Locating a root of an equation .................................................... 455
Interval bisection...............................................................463
Linear interpolation ............................................................469
Newton-Raphson method .........................................................476
Working of the Newton-Raphson method......................................489
Fixed point iteration ............................................................491
Revision exercise 7 ...............................................................500
Essential facts..................................................................506

Module 3
Counting, Matrices and Differential Equations 509
8 Counting ................................... ................... 511
Principles of counting ............................................................ 511
Addition principle.......................................................... 511
Extended addition principle ................................................... 513
Multiplication principle ...................................................... 513
Extended multiplication principle ............................................ 514
Permutations .................................................................. 516
Permutations of n distinct objects taken n at a time ................................... 518
Permutations of n distinct objects taken rat a time with no repetitions allowed .......... 519
Permutations of n distinct objects taken r at a time with repetitions allowed ............ 522
Permutations with identical objects ................................................. 523
Permutations with restrictions ................................................... 524
Permutations with identical objects and restrictions .................. ....... .........
. 529
Objects kept together .......................................... ............... 529
Objects kept apart ........................................................... 531
Objects restricted to the ends................................................. 535
Circular permutations .......................................................... 537
Combinations.................................................................... 543
Probability........................................................................ 552
Probability of an event ........................................................... 553
Total probability ................................................................. 555
Probability that an event does not happen .......................................... 556
Non-mutually exclusive events .................................................... 557
Mutually exclusive events ......................................................... 562
Independent events ............................................................... 564
Conditional probability and dependent events ........................................ 566
Treediagram ...................................................................... 571
Probability and permutations .................................................... 586
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Probability and combinations ....................................................590

Revision exercise 8 .............................................................593
Essentialfacts .................................................................. 598

9 Matrices and systems of linear equations . . .. . . . . . . . ........ . 605

Matrix and order..............................................................605
Types of matrices ............................................................. 606
Equal matrices ............................................................. 607
Operations on matrices ........................................................ 607
Addition of matrices ........................................................ 607
Subtraction of matrices ...................................................... 611
Multiplication of a matrix by a scalar.......................................... 612
Multiplication of matrices ................................................... 614
Transpose of a matrix.......................................................... 625
Determinant of a n x n matrix .................................................. 631
Singular and non-singular matrices ............................................. 637
Inverse of a non-singular n x n matrix ........................................... 639
Solving a system of linear equations using determinants ........................... 648
Solving a system of linear equations using an inverse.............................. 654
Solving a system of linear equations using Gaussian elimination and
row echelon form ............................................................. 658
Finding the inverse of a matrix using row reduction ............................... 662
Elementary row operations .................................................. 665
Solving a system of linear equations by row reduction of an augumented matrix ...... 666
Consistency of a system of linear equations ....................................... 672
Two linear equations in two unknowns ............................ ............. 673
Three linear equations in three unknowns ..................................... 679
Applications of matrices: real world problems .................................... 690
Revision exercise 9 ............................................................ 693
Essentialfacts ................................................................ 699

10 Differential equations and modelling ...... ..... 709

Differential equations .........................................................709
Separable differential equation..................................................710
Separation of variables initial value problem ...................................712
Exact differential equation .....................................................715
Exact differential equation boundary value problem.............................716
First order linear ordinary differential equation ...................................719
Solving a first order linear differential equation.................................720
First order linear differential equation boundary value problem ..................723
Applications of first order differential equations ..................................727
Seperable differential equations ...............................................727
First order linear differential equations ......................................... 731
 Contents

Second order linear ordinary differential equation................................. 735

Homogeneous linear equations............................................... 735
Case 1: Two real and distinct roots; b2 - 4ac > 0 ................................. 736
Case 2: Two real and equal roots; b2 - 4ac = 0 ................................... 738
Case 3: Two complex roots; b2 - 4ac <0 ........................................ 739
Second order differential equation .............................................. 743
Initial value and boundary value problems .................................... 743
Particular integral of a differential equation ...................................... 748
Case 1:f(x) is a constant ..................................................... 748
Case 2:f(x) is a polynomial .................................................. 749
Case 3:f(x) is a trigonometric function......................................... 750
Case 4:f(x) is an exponential function ......................................... 752
Non-homogeneous linear equations ............................................. 757
Case 1:f(x) is a constant ..................................................... 757
Case 2:f(x) is a polynomial .................................................. 758
Case 3:f(x) is a trigonometric function......................................... 760
Case 4:f(x) is an exponential function ......................................... 761
Second order ordinary differential equation with given conditions .................. 765
Solving a differential equation by substitution .................................... 775
First order ordinary differential equation ...................................... 775
Second order ordinary differential equation.................................... 777
Applications of second order differential equations................................ 782
Revision exercise 10 ........................................................... 789
Essentialfacts ................................................................ 794

Answers ........................................................ 799

Index ....... . ............. . . ..................... . . . .. ......... 915
 UNIT 2
Complex Numbers, Analysis and Matrices

Module I
Complex Numbers and Calculus II
 Complex numbers

Imaginary numbers
Consider the quadratic equation
x2 + 1 = 0.
Then x2 = — 1
This quadratic equation has no real solution since the square of a real number is always
positive.
Further x = ±Ci
x=orx=-
The square root of a negative number is meaningless under the real number system.
This quadratic equation can only be solved if the number system is extended beyond the
real number system.
Ifweput i=111
then x=iorx=—i.
x2 = ([_)2 = 2 => 2 = —
Thus 1.
The number ±J 1i are not real numbers.
These numbers are called imaginary numbers.

The letter i which denotes J1i is called the imaginary unit.

A new set of numbers called imaginary numbers is built on this imaginary unit.

A pure imaginary number is a number that can be expressed in the

form qi, where q is a non-zero real number and i is the imaginary unit
Jii, that is, i2 = — 1.

Example
- 3ji and [--
18 are all pure imaginary numbers.
• = = 2i.
•
• = 3,Ji,.JiT = —3(4)i = —121.
•
Sometimes 3'Ji is written as 3i'j.
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

In general, for any real number q, where q > 0: = ii = qi.

By the zero property of multiplication 0i = 0 1 = 0 which is a real
number.

Imaginary numbers are used to solve many practical problems, for example, in the field of
electricity.

Powers of I

By definition, i° = 1.

If x2 =-1
then x=iorx=_.i:ii.
So x=iorx=-i.
= i=j1iand-i=-j1i.
=> i2 = - 1 and (i)2 = - 1.
Using i=*JI and i2 =-1
then i3 =i2 •i=-1•i=-i.
So 10=1
ii =
-1
and i3 =-i.
Also i4 =i2 .i2 =(-1)(-1)=1
i5 = i4 . i = 1 . i = i
i6 14 •i2 1 . (-J) -1
17 =i4 •i3 =1 • (-i)=-i.
It can be seen that the powers of i repeat in a definite cycle, consisting of sets of 4
consecutive powers, starting from the power 0.
Verify that the table of powers of i given below is correct.
Powers of i
i°=1
i4 =1 j6 1
i9 = i 110=_i

-Example 1 1
Evaluate (a) 14k (b) 14k + i ( c) i 4 +2 (d) i4k +3

- Solution
(a) i 4 = (14)k = lk = 1
14k+1_14k.11 .i=i
(b)
14k+2.14k.12_1.(_1)=_1
(c)
(d) 14k + 3 = 14k. i 3 = 1 (-i) = -i
 Complex numbers

This example illustrates a rule for the power of i.

In general, for k E W:
• j4k1 • 14k+1..j
• 14k+2 = _1 • i4k+ 3 _._j

The rule for the power of i can also be illustrated on a clock 4 system.
4k
ockwise rotation

4k + 3 4k + 1

4k + 2

Example 2
Evaluate i67.
Solution
j67 = i416 +3 = -i 14k + 3 = -i

Properties and operations

For the set of imaginary numbers, the commutative and associative properties hold for both
addition and multiplication.
The distributive property of multiplication over addition also holds.
The operations +, —, x and ­t- can also be applied to pure imaginary numbers. However, each
number must first be expressed in terms of i before any operation can be performed.
Example 3
(b)
Simplify = 71-41
(a) + (b) -
= (7- 4)i distributive
(c) (d) i-;ii ~ property.
= 3i which is an
Solution imaginary
(a) ..J + = f2_5 [-_1 + [4- [_1 -
number.
= 5i + 2i
= (5 + 2)i distributive (c) = j JCj.
property. = 6i 3i
= 7i which is an = (6 3) (i i)
imaginary = 18i2
number. = 18(-1)
= -18 which is a real
number.
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

In general, the sum, or the difference, of

(d)
two pure imaginary numbers is a pure
imaginary number.
- JiJi The product, or the quotient, of two
pure imaginary numbers is always a real
-

9i number.
8i
9
= - which is a real number.
8

Exercise la

Solve each of the following quadratic

equations.
1. (a) x2 + 2 = 0 (b) x2 + 5 = 0
(c) (d)
- j
Evaluate
2. (a) x2 + 9 = 0 (b) x2 + 25 = 0
11. (a) i17 (b) i60 (c) i23 (d) i62
3. (a) x2 +8=0 (b) x2 + 27 = 0
12. (a) i28 (b) i 71 (c) i (d) i73
4. (a) 2x2 + 5 = 0 (b) 3x2 + 15 = 0
13. (a) i53 (b) i 83 (c) i57 (d) i95
5. (a) 5x2 + 9 = 0 (b) 4x2 + 10 = 0
14. (a) i75 (b) i81 (c) i86 (d) i10°
Simplify
15. (a) i96 (b) i97 (c) i102 (d) i127
6. (a) (b) ..JiA_i
Simplify
(c) (d) 16. (a) + (b) -

7. (a) Ji (b) jf (c) (d) ~

17. (a) Ji + (b)

(c) (d)
(c) - (d) 1 144
-

8. (a) (b) 18. (a) (b) +

(c) (d) —Ji (c) V-132 -- J—ioo (d) Ji -

9. (a) —5i (b) — 8Ji 19. (a) 1-100 - sj (b) '1-196 ~ 'Ji

(c) -
F3 (d)
3 (c) i+j (d) j-100ji
20. (a) ~ V-225 (b) —196
10. (a) _4sJ1 (b) —7J1 (c) '1-121— J-169 (d) '1-100+ '1-144
 Complex numbers

Complex numbers
Consider the quadratic equation
x2 - 4x +5 = 0
where a = 1, b = —4 and c = 5.
Using the quadratic formula
x= —b ± jb2 - 4ac
2a
= 4) ±
—(- - 4(l) (5) .
Then X
2(1)
= 4±V16-20
2
4±
2
- 4±1
2
4±2i
2
x=2±i
Hence x=2+iorx=2—i.
The roots of the quadratic equation x 2 - 4x + 5 = 0 are 2 + i and 2— i.
The roots consist of a real number 2 and a pure imaginary number ± i.
Numbers in this form are called complex numbers.

A complex number is a number that can be expressed in the form

p + qi, where p and q are real numbers and i is the imaginary unit

A complex number written as p + qi, (a + bi; x + yi) is said to be in standard form (rectangular
form; Cartesian form).
For a complex number z = p + qi, p is called the real part of z and it is denoted by Re (z),
that is Re (z) = p. (p is the real component)
q is called the imaginary part of z and it is denoted by Tm (z),
that is Tm (z) = q.. (q is the imaginary component)
• When Re (z) = 0 and lm(z) # 0, then z = qi which is a pure imaginary number.
• When Tm (z) = 0, then z = p which is a real number.
• Any complex number z where Im(z) # 0 is an imaginary number.

The set of real numbers and the set of imaginary numbers are
subsets of the set of complex numbers.

Thus Fi c W c Z c 0 c R c C, where the set of complex numbers C = {z: z = x + yi; x, y E ll);

orC={z:z=x+iy,x,yE }.
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

The discriminant
Let us reconsider the quadratic equation
x2 - 4x + 5 = 0.
The discriminant b2 - 4ac = (_4)2 —4(1)(5)
= 16-20
= —4 which is less than 0.
Thus b2 - 4ac < 0.
If the discriminant b2 - 4ac is negative, then Vb2 - 4ac is an imaginary number.
The discriminant b2 - 4ac determines the nature of the roots of a quadratic equation.
Since the discriminant b2 - 4ac = —4, then the graph (parabola) of the equation x 2 4x + 5 = 0
-

does not intersect the x—axis as indicated below. The equation has imaginary roots.

For the general quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0, if the

discriminant b2 - 4ac <0, then the two roots are complex roots.

The nature of the roots of a quadratic equation, using the discriminant, is summarized in the
table below.
Value ofdiscriminant
b2 -4ac O real
b2 - 4ac = 0 real and equal
b2 - 4ac> 0 real and unequal (distinct)
- 4ac <0 complex

Example 464
Determine the nature of the roots of each of the following quadratic equations.
(a) 2x 2 -5x+3=0 (b) x2 +3x+5=0 (c) 16x2 +8x+1=0
Solution
(a) Given 2x2 — 5x + 3 = 0
where a =2, b = — 5 and c =3.
Then the discriminant b2 - 4ac = (_5)2 - 4(2)(3)
= 25 —24
=1
Since 1 > 0, then b2 - 4ac> 0.
Hence, the quadratic equation 2x 2 - 5x +3=0 has two real roots which are unequal (unique).
 Complex numbers

(b) Given x2 +3x+5=O

where a= 1,b=3 and c=5.
Then the discriminant b2 - 4ac = 32 -4(l)(5)
= 9 - 20
= —11
Since —11 <0, then b2 - 4ac <0.
Hence, the quadratic equation x 2 + 3x + 5 = 0 has two complex roots (which are
conjugates).
(c) Given 16x2 + 8x + 1 = 0
where a=16,b = 8 and c = 1.
Then the discriminant b2 - 4ac = 82 -4(16)(1)
= 64 - 64
=0
Since 0 = 0, then b2 - 4ac = 0.
Hence, the quadratic equation 16x 2 + 8x + 1 = 0 has two real roots which are equal.

Conjugate pairs of complex roots

The roots of the quadratic equation
x2 -4x+5=0
are 2+i and 2—i.
The roots 2 + i and 2— i are called conjugates. They are complex conjugates of one another.
If a quadratic equation with real coefficients has complex roots, then the roots are conjugates.

The complex roots of a quadratic equation with constant coefficients

form a conjugate pair p + qi and p - qi, which may be written as p ± qi

Example 5
- 4±J16-40
Solve the equation 2z 2 + 5 = 4z for z and 4
express the roots in terms of i.
4±
Solution 4
Method 1: Quadratic formula 4 ± iAi
Given the equation 2z2 + 5 = 4z. 4
Then 2z2 -4z+5=0. - 4±2ji
where a =2, b = —4 and c = 5.
Using the quadratic formula
X=—
—b ± Jb2 - 4ac
2a
= —(-4) ± J(_4)2 - 4(2)(5) Hence z =1 + or z =1—
Then z
2(2) The complex roots of the equation
2z2 +5 = 4z are 1 + Li and 1— . Li.
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Method 2: Completing the square Method 3: Factorizing

Given the equation 272 + 5 = 4z. Given the equation 27, 2 + 5 = 4z.
Then 2z2 -4z+5=0 Then 2z2 -4z+5=0
5 So (2z2 -4z+2)+3=0
So z 2 -2z+ -=0
i.e. 2(z2 -2z+1)+3=0
5 2(z-1) 2 -3i2 =0
•
i.e. z 2 -2z=--
2 (z _1)2 __ = 0
2 2 2 5
z -2z+1 =1 --
2
= (Z_1)2 = _ (z_1)2 _(iJ = 0
(z_1) 2 = .i2

Z_1 = ± 2
Either z -1 + — i = 0 or z -1- —i = 0
V2 V2
= f_. 1_.
z=1- i-i or z=1+ I-i.
Hence z = 1+ i or z = 1- i. I . I -.
Hence z = 1+ or z =1 -
Is
1 J, ? The solution of the general quadratic
equation az2 + bz + c = 0 is z = p ± qi
Is b J4ac_b2
1 j where p = - - and q =
2a 2a
Exercise lb

Determine the nature of the roots of each of 7.(a)x2 -3x+4=0 (b) x 2 + 4x + 5 = 0

the following quadratic equations.
8. (a) x2 -2x+3=0 (b)x2 -x+2=0
1.(a)x2 +3=2x (b)x2 +3x=4
9.(a)2x2 +4x+3=0 (b)3x2 -5x+2=0
2.(a)x2 +5x+2=0 (b)x2 +x+5=0
10. (a) -2x2 + 4x -5 = 0 (b) -5x2 - 4x - 6 = 0
3. (a) -x2 -4x+3=0 (b) -x2 +4x-6=0
Solve each of the following quadratic
4. (a) 3x2 -5x+7=0 (b) -4x2 -i-7x-2=0 equations, expressing the roots in terms of i.
5.(a)9x2 +6x+1=0 (b)5x2 +3x+1=O 11. (a) z2 -2z+3=0 (b) -z2 +2z-3=O
In numbers 6-10: 12. (a) 2z2 + 3 = z (b) 3z2 + 2 = 4z
(i) Use the discriminant b2 - 4uc to determine
the nature of the roots of each quadratic 13. (a) 4z2 + 3 = 2z (b) 5z2 + 2z + 3 = 0
equation. 14. (a) 5z2 +3z+4=0 (b) -6z 2 +4z-3=0
(ii) Solve each equation for x.
15. (a) 7z2 -5z+4=0 (b) 8z2-9z+4=0
6. (a) x 2 +2x-1=0 (b)x2 +2x+1=0
 Complex numbers

Sums and product of roots of a -Example 6

quadratic equation Write a quadratic equation whose roots are
Given the general quadratic equation (a) 4i and -4i (b) 5 -21 and 5 + 2i
ax + bx + c = 0 where a 0
and the quadratic formula - Solution
-b ± jb2 - 4ac Method 1
x= (a) The sum of the roots,
2a
a +/3= 4i + (-41) = 0
then the roots of the quadratic equation are
The product of the roots, aJ3 = (4i)(-4i)
_b+Vb2 _4ac _b_Jb2 _4ac = -16i2
and 8=
2a 2a = -16(-1)
The sum of the roots, = 16
A quadratic equation is in the form:
_b + Vb 2 _4ac + _ b_Vb2 -4ac X 2 - ( sum of roots) x + (product of
2a 2a roots) = 0
- -b + -\fb2 - 4ac - b 4V - 4ac So x2 -(a+/3)x+a/3=0
i.e. x2 -0•x+16=0
2a x2 +16=0
—2b Hence, a quadratic equation with the
2a given roots is x2 + 16 = 0.
b
Method 2
b
(a) The sum of the roots, - - = 4i + (-41) =0
The sum of the roots, a,+ ,g= - a
The product of the roots,
The product of the roots, £ = (4i)(-4i) = _ 16i2 = 16
,fl{b+Vb _4ac)[_b_Vb2 _4ac]
Leta 1: --=0
2a 2a

(-b)2 _(Vb2 _4ac)

(2a )2

And
- b2 - (b2 - 4ac) a
4a2 So
C
-=16
- b2 -b2 +4ac 1
4a2 c=16
4ac Substitute a = 1, b = 0 and c = 16 into
the general quadratic equation
4a2 ax2 + bx + c = 0
C
So 1x2 +0x+16=0
a x2 +16=0
The product of the roots, a,8=£
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Method 3 b=-10
(a) The roots are 41 and -41. And £29
So x = 4i and x = -4i. a
i.e. the factor are So £29
x - 4i =0 and x + 4i =0. 1
The product of the factors c = 29
(x - 4i)(x + 4i) = 0. Substitute a = 1, b = - 10 and c = 29 into
The difference of two squares the general quadratic equation
x2 - (41)2.... 0 ax2 + bx + c = 0
i.e. x2 -16i2 =0 2
So 1x + (-10)x + 29 = 0
x2 + 16 = 0 x2 -lOx+29=0
Method 1 Method 3
(b) The sum of the roots, (b) The roots are 5 - 2i and 5 + 2i.
a+/3=(5-2i)+(5+2i)=10 Sox=5-2iandx=5+2i.
The product of the roots, i.e. the factors are
af3= (5 -2i)(5 + 2i) x-(5-2i)=O and x-(5+2i)=0
= 52 - (2i)2 The product of the factors
= 25 - 4i2 [x - (5 - 2i)][x - (5 + 21)1 = 0
= 25-4(-1) The distributive law
=25+4 (x - 5 + 2i)(x - 5 - 2i) = 0
=29 The difference of two squares expansion
A quadratic equation is in the form: [(x - 5) + 2i]{(x - 5) - 2i} = 0
x2- (a+ /3)x + a/3= 0 The difference of two squares
x2 -lOx+29=0 (x - 5)2 - (21)2 = 0
Hence, a quadratic equation with the So x2 -lOx+25-4i2 =0
given roots is x 2- lOx + 29 = 0. i.e. x2 -lOx-i-25+4=0
x2 -lOx+29=0
Method 2
(b) The sum of the roots, Example 7 '
One root of a quadratic equation is 2 + 31.
- = (5- 2i) + (5+ 2i) = 10
(a) State the other root of the quadratic
The product of the roots, equation.
(b) Form a quadratic equation having
2 =(5-2i)(5+2i) these roots.
= 52 -(2i)2 Solution
=25- 4i2 (a) The quadratic equation has complex
=25+4 roots, therefore the roots are
conjugates.
=29 Since one root is 2 + 31, then the other
Leta =1: --=10 root is 2 - 3i.
a (b) The sum of the roots,
So -=10 a+ /3= (2 + 31) + (2- 3i) = 4
1
 Complex numbers

The product of the roots, Example 8&-A

a,13= (2 + 3i)(2 - 3i) Given that z 1 =5+yi and z 2 =x-fii,find
= 22 - (3j)2
the values of x and y if the two complex
=4 - 9j2 numbers z1 and z2 are equal.
=4+9
= 13 Solution
A quadratic equation is in the form: Given that z1 = z2
x2 -(a+fl)x+ a/3=0 Then 5+yi=x-'fii
x2 -4x+13=O x=5 and y=-'fi
Hence, a quadratic equation with the
roots is x2 - 4x + 13 = 0. Example 9
Given that z1 = (x -3) + 8i and z2 =9- (y + 2)i,
Equality of complex numbers find the values of x and y if z 1 = z2
.

Two complex numbers are equal if and only if Solution

their real parts are equal and their imaginary
parts are equal. Given that z1 = z2
Then (x-3)+8i=9-(y+2)i
If z1 = a + biand z2 = c + di are So x-3=9 Equating the real
two complex numbers, then z 1 = z2 i.e. x=9+3 parts.
I iffa=candb=d. x=12
And -(y+2)=8 Equating the
If z 1 = z2 IRe (a + bi) = Re (c + di) So y + 2 = -8 imaginary parts.
thena + bi = c + di Im(a+bi)=Im(c+di) i.e. y=-8-2
y=- 1O

Exercise ic

1. Write a quadratic equation whose roots are (b) Form a quadratic equation having
(a) 5i and -5i (b) 2 - 5i and 2 + 5i these roots.
2. Find a quadratic equation whose roots are 7. One root of a quadratic equation is 4- i.
(a) -2i and 2i (b) 3 + 8i and 3 - 8i (a) What is the other root of the quadratic
equation?
3. Determine a quadratic equation whose (b) Write a quadratic equation having
roots are these roots.
(a) 6i and -6i (b) 4 - 7i and 4 + 7i
8. One root of a quadratic equation is 5 + 8i.
4. Write a quadratic equation with roots (a) What is the other root?
(a) -Wi and lOi (b) 7+ 10i and 7- lOi
(b) Find a quadratic with these two roots.
5. Find a quadratic equation with roots
(a) 13i and -13i (b) 9 - 14i and 9 + 14i 9. A root of a quadratic equation is 6- 5i.
(a) State the other root of the quadratic
6. One root of a quadratic equation is 3 + 2i. equation.
(a) State the other root of the quadratic (b) Write a quadratic equation having
equation. these two roots.
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

10. A root of a quadratic equation is 8 + 9i. 15. One root of the quadratic equation
(a) What is the other root of the quadratic x2 - 16x + q = 0 is 8 - 15i. State the value
equation? of q?
(b) Form a quadratic equation with these
16. Given that z1 =4-yiand z 2 =x+Ji,find
two roots.
the values of x and y if the two complex
11. The roots of the quadratic equation numbers z 1 and z2 are equal.
x2 -4x+c=O are 2+7i and 2-7i. 17. Given that z1 = 8 + yi and z 2 = x - 5'ji,
What is the value of c? find the values of x and y if the two
12. The roots of the quadratic equation complex numbers z1 and z2 are equal.
x2 +bx+41 =O are 4-5i and 4+5i. 18. Given that z 1 = ( x + 4) + 51 and
State the value of b. z2 = 8 - (y + 3)i, find the values of x and y
13. The roots of the quadratic equation if z 1 = z2.
x2 -6x+k=O are 3-6i and 3+6i. 19. Given that z1 = ( x - 7) - lOi and
Write down the value of k. z2 = 9- (y - 4)1, find the values of x and y
if z1 = z2.
14. One root of the quadratic equation
x2 - lOx + p = 0 is 5 + 12i. What is the 20. Find the real numbers x and y if
value of p? x + yi = -5'fii.

Algebraic operations on complex numbers

The basic operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division can be applied to
complex numbers which are in the form a + bi, by treating each complex number as a binomial.

Addition of complex numbers

In order to add two complex numbers we treat them as two binomials.
The two real parts are added together, then the two imaginary parts are added together.
In general, if z1 = a + bi and z2 = c + di, where a, b, c and d are real numbers, then
z 1 + z2 = (a + hi) + (c + di)
... z1 +z2 =(a+c)+(b+d)i.
Example 10J
Find the sum of the two complex numbers (8 + 5i) and (3 + 7i).
Solution
(8 + 51) + (3 + 7i) = (8 + 3) + (5 + 7)i
= 11 + 12i

Subtraction of complex numbers

In order to subtract one complex number from another complex number, we treat them as two
binomials.
One real part is subtracted from the other real part, then one imaginary part is subtracted
from the other imaginary part, the operation in both cases being done in the designated order.
 Complex numbers

In general, if z1 = a + biand z2 = c + di; where a, b, c and d are real numbers, then

z1 -Z2 = (a + bi) - (c + di)
.. z1 -z= (a - c) + (b—d)i.
Example 11 1
Subtract 2 + 7i from 6 + 4i.
Solution
(6+4i)-(2+7i)=(6-2)+(4-7)i
=4- 3i
Example 12 II

Evaluate the following and state the result in the form a + bi.
(7+ 3i) + (4 - 51) - (6 - 9i).
Solution
(7 + 3i) + (4 - 5i) - (6 - 9i) = (7 + 4 - 6) + (3 - 5 + 9)i
=5+ 7i
Multiplication of complex numbers
In order to multiply two complex numbers, we multiply them as two binomials, making use of
the fact that i2 = - 1.
In general, if z1 = a + biand z2 = c + di, where a, b, c and d are real numbers, then
z 1 z2 = (a + bi) (c + di)
= a(c + di) + bi(c + di) using the distributive law.
= ac + adi + bci + bdi2
= ac + (ad + bc)i + bd(-1)
z 1 z2 = (ac - bd) + (ad + bc)i
Alternatively:

zz = ( a + bi)(c + di) expanding as the product of two binomial expressions.

= ac + adi + bci + bdi2

= ac + (ad + bc)i - bd
z1z2 = (ac - bd) + (ad + bc)i
Example 13
Evaluate = (10 + 24) + i
(a) (5 + 8i)(2 - 31) (b) (J - 7i)2 =34+ i
Solution Method 2
Method 1
(a) (5 + 8i)(2 - 3i) = 10 - 15i + 16i - 24i 2
(a) (5 + 81)(2 - 31) = 5(2 - 3i) + 8i(2 - 3i)
= 10 -151+ 16i-24i2 = 10 + 1+24
= 10 + (16 - 15)i - 24(-1) =34+ i
= 10 + i +24
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Method 1 Method 2
(b) (J_fli) 2 (b) (,F3 - [7-i)2 = ( 3)2 _2(i)(fii)+(fii)
.,r3- (,f 3- - ,ffi) - ,17-i (,,F3 - ,,r7-i) =3- 2jii -7
=3- - /ii + 7i2 = -4- 2-.Jii
Here we use the fact that:
=3- 2sJi + 7(-1) (a - b)2 = a2 - 2ab + b2 .
=(3-7)-2*.J1ii
= -4- 2..Jii

Product of a pair of complex conjugates

Given the complex number z = x + yi, then the conjugate of the complex number z is f = x - yi.
The complex conjugate of z is z = x - yi.
Given the complex number z = x - yi, then the conjugate of the complex number z is
= x + yi. The complex conjugate of z is z = x + yi.

The complex conjugate is obtained by changing the sign of the imaginary

part of a complex number.
Either of the two notations can be used to denote the complex
conjugate of a complex number.

In general, if z = a + bi and f = a - bi, where a and b are real numbers, then

zz = (a + bi)(a - bi)
= a(a - bi) + bi(a - bi) using the distributive law.
= a2 - abi + abi - b2i2
= a2 + (ab - ab)i - b2(-1)
= (a2 + b2 ) + Oi
... z=a2 +b2
Alternatively 1:

zf =(a+ bi) (a - bi) expanding as the product of two binomial expressions.

= a2- abi + abi - b2i2

...
Alternatively 2:
zz = (a + bi)(a - bi) which is the difference of two squares.
= a2 - ( bj)2
a2 - b 2i2
z=a2 +b2
 Complex numbers

Since a and b are real numbers, then (a 2 + b2 is a real number and the product zz must be a
)

real number.

The product of a pair of complex conjugates is always a real number.

What is (z*)*?
Let z=x+yi, then z *= x _ yi.
So (z*)*=(x _ yi)*
= x + yi
(z *)*= z

The conjugate of the conjugate of a complex number z is the complex

number z.

- Example 14i
Find the product of the complex numbers (10 - 3sJi) and (10 + 3sJ).
- Solution
Method 1

(10_3Ji)(10+3/ii)= using the distributive law.

= 100 + 30.J5i - 30Ji - 9(5)i 2
=100-45(-1)
= 100 + 45
=145
Method 2

(10 - 3Ji) (10 + 3Ji) = 100 + 30Ji - 30J5i - 9(5)i 2 expanding as the product of two
= 100 + 45 binomial expressions.
=145
Method 3
(10 - 3ii) (io + = 102 - ( 3Ji)2 which is the difference of two squares.
= 100-45i2
= 100 + 45
= 145
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

CD Division of complex numbers When a number is divided by a complex

In order to divide a number by a complex number we expect the result to be a complex
number, we need to realize the denominator number.
of the fraction formed. So two equations can be formed by equating
The denominator of the fraction is realized the real parts and the imaginary parts.
by multiplying and dividing the fraction by The two equations can then be solved
the conjugate of its denominator. simultaneously to find the value of the real
In general, part and the value of the imaginary part,
if z=a+biwitha,bE Rand from which the complex number can be
a + bi # 0 + Oi, then formulated.
where nER. Alternatively:
z Let 3-(2-5i)=x+yi
n
a + bi Then =x+yi
2-5i
n a–bi So 3=(x+yi)(2-5i)
= x
a+bi a–In = 2x - 5xi + 2yi - 5yi2
- n(a – bi) 3+Oi=(2x+5y)+(-5x+2y)i
- Thus 2x+ 5y=3
n = na nb -5x+ 2 y =0 ©
-
a+bi a2 +b2 a2 +b2 x 5 and © x 2:
-Example 15 10x+25y=15 ©
-lOx+ 4y=O
Divide 3 by 2 - 5i
- Solution 29y= 15
15
y=
3--(2-5i)= 3
2-51
3 2+5i Substitute y = into ©:
= x 29
2-5i 2+5i
= 3(2+5i) -5x+2=0
(")
30
Then -5x+--=0
- 6+151 29
- 4+25 30
So 5x= —
- 6+151 29
29 30
6 15. 29 x 5
= - +-1 6
29 29 x=-
29
An alternative method of dividing a 6 15
number by a complex number is based on the x+y1= -+ -- 1
fact that a complex number consists of a real 29 29
part and an imaginary part. 6 15
Hence 3--(2-5i)= —+ —i.
29 29
 Complex numbers

In general, if z 1 = a + bi,z 2 = c + di, with a, b, Two equations can be formed and solved
c,dE ll and c+di*0+0i,then simultaneously to find the value of the real
Z, z2 = z1- part and the value of the imaginary part,
Z2 from which the complex number can be
a + bi formulated.
c + di Alternatively:
a+bi c—di
= x 5+2i
c+di c—di Let 3_4i =x+ y1
- (a+bi)(c-di) Then 5 + 2i = (x + yi)(3 - 4i)
- (c+ di) (c-di) = 3x - 4xi + 3yi - 4yi2
- ac - adi + bci - bdi2 5 + 2i = (3x + 4y) + (-4x + 3y)i
- c2 +d2 Thus 3x+ 4y= 5
- ac + (bc - ad)i + bd -4x+ 3y= 2 ©
c2 +d2 x4 and ®x3:
- (ac + bd) + (bc - ad)i 12x+16y=20 ©
- c2 +d2 -12x+ 9y= 6
• a+biac+bd bc—ad. 25y=26
c+di - c2 +d2 + c2 +d2 26
Example 16'1-Fa y= .

Simplify 5 +2i and express the result in the Substitute y=

25
into ©:
3-4i
form x+yi. (26
-4x+3i 1=2
k.25)
Solution 78
5+2i 5+2i 3+4i Then -4x+—=2
= x 25
3-4i 3-4i 3+4i 78
(5+2i)(3+4i) So 4x= --2
25
(3-4i)(3+4i) - 78-50
15+20i+6i+8i2 25
- 3242 28
- (15-8) + (20 + 6)i 25
- 9+16 28
- 7+26i 25 x 4
25 7
x= -
7 26. 25
= - + -- 1 7 26
2525 => x+yi= —+ --i
When a complex number is divided by a 25 25
complex number we expect the result to be a 5+2i 7 26.
Hence =—+—i.
complex number. 3-4i 25 25
ME Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Conjugate of a Substitute x = into ©:

p+qi
a
In order to find the conjugate of ,where
p + qi 7()_2y= 1
a, p, q, E E1, we first state the fraction in the
form x+yi, where x,yE R. Then -2y=1
a 53
The conjugate of is then x - yi. 49
p + qi So
53
- Example 17 1I - 49-53
Find the conjugate of 53
7+ 2i -4
- Solution 53
4
Method 1 i.e. 2y=- ---
53
1 1 7-21 4
= x
7+2i 7+2i 7-2i
7- 2i 2
72 +22
53
7- 2i 7 2.
= x+y1= --- 1
- 49+4 53 53
7-21 7 2.
x-yi=--+—i
53 53 53
1 7 2. 1
=---' Hence the conjugate of is + 1.
7+21 53 53 7+2i 53 53
1 . 7 . Square roots of a complex
Hence the conjugate of is - + 2 1.
7+2i 53 53 number
Method 2 The roots of the equation z2 = p + qi where
Let =x+yi p, q e R are the square roots of the complex
7+ 2i number p + qi.
Then 1 = (x + yi)(7 + 2i)
= 7x + 2xi + 7yi + 2yi2
r Example 18
Find the square roots of the complex
1 + Oi = (7x - 2y) + (2x + 7y)i number 4+2J5- .
Thus 7x-2y=1 © Solution
2x+7y=O ©
Let sj4+2vi=x+yi
© x 7 and © x 2:
49x-14y=7 © Squaring: (J4 + 2V -5-i) = (x+yi)2
4x+14y=O Then 4+2sJi=x2+2xyi+y2i2
53x=7 4+2,J5-i=(x2_y2)+2xyi
So
7
x=-
53
 Complex numbers

Equating the real parts and the imaginary

parts: When x=V:
x2 -y 2 =4 X
2xy=2-J © When x = -J: y = = - -1 -j
x -
2
From Z: y =— Hence, the square roots of the complex
2x
number 4+2Jiis J+iand -J-i, that is
y=—
X
©

Substitute y = into (): Here, we have to Check:

X use the method Since a'= + i and 9= -j - i
2 of substitution, Then
X since the
equations are not And
5 linear.
x2 --=4 = -5- Ji - Ji -
xx2: x4 -5=4x2 = -5- 2.Ji +1
x4 -4x2 -5=O
Factorizing: (x2 - 5)(x2 + 1) =0 The equation is:
Either x2 -5=0orx2 +1=0 Z2 - ( a± /3)z + x/3= 0
So x2 = 5 or x2 = - 1 (No solution i.e. z2 ..0. z± (_4_2/i)=0
since x2 > 0)

Quadratic equation with complex coefficients

A quadratic equation with complex roots can be solved using the quadratic formula which will
entail finding the square root of a complex number.
ramp 19 = j[-(5 ± i)]2 - 4(1)(8 + i)
Solve for z, the quadratic equation Then z
2(1)
Z2- (5 + i)z + (8 + i) = 0
- 5+i±J(5+i)2 -4(8+i)
- Solution
2
Given the quadratic equation
z 2 - ( 5 + i)z + (8 + i) = 0 5+i±'.J25+10i-1-32-4i
where a=1,b=-(5+i) and c=8+i. 2
5+ i ± J-8— +6i
Using the quadratic formula 2
-b ± lb 2 - 4ac We need to find the square root of the
X=
2a complex number -8 + 6i.
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

So x2 =-9 or x2 =1
Let ..J-8+6i=x+yi
.. (No solution since x2 > 0) x = ±1
Squaring: (J-8 + 6i) = (x + yi) 2
When x=1: y==3=1+3i
Then -8 + 6i = x2 + 2xyi - y2 xl
So -8+6i=(x2 -y2 )+2xyi When x = -1:
Equating the real parts and the imaginary y==- j =-3=--1-3i=-(1+3i)
parts:
x2 -y2 =-8 'j-8+6i=±(1+3i)
Thus
2xy=6 ©
= 5+i±(1+3i)
And Z
From®: y= -6-- 2
2x
(5+i+1+3i) 6+4i
3 Hence z= = =3+2i
y= © 2 2
(5+i-1-3i) 4-2i
substitute y 3- nto
i ®: or z= = =2-i
2 2
- (3)2 = -8 Check:
Since a=3+2i and /3=2-1
Then a+/3=3+2i+2-i=5+i
So x2_=_8 And a/3=(3+2i)(2-i)
= 6- 3i + 4i + 2
xx2: x4 -9=-8x2 =8+1
x4 +8x2 -9=0 The equation is:
Factorizing (x2 + 9)(x2 - 1) = 0 z2 -(a+ f3)z + afi= 0
Either x2 + 9 = 0 or x2 - 1 = 0 z2 -(5+i)z+(8+i)=0.

Exercise id

Find the sum of each pair of complex numbers. 10. (a) 8 - 5i from 3 + 9i (b) 7 - 4i from 3 - 5i
1. (a) 2 + 5i and 9 - 2i (b) 3 + 7i and 2 + 4i Evaluate the following and state the result in
the form a + bi.
2. (a) 7-4iand3+8i (b)4-iand5-2i
11. (a) (4 + 3i) + (7 - 2i) + (3 + 5i)
3. (a) -3 - 4i and -2 - 5i (b) 6 + 9i and 4 + 7i
(b) (2 + 51) - (4 - 3i) + (7- 2i)
4. (a) -2 - 7i and 6 + 31(b) 8+ 7i and 5 + lOi
12. (a) (2 - 5i) - (8 + 3i) + (4 - 7i)
5. (a) 9 - 4i and 7+ lOi (b) 7- 4i and 3 + 9i
(b) (3 + 2i) + (5 - 4i) - (8 - 3i)
Substract
13. (a) (5 + 3i) - (2 - 5i) - (6 + 1)
6. (a) 2+3i from 4+51 (b) 1+2i from 3+7i
(b) (6-7i)+(4±i)-(9-2i)
7. (a) 3+4i from 5+6i (b) 4 + 5i from 7 + 8i
14. (a) (10-3i)+(5+2i)+(7-6i)
8. (a) 2 - i from 4 + 5i (b) 3 - 5i from 4 + 7i
(b) (9 + 51) - (7 - 4i) + (3 - 81)
9. (a) 3 - 81 from 7 - 2i (b) 6-91 from 10+ 121
 Complex numbers

15. (a) (19 + 5i) - (7 - 4i) + (2 - lii)

30. (a) (b) 10
(b) (12 - 7i) - (5 + 2i) - (4 - 3i) 8+5i 7-61
Divide
Evaluate
31. (a) 2+7iby1+3i (b) 5+8iby1-2i
16. (a) (2+3i)(5+4i) (b) (1+2i)(3-41)
32. (a) 3 - 8i by 2 - 3i (b) 4-9iby2+3i
17. (a) (5 - 2i)(3 - 7i) (b) (5 - 3i)(2 + 7i)
33. (a) 8+9iby4+3i (b) 9-4iby4-i
18. (a) (4 + 7i)(3 + 2i) (b) (5 - 2i)(3 - 4i)
34. (a) 7- 41 by 3 +21 (b) 7- 8i by 3 - 4i
19. (a) (8 - 3i)(5 - 4i) (b) (7 + 2i)(4 + 5i)
35. (a) 9 + 7i by 4 - 3i (b) 10 + 3i by 8 - 51
20. (a) (7 + 9i)(8 - 5i) (b) (6 - 7i)(3 + 1)
Realize the denominator of each fraction and
Evaluate the following and state the result in
state your answer in the form a + bi.
the form p + qi.
- ".,[3-i)2 2+31 3+4i
21. (a) (J 36. (a) (b)
1-2i 2+51
(b) (2 + 3.Ji) (2- 3fii) -3 + 4i -7-21
37. (a) (b)
2-51 I 3+4i
22. (a) (j--..Jgi)2
-4-31 5-8i
38. (a) (b)
(b) (5 _2Ji)(5+2ii) 7-41 2+91
8-91 + 5i
23. (a) (fi - ii) 39. (a) (b)
4+3i 8-3i
(b) (9 + 5fii)(9_ 5fii) -10+7i 12-13i
40. (a) (b)
24. (a) (Jii + -5-9i -6+111
Find the square roots of each of the following
(b) (12- 8Vi) (12 + 8Ji)
complex numbers.
25. (a) ( hi - ii) 41. (a) 3+4i (b) 8-6i
(b) (13 + 7ii)(13 - 7Ji)
42. (a) 12 - 161 (b) 24 + lOi
In numbers 26-30:
43. (a) -48 - 14i (b) -5 + 12i
(i) Realize the denominator of each fraction
and state your answer in the form x + yi. 44. (a) 2 + 4Ji (b) 7- 6hi
(ii) Hence state the conjugate of each fraction.
45. (a) -4 + 2./i (b) -14- 8i
26. (a) --- (b) In numbers 46-50:
4+1 5-i
1 1 Find the complex linear factors of each of the
27. (a) (b) following quadratic expressions.
2-3i 4+7i
Here, factorize each quadratic expression
8
28. (a) (b) completely.
7+21 6-51
29. (a)
1
(b)
1 46. (a) z2 -.2z+5 (b) z2 -4z+5
10+71 9-4i
47. (a) z2 + 6z + 10 (b) z2 + 16
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

48. (a) z2 - z + 5 (b) z2 - 6z + 11 50. (a) 2z2 + z + 5 (b) 2z 2 + 3z + 5.

49. (a) z2 - 4z + 8 (b) 3z 2 + 27, + 1
Solve for z, each of the following quadratic equations.
51. (a) z2 -(3+2i)z+(1+3i)=0 (b) z2 +z+(-1+3i)=0
52. (a) z2 -z+(-1+3i)=0 (b) z2 +(3+2i)z+(1+3i)=O
53. (a) z2 -(5-i)z+(8-i)=0 (b) z2 -2iz + (-1 + 8i) = 0
54. (a) z2 -(6+2i)z+(7+6i)=0 (b) z2 +(1+2i)z+(2+16i)=0
55. (a) z2 -(8-i)z+(17--7i)=0 (b) z 2 - ( 6 + i)z + (14 + 8i) = 0

The Argand diagram 1y

Second quadrant First quadrant
CDo Cartesian form: complex number
P(x,y)
as a point
A complex number z = x +yiorz=x+iy 4y units
which is written in Cartesian form (rectangular 0
,

xunits x X
form; standard form) can be represented as a Third quadrant Fourth quadrant
point P(x, y) in a coordinate plane. z = x + yi =' P(x, y)
The coordinate plane is called the complex
number plane (z-plane) and the resulting
diagram is called an Argand diagram. Each complex number can be represented
The complex number plane is constructed as a point in the complex number plane.
similar to the rectangular coordinate plane
(Cartesian plane).
Two axes are drawn which are mutually at Imaginary axis
right angles to each other, thus defining four
quadrants.
The real number axis is the horizontal axis 3 - .P(2,3)
which is called the x-axis. 2+3i
2
The pure imaginary number axis is
the vertical axis which is called the y-axis 1
(yi.-axis).
The point where the two axes intersect, -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
Real axis
the origin, represents the complex number
0 + Oi = 0. -1
To plot a point (ordered pair) representing
-2
a complex number z = x + yi, scales are used Q(-3, -2)
as usual along the two axes. -3-2i -3
The ordered pair (x, y) can then be plotted
similar to the rectangular coordinate system.
 Complex numbers

lm(z)
Each complex number can be represented
as a vector in the complex number plane.

Vector OP has both a magnitude and a

direction.
—3 + Oi The magnitude of vector OP is the
Re(z)
—3 —2 —1 0 modulus of the complex number z and it is
denoted by Izi
(or the letter r)
YA

•3-3i

In the first Argand diagram above, the

point P(2, 3) represents the complex number
2 + 3i and the point Q(-3, —2) represents the
complex number —3 - 2i. x x
x=rcos9
Ten complex numbers are represented on
the second Argand diagram above. From the diagram:
Polar form: complex number as a Re(z) x
cosO= =-=x=rcosO
vector Izi r
A complex number z = x + yi can also be
represented as a vector in the complex
number plane.
Izt r

1 y1' So z=x+yi
= r cos 0 + (r sin 0)i
= r cos 0 + ir sin 0
z=r (cos 0+i sin O)
Also z = r cis 0 which is an
y units abbreviated form.
z = r (cos 0 + i sin 0) is called the polar
0 xunits X x form (modulus-argument form; trigonometric
form) of a complex number.
z = x + yi => P(x, Y )=> Op = G) For a general complex number z = x + yi,
the point P has polar coordinates (r, 0);
The position vector OP = (x) represents where r is the modulus of z and 0 is the
argument of z.
the complex number z = x + yi.
From the diagram above, by Pythagoras'
This is so since the point (x, y) <=> the theorem:
= x2 + y2
position vector (XY). So r=jx2+y2
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

.. the modulus of z, J zJ = r = .Jx2 +7

And t an O= ' =
Re(z) x
In the first quadrant:
The argument of z, arg z =0= tan -' -

Imaginary

iidit ; Firt qiadint

SO
--

The polar form of a complex number is unique as the argument of z is taken to be the
principal value of 8 which lie in the domain —it < 0 !~ it.
If the complex number z lies in the first quadrant or second quadrant, then 0 is positive,
since the angle is measured counterclockwise from the positive real axis.
If the complex number z lies in the third quadrant or fourth quadrant, then 0 is negative,
since the angle is measured clockwise from the positive real axis.
The general polar form of a complex number is written as
z=r(cos0+i sin 0), it<0s~ it
—

where 0 = arg z is stated in radians or degrees.

CD Conjugate of z = r (cos 0 + i sin 0)

Given the complex number z = r (cos 0 + i sin 0)
Then the conjugate of z is z = r (cos 0 i sin 0) -

So the conjugate of z in polar form is z = r [cos (-0) + i sin (-0)1

J
Thus 1z *1 = zJ and argz* = argz.-
 Complex numbers

These facts are illustrated in the Argand diagram below.

iy, z(r cos O,r sin 8)=z(r,O)

\-

z*(r cos(-O), r sin(-O)) = z(r, -0)

-Example 20
Find the modulus and the argument for each of the following complex numbers.
(a) z1 = + 3i (b) z2 - - J3_ + 3i
(b) z3 =-j-3i (d) z4 =J-3i
Hence, state the polar coordinates of each complex number.
-Solution
(a) The complex number z1 = + 3i exists in the first quadrant.

The modulus of z1, z1 = ,x2 + y2

iy
F
(J3 y + 3~
2

V3
N11_2
/:
2 ,13- N V
N
Since tan9=—
_x3 - __________

Then
en tan-7= -

So the argument of z1, 0= tan '-

In the 1st quadrant:

3 2
The principal argument
Hence, the polar coordinates of z1 are (2i1 is positive and acute.
).
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

(b) The complex number Z2 = - \r3- + 3i

- exists in the second quadrant.
1y
= + 32
The modulus of z2, Iz2
z2(- 3) = Z2(2 )
3
=

=2
Since tanO=
-

Then tan 0= - and tan'= -

it
So the argument of z2, 0= it - In the 2nd quadrant:
it
27t –<0<it
2
3 \ The principal argument is
27c.
Hence, the polar coordinates of z2 are (2/ positive and obtuse.

(c) The complex number Z3= -,r3-- 3i exists in the third quadrant.
i/
The modulus of z3, Z31=F
(—/~
3y+(-3y
1 0 x
__
= J3 +9

Since tan 0=

Then tanO = and tan' =

75 75 3
-
(it Z3 /3)Z3(-)
So the argument of Z2,0=- 7C__
2,0=_it__J

In the 3rd quadrant:

- 2it
-- it
- 3
2
27t "\ The principal argument is
Hence, the polar coordinates of z3 are(2i.
J negative and obtuse.
(d) The complex number Z4= - 3i exists in the fourth quadrant.

The modulus of z41 1z41 =1(73 2 + (_3)2

= V-
3—+9

= ii
=2
 Complex numbers

iy
Since tan = 0 F3

3
Then tan 0=—j ==and tan_ 3=-
it

So the argument of z4 0= — ,

Hence, the polar coordinates of z4 are (2,[31 - ,

Z4 ('\1 -3) = Z4(2/ -*

An Argand diagram representing the four complex
numbers is shown below. In the fourth quadrant:
It
--<0<0
2
The principal argument is negative
and acute.

Imaginary axis

Z2(-4 3) = z2(2 ) z1 (I3) =z1 (2 f)

The principal value of 8 The principal value of 8

is positive and obtuse is positive and acute
2ic
O=1t _tan_1 + 3 O=tan 1 i
X

Real axis
LJ)
0=_( 7t _tan71
3
-tarr1
HH
The principal value of 0 : The principal value of 0
is negative and obtuse is negative and acute
------------------3------------------
Z3(-'J -3) z3(21 -) Z 4 ('1 -3) = z4(2 -)

Example 21
Convert each of the following complex numbers from rectangular form to modulus-argument
form.
(a) z1 = 3 + Oi (b) z2 = 0 - 4i
Solution
(a) The complex number z1 = 3 + Oi is a real number.
KE Pure Mathematics for CAPE

The complex number is represented in the Argand diagram below.

The modulus of z 1, z1 1 = 13+011

= 32 +02

= 19 +0
=
=3
The argument of z1 , arg z1 = arg(3 + Oi)

= tan-1
3
= tan-1 0
0=0
Hence, in modulus-argument form, z1 = 3(cos 0 + i sin 0).
(b) The complex number z2 = 0 - 4i is a pure imaginary number.
The complex number is represented in the Argand diagram below.

The modulus of z2, IZ 2 1 =0 — 4i1

=02 (_4)2

=.iO+16
Ji
=4
The argument of z2, arg z2 = arg (0 - 4i)

Hence, in modulus-argument form, z 2 =4[cos (_ ) + i sin (- i)].

 Complex numbers

-Example 22
Express each of the following complex numbers in polar form.
(a) z1 = 1 + ji (b) z2 = - 2 + 2i
- Solution
(a) The complex number z 1 =1+ ii exists in the first quadrant.
The modulus of z1 ,
Izil = 1 +
1+ (i)2
F
____ =1+

=2

Since tan 9= =
o
V l X
Then the principal value of 0= tan -' NF3=

7C 7U
Hence, in polar form, z1 =2 (cos . + i sin

(b) The complex number z2 = - 2 + 2i exists in the second quadrant.

The modulus of z2 IZ2 1 = -2 + 2i1
,

+ 22 iYA
=4+4
z2 =-2+2i
=
=2
Since tanO = - = -1

Then the principal value of 0= it - tan-' 1

It
= It---
4
3ir
4
i-I 37r . 37r
Hence, in polar form, z 2 = Zq2 cos—+ism— .
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Alternative Method
(a) Given the complex number z1 =1 +
Let i+Ji=r cos e+ir sin e
Equating the real parts and the imaginary parts:
r cos 0 = 1
r sin e = ©
©2 +©2 : r2 Cos 20+r2 sin 20l2+(J)2
So r2 (cos2 0+sin2 0)=1+3
i.e. r2 =4
r F4 since r> 0
=2
r sin 0j
r cos 0 1
So tan 0= 0 is in the first quadrant.
0 =tan 1J
1
=-1t
3
- ( 1 .. 1
Hence, m polar form, 1+.i3 i = 2 (cos.-ir+ ism ic
(b) Given the complex number z2 = — 2+ 2i
Let —2+2i=r cos O+ir sin O
Equating the real parts and the imaginary parts:
r cos 0=-2
r sin 0 = 2 ©
+ ©2: r2 cos2 0 + r2 sin2 0 = (_2)2 + 22
So r2 (cos2 0+sin2 0)=4+4
i.e. r2 =8
r='j since r>0
=2
rsin0 2
r cos O —2
So tan O=-1 0 is in the second quadrant.
If tan 0 = 1
Then in the first quadrant 0= tan' 1
1
= —It
So in the second quadrant 0=

-( 3 ..3
Hence, m polar form, —2+2i = 2v2tcos.It+1s1nit
 Complex numbers

-Example 23
Express each of the following complex numbers in trigonometric form.
(a) z=-2-5i (b) z=4-8i
Hence, state the polar coordinates of each complex number
- Solution
(a) The complex number z = -2 - 5i exists in
the third quadrant.
The modulus of z1, IzI =1-2 -
= J(_2)2 +(_5)2
=J4+25

-5
Since tan9=-=2.5 z=-2-5i
Then the principal value of 9 = —(it - tan-1 2.5) (calculator in radian mode)
=-(it-1.190)
= -1.952 radians
Hence, in trigonometric form, z = 4[ cos (_1 .952c) + i sin(_1 .952c)] .
The polar coordinates of z are (j , _ 1 .952) .
(b) The complex number z =4 - 8i exists in the fourth quadrant.
The modulus of z1, IzI = 14 - 8i1
= [42 + (_8)2 0X
=-1.107 x

=J16+64

==i16x5
=4I
Since tanO=-=-2 F z=4-8i
4
Then the principal value of 9 = -tan 2 (calculator in radian mode)
= -1.107 radians
Hence, in trigonometric form, z = 4j [cos(-1 .107c) + i sin(-1 . 107C)] .
The polar coordinates of z are (4I, -1 .107c) .
Alternatively:
(a) Since tanO=-=2.5
Then the principal value of 9 = -(180 0 tan 2.5) (calculator in degree mode)
-

= -(180° - 68.2')
= -111.8°
In Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Hence, in trigonometric form, z = Ji [cos(-111.8°) + i sin(-111.8 0)}

The polar coordinates of z are - 111.8°).
(b) Since tane = = —2
4
Then the principal value of 0 = —tan 2 (calculator in degree mode)
= —63.4°
Hence, in trigonometric form, z = 4J[cos(-63.4°) + i sin(-63.4 0 )].

The polar coordinates of z are (4J, —63.4°).

Alternative Method
(a) Given the complex number z = —2 - 5i
Let —2-5i=r cos O+ir sin 8
Equating the real parts and the imaginary parts:
r cos 8=-2 ©
r sin 0=-5 ©
+ ©2: r2 Cos 2 0 + r2 sin2 0 = (_2)2 + (_5)2
So r2 (cos2 0+ sin2 O)=4+25
i.e. r2 = 29
r = - j29 since r>0
rsin0-5
r cos O —2
So tan 0 = 2.5 0 is in the third quadrant.
0 = —(t - tan
= —1.951 radians
Hence, in trigonometric form, —2— 5i = ii [cos(-1 .951c) + i sin(-1.951')]
(b) Given the complex number z =4— 8i
Let 4-8i=r cos 0+ir sin O
Equating the real parts and the imaginary parts:
r cos O=4 ©
r sin 0=-8
+ ®2: r2 cos2 0 + r2 sin2 0 = 42 + (_8)2
So r2 (cos2 0+ sin2 O)=16+64
i.e. r2 = 80
r—J since r>0
=4jg
rsin0 —8
rcosO 4
So tan 0 = —2 0 is in the fourth quadrant.
0 = tan 1(-2)
= —1.107 radians
Hence, in trigonometric form, 4-8i = 4J[cos(_1.107)+isin(_1.107c)]
 Complex numbers

Example 24
Convert each of the following complex numbers from polar form to Cartesian form.
( it..it ' \ 37t..
(a) z1 7cos_+1sin_) (b) z2 = 5 (cos—+ism 37r--

I (2 ..(21 I 71 )]
(c) z3 =4icosi ---- i+isini -- ------ i (d) z 4 =8cosi--i+isini--
L 3) 3)] [ 3)
Solution
it it "
(a) Given the complex number z1 = 7 +in — I 8 is in the first quadrant.
( - 6)
0<9<
Then, in Cartesian form, z1 =7

7 ,[3- T
2 2
+-=

3ir
+i(
i)]
(J3)
(b) Given, the complex number z2 = 5 cos + i sin— I 9 is in the second quadrant.
( 4)
It
1
Then, in Cartesian form, z2 =5 - + i (..r 2

55
=---------+----i
2 2

(c) Given, the complex number Z3 = 4[Cos (_)+isin(_)] 9 is in the third quadrant.
—it<9<---
1
Then, in Cartesian form, z3 =4 [- + j (- ""F3

= —2 - 2Ji

(d) Given, the complex number z4 =8 [cos (_ ) + i sin (- i-)] 9 is in the fourth quadrant.

-1
1 i V3
-- <9<0
11 2
Then, m Cartesian form, z4 =8 - +
---- j
=4-4-ji C

Alternative Method
(a) Given the complex number z1 =7 (cos + i sin
6 6)
Let x+yi=7 cos +i7 sin -
6 6
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Equating the real parts: x =7 cos 0 is in the first quadrant.

=71

=
Equating the imaginary parts: y -7 sink

=7(

7
2
( it ..'—. it =.7
Hence, m Cartesian form, 7i cos - +i Sm — I -j3 + 71 -.
6 6) 2 2

z2 =5 Icos -i-- + i sm
3ic..3ic
(b) Given the complex number
3n .
Let x+yi=5cos +i 5sm 37t
---
3t
x - 5cos--- B is in the second quadrant.
Equating the real parts:

=-
Equating the imaginary parts: y =5 sin --

2
3it . 3it 5 5
Hence, in Cartesian form, 5cos—+isin--- 1= --i+-Ji.
( 4 4) 2 2
F I \ . . \l
(c) Given the complex number z3 =4 cosl --
2itI+ism ( 2ic
L 3) 3
1 2ir" I 2t
Let x+yi=4cosl-------1+i4sinl--- 1
'' 3 1 31
 Complex numbers

Equating the real parts: x = 4cos(_) 8 is in the third quadrant.

4(—

= —2
.(2ic
Equating the imaginary parts: y = 4sm-----

=41-

I
Hence, in Cartesian form, 4 Cos
(_
++i sin
(_ )]
= —2— 211.

(d) Given the complex number Z4 =8 [(_-) ± i sin

(--'J]
Let x+yi=8cos -- +i8sm --

Equang the real parts: x = 8cos(_) 8 is in the fourth quadrant.

=8i
k2

Equating the imaginary parts: y

E_ ( —II )

Hence, in Cartesian form, 8[cos(_-)+isin(_.-)] =4-4,[3 -i.

Example 25i
Write the conjugate in polar form of each of the following complex numbers.
x 7C 7t
(a) z = 4J(cos..±isin) (b) w = F5 cos —isinJ)
Solution
(a) The complex number z =
7C 7E
The conjugate of z, z = 4,53 - ism
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Hence the conjugate of z in polar form, z = 4i[cos(_-)+isin(_--)].

3n 3n
(b) The complex number, w = cos_isin)
31c 3n
The polar form of the conjugate of w, w = 15- (COS + isin).

Exercise le

Represent each of the following complex numbers as a point on an Argand diagram.

1. (a) 0 + 21 (b) 0 - 31 (c) 1 + 01 (d) -2 + Oi
2. (a) 2 + 3i (b) -4 + 2i (c) 3 - i (d) -1 - 2i
3. (a) -5 - 41 (b) -4+ 7i (c) 6 - 5i (d) 7+ 4i
4. (a) -6 + 8i (b) 8 - 7i (c) 9 + 6i (d) -8 - 6i
5. (a) 9-6i (b) -10-5i (c) -12+9i (d) 13+10i
Represent each of the following complex numbers z and its conjugate z on an Argand diagram.
6. (a) z=1+i (b) z=1-i (c) z=-1+i (d) z=-1-i
7. (a) z=-8+3i (b)z=-8-3i (c) z=8-3i (d)z=8+3i
8. (a) z=3-5i (b)z=3+5i (c) z=-3-5i (d)z=-3+5i
9. (a) z=-4-7i (b) z=-4+7i (c) z=4+7i (d) z=4-7i
10. (a) z = 7 + lOi (b) z = 7 - lOi (c) z = -7 - lOi (d) z = -7 + lOi
Find the modulus and the argument for each of the following complex numbers. Hence, state
the polar coordinates of each complex number.
11. (a) z1 = 3+Ji (b) z2 = —3+Ji (c) z3 = —3-1i (d) z 4 = 3—Ji
12. (a) z1 = 1 + .JTi (b) z2 = -1 + 'j5i (c) z 3 = -1-- .Ji (d) z4 = 1- sjj
13. (a) z1 = + Ji (b) z2 = -/ + ,Jgi (c) z 3 = -..f - Ji (d) z4 - ../i
14. (a) z 1 = + 6i (b) z2 = -'ji + 6i (c) z 3 = -ji - 6i (d) z4 = Ji - 6i
15. (a) z1 = -.J + -,r1_8i (b) z2 = -J + jii (c) z3 = --..J - jii (d) z4 = -sJ - ..Jii

Convert each of the following complex numbers from rectangular form to modulus-argument
form.
16. (a) z1 = 5 + 01 (b) z2 = 0 + 8i
 Complex numbers

17. (a) z1 =-4+0i (b)z2 =0+7i

Express each of the following numbers in polar form.

18. (a) z1 =5J+5i (b) z2 = — 10 + lOi

19. (a) z1 =7-7ii (b) z2 =-12—sJi
20. (a) z 1 = 8 - 8i (b) z2 —.Iii
Express each of the following numbers in trigonometric form. Hence, state the polar
coordinates of each complex number.
21. (a) z=2+5i (b) z = —4 + 8i
22. (a) z=-3-4i (b) z =6 - 3i
23. (a) z=5-3i (b) z=-7-2i

24. (a) z = —6 + 8i (b) z = 10 + 6i

23. (a) z = —12 - 15i (b) z = 9 - 12i
Convert each of the following complex numbers from polar form to Cartesian form.
( 5ir..5it
( (b) z2 =4 Lcos --- + 1 sm -
ir..ir'
26. (a) z1 =5 cos - + i sin—)
F (.(1 2 2
(c) z3 =3[ cos----)+ism (----)] (d) z4 =
[ Cos
27. (a) zi =si{cos-+isin-) (b) z2 =( Cos +isin)

(c) Z3 = [COS (_)+isin(_)] (d) z4 =iiiö[cos(_)+isin(_)]

37t 31c
28. (a) zi =fi (COS +isin) (b) z2 =(cos+isin)

cos (_ sin ( )]
J[cos(_)±isin(_-)]
(c) z3 = + (d) z4
[ =

29. (a) z1 (b) Z2 = 3,j2 (cos 7c + i sin 7r)

57c 57c
(c) z3 = 3[cos(_)+isin(_)] (d) Z4 = 4.J[cos(_)+isin(_)]
,K n

37c 37c
30. (a) z1 = 5j5 (cos + ni si (b) z 2 = 2i (cos + i sin
5 5) 5 ) .
77c 7n 7t
(c) z3 =4[ Cos (_)+isin(_)] — Cos (_)+isin(_)]
(d) z4 =5[
10 10 12 12
NOV Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Express each of the following pair of polar coordinates in rectangular form x + yi.

31. (a) (5 (b) (s (c) (5. (d)

.) -) ) (5 _)
21c
32. (a) (8 (b) 8,-- (c) (8. (d) 8,-
) )

33. (a) (7. (b) 7,-- (c) (7 (d) 7, -

) 6 ) 6)

34. (a) (6 (c) (4. (d) (4. 'C

) -

35. (a) 9, (b) (9. (c) (9, t) (d) 9,--

)
Write the conjugate in polar form of each of the following complex numbers.
TC TC 5ir 5it
36.(a) cos—+isin— I (b) w= cos_+isin___)
4 4) fi( 8 8
F / 3it cosi -- +ism (_"
37. (a) (b)
I' 5) j]
1 7\ 7\1
38. (a) z = 4J[cos(_)+isin (_)] (b) w = JiO Cos --
t\ 9) ( 9)]
I 1 3 \ ()]
37t
39. (a) z = 8JI cosi - - I—isin (b) w 5J(cosit i sin it)
F 4) 4 =
( it it '\ ( 9it..9it"
40. (a) z = 9-,r5- I cos - + -i sin I (b) w = 4 cos - —1 sill - I
2 2) 10 10)

Argand diagram: addition of vectors

An Argand diagram may be used to find the sum of two complex numbers. The two complex
numbers can be treated as vectors and the parallelogram law of vectors can then be applied in
order to add the two vectors.
Example 26 cj
(a) Represent on an Argand diagram the complex numbers z1 = 2 + 5i and z2 = — 4+ 3i.
(b) Use the Argand diagram to find
(I) the value of z1 + z2
(ii) the modulus of z1 + z2
(iii) the argument of z1 + z2
(iv) the conjugate of z1 + z2.
 Complex numbers

- Solution
(a)

I - -*
OP = QR
- -

OQ = PR
2 - -

OR == OP + PR
- -

=OQ+QR
OR which is the diagonal of
-Y TIF parallelogram OPRQ is the resultant

1
I N'1 vector.
OR represents z 1 + z2.
i-h
t I In general:
iT :4
HI

ifz 1 =x1 +y1i -

t 4 - and z2 =x2 + y21
H L!L6 -} then z1 +z2 =(x1 +x2 )+(y1 +y2 )i

tt ti
I

In the Argand diagram:

- ( 2)
z1 = 2 + 5i is represented by OP =5 P(2, 5)

—(-4
z2 = — 4 + 3i is represented by OQ = < Q(-4,3).

(b) Complete the parallelogram OPRQ by locating the point R.

R is located by translating the point
• P using the vector or
3)

• Q using the vector (2)

5
- b-
(i)OR represents the sum of the two vectors, z1 + z2.
8 =1 J
The value of z 1 + z2 = - 2 + 8i.
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

(ii) The modulus of z1 + z2, + z2 = j(_2)2 +82

= J4 +64
r= which is the length of

(iii) The argument of z1 + z2 , arg(z1 + z2 ) =7c - tan-'

= it—tan 1 4
8 = 1.816 radians
(8 = 104 .00
)

(iv) The conjugate of z1 + z 21 z1 ±z2 —2-8i

-
This complex conjugate z1 + z2 is represented by OR' which is the reflection of
OR in the x-axis.

Argand diagram: subtraction of vectors

An Argand diagram may be used to find the difference between two complex numbers, since
the complex numbers can be treated as vectors.
Example 27 WA
(a) Represent on an Argand diagram the complex numbers z 1 =4 - i and z 2 = —3 + 5i.
(b) Use the Argand diagram to find
(1) the value of z1 - (ii) the modulus of z1 - z2
(iii) the argument of z1 - z2 (iv) the conjugate of z1 - z2
Solution
- -
(a) -1 ji 1 1
OQ' =—OQ
H 71
- 30 -
OR = OP + PR
I- .-1- - -
Lt
1
=OQ'+Q'R
- -
= OP + OQ'
tt iD 1 ff- - 30 -
1
.. i I II I I -I-I =OP—OQ
% ry
OR is the diagonal of parallelogram OPRQ'.
OR represents z1 - z2.

In general:
1 t:c ifz1 =x1 +y1i
H 4 H and z = x ± y2i
then z1—z2=(x1—x2)±(y1—y2)i

4
4
 Complex numbers

In the Argand diagram:

-p. (4\
z1 =- i is represented by OP = P(4, —1)

z2 =-3+5iis represented byOQ= <=Q(-3,5)

(b) Locate the point Q' by reflecting the point Q in the origin 0 or rotating the point Q
through 1800 about the origin.
3
—z 2 = 3 - 5i is represented by OQ' = Q'(3 1 —5).
Complete the parallelogram OPRQ' by locating the point R.
R is located by translating the point
• P using the vector ( ), or

• Q using the vector (4).

(i) OR = —6J represents the difference of the two vectors, z 1 - z2.

Thus z1 —z 2 =z1 +(—z 2)=7-6i. _______
(ii) The modulus of z 1 - z 21 Izi - z2 = + (_6)2
= J49 +36
r=.i which is the length. ofbi
(iii) The argument of z 1 —z 2 , arg(z1 —z 2 ) = tan-'
0= —11.5 radian
(0 = —40.6°)
(iv) The conjugate of z 1 - z 21 z 1 - Z2= 7 +6i
--

The complex conjugate z1 _ Z2 is represented by OR' which is the reflection of OR in

the x-axis.

Argand diagram: multiplication of vectors

The product of two complex numbers can be interpreted graphically using vectors on an
Argand diagram.
Example 28 'WA
Two complex numbers are given as z1 =4+ Nand z2 =2 + i.
Use an Argand diagram to find the value of z1z2.
Hence, find the modulus and argument of z1z2.
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

- Solution
Now z1 z2 = ( 4+ 3i)(2 + 1)
= 4(2 + i) + 3i(2 + i)
- -

So OR=4OA+3i - OA
- - -

OR = ON + OB'
And 4(2 + i) = 8 + 4i
- -

i.e. 4•OA=OA'
-

OA'=8+4i
Here, multiplying the complex number by 4 is equivalent to an enlargement with the origin
as centre and scale factor 4.

Multiplying a complex number by k, where k E D, is equivalent to an

enlargement with the origin as centre and scale factor k, that is M(0 k)

yi. 1(2 + i) = 2i + i2
4 =2i+(-1)
3 = 2i —1
=-1+2i
2 - -
i•OA=OB
1

0
AM
,, ?w -raw
-I ; MP
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8x

Here, multiplying the complex number by i is equivalent to a counterclockwise rotation of

TC
radians, which is 90°, about the origin.
2

Multiplying a complex number by i is equivalent to a counterclockwise rotation

of radians, which is 90°, about the origin, that is, R(0 R which is R(0 90°)

:kJtrit
H Further 3i(2 + 1) = 3(-1 + 2i) = —3 + 6i
-

i.e. 3i•OA=3i•OB
-* -
3OB=OB'
4(

- L
-1 0 1 2

Here, multiplying the complex number by 3i is equivalent to the composition of M(0 3)0 R(0 90°)'
which is M(Q 3)° R(0 90°)

Multiplying a complex number by ki, where k E R, is equivalent to the

composition of MI(0 k)° R() . which is M(0 k)' R (0' 90°)•
 Complex numbers

addition to find the resultant vector OR.

Recall that
So
I_iI
4:1
-3
*-'

- -
-2
H1

Ei
-1 0 1 2 x

We now complete a parallelogram with ON -and OB' as adjacent sides and use vector

QR,, = ON + o13'
OR=OA'+A'R
•i:rimri - 15
sm OR=I
IBM
Hence the value of z1z2 = (4 + 3i)(2 + i)
=5 + lOi
IVE The modulus of z1z2, Jz1z2I = + 102

=V25+loO
.. . ... . q. .. ME•... .......... . .•.. .
21 PW!3 =.Ji7:
r = 5,r5 which isthe
OUR in ON, length of
-3-2-1012345678 x
The argument of z1z2 , arg(z1 z2 ) = tan ' 10
--
=tan 1 2
0= 1.107 radians
(9= 63.4°)
c Product of complex numbers in polar form
Consider the two complex numbers
z1 = r1 (cos 01 + i sin 01) and z2 = r2 (cos 02+ i sin 0 2 ).
Then the product z1 z2 = i(cos01 +i sin 01)•i (COS 0 2 +i sin 02 )
= nT2 [cos 91 (cos 02 + [ Sin 02) + i sin 9 (cos 02+ [sin 2)
= ni(cos0 1 COS 0 2+i COS O1 sin 0 2 +i sin 01 COS 02 — sin 01 sin 0 2)
= ir2 {(cos 01 COS 02 — sin G1 sin O2)+i(sinO1 COS 02 + COS O1 sin 0 2)]
So z1z2 = nr2 [cos(01 +02 )+isin(01 +02)] -
The modulus of the product z 1z2 is j z 1z2 = r1r2
Z1Z2 I =I ZJ 1Z21.
on Pure Mathematics for CAPE

The argument of the product z 1z2 is arg(z1z2 ) 0 +

arg(z 1z2 ) argz1 +argz2 .

If arg z 1 +arg z2 lie outside the interval —it < 0 !~ it, then the principal value
of the argument of z1z2 has to be found.

0 Re(z)

Consider the Argand diagram above, where vector OP represents the complex number z1,
vector OQ represents the complex number z2 and vector OR represents the product z1z2.

0 Re(z)

• The length of OP can be enlarged (or reduced) by the factor r2, since the modulus of the
product is r1r2.
If r7 > 1, the OP is enlarged to give OP'.
• If 02> 0, then O' is rotated through 0 2 in an anti-clockwise direction, since the argument of
the product is 0 1 +
The result is the vector OI.
Example 29 iM
ir ,-I 5it . . 5ic
Given that z1 =2 Cos _+1sm_ ) and Z2 = cos
7 —+ ism ---

(a) Find
(1) the modulus of z1z2 (ii) the argument of z1z2.
 Complex numbers

(b) Hence, state the product z1z2 in polar form. -Example 30

(c) Describe the effect of the multiplication • Given the complex numbers z1 = -sJ + i and
geometrically. z2 = —2 + 2i.
Solution (a) Find
(i) the modulus of z1z2
(a) (i) Given that z1 =2 (cos +i sin (ii) the argument of z1z2
57c 57c (b) Hence, state the product z1z2 in polar
and z2 = - + 1 sm form.
(c) Describe the effect of the multiplication
Then the modulus of z1 z2 = I z1 z2 geometrically.
=2xfi - Solution
=2fi (a) (i) Given z1 = +i
(ii) The argument of z1z2 = arg z1 + arg z2
Then IZI {=I'i+iI
it 5ic
=—+- = +12
36
7it =
6
=
The angle L7C is not the principal =2
argument since it is greater than it. Given z2 = —2 + 2i
The principal argument of Then 1z21=1 -2 + 21 1
( 7it
z1z2 = -2it--- = (_2)2 + 2 2
5it = V4 +4
6

The modulus of z1z2,

+ 2i) (..i+iI !-2+2i1.
=2x2-J
=4
(b) The product (ii) Given z1 = +i ( first quadrant)
r1 (_ 5it\
5it1.
z1z2 =27Lcos)+1smL)] m
..I Then Im(z)t

polar form. arg z1 = arg (si +

(c) The modulus of the complex number _1 0 7E
=tan ______________
z1 is enlarged by fi and it is rotated 1 E6
Re(z)
through and angle of clockwise. R
6
KE Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Given z2 = – 2+ 2i
Then arg z 2 = arg(-2 + 2i) (second quadrant)

z2=-2+2i IM(z)
=it–tar( -
—2
Z21 =
= it - tan' 1
TC IL 02
Re(z)

The argument of z 1z 2, arg ( ,i[3- + ) (-2 + 20 = arg ('I + i) + arg (-2 + 20

it 3it
=-+-
64
hit
12

(b) The product z1z2 in polar form = 4'/( cos +ism—J.

12 12)
(c) The modulus of the complex number z 1 is enlarged by 2,[2- and it is rotated through an
371
angle of anti-clockwise.

Argand diagram: division of vectors

The quotient of two complex numbers can be interpreted graphically using vectors on an
Argand diagram.
CDP Quotient of complex numbers in polar form
Consider the two complex numbers
z1 = i(cos01 +isin01 ) and z2 = r2 (cosO2 +isin02 ).

z 1 (cos O, +i sin 01 )
Then the quotient 1 r
Z 2 r(cos0 +isin0 2 )
= r, (cos O 1 +i sin 0,) >< (COS 0 –isin02 )
r2 (cos 02 +isin02 ) ( cos02 –isin02 )
- r1 (cos0, +isin01 )[cos(-0 2 )+isin(-02 )]
- r2 (cos 2 02 + sin 2 02)
= r, {[cos 0 1 cos(-02 ) - sin 0 1 sin(-02 )1 + i [sin 0, cos(-02 ) + cos 01 sin(-02 )]}
r2
So = 2-[cos(0 1 _02 )+isin(0,_02 )}
Z2 r2
z1 i z, rj
The modulus of the quotient — s — = -
Z2 z2 r,
 Complex numbers

• zi _IziI
2 z2r

The argument of the quotient L is arg=0 1 —02

z Z2

_i-J =argzi _ argz2.

arg( z 2

If arg z 1 - arg z2 lie outside the interval —it < 0 < Ic, then the principal value

of the argument of has to be found.

0 Re(z)

Consider the Argand diagram above, where vector OP represents the complex number z 1
z
and vector OR represents the quotient 1-
Z2
1
• The length of OP can be reduced (or enlarged) by the factor - , since the modulus of the
r 12
quotient is
12
If r2 > 1, then OP is reduced to give OP'.
• If both 01 and 02 are positive angles, then OP' is rotated through 02 in a clockwise direction,
since the argument of the quotient is 01 -02-
Example 31
( ic . . it . • it
Given that z =31 cos - + i sin - I and z = - (Cos - + ism-
k. 6 6 2 2 2
ME Pure Mathematics for CAPE

(a) Find - Example 32

(I) the modulus of - Given the complex numbers z1 = -3 + i and
Z2 z2= 2 + 6i.
(a) Find
(ii) the argument of
Z2
(i) the modulus of
z1 Z2
(b) Hence state the quotient in polar
form. Z2
(ii) the argument of
Z2
(c) Describe the effect of the division
(b) Hence, state the quotient - in polar form.
geometrically. Z2

- Solution (c) Describe the effect of the division

n 7C geometrically.
(a) (i) Given that z1 = 3(Cos .+ isinJ
- Solution
and z2 =—1
Cos --+ism- (a) (1) Given z1 =-3 + i
2k. 2 2
Then Izil=k) 2 + 12
Then the modulus of
zi - Izil
=
Z2 - IziI Given z2 =2+6i
3 = 12 2 + 62
1 Then I; I
2 = J—
4 +-
36
=3x 2
—
1
=6 z1 —3+i l-3I
(ii) The argument of The modulus of -, =
Z2 2+6i 12+611
z1
- = arg z1 - arg z2 Ji
Z2
2,50
It It
1
62
It
2
3 (ii) Given z1 = —3 + i (second quadrant)
(b) The quotient Then argz1 =it_tan1_j
z F (it ' ..( t
—=61 cosl -- i+isinl --
Z2 F k. 3) k. 3 =n—tan- —
3
(c) The modulus of the complex number 1t-0.321 8C
z1 is enlarged by 2 (doubled) and = 2.819 8C
it is rotated through an angle of Given z2 = 2 + 6i (first quadrant)
clockwise. Then arg z2 = tan-' -
 Complex numbers

tan -' 3 Alternatively

=1.2490c (b) The quotient
Z 2 2+6i
The argument of L,
Z2 —3+i 2-6i
= x
—3+i 2+6i 2-6i
arg 2+6i = arg(-3 + 1) - arg(2 + 6i)
- —6+ 18i + 2i +6
= 2.819 8' - 1.249 0C - 4+36
= 1.570 8C - 20i
= 1.57c (3 s.f.) --

= 1.
2
(b) The quotient in polar form 1
Z 22 cos—+isin-
2 2
= - (cos 1.57c + i. sin 1.57') z1 1 1 t
2 (a) Since - = - cos - + i sin -
11 . z2 2 2 2
(cos
cos—+isin— I
2 2) z1
then Z2 -
(c) The modulus of the complex number z1
is reduced by and it is rotated (ii) Since = (cos E + i. sin
2/i Z2 2 2 2)
through an angle of 1.249c clockwise,
then arg- =
z2 2

Exercise if

1 (a) Represent on an Argand diagram (b) Hence, find

the complex numbers z 1 = . 3 + 2i and (i) the value of z 1 + z2
= 2 + 3i. (ii) the modulus of z1 + z2
(b) Use the Argand diagram to find (iii) the argument of z1 + z2
(i) the value of z + z (iv) the conjugate of z1 +
(ii) the modulus of z1 + z2
(iii) the argument of z + 3. Given that z 1 = 4— i and z2 = —8 + 5i,
(iv) the conjugate of z, + z represent on an Argand diagram the
complex numbers z 1, z2 and z 1 + z2.
2. Two complex numbers are given as Hence, find the modulus and argument of
z1 =4+5iandz2 =1+7i. :
Draw on an Argand diagram the z1 + 2
vector which represents z 11 z2 and 4. (a) Show each of the following complex
Z1 + Z2 numbers on an Argand diagram
(1) z 1 = —2 1 - 5i (ii) z2 = 3 - 4i
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

(b) Hence, determine (ii) the argument of z 1 - z 2

(i) the modulus of z1 + z2 (iii) the conjugate of z1 - z2
(ii) the argument of z1 + z2
10. (a) If z1 =7+8i and z2 =6-4i, represent
(iii) the conjugate of z 1 + z2 each of the following complex
5. (a) Ifz1 =5-8i and z2 =-7+3i,represent numbers on an Argand diagram.
each of the following complex (i) z 1 (ii) z 2 z1 - z 2
numbers on an Argand diagram. (b) Hence, find
(1) z1 (ii) z2 z1 + z2 (i) the modulus of z 1 - z2
(b) Hence, find (ii) the argument of z 1 - z 2
(i) the modulus of z1 + z2 (iii) the conjugate of z1 - z 2
(ii) the argument of z1 + z2 11. Two complex numbers are given as
(iii) the conjugate of z1 + z2 z1 =5 +2i and z2 =3 +i. Use anArgand
diagram to find the value of z1 z2 . Hence,
6. (a) Represent on an Argand diagram
find the modulus and argument of z1 z2.
the complex numbers z 1 = 5 + 2i and
z2 = - 3 + 41. 12. (a) Ifz 1 =2-5i and z2 =3+2i, find the
(b) Use the Argand diagram to find product z 1z2 using a graphical method.
(i) the value of z 1 - z2 (b) Hence, find
(ii) the modulus of z1 - z2 (i) the modulus of z1 z 2
(iii) the argument of z1 - z2 (ii) the argument of z 1 z 2
(iv) the conjugate of z 1 - z 2 (iii) the conjugate of z1z2

7. Two complex numbers are given as 13. (a) Given the complex numbers z 1 =4 + 71
z 1 =3 +6i and z2 = 1 +9i. and z 2 = 2 + 31, use an Argand diagram
(a) Draw on an Argand diagram the vector to find the value of the product z 1 z 2.
which represents z1, z2 and z1 - z2. (b) Hence, find the modulus and
(b) Hence, find argument of z1z2.
(1) the value of z 1 - z 2 14. (a) Ifz 1 =-3-4i and z2 =5-2i, find using
(ii) the modulus of z1 - z2 an Argand diagram the product z 1z2.
(iii) the argument of z 1 - z 2 (b) Hence, find
(iv) the conjugate of z 1 - z 2 (i) the modulus of z1z2
(ii) the argument of z 1z 2
8. Given that z 1 = - 5 + i and z 2 = - 2 - 7i, (iii) the conjugate of z1z2
represent on an Argand diagram the
complex numbers z1, z 2 and z 1 - z 2. 15. Two complex numbers are given as
z1 =5-2i and z2 =-2-4i.
Hence, find the modulus and argument of
(a) Draw on an Argand diagram the
z 1 - z 2.
vector which represents z1z2.
9. (a) Show each of the following complex (b) Hence, find
numbers on an Argand diagram. (i) the value of z 1z 2
(i) z1 = - 4 - 71 (ii) z2 = 2 - 31 (ii) the modulus of z1z2
(b) Hence, determine (iii) the argument of z 1z 2
(i) the modulus of z 1 - z 2 (iv) the conjugate of z1z2
 Complex numbers

(b) Hence, state the product z1z2 in polar

16. Given that z1 =3 (cos + i sin and form.
6 6)
(c) Describe the effect of the
Z 2='j5icos—+ism- multiplication geometrically.
'\ 3 3
(a) Find 20. Given that z1 =6 (cos it + i sin it) and
(I) the modulus of z1z2 7C 7C
(ii) the arguments of z1z2 Z 2 = (cos +isinJ
(b) Hence, state the product z1z2 in polar (a) Find
form. (i) the modulus of z1z2
(c) Describe the effect of the (ii) the argument of z1z2
multiplication geometrically.
(b) Hence, state the product z1z2 in polar
17. Given that z1 = 2 (cos+isin- and form.
3 3) (c) Describe the effect of the
it .it multiplication geometrically.
z2 =3—+is
(Cos m-
2 2
(a) Find 21. Given the complex numbers z1 = 5 + 5i
(i) the modulus of z1z2 and z2 = + i
(ii) the argument of z1z2 (a) Find
(b) Hence, state the product z1z2 in polar (1) the modulus of z1z2
form. (ii) the argument of z1z2
(c) Describe the effect of the (b) Hence, state the product z1z2 in polar
multiplication geometrically. form.
7C 7C (c) Describe the effect of the
18. Given that z1 =5cos 4 +isin and multiplication geometrically.
4)
Z2=2l Cos —+isin- 22. Given the complex numbers z1 =3+ -.Ji
'\ 3 3 and z 2 =2+2i.
(a) Find (a) Find
(1) the modulus of z1z2 (1) the modulus of z1z2
(ii) the argument of z1z2 (ii) the argument of z1z2
(b) Hence, state the product z1z2 in polar (b) Hence, state the product z1z2 in polar
form. form.
(c) Describe the effect of the (c) Describe the effect of the
multiplication geometrically. multiplication geometrically.
19. Given that z1 =4 cos + i sin and 23. Given the complex numbers z1 = -
2 2)
21t 2it
and z2 =-4i.
z2 =-v2 (COS +ism-- (a) Find
33
(i) the modulus of z1z2
(a) Find
(ii) the argument of z1z2
(i) the modulus of z1z2
(b) Hence, state the product z1z2 in polar
(ii) the argument of z1z2
form.
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

(c) Describe the effect of the (a) Find

multiplication geometrically.
(i) the modulus of
Z2
24. Given the complex numbers z1 =1—
and z 2 = 5i (ii) the argument ofL'-
(a) Find Z2
(i) the modulus of z1z2
(b) Hence, state the quotient in polar
(ii) the argument of z1z2 z2
(b) Hence, state the product z1z2 in polar form.
form. (c) Describe the effect of the division
(c) Describe the effect of the geometrically.
multiplication geometrically.
28. Given that z 1 = (cos + i sin and
25. Given the complex numbers z1 = - 3i 2 2 2)
and z2 =2--.Ji.
Z2
(a) Find 8 5 5
(1) the modulus of z1z2 (a) Find
(ii) the argument of z1z2
(i) the modulus of
(b) Hence, state the product z1z2 in polar Z2
form. z1
(c) Describe the effect of the (ii) the argument of -
z2
multiplication geometrically.
z1
(b) Hence, state the quotient in polar
z2
26. Given that z 1 = 2(cos +i sin -') and form.
6 6)
(c) Describe the effect of the division
It geometrically.
Z2 (cos
cos —+isrn-
2 2
It . .
(a) Find 29.Giventhatz1= 4(Cos +ism —I and
z1 8)
(i) the modulus of -
( it..it
Z 2=2i cos—+ism-
'\ 4 4
(ii) the argument
(a) Find
(b) Hence, state the quotient - in polar
Z2 (i) the modulus of
form. Z2
(c) Describe the effect of the division z1
(ii) the argument of -
geometrically. Z2

R IC (b) Hence, state the quotient - in polar

27. Given that z1 =3(cos 3 +isin and
3) form.
It . TC
. ).
(c) Describe the effect of the division
Z 2= — I cos —+isrn geometrically.
4
 Complex numbers In
30. Given that 33. Given the complex numbers z1 =3+ Ji
= 15(cos +i sin ) and
z1
k' 5 5) and z2 =1 - i.
( 3ir . . 3ir (a) Find
Z 2 =5i cos—+isin- zi
\ 4 4 (I) the modulus of --
z2
(a) Find
(ii) the argument of
(1) the modulus of Z2
Z2
(b) Hence, state the quotient -- in polar
(ii) the argument of form.
Z2
(c) Describe the effect of the division
(b) Hence, state the quotient - in polar geometrically.
Z2
form.
(c) Describe the effect of the division 34. Given the complex numbers z1 =5—
geometrically. and z2 =3—'ji.
(a) Find
31. Given the complex numbers z1 =3— i and
z2 =3 + 9i. (i) the modulus of
Z2 .
(a) Find
(ii) the argument of
(1) the modulus of Z2
Z2
z1 (b) Hence, state the quotient - in polar
the argument of Z2
('1)
Z2
form.
(c) Describe the effect of the division
(b) Hence, state the quotient in polar geometrically.
form.
(c) Describe the effect of the division. 35. Given the complex number z 1 =7- 7i and
geometrically. Z 2 =1 +
(a) Find
32. Given the complex numbers z 1 =2 + 2i
z1
and z2 =6+2j5i. (i) the modulus of -
Z2
(a) Find
z1 (ii) the argument of
(i) the modulus of - Z2
Z2

(ii) the argument of (b) Hence, state the quotient - in polar

Z2 form. . Z2

z1 (c) Describe the effect of the division

(b) Hence, state the quotient in polar geometrically.
Z2
form.
(c) Describe the effect of the division
geometrically.
EM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Loci in the complex plane

In all previous problems we have considered only fixed points on the Argand diagram.
We will now consider a variable complex number z = x + yi where x and y are real variables.
Thus, the point P(z) which represents z is a variable point (moving point) on the Argand
diagram.
If z varies according to given conditions, then the path of the movable point (set of all
points) is called the locus of P(z) (locus of z).
Each locus is unique and can be described by an equation.

The locus of a point z (locus of z) in an Argand plane is

the set of all points z which satisfy a given condition

CDO Locus of z when I z - z1 1 = r, r E

-Example 33
Sketch the locus of the set of all points P(z) which represents the complex number z on an
Argand diagram and satisfies the equation
(a) j zj=r (b) jzj=3
y
Solution
(a) Given lzl = r Locus of
Then x+yi=r

x2 +y2 =r2
This is the Cartesian equation of a circle with
centre at the origin and radius r. The circle is Centre: 0 + Oi
the locus of P(z).
(b) Given Izl=3
Then 1x+yiI=3
So VX 2 +y2 = 3
i.e. x2 +y2 =32
x2 +y2 =9
This is the Cartesian equation of a circle with
centre at the origin and radius 3. The circle is
the locus of P(z). Centre: 0 + Oi

Example 34 J
Sketch the locus of the set of all points P(z) which represents the complex number z on an
Argand diagram and satisfies the equation
(a) Iz-ziI=r (b) Iz-21=3
(c) Iz - ii = 2 (d) Iz —3 + 211 = 5
 Complex numbers

- Solution Locus of P
(a) Given z—z11_—r Y)
Then I(x + yi) - (x1 + y1i)l = r
So (x1 , y1)
I(x-xi)+(y-yi)iI=r
(
YO,
X
i.e. j(x_Xi)2+(y_y1)2
(x—x 1 )2 +(y—y 1 )2 =r2 Centre: z1 =X1 + y1i
This is the Cartesian equation of a circle with centre
(x 1 , y1 ) and radius r. The circle is the locus of P(z). Y)
Locus of P
(b) Given Iz -2 1= 3 P(x, y)
Then lx+yi-21=3
So I(x-2)+yiI=3
i.e. j(x_2)2+y2 = 3
(x-2)2 +y2 =32 Centre: 2 + Oi
(x-2)2 +y2 =9
This is the Cartesian equation of a circle with centre (2, O
and radius 3. The circle is the locus of P(z). Locus of P
(c) Given Iz - ii = 2 A
Then Jx+yi—if=2
So lx+(y-1)iI=2 - 01 /
i.e. jx2 + (y _1)2 =2
-1 '
x2 +(y-1)2 =22 Centre: 0 + i

This is the Cartesian equation of a circle with centre

(0, 1) and radius 2. The circle is the locus of P(z).
(d) Given Iz -3+2i1=5
Then Ix +yi-3+2i1=5
So I(x- 3 )+(y+ 2 )iI= 5
i.e. j(x - 3)2 +(y+2) 2 = 5
(x — 3)2 + (y + 2) 2 = 52
(x — 3)2 + (y + 2) 2 = 25 Centre: 3- 2i
This is the Cartesian equation of a circle with centre
(3, —2) and radius 5. The circle is the locus of P(z). y.4'
Locus of z
Alternative Method
y/ + yi
(a) Given (z - z1 I = r
Then the distance from a fixed point z 1 to a variable
point z is always r.
Hence, the locus of z is a circle with centre z1 and
radius r, where z 1 = x1 + y1 i.
Iz-zi l = r
in Pure Mathematics for CAPE

(b) Given Iz-21=3 y.t'

Then the distance from the fixed point 2 + Oi to z Locus of z
is always 3. +yi
Hence, the locus of z is a circle with centre 2 + Oi
and radius 3.

z-21 =3

(c) Given Iz - = 2
Then the distance from the fixed point 0 + ito z
is always 2.
Hence, the locus of z is a circle with centre 0 + i
and radius 2.

lz-iI =2

(d) Given z-3+2i1=5 YA

Then z—(3-2i)l=5 Locus of
z P(x, y)
So the distance from the fixed point 3 - 2i to r=5\
/
z is always 5. 3 - X
Hence, the locus of z is a circle with centre 3 - 2i -2
and radius 5. (3, 2i)

z-3+2i1 =5

In general, if I z - z1 J r, r E R, then the locus of z is a circle with

centre at z1 and radius r.

Locus of z when I z - z1 I = I z - z2 I
-Example 35 3J
Find the Cartesian equation of the locus of the point z which satisfies the equation
Iz +1— 3i1 = Iz - 2 1.
Hence, sketch the locus of z on an Argand diagram.
- Solution
Given Iz+1-3i1=Iz-21
Then lx+yi+ 1 - 3 i1=k+yi- 2 1
 Complex numbers ME
So
i.e. J(x+1)2 +(y_3)2 = J(x_2)2 +y2
(x+1)2 +(y-3)2 =(x-2)2 +y2
= x2 +2x+1+y2 -6y+9=x2 -4x+4+y2
2x-6y+10=-4x+4
—6y=-4x-2x+4--1O
—6y=-6x-6
y=x+1
This is the Cartesian equation of the locus of the point z.
Given Iz+1-3i1=Iz-21
Then Iz — (- 1+3i)I=jz - 21
The distance from P(z) to the point —1 + 3i is equal to the distance from P(z) to the point 2 + Oi.
YA

(-1,3)3 y=x-i-1

z + 1 - 3i I rpendicu1ar bisector

<(P2 , 0)
7'lO 12 x

Locus of

The locus of z is the perpendicular bisector (mediator) of the line segment with end-points
(-1,3) and (2, 0).
Alternative Method
Given Iz +1-3i1=lz-21
Then z—(-1+3i)I=Iz—(2+0i)I
The complex number 1 - 3i is represented by the point A(-1, 3).
The complex number 2 + Oi is represented by the point B(2, 0).
The given condition can now be written as AP = BP
So P is always equidistant from the two fixed points A and B.
That means that P lines on the perpendicular bisector of AB.
±x2 1
The mid-point of AB, M=(x1
(-1+2 3+0
2/2
(13
in Pure Mathematics for CAPE

The gradient of AB, M = Y2 - Y

X2 - x1
0-3

—3
3
= —1
.. the gradient of the perpendicular bisector of AB is 1.
The equation of the perpendicular bisector of AB is:
y - y 1 = m(x - x)
3 (

Then y— —=lix— 1—
22
3 1
So y- —=x- —

2 2
1 3
i.e. y=x- —+ —

22
y=x+l
The sketch is shown below.
YA

z+1-3i1 Locus of P
I,
A(-1, 3)
Mediator
z -21

B(2, 0)
-1QI 1 2 X

y=x+l

Hence, the locus of P is the perpendicular bisector (mediator) of the line segment AB.
And the Cartesian equation of the locus of P is y = x + 1.

In general, if Iz - z1 I= z2 , then the locus of z is the perpendicular

bisector (mediator) of the line segment with end-points z 1 and z2

CDO Locus of zwhen Iz—z1 1 = kI z — z2 1, k r= R+, k# 1

r Example 36 '
On an Argand diagram the point z satisfies the equation Iz - 21 = 3 Iz +1— 4i{.
(a) Find a Cartesian equation for the locus of z.
(b) Describe geometrically the locus of z.
 Complex numbers

- Solution
(a) Given Iz-2=3Iz+1-4iI
Then Ix +yi-2=3x+yi+1_4i
So (x -2 )+yi= 3 (x+ 1)+(y -4 )iI
i.e. 2
- 2)2 +Y2 = 3j(x +1)2 +(y-4)
(x_2)2+y2=32[(x+1)2+(y_4)2]
=> x2-4x+4+y2=9(x2+2x+1+y2-8y+16)
=> x2-4x+y2+4=9x2+18x+9y2-72y+153
=> 0 = 8x 2 + 22x + 8y2 — 72y + 149
2 11 2 149
0=x +—x+y —9y+--
4 8
2 2 11 149
X +y +—x-9y+---=0
4 8
Hence, the Cartesian equation of the locus of z is x2 + y2 + x- + =0, which is
the equation of a circle. 4 8

(b) Since x+_x+y —9y+--=O

+ f -() _(9)2 =
Complete the squares: )2 +(y - = o
+
9\2
( ( 149 121 81
Then I x+— I +1 y-- I +------=0
8) 2) 8 64 4
9\2
( 11 ( 225
So Ix+—i +iy--i ----=0
8) 2) 64
9\2
I ii 225
i.e. Ix+—I +(Y_ y—I
8) 2) 64
9\2
I ii ( (152
X+I+I—I-
8) 2)

Geometrically, the locus of z is a circle with centre at - 11 + i and radius

82 8

U 9)
\82J
Locus of z

I In general, if Iz -Z.j I = k Iz z2 1, k E
- , k # 1, then
the locus of z is a circle.
ffa Pure Mathematics for CAPE

CD Locus ofz when arg(z- z)=O where -Tc <O:5ir

- Example 37
The point P represents the variable complex number z on an Argand diagram. Sketch and
describe the locus of P given that:
TC
(a) arg z = -- (b) arg(z -1 + 21)

(c) arg(z -3 + 2i) = - (d) arg(z + 3+1) = - --

- Solution
It
(a) Given arg z = -
3
Then arg(z-0)= z 1 = 0 + 01

0 X

Hence, the locus of P is a half-line (ray) with end-point at the origin 0 and making an
angle with the positive real axis.

(b) Given arg(z -1 + 2i) =

Then arg [z -(1 - 2i)] = z 1 = 1 - 2i

Locus of P YA

arg(z - 1 - 2i) =

1 x

Hence, the locus of P is a half-line with end-point at (1, -2) and making an angle
with the dashed line which is parallel to the positive real axis.
 Complex numbers

TC
(c) Given arg(z —3+ 2i) = -

Then arg [z —(3 2i)] =

- - z 1 =3 - 2i

y4'

0123 x
-1
(3,-2)
-2
4
a rg(z-3 +2i) =--

7 Locus of P
4

Hence, the locus of P is a half-line with end-point at (3, —2) and making an angle - -

with the dashed line which is parallel to the positive real axis.

(d) Given arg(z + 3+ i) = -

Then arg [z —(-3 -1)] = - -s-- z1 = - 1

YA

'X
i-,
-2 -10
(-3,-l)
27E
-1

/
arg(z 3 + i) = -

Locus of P

Hence, the locus of P is a half-line with end-point at (-3, —1) and making an - with
the dashed line which is parallel to the positive real axis.

In general, if arg(z z 1) = 0 where —it < 0 :~ it, then the

-

locus of z is a half-line (ray) with an end-point at z 1 and

making an angle 0 with thepositive real axis
al Pure Mathematics for CAPE

z—z1
Locusofzwhenarg=
Z—Z2 ) (-

Example 38 '
The variable complex number z is represented on an Argand diagram. Find the locus of z
z —2 = Ic
which satisfies the equation arg(
\z+2) 2
Hence, find the Cartesian equation of the locus of z.
Solution
argz-2 it
Given
(z+2) 2
Then arg(z —2)— arg(z +2) =

Let a=arg(z-2)and/3=arg(z+2)
which is a fixed angle.
Ic
The difference between the two angles is always
One possible solution for z is shown in the diagram below.

—2 0 2 Re(z)

IE
We know that the angle in a semi-circle is -

Then, the locus of z is a semi-circle which is formed in the first and second quadrants with its
centre at the origin and radius 2.

Im(z)

Locus ofz x2 +y2 =4,y>O

—2 Or=22 Re(z)
Centre

The locus of z is drawn from z 1 to z2 in an anti-clockwise direction.

The two points on the diameter (-2, 0) and (2, 0) are not included; investigate this fact.
Hence, the Cartesian equation of the locus of z is x2 + y2 = 4 with y> 0.
This is the Cartesian equation of the semi-circle which is above the real axis.
 Complex numbers

-Example 39 Wa
z
Given that arg( _3) = , show that the variable complex number z when represented on an
\ z+3) 4
Argand diagram is a major arc of a circle.
Hence, find
(a) the coordinates of the centre of this circle
(b) the Cartesian equation of the locus of z.
- Solution
argz-3 it
Given
(z+3) 4
Then arg(z-3)—arg(z+3)=
Let a= arg (z —3) and /3= arg (z + 3)
a—fi= which is a fixed angle.
The angle formed is always and the locus of z is drawn from z 1 to z2 in an anti-clockwise direction.
Jm(z) 4

Locus ofz

+3) ;
arg(zK L C arg(Z _\)

Re(z)

(z-3) it
The representation of arg +3) =must be as shown m the Argand diagram above.
Hence, the locus of z is a major arc of a circle.
(a) We know that the angle at the centre of a circle is twice the angle at the circumference.
Therefore, the angle at the centre of the circle is
The centre of the circle is at 0 + 3i, so it has coordinates (0, 3).
(b) C(O, 3)

3 This is an isosceles triangle.

(-3,0) 3 (0,0)
The radius of the circle is r = 32 +32
=
= 3N'
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Alternatively: ________________
The radius of the circle is r = j(x2 - x1 )2 + (Y2 y )
-

= - 0)2 +(0-3)2

= If9 +9
=

= 3j
The Cartesian equation of a circle is
(x – a)2 + (y – b) 2 = r2
the Cartesian equation of the circle is
(x - 0)2 + (y - 3) 2 T)2
i.e. x2 + (y- 3)2 =
= 8 ~
'

Hence, the Cartesian equation of the locus of z is

x2 +(y-3)2 = 18withy>0.
This is the Cartesian equation of the major arc of the circle which is above the real axis.
Example 40
Z =
Given that arg (
show that the variable complex number z when represented on
z+4) 4
an Argand diagram is a minor arc of a circle.
Hence, find
(a) the coordinates of the centre of this circle
(b) the Cartesian equation of the locus of z.
• Solution
( z 3it
Given argl 1= —
'.z+4) 4
3n
Then arg z – arg(z + 4) = --
Let a = argz and ,13= arg(z +4)
a - 8= - which is a fixed angle.
It
The angle formed is always and the locus of z is drawn from z1 to z2 in an anti-clockwise
direction.
IM(z) 4,
Locus of z
-4 -4
Re(z)
 Complex numbers

(z ) =
3 7c
The representation of arg -- must be as shown m the Argand diagram, above.
+4
Hence, the locus of z is a minor arc of a circle.
(a) We know that the angle at the centre of a circle is twice the angle at the circumference.
Therefore, the angle at the centre of the circle is
The centre of the circle is at —2 - 2i, so it has coordinates (-2, —2).
(b) Q-2,-2)

2 This is an isosceles triangle.

2 _________
The radius of the circle is r i22 +22
= I4 +4
= ,j .
=th
The Cartesian equation of a circle is
(x — a)2 + (y — b) 2 = r2
the Cartesian equation of the circle is
(x - [_2])2 + (y - [_21)2 = (2,r2 )2
i.e. (x+2)2 +(y+2)2 =8
Hence, the Cartesian equation of the locus of z is
(x+2)2 + (y+2)2 = 8 with y> 0.
This is the Cartesian equation of the minor arc of the circle which is above the real axis.

In general, if
arg Z Z1
z— z2) 1= e that is, arg(z - z 1) - arg(z - z2 ) = e, then the
locus of z is the arc of a circle.
• If 0 = , then the locus of z is a semi-circle
2
• If 0 < 0 < (0 is acute), then the locus of z is a major arc of a circle.

• If <0 < it (0 is obtuse), then the locus of z is a minor arc of a circle.

The centre of the circle lies on the perpendicular bisector (mediator) of
the line segment (also a chord of the circle) with end-points z 1 and z2.
The chord formed by z 1 and z'2 does not always lie on the real axis.
in Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Example 41
The point P represents the variable complex number z in an Argand diagram. Sketch and
describe the locus of P when
(z+2 (z+3-4i
(a) arg =— (b) arg =
z-3i) it3 z-1+5i) 2it 3
• Solution
Iz+2' it
(a) Given arg (z
- 3i) —3
Then arg(z + 2)— arg(z - 3i) = it
-
3
it
So a'-fi=— which is a fixed angle.
3
Im(z)4.

Locus of P
dV \
V

Re(z)

Z +2
A sketch of arg (z is shown in the Argand diagram above.
3 - i) =3
The locus of P is a major arc of a circle.
z+3-4i 2ic
(b) Given arg =
(z-1+ 5i ) 3
Then arg(z + 3 — 4i) — arg(z — 1 + 5i) = 21c
----

So arg [z - (-3 + 4i)] - arg [z - (1— 5i)] =

which is a fixed angle.

IM(z) 4

4
arg(z+3-4i)/ \":
1 Re(z)

arg(z - 1 + 5i)
—5

z+3-4i 2it
A sketch of arg(z-1+5i) = - is ishown in the Argand diagram above.
3
The locus of P is a minor arc of a circle.
 Complex numbers

Intersecting loci
An Argand diagram can be used to find the point(s) of intersection of two loci.
Example 42
Use an Argand diagram to find the complex number z that satisfies the equations Iz = 8
and arg(z) =

Solution
Now I z = 8 is the equation of a circle with centre 0(0,0) and radius 8 units.
And arg(z) = is a half-line with an open end-point at 0(0,0) and making an angle of
with the positive real axis.
The Argand diagram that represents the two loci is shown below
Im(z) IT

The point of intersection of I z = 8 and arg(z)= . is Z =8 (COS +ISM

4
v2 r2-
=81 - + i -
2
= 4ñ+i4V
Example 43
Use an Argand diagram to find the complex number z that satisfies the equations
7C 7C
arg(z-2)= and arg(z)=.

Solution
Now arg(z -2) is a half-line with end-point at (2,0) and making and angle of - with the
positive real axis. 2

And arg(z) = is a half-line with an open end-point 0(0,0) and making an angle of with
the positive real axis.
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

IM(z)

From the Argand diagram:

TC
tan - = -
62
And tan -=
it —=—
1
6f3
Thus
2 3
2
So y=-;;-- I-
It it 2.J3
The point of intersection of arg(z -2) = - and arg(z) = - is z =2 + i
2 6 3
- Example 44
Find the complex numbers that satisfy the equations
z-61=1z+21 and z-4-i1=5.
Solution
Now I z - 61 = (z + 21 is the locus of all points which form the perpendicular bisector of
the line segment with end-points (6, 0) and (-2, 0). S of the midpoint of the line segment is
(x1 +x2 y1 +y2
2' 2
(6+[-21 0+0
2 / 2
(4 0

=(2,0)
Thus the equation of the perpendicular bisector is x = 2.
 Complex numbers

And Iz-4-iI=5
So Iz-(4+i)15
which is the locus of all points forming the circle with centre 4 + i and radius 5.

x=:z

From the Argand diagram it can be seen that the loci of Iz-61 = z+21 and Iz-4-iI =5
intersect at two points.
To find the points of intersection we now substitute x = 2 into the equation of the circle
Jz-4-iI =5.
Then x+iy-4--i(=5

So 12+iy-4-iI=5
i.e. -2+(y-1)it=5

(-2)2 +(y--1)2 =52

4+y2 -2y±1=25

y 2 -2y-20=O
where a = 1, b = -2 and c = -20.
Using the quadratic formula:
_b±Jb2 -4ac
X=—
2a
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Then y= —(-2) ± J(_2)2 - 4(1)(-20)

2(1)
- 2±j4+8O
2
2±
2
= 2±2-.Ji
2
=1 ± ji
Hence, the complex numbers that satisfy the equations are:
2+i(1+hi) and 2+i(1—Ji).

-Example 45
Find the complex numbers that satisfy the equations
Ir
—1— iJ] =1 and arg(z)
3
Solution
tz
Now —1— iF31 = 1 is the locus of all points which form a circle with centre 1 + i-,,F3 and
radius 1 unit.
7C IC
And arg(z) = is a half-line with an open end-point at 0(0,0) and making an angle of with
the positive real axis.
=

TC
From the Argand diagram it can be seen that the loci of —1— iJ =1 and arg(z) =
intersect at two points A and B. Also the centre, C, of the circle falls on the locus of
arg(z) =
 Complex numbers

Let Abe the point x 1 +iy1 and B be the point x 2 +iy2 .

Then
oC=I1+i.J5i
=12 (T)2
=
=
=2 unit
And AC=CB=r=lunit
So OA=OC-AC and OB=OC+CB
=(2-1)unit =(2+1)unit
=1 unit =3 units
Consider the right-angled triangle OAF.
It X
Then cos—=-
31
It
So X, cos-
3
1
2
Ity1
And sin =—
31

So ysjfl

2
the point of intersection A is +i 1=

Consider the right-angled triangle OBD.

It
Then cos —= X2
—
33
It
So x2=3cos —
3

(2
1)
3
2
TC Y2
And sin=
33
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

So y2=3sin

=3x-
2

.. the point of intersection B is

Hence, the complex numbers that satisfy the equations are:

and (i+ii).

Argand diagram and inequalities

An inequality stated using complex number(s) can be represented in an Argand diagram as a
locus which is a set of points in a region.
Example 46
Shade the region represented on an Argand diagram by the inequality.
(a) }z+il< 3 (b) z+iI<3
Solution
(a) Given z + ii < 3
Then Iz - (— i)} < 3
So Iz —(O—i)l<3
Now z—(O—i)1=3 is a circle with centre 0 - i and radius 3 units.

The Argand diagram that represents the inequality I z ± i I <3 is shown above.
The boundary of the circle, that is, the circumference, represents the equation I z + i = 3.
However, I z+iI#3.
The region inside of the circle represents the inequality I z + ii <3.
 Complex numbers

Hence, the inequality I z + fl <3 is represented by the circle with a broken circumference
and the inner circle shaded.
Where is the region Iz+i 3?
(b) Given z+iI<3
Then lz-(0-i)1<3
Now Iz —(0— i)I = 3 is a circle with centre 0 - i and radius 3 units.

The Argand diagram that represents the inequality 1 z + il < 3 is shown above.
The boundary of the circle, that is, the circumference, represents the equation ft + ij = 3.
The region inside of the circle represents the inequality Iz + ii < 3.
Hence, the inequality ft + i :!~ 3 is represented by the circle with an unbroken circumference
and the inner circle shaded.
Where is the region lz+iI>3?
-Example 47
On an Argand diagram, shade the region which represents the set of complex numbers z that
satisfy the condition Iz —3-411 < 2.
Hence, find the least and greatest value of I z
- Solution

U1
: r
51
CP I =CP2=r
3
4i ftF±H
3i
*T :LLI LI
:jHH I-I-
LI-11 -tI-LIL i+ LI--

21 14 4
1 f4 t I
44t 41t4TI I
0 VI9t-T4I r4T-- tL

1 2 3 4 5 Re(z)
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Given Iz-3-4i1<2
Then lz —(3 + 4i)I < 2
Now Iz - (3+ 4i)l =2 is a circle with centre 3 + 4i and radius 2 units.
The boundary of the circle represents the equation 1z —3— 4ij =2.
The region inside of the circle represents the inequality Iz —3— 4iJ <2.
Hence, the inequality lz —3— 4i1 !!~ 2 is represented by the circle with an unbroken
circumference and the inner circle shaded.
The Argand diagram that represents the inequality Iz —3— 4i1 !!-~ 2 is shown above.
In the Argand diagram, OP2 is a straight line passing through the centre of the circle, C, with
the points P1 and P2 lying on the circumference of the circle.
The least value of I z is OP1.
The greatest value of z I is OP 2'
Consider the right-angled triangle OCQ and use Pythagoras' theorem:
0C2= 3242
= 9 +16
=25
OC=jiunits
=5 units
So the least value of Ii
=OC—CPI
=(5-2)units
=3 units
And the greatest value of I z I = OC + CP2
= (5 +2) units
=7 units
Example 48
Given that lz —3 + 3iI !!~ 2, find the greatest and least value of I z +
Solution
J11"111 i

—J 4: _ :

_ I 1
dOIH
'E 3
Re
CP1 =CP2 =r

H-I1IL____
H HH

T T'
N) I
 Complex numbers

Given Iz-3+3i1<2
Then 1 z-(3-3i)I<2
Now I z -(3 3i)I =2 is a circle with centre 3 3i and radius 2 units.
-
-

The boundary of the circle represents the equation Jz -3+ 3iJ = 2.

The region inside the circle represents the inequality Iz -3+ 3i1 < 2.
Hence, the inequality I z -3+ 3i :! 2 is represented by the circle with an unbroken
~

circumference and the inner circle shaded.

The Argand diagram that represents the inequality Iz -3+ ::-:: 2 is shown above.
~

In the Argand diagram, AP is a straight line passing through the centre of the circle, C, with
the points P1 and P2 lying on the circumference of the circle.
Now Iz+41=Iz-(-4)I
This is represented by the length of a line AP with starting-point A( 4, 0), that is, -4 + Oi.
-

The greatest value of I z + 41 is AP2.

The least value of ! z + 41 is AP 1.
Consider the right-angled triangle ACQ and use Pythagoras' theorem:
AC 2 = 3272
=9+49
=58
AC=Junits
So the greatest value of Iz + 41 = AC + CP
=(-.J+2)units
And the least value of Iz + = AC C]?1-

8 -2) units
= (.\r5-
-Example 49
Represent on an Argand diagram the region
0<arg(z+3+2i)<.

Solution
Now z + 3 + 2i = z (-3 2i) is represented by a line AP with starting-point A(-3, -2), that is,
- -

-3 2i.
-

The line A]? forms an angle a with the line y = -2i which is parallel to the positive real axis,
where the angle is greater than 0 but no more that Ic

That is 0<a<:Ic
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

IM(z)

H
ir
The Argand diagram above represents the inequality
0<arg(z+3+2i)<..
4

Example 5O
Show on an Argand diagram the region that satisfy the conditions
Iz-2—iI:! ~ 3 and arg(z-2—i)<..-.

Solution
Given z-2—it<3
Then Iz—(-2+i)<3
Now Iz (2+i)1 = 3 is a circle with centre 2
— + i and radius 3.
The inequality z {
- 2 - i :~ 3 is represented by this circle and the region inside the circle.
Given arg[z-2—i]
5
Then arg[z —(2 + i)] :~ - is a half-line with end point 2+ i and making an angle of with the
positive real axis.

--z--3
2

r
ot+ i. 4 LiUHct) -'

The common region is the region where the two regions overlap.
On the Argand diagram, the region that satisfy the conditions

z —2 + i :~- 3 and arg(z —2—i) :! ~- - is the common region.

 Complex numbers

Exercise ig

Sketch the locus of the set of all points P(z) which represents the complex number z on an
Argand diagram and satisfies the equation

1. (a) IzI = 4 (b) IzI = 5 9. (a) Iz + 6i1 =5 (b) Iz + =8

2. (a) IzI+ 2 = 8 (b) jz)+7=10 10. (a) jz - 2+3i1=4 (b) Iz-4+7i1=8
3. (a) IzI —3 = 7 (b) IzI —6 = 3 11. (a) Iz + 5— 2iJ = 3 (b) Jz + 8— 5i1 = 10
4. (a) Iz —ii = 3 (b) Iz — 2! = 5 12. (a) z —4— 3i1 = 5 (b) (z —6— 2i! =4
5. (a) Iz —41 = 2 (b) Iz + 1! = 4 13. (a) Iz + 3+ 7i = 6 (b) Iz + 4 + 8i( = 9
6. (a) lz + 9l= (b) lz + I =9 14. (a) lz —5 + 4I —7 (b) !z + 8— Si! =10
7. (a) Iz - 2ij =3 (b) Iz - Si! =2 15. (a) lz —8-- 9ij =2 (b) lz + 2 + 7i1 =3
8. (a) Iz - 8i1 = 10 (b) Iz + 3iJ = 4
Find the Cartesian equation of the locus of the point z which satisfies each of the following
equations.
Hence, sketch the locus of z which represents z on an Argand diagram.
16. (a) Jz-2--iI=Iz+3+iI (b) Jz-3—iJJz+2+5iJ
17. (a) lz-4-2i1=lz+4+2i1 (b) lz-5—iI=lz+6+4i1
18. (a) z-3+4iI=!z+5--2i1 (b) (z+6—iI=!z-5+i!
19. (a) z+5+2i1=lz-3-4i1 (b) Iz -2 + 6 i1=lz+ 3-71 1
20. (a) Iz-2-7i1=lz+3+6i1 (b) lz+5+2i)=Iz-6-3iI
On an Argand diagram the point z satisfies each of the following equations.
(a) Find a Cartesian equation for the locus of z.
(b) Describe geometrically the locus of z.
21. lz + 1! = 2 Iz —2— 4i1 1
27. —lz+21=Iz-1+311
22. Jz - 1 = - Iz —2 + 3iJ .
2 28. 21z+51=Iz-2+411
23. lz+ 2 l=Iz -1-2 il 29. 31z+2ij=jz-4+3i)
24. Iz-21= Iz-3+4iI 30. 41z-3i1=lz-1+2iI
25. Iz +31=41z-4-2i1
26. z-3I=-Iz-2+6il
4
EM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

The point P represents the variable complex number z on an Argand diagram. Sketch and
describe the locus of P given that
it = 37t
31. (a) arg z = (b) arg z
it 2it
32. (a) argz = - (b) argz = ---

33. (a) arg(z-1+2i)= (b) arg(z+2—i)=

34. (a) arg(z-2+3i)=-- (b) arg(z+3+2i)=-

3it
35. (a) arg(z-3-2i)=-- (b) arg(z+1+3i)=..
4 3
The variable complex number z is represented on an Argand diagram. Find the locus of z for
each of the following equations. Hence, find the Cartesian equation of the locus of z.
(z_1)_ it Z3 it
36. (a) arg - (b) arg(z+3)
___ ___
=
(z+2 it ___ it
37. (a) arg —2) = (b) arg
(Z - 5) =
For each of the following equations, show that the variable complex number z when
represented on an Argand diagram is a major arc of a circle.
Hence, find
(a) the coordinates of the centre of this circle
(b) the Cartesian equation of the locus of z.
38. arg(z —1) - arg(z + 1) = 40. arg ( z —1) =

39. arg(z — 8) — arg(z — 8) = 41. arg('Z6')=

\ z+2) 4
For each of the following equations, show that the variable complex number z when
represented on an Argand diagram is a minor arc of a circle.
Hence, find
(a) the coordinates of the centre of the circle
(b) the Cartesian equation of the locus of z.
-37c z
42. arg ( arg 43.(
z +6) z-4) 4
The point P represents the variable complex number z in an Argand diagram. Sketch and
describe the locus of P when
z+3 it z-2i it
44. (a) arg - (b) arg ( =
(
z-4i) 5 z+2 )
3
z+2-5i 3it z-3+4i 31c
45. (a) arg( 14 .)= (b) arg (z+2-5i)=
 Complex numbers

Use an Argand diagram to find the complex number z that satisfies each of the following pairs
of equations.
46. (a) (z I 4 and arg(z) = (b) I z = 5 and arg(z) =
It = It
47. (a) IzI=2 and arg(z)= (b) IzI=7and arg(z)

48. (a) Izj=6and arg(z)=.- (b) IzI=9and arg(z)=

Use an Argand diagram to find the complex number z that satisfies each pair of equations.
R R 7r 57c
49. (a) arg(z -1) = and arg(z) = (b) arg(z + 1) = and arg(z) =

50. (a) arg(z -2) = and arg(z) = (b) arg(z + 2) = and arg(z) =

51. (a) arg(z -3) = - and arg(z) = (b) arg(z + 3) = -- and arg(z) =

Find the complex number(s) that satisfy each of the following pairs of equations.
52. )z-41=Iz+21 and lz-2-iI=3
53. lz+1I=12-31 and z-3-iJ=2
54. Iz+31=Iz+51 and z+5-iI=4
55. lz--8I=Iz+4I and Iz+6-il=l

Find the complex number(s) that satisfy each pair of equations.

56. I z - 2 - 2i = land arg(z)= Tc

It
' Iz -1- iJãj =2 and arg(z) 3

58.1z - - i = 4 and arg(z) =

59. z-Jg+i-.i'=6 and arg(z)=-

60. z_2J+2iI=4 and arg(z)=---

 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Shade the region represented on an Argand diagram by each of the following inequalities.
61. (a) Iz+il<2 (b) Iz+iI:52
62. (a) Iz-ik3 (b) Iz-iI!~ 3
63. (a) Iz+1+i 1<2 (b) lz+1+il:! ~ 2
64. (a) lz-1-iI<3 (b) lz-1-iI: ~ 3
On an Argand diagram, shade the region which represents the set of complex number z that
satisfy the given condition.
Hence, find the least and greatest value of I z I.
65. (a) lz-2-3i1! ~ 2 (b) lz-2+3i1<2
66. (a) lz+3-2i1: ~ 2 (b) lz+3+2i1! ~ 2
67. Given that I z - 3 + 4i I < 1, find the greatest and least value of I z + 2
68. Given that I z+5+2i: ~ 2, find the greatest and least value of Iz-1l.
69. Given that I z + 2 - 4i !~ 3, find the greatest and least value of I z - 3
70. Given that I z - 3 - 2i J :~ 2, find the greatest and least value of I z + 5
71. Represent on an Argand diagram each of the following regions.
TC
(a) 0< arg (z + 4 + i) :!'~ (b) 0< arg(z —3— 2i) !! ~

72. Represent on and Argand diagram each of the following regions.

(a) 0< arg(z —2 + i) (b) 0< arg(z +5 — 2i) !~-

73. Represent on an Argand diagram each of the following regions.

(a) -
1. < arg(z + 2 + 3i) !!~ 0 (b) - < arg(z —2 + 4i) :!~ 0

74. Show on an Argand diagram the region that satisfies the conditions
TC
lz-3-il: ~ 2and arg(z-3—i)<

75. Show on an Argand diagram the region that satisfies the conditions
lz+3-4i1! ~-2and arg(z+3-4i)<.
 Complex numbers

De Moivre's theorem
De Moivre's theorem states that for all integers n, if z = r(cos 0 + i sin 0),
then z11 = r11 (cos nO + i sin nO).

Here, we will prove the theorem by induction for all positive integers n.
Proof
Let P: If z = r(cos @ + i sin 8), then
Zn = (05 nO + i sin nO), V n E 7L.

Then P1 : z' = r1 (cos i• + i sin 1.0)

z=r(cos0+i sin O)
The theorem is true for n = 1.
And Pk: zk= r'(cos kO + i sin kO), V k E t
Assume that the statement is true for n = k.
Also Pk , 1: zk + 1 = rk + 1 [cos (k + 1)8 + I sin (k + 1)81, V (k + 1) E
We need to prove that the statement is true for n = k + 1.
When n = k + 1:
+1 = z
= rk (cos kO + i sin kO) r(cos 0 + i sin 0)
= rk +1 [cos kO cos 0 - sin k0 sin 0 + i (sin kO cos 0 + cos kO sin 0)]
= [cos (kO + 0) + i sin (kO + 0)]
=rk+1 [cos (k+ 1)0 +isin (k+ 1)0]

The theorem is true for n = k + 1.

Hence, by the principle of mathematical induction (PMI), the theorem is true for all positive
integers n.
Next, we prove that the theorem is true for all negative integers n.
Proof
If n is a negative integer, then n = -in, where in > 0.
So Zn=Z-m
= {[r(cos 0 + i sin 0)]-1}m
= {r [cos (-0) + i sin (_0)]}m
= rm [cos (—m 0) + i sin (-in 0)]
= r' (cos n 0 + Isin n 0)
Hence, the theorem is true for all negative integers n.
Finally, we prove that the theorem is true for n = 0.
Proof
If n = 0, then z ° = r° (cos o• + i sin 0.0)
= 1 (cos 0 + i sin 0)
= 1 (1 + 0)
=1
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Also Z' = 1 always.

Hence, the theorem is true when n = 0.
De Moivre's theorem is completely proved.
If z = r(cos 0 + i sin 0),
then Zn = r(cos nO + i sin nO), V n E Z.
De Moivre's theorem hold for all integral values of n.
-Example 51
Find z8 if z=--.j+i.
- Solution
Given that z = 43- + i z is in the 2nd quadrant.
=
Then r + 12

= V3 +1

=2
And tan o=
1 0 is in the 2nd quadrant. 0 is obtuse.

O=ic-tan 1 -

It
= It--
6
5ir
6
( 57t . . 571"
So z =2 cos + i sin - i in polar form.
6 6)
51t . 58
8 8(
z =2 Icos—+isrn--
6
( 40it . . 407t
= 2561 cos —+isin- ---
6 6
F (61r 2it" I+isin+—
256i cos+— (67c
2it
[ 3) 3
I 2ic . . 27t
= 2561 COS —+i sin --
k. 3 3
- 256 --+ii -
L 2 3)]
= 128(_1+iJ)
=-128+128ii
 Complex numbers MLWA

- Example 52
Find z7 if z=—i—..Ji
Given that z = —1— Ji z is in the 3rd quadrant.
j(_1)2 + (_j)2
Then r=
=
=

And tan = = 0 is in the 3rd quadrant. 0 is obtuse.

0 = _(ic _tan 1 sJ)

it
(7c--
3
2it
3
z=2 F
So (_ 27c. . (_ 271
m polar form.

( 27c . . 27t
=21 cos--isin-
2n 2it" 7
z =2 (COS --ism--
3
( l4ic . s
cos----isrn-
in
3 3
(2it"\ . ( 2n
=128i[COS 4it+— 1—i sm i 4ic+
k 3) 3
( 2it . . 2it
=128i cos--isin--
'\ 3 3

= 128I_L1ILi
L 2
= 64(_1_Ji)
= —64-64Ji
Example 53 II
Use De Moivre's theorem to express
(a) cos 30 in terms of cos 0
(b) sin 30 in terms of sin 8
(c) tan 30 in terms of tan 0.
M Pure Mathematics for CAPE

• Solution
(a) By the Binomial theorem:
(cos 0 + i sin 0)

= Cos 30+ ( cos2 9(i sin 0) + (3) cos 0(i sin 0)2 + (i sin 0)

= cos3 0 + 3i cos2 9 sin 0 - 3 cos 0 sin 2 9 - i sin3 0

= (cos3 9 - 3 cos 0 sin 2 0) + i(3 cos2 0 sin 0 - sin3 9)
By De Moivre's theorem
(cos 0 + i sin 0)3 = cos 30 + i sin 30
Equating the real parts:
cos 30 = cos3 0 — 3 cos 0 sin 20 Cos 2 0+sin2 0=1
= cos3 0 - 3 cos 0 (1 - cos2 0) .. sin2 0 = 1 - cos2 0
= cos3 9 - 3 cos 9 + 3 cos 3 9
= 4 cos 3 0 - 3 cos 0
Here, cos 39 is expressed in terms of powers of cos 0.
(b) Equating the imaginary parts:
sin 3O=3cos2 0 sin O—sin3 0 Cos 2 0+sin2 O=1
=3(1-sin2 0) sin 0-sin3O ... Cos 2 O=1-sin2 0
= 3 sin 0 - 3 sin3 0 - sin3 0
= 3 sin 0 - 4 sin3 0
Here, sin 30 is expressed in terms of powers of sin 0.
(c) tan 30= sin 30
cos 30
COS2 30
-3 OsinO—sin
- cos3 0-3cos0sin2 0
3cos 2 0 sin 9— sin 3 0
- cos3 0
- Cos 3 O-3cos0sin2 O
Cos 3 0
3 tan 0— tan3 0
= 1-3tan2 O
Here, tan 39 is expressed in terms of powers of tan 0.

Example 54
(a) Expand (cos 0 + i sin 0)5 and state the answer in the form a + bi.
(b) Express in terms of sin 0 and cos 0
(1) cos 50 (ii) sin 50
(c) State tan 50 in terms of tan 0 and cot 50 in terms of cot 0.
 Complex numbers

Solution
(a) By the Binomial theorem:

(cos 0 + i sin 0)5 = cos5 0 cos4 0(i sin 0) cos3 0(i sin 9)2
+ +

+
()
5
cos 2 0(i sin 0)3
+ (J cos 0(i sin 0) + (i sin 9)5

= cos5 0 + 5i cos4 0 sin 0 + 10i2 cos3 0 sin2 0 + 10i3 cos2 B sin3 0 + 5i4 cos 0 sin4 0 + i5 sin5 0
=cos5 0+5icos4 0 sin 0—lOcos3 Osin2 O—l0icos2 0sin3 O+5 COS 0sin4 0+i sin' 0
= (cos5 0 10 cos3 0 sin2 0 +5 cos 0 sin4 0) + i(5 cos4 0 sin 0 10 cos2 0 Sin3 0 + sin5 0)
- -

= (cos5 0 10 cos3 0 sin2 O + 5 cos 0 sin4 0) + i(sin5 B 10 cos2 0 sin3 B + 5 cos4 0 sin 0)
- -

(b) By De Moivre's theorem:

(cos 0 + i sin 9)5 = cos 50 + i sin 50
Then cos 50 + i sin 50 = (cos5 0 10 cos3 0 sin2 0 + 5 cos 0 sin4 0)
-

+ i(sin5 0 10 cos2 0 sin3 0 + 5 cos4 0 sin 0)

-

(i) Equating the real parts:

cos 50 = cos-9 0 10 cos3 0 sin2 0 + 5 cos 0 sin4 9
-

(ii) Equating the imaginary parts:

sin50 = sin' 0 10cos2 0sin3 0 +5cos4 O sin 0
-

sin 50
(c) tan =
COS 50
- sin5 0—lO COS' O sin 3 O+5cos 4 0sin0
- cos5 0-10cos 3 B sin 2 0+5cos0sin 4 0
sin 0-10cos2 O sin 3 0+5cos4 O sin 0
= cos5 0
cos5 0-10 cos3 0 sin 0+5 cos 0 sin 4 0
cos 5 0
-tan5 0—lO tan 3 O+Stan0
- 1-10tan2 0+5tan4 O
COS 50
cot 50=
sin 50
-COS" 0—lO COS' O sin 2 B+5cos0sin 4 0
-sin5 0-10cos2 O sin 3 0+5cos4 OsinO
- (cos5 0-10cos 3 Osin2 O+5cos0sin4 0) sin5 0 ~

- (sin5 O—lOcos3 O sin 2 O+5cos4 0 sin 0) sin 5 0

- cot5 0-10cot3 0+5cot0
- 1-10 cot3 0+5cot4 0
Example 55 II
Given that z = cos 0 + i sin 0 and n E 7L'.
(a) show that
(i) + z = 2 cos n 0
(ii) Zn- = 2i sin n 0
M Pure Mathematics for CAPE

(b) show that 1

, i(
Wcos 9=—i z+ — i
z) \fl
(ii)siifO= Iz-
(2i) z
(c) Hence, show that
(i) cos9=----(cos50+5cos30+10cos9)

(ii) sin5 9 = ---(sin50-5sin30+10sin9)

- Solution
(a) (i) Given that z= Cos O+i sin 9
Then Zn = (cos 0 + i sin 9)1

= cos n 0 + i sin n 0
And z=(cos9+isin0)
= cos (—nO) + i sin (—nO)
= cos nO - i sin nO
So z+z=cosn9+isinn9+cosnO—isinnO
= 2 cos nO
(ii) Also z—z=cosnO+isinnO—(cosn9—isinnO)
= Cos nO+i sin n0— Cos n0 +i sin nO
= 2i sin nO
(b) (i) Now z+z=z+--

Then z +— =2 cos 0 since n = 1.

So i(z+) =(2 COS O)

=(2 cos 0)
2
= cos 0
11 i'\
cos0=--Iz+
2 z
(ii)Now z — z=z — --

Then z—=2isin0 since n=1.

1 ( ill 1 ( 2ismO)
So Iz--1 =
(2i) zJ (2i)
= 1 [(2i) sin o]
(2i)
= siif 0
 Complex numbers

Sin n ( 1'\ 1
0 =
(2i) t z
/ Z +, \fl
(c) (1) Now cos 0 = -
2k
-
z
I
1 1"
Then cos5 0=—Iz+—
z
1 [Z5
(5 4 (1) + (5 312 (5 2(1)3 (5 )z( ii
+1 Iz IZ I I +1 IZ I+
32 1j z 2) '\ Z) 3) z 4 z) z
1(5 10 5 1
z +5z 3 +lOz+—+—+—
32 z z3 z5
11( 5 1'\ ( 5'\ ( 10 )]

=—iiz +—i+i5z +—i+ilOz+--

32[%. z) z) z
5 3 1 i )]
i z +— i+5i z +— )+10i z+
32L' z) s.. z z

= [2 cos 50 + 5(2 cos 3O)+ 10(2 cos 0)]

—(cos 5O+5 cos 3O+lO cos O)

=
16
Here, cos5 0 is expressed as the cosines of multiples of 0.
(Z_ 1)n
1
(ii) Now sin0=
(2i) z
(Z_
1 1"
Thensin5 O —
(2i)5 z
1 2 .(_1)4+_
k--) +4)Z
1 (5 ) Z 4 ( J ) + (5 (5 2
1(5 ( 1
z
+L4z -)
+3)Z

-)
10 5
=—( Z 5 —5z +lOz— —+ -- 1—
321 z z3 z5
Z5 10)]
=- — — 5z -- + lOz--
32i[( z)5 ) z3 z
11( i (3 1"i ( 1
I z -- 1-51 z --1+101 z--
321 L. z5 ) z3 ) z

= --- [2i sin 50— 5(2i sin 30) + 10(2i sin 0)]
32i

= --- (sin 50-5 sin 30+10 sin 0)

16
Here, sin5 0 is expressed as the sines of multiples of 0.
In Pure Mathematics for CAPE

-Example 56til
cos 20—i sin 20
State in the form cos nO + i sin nO, the expression
cos 30+1 sin 30
- Solution
cos 20—i sin 20 - [cos(—O) + I sin(-0)
cos 3O+i sin 30 - (cos 0 + i sin 0)3
= [cos(-0) + I sin(-8)]2 (cos 0 + i sin 0)-s
[cos(-0) + i sin(—O)j 2 [cos(—O) + i sin(-0)] 3
= [cos(—O) + i sin(-0)]5
= {cos(-50) + i sin(-50)]
= cos 50—i sin 5O

Exercise lh

1. If z=sJ+i, find
(a) z3 (b) z4 (c) z5 (d) z 6
2. If z = — j5 - 3i, calculate the value of
(a) z5 (b) z6 (c) z 7 (d) z 8
3. If z = —2 + 2i, evaluate
(a) z4 (b) z5 (c) z 6 (d) z 7
4. Given that z =2— 2ji, find the value of
(a) z4 (b) z5 (c) z6 (d) z7
5. Given that z = 2— calculate the value of
(a) z7 (b) z8 (c) z9 (d) z 10
6. (a) Expand (cos 0 + i sin 8)2 and state the answer in the form a + bi.
(b) Express in terms of sin 8 and cos 0
(1) cos 20 (ii) sin 20
(c) Hence, state tan 20 in terms of tan 0 and cot 20 in terms of cot 0.
7. (a) Expand (cos 0 + i sin 0)3 and state the answer in the form p + qi.
(b) Express in terms of sin 0 and cos 0
(i) cos 30 (ii) sin 30
(c) State tan 30 in terms of tan 0 and cot 30 in terms of cot 0.

8. (a) Expand (cos 0 + i sin 0)4 and state the answer in the form x + yi.
(b) Express in terms of sin 0 and cos 0
(i) cos 40 (ii) sin 48
(c) State tan 40 in terms of tan 0 and cot 40 in terms of cot 0.
 Complex numbers

9. (a) Expand (cos 0 + i sin 0)6 and state the answer in the form a + bi.
(b) Express in terms of sin 0 and cos 0
(i) cos 60 (ii) sin 60
(c) State tan 60 in terms of tan 0 and cot 60 in terms of cot 0.

Use De Moivre's theorem to find the value of each of the following expressions.
/3 7C 1'

TC I 7t..7E
10. (a) I cos—+ism— I (b) I cos—+ism-
2) 2 2
/ r 7C 7C )6

(c) i cos —+i sin — i (d) I Cos —+ism-

' 2 2) ' 2 2
( 57t . . 5it ( 5ic . . 5ic'\ 5
11. (a) I cos —+isrn-- I (b) I cos —+i sin —
8) 8
5\6 5\7
1 5 ( 5
(c) I cos—+ism— I (d) I cos —+ism-
. 8 8 ) . 8 8

12. (a)
F 3 . . ( 3
+1
( F ( 3 . ( 3
(b) Lcos__) + 1s1n(___)j
Lcos_)
F ( 3n( . . 3i(\i
(c) [Cos —_)+1sml---)] (d)
F Cos ( 3it . . ( 3it1
5 5)
7
.. 31
(b)
FI cosi( 3
I+isinl -
.. 3
13. (a) I cos+isinl
F[ HO) -- ii
10)] [
--

10) t\ 10

(c)
F ( . .
+ 1s1n (d) Lcos
I 3it
+1
..I 3n
co (-10)1
_j) -.- )

14. Use De Moivre's theorem to express

(a) cos 20 in terms of cos 0
(b) sin 20 in terms of sin 0 and cos 0
(c) tan 20in terms of tan O
15. Use De Moivre's theorem to express cos 40 in terms of cos 0.
16. Use De Moivre's theorem to express
(a) cos 50 in terms of cos 0
(b) sin 50 in terms of sin 0
17. Use De Moivre's theorem to express cos 60 in terms of cos 0.
18. Given that z = cos 0 + i sin 0 and n E 7Lt
(a) show that
.. 1.
(i) z+—1 =2cosO (ii) z--=2i sin 0
z z
(b) Hence, show that
1 .. 1
(i) z n + -z =2 cos nO (ii) z - - = 2i sin n
f
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

19. If z = cos 0 + i sin 0, express each of the following complex numbers in terms of 0.
(a) z3 (b) z 4
20. Given that z = cos 0 + i sin 0 and n E
(a) show that
1 .. 1
U) + - 2 cos nO (ii) z' - - = 2i sin nO
Z n=
(b) Hence, express each of the following trigonometric functions in terms of z.
(i) cos 80 (ii) sin 70
21. Given that z = cos 0 + i sin 0 and n E Z.
(a) show that =z + .) fl 1)n
(1) 2 cosn 0 (ii) (2i) 1 sinn 0 = (Z -

(b) Hence, show that

(i) cos 3 0 = -(cos 3O+3 cos O) (ii) sin' 0 = -(3 sin O— sin 3O)

22. (a) Express cos' 0 as the cosines of multiples of 0.

(b) Express sin4 0 as the cosines of multiples of 0.
(c) Hence, show that 8 cos 4 8 - 16 sin4 0 = —cos 40 + 12 cos 20 - 3.

23. Express sin 40 in terms of powers of cos 0.

sin 0
24. Express in the form cos nO + I sin nO, the expression
Cos 5O—i sin 50 cos 40+i sin 40
(a) ()
b
cos 20+i sin 20 cos 7O—i sin 70
25. Express in the form cos nO + i sin nO, the expression
cos 2O—i sin 2O cos60+isin60
(a) (b)
cos 40— 1. sin 40 cos 2O+i sin 2O

Exponential form of a complex number

Euler's formula

Euler's formula states that

eiX = cos x + i sin x where i = jii, x c= R and x is in radians.
or
(eie = cos O+i sin O where i = Jii,
0 € R and 0 is in radians.

rExample 57
Express in Cartesian form, each of the following exponential complex number expressions.
in
(a) e in3 (b) e in (c) e4 -
 Complex numbers

Solution
ut -It

(a) e 3 = e1 - is in the 1st quadrant.

TE
=cos—+ism-
3 3
1
2 2

=_+_1
22
(b) ein= cos it + i sin it it is on the border of the 2nd and 3rd quadrants.
=-1+i(0)
= -1
-
it
(c) e 4 = e is in the 4th quadrant
4( -
= Cos l--I+i sin I--
IE)
,[2- --
2 2)

= -- -1
2 2
Example 58
Given that z = cos x + I sin x = eix
(a) Find an expression, in terms of e, for
(i) cos ' X (ii) Sm X
(b) Hence, find an expression, in terms of z, for
(i) COS X (ii) sin x
Solution
(a) (i) Given that eiX = cos x + i sin x
Then e = cos (-x) + I sin (-x)
So e-ix=cosx-isinx ©
©+©: 2 cos x=e+e
cos x = (ex + e)
(ii) Given that eiX = cos x + i sin x (1)
Then -e = -cos x + i sin x ©
+©: 2i sin x=e-e
sinx= --(e -e -ix
2i
(b) (i) Given that z = eiX
Then z1
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

in
So =e - (b) z = 3e 2

Since cosx= —(e +e = 3e(2) is on the

it . . it border of the
i 1 =31( cos—+isrn—i
Then cosx = — Iz+ --- 2 2) lst and 2nd
2k( z quadrants.
=3 [O + i(1)]
1. -.
(ii) Since smx= (ee IX) =31
2i
Then sinx= -Iz-z (c) z = 4e 2 -- ison
2
( tt'
the border
= 4e2j of the 3rd
Exponential form 1 and 4th
I it\ 7c\l
The polar form of a complex number is =4 Lc0s sin quadrants.
z = r(cos 0 + i sin 0) k- --J + i J]
And Euler's formula states that = 4 [0 + i(-1)]
elO = cos 0 + i sin 0 = —4i
Thus the exponential form of a complex
number is
- Example 60
z = reiO
Hence, z = r(cos 0 + i sin 0) = relO Use Euler's theorem which states that
where r = IzI and 0 = arg(z). eiX = cos x + i sin x to prove De Moivre's
theorem which states that
-Example 59 (cos x+i sin x)= cos nx+i sin nx VnE .
Express in Cartesian form, each of the
following complex numbers in exponential - Solution
form. Given that eix
in itt
Then e inx = cos nx + I sin nx (D
(a) z = 5e4 (b) z = 3e 2 (c) z = 4e2 And = cos nx - i sin nx ©
+©: 2 cos nx = e x+ e_ ©
- Solution
—©: 2i sin nx = e x_ e_
in
(a) z = 5e 4 © + ®:
2(cos nx + i sin nx) = 2einx
=5e — ismthe +2:
cos nx + i sin nx = e inx
it 1st quadrant. = ( e x)n
=5+isin
(cosit
4 4 = (cos x + I sin
(cos x + I sin = cos nx + I sin nx
=5['[2
—+ii.( - Hence
2 2 e" = (cos x + i sin = cos nx + I sin nx.
5I And
=
2 2 rneinx = r(cos x + i sin = r(cos nx + i sin nx).
 Complex numbers

-Example 61 3it (3it

If z1 = ie °' and z2 = r2e192, find an expression =6t
[COS + i sinl
) 6
for each of the following.
.. it
z1 6—+isi-
(cos n
(a) z 1z2 (b) -
Z
2 2
2
- Solution 31
( COS —+ism-
it..it
(a) z1z2 = r1eO1 r2e10 66
Z2 .it
= r1r2 (e' e182) 2+isin
cos it
( 3 3
= r1 r2ei01+102 31 (it it . • (it it
=—I cost--- t+isinI
• zz —rr 1(01+02) 2L 3) 6 3
Hence izIZ21 rr = Z1 IZ2I. . . (it-2it
31 (it-2it" I+isinl
And arg(z1z2) = 01 +0 2 = arg z 1 + arg z2. =—icosi
2L
Z,
rei01
(b)
- 102 31 ( m •. ( it
=—I cost -- t+isini --
Z2 r2e
21 6). 6
= _ei01_i02 Example 63
r2 37c .7C

_ei(01_02) If z1 = 8e' I and z 2 = 2e 5 find an expression

,

Z2 r2 for each of the following.

Hence
Z1 T1 1z d (a) z1z2 (b) zi
Z2
Z2 r2 1z21 Solution 37t

And arg[-LJ = 0 1 — 0 = argz1 - argz2 . z1 = 8e'

z2 (a) z1z2 = 8e' 2e' 5 (b)
Z2
(3 2e'
-Example 62 =16e5 5) it

If z 1 =3 (COS .+isin) and =4e

6 6) =16e'
= 4e1
Z 2 = 2(cos --+i sin -) find an expression
Example 64WA
for each of the following.
z If z = r&° and z = T(coS 0 + i sin 0), find in
(a) z 1z2 (b) --i exponential form, an expression for each of
z2
the following.
- Solution (a) z 1 (b) z
n . . R) 7C . . 7C )
(a) z1z2 = Solution
(a) If z = reie
I (it it '\ • . (it it
=6t cost —+— t+isini —+—
)]

6 3) 3 Then 1— = 1
I Z Te'0
(it+2ir . .
=6cosi I+isinl
I 6) r
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

z -1 -iO So z=re'°
.. =- e
r TO
(b) If z = r(cos 9 + i sin 0) =
Then z*=r(cos9_i sin O)
= r[cos(-0) + i sin (-8) = 2e'
= (b) Given that z=-3+sji zisin the 2nd
z' = re° quadrant.
-Example 65 + ([)2
Ii
Then r= J(3)2

Express each of the following complex

numbers in exponential form. = 19--+--3
(a) z=2-2i (b) z=-3+ji = ji
(c) z=-8
- Solution
And
(a) Given that z=2-2i zisin the 4th 3
quadrant. It
Then r=Izl 6
=22 +(_2)2 57t

= V4+4 6
So z=2je ' 6
=J
(c) Given that z = —8 z is on the border
= 2..h of the 2nd and
And 0=argz 3rd quadrants.
Then z=-8+Oi
=—taif'
2 So r = j(_8)2
= - tan' 1
It
=8
4 And 0 7
z=8e1

Exercise

Express in Cartesian form, each of the following exponential complex number expressions.
in -itt i57t -i5tt
1. (a) e 6 (b) e 6 (c) e 6 (d) e 6
itt i3n - Bn

2. (a) e 4 (b) e 4 (c) e 4 (d) e

itt in i2m i2tt
3. (a) e 3 (b) e 3 (c) e 3 (d) e
i2tt
5 5
4. (a) e 5 (b) e (c) e (d) e
 Complex numbers

5. Given that z = cos x + i sin x = e.

(a) Find an expression, in terms of e, for
(1) 2 cos x (ii) 2 sin x
(b) Find an expression, in terms of z, for
(i) 2 cos x (ii) 2 sin x
(c) Hence, determine an expression in terms of z, for 8 cos x + 8i sin x.
6. Given that z = cos x + i sin x = e.
(a) Find an expression, in terms of e, for
(i) cos x (ii) sin x
(b) Find an expression, in terms of z, for
(i) 5 cos x (ii) 5 sin x
(c) Hence, determine an expression in terms of z, for 5 cos x - 5i sin x
Express in Cartesian form, each of the following complex numbers in exponential form.

7. (a) 4e 3 (b) 5e 3 (c) 6e 2

in in ut
8. (a) 2e 4 (b) 3e 4 (c) 9e 2
On i5it
9. (a) 6e 6 (b) 7e 6 (c) 10e1

10. (a) 8e 3
(b) 9e 3 (c) 12e 2
07t i3it On
11. (a) 5e 8 (b) 6e 8 (c) 8e 8
37c . .3it'
12. If z1 = 41 cos—+isrn—Tc I and z 2 = 21 cos—+isin-- i, find an expression for each of the
" 5 5) . 10 10)
following. Z2 zi
(a) z 1z 2 (b) (c)
z1 z2
( 3it..3it '\ ( lt..lt ,\.
13. Given that z 1 = and z2 = Find an expression for each
of the following.
z Z2
(a) Z1Z2 (b) (c)

37c 27u R
14. If z1 = 12( Cos +isin) and z2 =3 Cos — 1 S111 find an expression for each of the
)
following. zi Z2
(a) Z1Z2 (b) (c)
Z2 z1

( 5it..5it ( it..it.
15. Given that z1 =9 1Cos --- i sm and z2 =15 (cos - + i sin-,). Find an expression for each
8 8) 4 4
of the following.
zi Z2-
(a) Z1Z2 (b) (c)
Z2 z1
in Pure Mathematics for CAPE

.3it ' it
16. If z1 = 9e' and z2 = 3e2, find an expression for each of the following.
(a) Z1Z2 (b) zi (c)
! z2 f5it) Z1
6
17. Given that z1 = 8e and z2 = 2e • Find an expression for each of the following.
(a) Z1Z2 (b) Z2- ( c)
z1 z2

18. If z = 5e 7 and z =5(cos +isin -), find in exponential form

7 7)
(a) z 1 (b) z
Express each of the following complex numbers in exponential form.
19. (a) z - Ji (b) z = -3- Ji (c) z = -10
20. (a) z = -7 + 7ji (b) z = -2 + 8i (c) z = -12i

Revision
1 The sum of the complex numbers z1 = 4 - 9i and z2 = -7+ 2i is
(a)-3-7i (b) 3+7i (c) 1111i (d) 11
2. The conjugate of the complex number z = -5, 8i is
(a) 5 + 8i (b) -5 - 8i (c) -5 + 8i (d) 5 - 8i
3. The modulus of the complex number z = is

(a) (b) (d)

4. The argument of the complex number z = is

T+
(a) - tan' -- (b) tan' --- (c) tan-'-,
an' .12- (d) -tan'

5. The polarformof the complex number -7 - 4i is

4)]
(a) J[cos (tan _1 ) + i sin (tan _1

(b) 16-5 )+i sin (_tan _i 4)]

(c) i[cos(7u-tan -1 sin 7c - tan'

)]
(d) sig [COS (_it + tan' )+ i sin (_ + tan'
 Complex numbers

Theexponentia1form of the complexnumber 8 [cos.(---- i± .isin is

9) 9,)]
(a) 8e1 (b) 8e' (c) 8e1 (d) 8e' 4
7 The complex number 5e' m polar form is
(a) 5+ism--
cos. L11 9 9
I (b) 5i cos+isin
9
(
9) '\ 77t 77t
F_ ( ( 71c'\1 [ ( 9 "\ ( 9
(c) (d) 5 Cos sin
8 Ifz=x+iy,thenzz* is equal to
i
(a) x2 + Y. (b) x2 - y2 (c) 22 (d) 2
x+ y x— y2
9 If z 1 and z2 are complex numbers, then z1 +:z. 2 =
(a) -z2 (b) f, + z2 (c) z1 - z2 (d) z 1 + z2
10 Thelocusoflz+iI=3 is
(a) a circle with centre (0, 1) and radius 3
(b) a circle with centre (0, —1) and radius 3
(c) a circle with centre (0, 1) and radius
(d) a circle with centre (0, —1) and radius sJ5
11 If the complex form of a circle is Iz --ii = 5, then the circle with centre C has the
following properties
W'.C(0, 1),r=5 (b) C(0,—l),r=5 (c) C(0, l),r= (d) C(0,-1),r= sJ
42.:'M e roots of the quadratic equation z2 - 5z + 10. 0 are
(a) distmct and real (b) equal and real
(c)complex and conjugate (d) complex and equal
z-4 it
13..'The locus of ark = - is a
z+4 4
(a) major arc of a circle which cuts the y-axis at ±4
(b) major arc of a circle which cuts the x-axis at 14
(c) minor .a of a circle which cuts the y-axls at ±4
(d) minor: arc of a circle which cuts the x-axis at ±4
14.-If 14z-1I=21z-31, then the locus ofzisa
(a) parabola (b) ellipse (c) circle (d) rectangle
15 The equation lz + 2—il = Iz + 1 - 21 represents
(a) a straight lme (b) a circle (c) a parabola (d) an ellipse
sin
16. (a) Use de Moivre's theorem to prove that =16 sin4 e —20 sin2 0+5.
sine
II Pure Mathematics for CAPE

(b) (1) Write the complex number z —1 + i,[3- 5 in the form re 0, where r = zI and 9= arg z
(ii) Hence, prove that (_i + i.,r3) _16(1+i.i).
1 1 i 0 0 sin
17. (a) Given that z = cos 0 + i sin 0, pro e that = - - - tan - where tan - =
1+z 2 2 2
8 2 1+cos0

(b) (1) Express + in polar form. (ii) Hence find N-

sm
(c) Use De Moivre s theorem to show that =32 cos5 9-32 cos 39±6 cos-0.
sine
18. (a) (i) Show that 1 + i is a square root of 2i,
(ii) Find the other square root.
(b) Hence, find the roots of the quadratic equation z2 + (3 + 5i) z - (4 - 7i) = 0

19. (a) Express the complex number (5+ 2i) + in the form a + bi, where a and b are
1+i
both real numbers.
(b) Given that 1 + 2i is a root of the cubic equation z3 - 7z2 + 15z - 25 = 0, find the
remaining roots.

20 (a) Find complex numbers u = x + yi such that x and y are real numbers and u2 = — 21 + 20i
(b) Hence, or otherwise, solve for z the equation z2 + (4 - i)z + ( 9 - 7i),.= 0

21. (a) Find the values of p,q E R such that 8 + 5i is a root of the quadratic equation
. :..
z2+pz+q=0.
(b) Use De Moivre's theorem for (cos+ i sin 9)3 to showthat
at cos = 1-4 sin 2 0.
cosO
4. 2i
22 (a) (i) Express the complex number in the form ) (7 - i) where 2 is a constant
3
(ii) State the value of A..
.

(iii) Hence, or otherwise, find the value of

(3 - i)
(b) The complex number z is represented by the point T m an Aigand diagram
Given that z = .1 where t is a variable and . denotes the complex conjugate
• 2+ti • • •
of z, show that .
. :
•1 • •.... .•:. •

(i) z+=4z . ••. •.• .. . ..

(ii) as t varies, T lies on a circle, and state the coordinates of the centre of the circle
and its radius
23. Show that the locus of z. on an Argand diagram describes an of a circle if
7C IC
(a). arg(z..2)-arg(z+1)= . . .... . (b) arg(:1)La:rg(z+2)
 Complex numbers IM

(c) arg(z-3–arg(+2=. (d) arg(z-4--arg:+3)=

24...(a) if: = cos 8 + i sin 0, find an expression in terms of cosine for

(i) +
(b) Hence deduce that:
•ii
(i) :+:+2+–+--=2(cos20+
Z2 cos 8+1)
z
1 1.
(u) :–:+2+-------=2i(sm20–sin0+i)

(c) Find an expression .in . terms of sine for

I
(i) :- --
..
(H) = ---1i-
(d) 1-Tence ded iice that:

(i) (:_!) =-8i sin 9 .3

(ii) :–:+-----&-=2i(sin38–sin0)

23,(A). a ai.-td fi are the roots of each io.f. the following quadratic equations
Find
(1) a+fl (iO c4
in the complex roots..of each equation.
(a) 2x2 +3x+4=0 (b) 2x2 +5X.+ 4=0
C: +1=1) (d) 5-2+ 2 v+1_..O
(e) –2x2 +4x-3=0 (f) –3x2 +5x-4=0
(g) –5x2 +2x-1=0 (ii) –8x2 -7x--2=0
(B) Form a quadratic equation in .v for each conjugate pair of roots
(a) i and - i (b) 1 + 21 and 1 - 2i
(c)2+iand2–i (d) 1+3i and i-3i
(e) 2-3iand2+3i (f) 4+3iand4-31
2i and 5 +21 h) 7– 21 and 7+ 2i
(C) Simplify
it..
(a) I 1+cos—+i sin — I — I 77.
4 4)
( . .
2n2icV I 2ir . . 2it
(b) I 1+Cos — +isin ---- I –I 1+cos--isin-
3 3.
[M Pure Mathematics for CAPE

) Imaginary Numbers
+ Imaginary unit: i = j:jj...
+ i2 = () 2 = x = _1 ..
+ Pure imaginary number: qi, q E R, q 0.
+ =x=qi.
•• Multiplication by zero: Oi = 0 i = 0.
+ Powers of i
4. i°=1

• i4k_1
• i4k+ 1 _j
•
• 4k.+3 = -i where k W.
+ Properties of imaginary numbers
• Commutative property holds.
• Associative property holds.
• Distributive property of multiplication over addition holds.
+ Operations
• Addition and subtraction of pure imaginary numbers result in pure imaginary numbers.
pi + qi = (p + q)iand pi - qi = (p - q)i.
• Multiplication and division of pure imaginaray numbers result in real numbers.
4= E
pi x qi= -pq and pi -- qi= E
q1 q
.

) Complex Numbers
+ Complex number: p + qi, p, q E R.
+ Standard form (rectangular form; Cartesian form): p + qi.
+ If z = p + qi, then:
Real part of z, Re(z) = p
Imaginary part of z, Im(z) = q.
•:• WOcRcC.
+ The set of complex numbers C = {z: z = p + qi; p, q e
+ Discriminant
• General form of a quadratic equation: ax 2 + bx ±c = 0, a 0.
• Discriminant: b2 - 4ac.
• If b2 - 4ac <0, then the quadratic equation has two complex roots.
+ Conjugate pairs of complex roots
• The complex roots of a quadratic equation with constant coefficients form a pair of
complex conjugates p ± qi.
Complex numbers IM
Im Pure Mathematics for CAPE

a
' Conjugate of
p+qi
a a p—qi a
• Let • x. .=x-i-yi then•..=(x±yi)*=x_yi.
p+qi p+qi p — qi .(p.+.qi)*
. Alternatively, . x +i ..
.. . .. .. . :..
p+q'
So (p + qi)(x + yi) = a :.. .: ...
A pair of equations is formed and solved simultaneously for x and y.
a
The conjugate of which i s x - yi is then form
ormulated.
-
• Square roots
p+qi
..

• If jp+qi=x+yi, then p+qi=(x+yi)2 =(x2 —y2 )+2xyi.

. . ..

A pair of equation is formed and solved simultaneously for xand y.

The square roots of the complex number p + qi which is in the form x + yi is then
formulated.
+ Quadratic Equation with complex coefficients
• Given the quadratic equation with complex coefficients
+(p+qi)z+(r+si)=O
z2
where a—_1,b=p'+qi and c=r:+si. .
• It can be solved using the quadratic equation
_b±Vb2 _4ac . .
z= - S

2a
> The Argand Diagram
-*.-.Cartesian form
• The complex number z = x + yi can be represented as the' point P(x, y) in the
complex number plane on an Argand diagram.
• Imaginary axis (y)

Real axis (x)

• Polar form •. . .

• The complex number . z . = x +.yi can also be represented as the vector OP = ( X ) in

the complex number plane on an Argand diagram, . . .
Complex numbers IM
lUll Pure Mathematics for CAPE

• If z = r(cos 0 + i sin 0), then the polar coordinates of P are (r, 0) where
r = the modulus of z and 0 = the principal argument of z which lie in the interval
- lt<0 ~ 7t.
H
• The conjugate of z in polar form:
Z* r[cos(-0) + i sin (-0)1.
where Iz = Izf and arg z = -arg z.
• WA

9>0

Transformation: reflection in the x-axis.

Argand diagram: Addition of Vectors
•:•

01 Parallelogram OARB X

• In general
ifz1 =x1 +y1i and z2 =x2 +y2i,
then z1 + z2 = (x1 + x2) + (y1 + y7)i.
•) Argand Diagram: Subtraction of Vectors
+ y

Zi

Z2/
/0 Parallelogram OARB' X

+ In general-
if z i = X i + Yi i and z2 = X2 + Y2"
then z1 = (x1 x2) + (y1 y2)i.
- -
 Complex numbers IM

Argand Diagram: Multiplication of Vectors

• kz where k E ll represents an enlargement with the origin as centre and scale factor
k, that is, M(O, k).
+ iz represents a counterclockwise rotation of about the origin, that is . I R(O )
+ kiz where . k. E IR represents the composition of M(O, k) R(O, 900)
+ Product of Complex Numbers m Polar Form
IM(Z)4
R(r1 r2 81+02)
p(i1,
°) r >1
02 > p
-
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

> Loci in the Complex Plane

+ The locus of z (locus of.:a point z) in a complex plane is the set of all points z which
satisfy a given condition.
+ Locus of z when 1Z.—.z..= r, r c=1IR is a circle with Iceritre at z1 and radius r;
• Locus of z when z —z11 = z — z21 is a perpendicular bisector (mediator) of the line
segment with end-points at z 1 and z2
1
•• Locus of when z — z1I=klz — z2I1 kE ,k 1 is a circle.
Z1=
+ Locus of z whenarglZ 9is the arc of a circle
z—z)
• If 0 = locus is a semi-circle.
2
TC
• If 0<0<: locus isa major arc ofacircle.
2
• If <0<it: locus isaminor arc ofacircle.
2 .
• The centre of the circle ]ies on the perpendicular bisector of the chord with end-
points Z 1 and z2 ........
+ Intersecting Loci . .. .. . . . . . Im(z).) k
An Argand diagram can be used to find the point(s) of
intersection of two loci.
X

Re(z)

+ Argand diagram and Inequalities

An inequality stated using complex number(s) can be represented in an Argand
diagram as a locus which is a set of points in a region.
Im(')
1:# i p

Re(:)

De Moivre's Theorem
• If z=r(cos0+i sin O) . . . .
then Zn = { r(cos 0 + i sin 9)]fl
so z' =r(cos 11 0..+ i sin n,.8),Vn.
 Complex numbers IM

Exponential Form of a Complex Number

+ Euler'sformula e'°= cos 9+i sin 9where l=.ji1, 8 and8isinradians
• Exponential form
• re°=r(cos9+i sin 9)=zwhere r=IzI and e=arg(z)
• re° = f(cos 9 + 1 sin f(cos n..0 + i sin n 0)
= +82)
• z1z2 where 1z1z21 = IziIIz2f = ir2 and arg (z 1 z2) = arg z 1 + arg z2 = 1 +0
• =e1(9182) where and. arg(L]=argzi —argz2 =°12•
Z2 . i z2 1 Z2 •r2 i . .

• If z = re'°, then Z-

• 9 then z*
If,z = re, re 0 . . .. . ..
 Differentiation II

Differentiation of the expointential ct.on

° What is the derivative of the exponential function y = e'?

Method 1:
Draw the graph of y = ex for the domain 3 !~ x !~ 3 using a scale of 3 cm to represent 1 unit on
—

the x-axis and 1 cm to represent 1 unit on the y-axis.

V Tangent to
- x O
B(x2, Y2)

- 0 X
A(x1, 'i)

Next, draw tangents to various points on the graph (for example x = 0), then calculate the
gradient of the tangent at each point using the formula m = Y2 Yi -

X2 X1
Complete a table of values as shown below. -

—3-2-1

0.37
I 21
1.00
0
IF 1 HT
JJJ
Draw a graph of m versus x using the same scales as given above.

Compare the graph of y = ex with the second graph.

What do you observe? dy
The gradient of the tangent at x =0, in =
X xO
 ft Pure Mathematics for CAPE

The second graph plotted is the same as LY versus x.

What does this mean? dx
If y = ex and = e x,
dx
then
dx

The derivative of the exponential function y = e x is equal to e, which is itself.

Ify=ex. then
dx
Method 2:
Here we differentiate the exponential functionf(x) = e x from first principles.
If f(x) = &, thenf(x + Sx) = ex + 8X
f(x + ox) - f(x)
So f'(x) = lim
öx-O Ox
e x'x _ e x
= lim
öx-,O Ox
e x (ex —1)
= urn
öx-O Ox
e-1
=e hm
öx-O Ox
= ex (1)
.. f'(x)= e x
The value of urn e - can be checked using a numerical method.
öx-40 Ox
Example
e 1
urn =1.005••• = 1.
öx-40.01 Ox
If f(x) = ex, thenf'(x) = ex.
 Differentiation II T

What is the derivative of the exponential function y = ekx where k is a constant?

Let kx
y = e. du
Put u=kx =—=k.
dx
Then y = e u

The chain rule

If y is a differentiable function of u, and u is a differentiable function of x,
then y is a differentiable function of x.
That is = x
dx du dx

Using the chain rule:

dydydu
dxdu dx
=eu x k

So
dx
Hence --- (e s ) = ke, where k is a constant.
dx
• What is the derivative of the exponential function y = ef(x).
Let y = ef(x). du
Put u=f(x) =----=f'(x)
dx
Then y = eu
du
Using the chain rule:
dy dyx— du
- =—
dx du dx
= e u x f'(x)

So = f'(x)e.
dx
Hence -[e] = f'(x)e', wheref(x) is a differentiable function of x.
dx
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

- Example I
Find Ly for each of the following exponential functions.
dx
(a) y=e3' (b) y = e_3x+l
(c) y = 5e + 7 (d) y = _2xe_3x + 5
- Solution
(a) Given y=e3 du
Let u=3x =—=3
dx
y = eu dy
Then -=e
du
Using the chain rule:

dx du dx
= e U x3
= 3e 3x
Alternative Method
(a) Given y = e3x
Let f(x) = 3x
Then f(x) = 3
And LY = f'(x)e
dx
= 3e 3x
(b) Given y = e_3x +1
du
Let u=-3x+1=—=-3
dx
u
Then y=e ==e u
du
Using the chain rule:
dy - dy du
<
dxdu dx
= e u x (-3)
= _3e3d14
Alternative Method
(b) Given y=e_3 '
Let f(x) = —3x + 1
Then f(x) = -3
And LY =
dx
=3e3x
 Differentiation II

(c) Given y=5e7 du

Let u=4x+7
dx
dy 5e u
==
Then y=5e'
du
Using the chain rule:
dydydu
dxdu dx
= 5e u x4
20e 4x+7
Alternative Method
(c) Given y=5e47
Let f(x)=4x+7
Then f'(x) =4
dy
And = 5f'(x)e
dx
= 5(4e4 x+ 7 )
= 20e4 x+ 7
(d) Given y = _2xe _3x +5
Let u = -2x and v = e_3x +5

Then = -2 and —=e 5 x—(-3x+5)

dx dx dx
=e -3x+5 x(-3)
-3x+5
The product rule
dydv du
—=u--+v--.
dx dx dx
Using the product rule:
dydv du
-= u—+v-
dx dx dx
= _2x(_3e_3x+5)+ e35(-2)

=6xe_3x+5 -2e3'5
• =2(3x-1)e 35
dy
• Hence, if y = c ef(x), then = cf'
dx
So _(ce)=c.f'e.
dx
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Alternative Method
(d) Given y= _2xe_3x +5
Let f(x)=-3x+5
Then f'(x) = -3
And
dx dx dx
= -2xf'(x)e' +e 35 (-2)
= -2x(-3)e 35 -2e 35
= 6xe 35 2e 35

= 2(3x - 1)e 35
Example 2
Find the derivative Ly for each of the following exponential functions.
dx
(a) y = e5x2 (b) y = e_3 x2 _ 4
(c) y = _2e4x3+7 (d) y = ( x2 -1) e_5x3+1
- Solution
(a) Given y = e5 x2
U
Let u = 5x 2 =>
dx
Then y = eu
Using the chain rule: du

dx du dx
= e u x lOx
= 10xe5 x2
Alternative Method
(a) Given y=e5 x
Let f(x) = 5x2
Then f'(x) = lOx
And Ly
dx
= f'(x)e

= lOxe5 xZ

(b) Given
U=_3x2 _4 ==-6x
dx
Then y = eu
du
 Differentiation TI

Using the chain rule:

dx du dx
= e ' x(-6x)
= _6xe_3 x2 _ 4
Alternative Method
(b) Given y=e 2
Let f(x) = -3x2 - 4
Then f(x) = - 6x

And Ly = f'(x)e
dx
= _6xe_3 x2 _ 4

(c) Given y = _2e4 x9 + 7

Let u=4x3 +7 du2
=—=12x
dx
dy
Then y = _2e u = - = -2e
du
Using the chain rule:

dx du dx
= _2e u x 12x2
= _24x2e4 x3 + 7
Alternative Method
(c) Given y = _2e4 x3 + 7
Let f(x)=4x 3 +7
Then f'(x) = 12x2

And Ly = -2f'(x)e
dx
= -2 (12X 2 e 4X3+ 7)
= _24x2e4 x37

(d) Given y = (x2 _1)e_5x3+1

Let u =x2 - 1 and v = e 5x3+1
du dv = -5x+1
Then —=2x and e x ---(-5x + i)
dx dx dx
= e_5x3+1 x (_15x2 )
= _15x2e_5x3+1
MI Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Using the product rule: Alternative Method

dy dv du
-= u—+v- (a) Given y=e2 cos x
dx dx dx Let f(x)=2 cos x
= (x2 - i) (-15x'e' x'+ ') + e_5x3+1 (2x) Then f'(x) = –2 sin x

= _15x4e_5 x3 + 1 +15x2e_5 x3 + 1 +2xe_5 x3 + 1 And dy = f'(x)e

dx
= —x(15x3 –15x-2)e' –2 sin x 2cosx
=
= –2 eCos X sin x
Alternative Method (b) Given y = e3 sin X + 8
du
(d) Given y = (x2 - 1)e -5x3+1 Let u=3sinx+8==3cosx
dx
Let f(x) = - 5x3+1
Then f(x) = - 15x 2 Then y = eu
du
rej Using the chain rule:
dy
= (x _1):-(e_5x3f1)+e_5x3+1.--(x2 –1) dx du dx
= eu
x3cosx
= (x2 - 1)f'(x)e + e_5x3+1(2x)
-X3+1 + 2x e_5x3+1 = 3e3sm8 cosx
= (x 2 - 1)(-15X 2 )e
Alternative Method
= –15x4 e_5x3+1 +15X2 e_5x3+1 + 2xe_5x3+1
(b) Given y=e38
= —x(15x3 - 15x - 2)e_ 5 x3 + 1 Let f(x)=3 sin x+8
Then f'(x) = 3 cos x
- Example 3 dyI
And = f'(x)e
Differentiate each of the following dx
exponential functions with respect to X. = 3 cos x e35m8
(a) y = e2 cos X (b) y = e3 Sin x+ 8 = 3e38 cos x
(c) y = 5e4 - tan x (d) y = Re sec x (c) Given y =5e4_tan
Solution Let u=4–tanx=-=–sec du2x
(a) Given y = e2 cos X dx
du Then y= 5e u == 5e u
Let u =2 cos x = = –2 sin x
dx du
Using the chain rule:
Then y=&
du
Using the chain rule: dx du dx
dy - dy du = 5e u x(–sec' x)
dxdu dx —5e 4 - tanx sec x
=
=eu x(-2 sin x) Alternative Method
= _2e 2c0 sin x (c) Given y =5e4 _tan
Let f(x)=4– tan x
Then f'(x) = —sec 2x
 Differentiation II

dy
And = 5f'(x)e
dx
= 5(— sec'x)e 4 _ t
sec 2 x
(d) Given y = Re sec X
Let u = 3x and v = e2 sec x
du dv d
Then —=3 and —=—(2secx)xe 2
dx dx dx
= (2 sec x tan x)e 2
= 2e2 sec x sec x tan x
Using the product rule:
dy
- dv du
= u—+v----
dx dx dx
= 3x(2e2 sec x tan x) + e2 (3)
= 3e2 (2x sec x tan x + 1)
Alternative Method
(d) Given y= Re sec x
dy
Let d (e2secx)+e 2s
- = 3x- d
dx dx dx
= 3x(2 sec x tan x)e2se + e2s (3)
= 3e2 (2 x sec x tan x+ 1)
-Example 4
Find the first derivative of each of the following exponential fnctions.
(a) f(x) = e11 (b) f = 3e
= e3 x
(c) f(x) = xe2 (d) f(x)
e 2x
- Solution
(a) Given f(x) = e
Then f'(x) = e x -1-i.i
dx'

=ex--(x
dx

=e x x 2
2
1
-e x T
e"
2
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

(b) Given f(x) = 3e' du = dv = 2e2 x

Then 3e3 + 2e and
dx dx
Then f'(x)=3e"' x-_(Vx_i) The quotient rule
dx du dv
d (x - 1)21
= 3e'
dx dx v2
1 Using the quotient rule:
= 3e' x—(x-1) 2
2 du dv
1 dY vuä
=3ex 1
dx v2
2(x-1) 2 - e (3e 3 x + 2e- x) - (e3' - 2e _x )(2e2 x)
2

- 3e (e2 x)2
- 2Ix-1 - e2x(3e3 + 2e' - 2e 3x + 4e- x)
(c) Given f(x) xe2s (e2 x)2
Then fF(x)xd(e2)+e2d(x) - e 3 + 6e_x
- e2'
= e3x_2x + 6e_x_2x
I:
d
=x— e 2x2I(1)
+e2
dx = ex + 6e -3 x
1
C
=x —e 2x21
IFX

= Jx e +e 2
Alternative Method

(dl) Given Y= e3 ' -2e

e2
= e2 (J+1) =e 3x-2x _2e _x_ 2x
e3 x_ 2e _x =e x -2e -3x
(dl) Given y= e2 Then LY = e' - 3(_2) e_3 x
Let u = e3' - 2e and v = e dx
= & + 6e -3 x

L Exercise
Find Ly for each of the following exponential Find the derivative Ly for each of the
dx dx
function. following exponential functions.
1. (a) y = e Sx (b) y = e _Sx +1 4. (a) y = e7 x2 (b) y =
(c) y = 4e25 (d) y = 3xe 49 (c) y = _3e2x3+5 (d) y = (x2 +1)e 3
2. (a) y = e8' (b) y = e6' + 7 5. (a) y = e_8x2 (b) y = e5 x2 + 1
(c) y = 5e3x + (d) y = _4xe_7x + 2 (c) y = _6e4 x3 _ 7 (dl) y = (x2 - 3)e_7 x3 _ 4
_1x2+ 3
3 (a) y = 2e-x i (b) y = e 2 -5 6. (a) y = e 2 (b) y = e 7x2+4
(c) y = 10e 2 (dl) y = 7xe92 x2+3 -+2
(c) y = 8e 2 (dl) y = (x2 + 5)e
 Differentiation II

Differentiate each of the following

12. a f(x)=5e (b) f(x) = —9e
exponential functions with respect to x.
5e4' + e 2
(c) f (x) = —2xe " (d) f ( x) =
7. (a) y = e5 COS X (b) y = e2 sin x +7 3ex
(c) y = 4e5 tai'
- X
(d) y = 2xe3 sec x Differentiate y with respect to x.
8. (a) y = e2 x+ 5 (b) y = e5c0s x-2 13. (a) y = 3e2+1) (b) y = 3x2
(c) y = —3e2 + tan X
(d) y = 3xe2 sec x e'
(c) y = x2 e3x (d) y =5x3e2x
9. (a) y=e_25mc (b) y=e3_2c05x
4
(c) y = —7e52 tan x
(d) y = —4xe3 Sec x +1 (e) y = e x sin 3x (f) y = 2x
e
Find the first derivative of each of the 4 3e2x 4
(b) i = 2ex 2
-

14. (a) --

following exponential functions. = -

ex

10, (a) f(x) = e2 (b) f(x) = -2e (c) y = 4x2 e 3 (d) y = 6xe 2
= e3 x_ 3e e2
(c) f(x) = xe (d) f(x) (e)
ex
(f) y = 5e x
ex
5
11. (a) f(x.) = 2e (b) f(x) —7e
2 15. (a) y = 2x3e 2x (b) y
e
= 4ex + e 2 x 2e
(c) f(x) = _xe8 (d) f(x) _________ ( c) (d) y = 5e 5m2
2e' tanx
(e) y = 4e cos 3x (f) y = —2e 2

Differentiation of the logarithmic function lnf(x)

What is the derivative of the logarithmic function Inf(x).
Method 1:
Draw the graph of y = In x for the domain 0 <x !~ 10 using a scale of 1 cm to represent 1 unit on
the x-axis and 2 cm to represent 1 unit on the y-axis.

Next, draw tangents to various point on the graph (for example x = 1), then calculate the
gradient of the tangent at each point using the formula m = '2 -

x2—x1
Un Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Complete a table of values as shown below.

1 1 3
- -
- 1 2 3 ... 8 9 10
4 2 4
1
4 1 -

10

Draw a graph of m versus x using the same scales as given above.

Does the shape of this graph remind you of any function?

The gradient of the tangent at x = 1, m=-
dx

The second graph plotted is the same as versus x.

What does this mean? dx
 Differentiation II

The second graph is the graph of the What is the derivative of the logarithmic
reciprocal function y = - for x> 0. function y = in kx where k is a constant?
Let y=Inkx
What can be deduced from the observations? du
Put u=kx =—=k
Ify=lnxand dx
dx x dy
Then y=lnu= —=-
Then du u
dx x Using the chain rule:

The derivative of the logarithmic dx du dx

function y = In x is equal to the 1
=-xk
reciprocal function y - where x> 0. U
1
=—xk
kx
Ify=lnx, then dy 1
dx x So
Method 2: dx x
Here we differentiate the logarithmic function 1
Hence -d(in kx) = - , where k is a constant.
f(x) = in x from first principles. dx x
If f(x) = In x, thenf(x + = ln(x + &). What is the derivative of the logarithmic
f(x + ox) - f(x) function y = lnf(x)?
So f'(x) = lim
öx-O Ox Let y=lnf(x)
ln(x+Ox)-lnx du
= lim Put u=f(x)
öx-#O Ox dx
=lim----[In(x+Ox)-1nx] Then y=lnu => dy-=-
ox->O Ox du u
1 (x+Ox) Using the chain rule:
= lim—]n
ox-OOx x
• 1 ( Ox dxdu dx
=hm—Ini
ox-400x x ='xf'(x)
Let t= Then &=xt
= -'--f'(x)
f
i.e. f'(x) = urn -- ln(1 + t)
Xt dy - f'(x)
So
.1 dx f(x)
= hm-ln(1+t)t
t-O x
1 Taking xasa Hence -[In f(x)] wheref(x) is a
=-limln(1+t)t constant =
1
differentiable function of x.
='ln e=lim(1+t)t
t-80
x
1 lne=1
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

-Example 5 Alternative Method

Find dy for each of the following (c) Given y=ln(7-2x)
dx Let f(x)=7-2x
logarithmic functions. Then f(x) = -2
(a) y=31nx (b) y=ln(5x+2)
(c) y = ln(7-2x) (d) y =4 ln(2x + 9) And dyf'(x)
dx f(x)
- Solution
-2
(a) Given y = 3 mx Then -dy
= 3-
dx x - 7-2x
(b) Given y = ln(5x +2) 2
- 7-2x
Let u=5x+2-=5
dx (d) Given y =4 Jn(2x + 9)
du
Then y=lnu Let u=2x+9=—=2
du u dx
Using the chain rule: dy = dy < du
Then y=41nu
dx du dx du u
1 Using the chain rule:
=-x5
U
5 dxdu dx
- 5x +2 4
Alternative Method =--x2
U
(b) Given y = ln(5x +2) 8
Let f(x) = 5x + 2 Then f'(x) = 5 - 2x+9
And dyf'(x)
Alternative Method
dx f(x)
5 (d) Given y =4 ]n(2x +9)
Let f(x)=2x+9
- 5x+2 Then f'(x) = 2
(c) Given y= ]n(7- 2x) dy4f'(x)
du And
Let u=7-2x=-=-2 dx f(x)
dx
Hence, if y = c lnf(x),
Then y=lnu dyf'(x)
du u Then
Using the chain rule: dx f(x)
2
=4( _
dx du dx 2x+9
8
- 2x+9
f'(x)•
So ---[clnf(x) =
7-2x dx f(x)
2
- 7-2x
 Differentiation II

-Example 6 6x
dy
Find the derivative - for each of the - 3x2 --1
dx
following logarithmic functions. Alternative Method
(a) y = in 5x2 (b) y = ln(3x2 - 1)
(c) y=x2 1n4x3 (d) y=4x3 1n(2x3 -1) (b) Given y= In(3x2 - 1)
Let f(x)=3x2 -1
- Solution
Then f'x = 6x
(a) Given y = In 5x2 dyf'(x)
du And
Let u=5x 2 =—=lox dx f(x)
dx 6x
dy 3X 2 _ 1
Then y=lnu =—=-
du u
Using the chain rule: (c) Given y = x2 in 4x3
Let u = x2 and v = In 4x3
d
dx du dx du dv (4x )
Then = 2x and =
1 dx dx 4x3
=-xlOx
U 12x2
lOx 4x3
5x2 Using the product rule: =
2 dy dv du x
x u—+v-
dx
Alternative Method
= x2x()±ln4x3 x(2x)
(a) Given y = In 5x2
Let f(x) = 5x2
= 3x+2x1n4x3
Then f(x) = lOx
And dyf'(x) Alternative Method
dx f(x)
(c) Given y=x2 1n4x3
lOx d
5x2 d =x2 x dx —(4x) d
2 Then _ +ln4x3x—(x2)
dx 4x3 dx
x 12X 2

(b) Given y = In(3x2-1) =x I+2xln4x

du 2(
4x)
Let u=3x2 -1= —=6x
dx = 3x+2x1n4x3
Then y=lnu
(d) Given y = 4x3 In(2x3 1)
-

du u Let u = 4x3 and = In (2x3 - 1)

Using the chain rule: - (2x -1)
dy - dy du Then =12x2 and
<
dxdu dx dx dx 2x3 -1
1 6x2
= -x6x
U - 2x3 -1
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Using the product rule:

dy dv du
-
dx dx dx
=4x3(_6x2 +ln(2x3_1)x12x2
3 -i)
24x5
+12x 2 ln(2x3 -1)
= 2x3 -1

Alternative Method
(d) Given y = 4x3 In(2x3 - 1)

Then A
dx
= 4x 3 x
dx
ln(2x 3 —1) + ln(2x3 —1) x ---- 4x 3
dx
6x2
=4x3x +12x2xln(2x3-1)
2x3 —1
= 24x5 +12x
2 ln(2x3 —1)
2x3 —1

- Example 7
Differentiate each of the following logarithmic functions with respect to x

(a) y = 1n(sin) (b) y = in(cos.)

(c) y=ln(tan- ) cn Y=in(sec)

Solution
(a) Given y=
(:u11
1
Let u = sm - = - = - cos -
2 dx 2 2
dy 1
Then y=lnu ==> -= -
du u
Using the chain rule:
dy - dy >< du
dxdu dx
11 x
= —x—cos-
u2 2
1 1 x
= -
.x 2 2
-
 Differentiation II ~ 9
x 1 x
cos - =
tan -
2>< --

= 4 4
sin- 2
.X
Alternative Method
2
1 (b) Given y=ln(Cos )
= cot - -

22
Alternative Method Let f(x) = cos

(a) Given y = In sin Then f'(x)=-sin

X)

Let f(x) = sins dyf'(x)

And
dx f(x)
Then f'(x)=Cos 1.x
sin- - -

= 4 4
dyf'(x) x
And cos -

dx f(x) 4
1 x
1 x = tan
-cos- --

4
-

2 2
sin - (c) Given y=ln( tan )
2
1 x x du 1 2x
= cot
- - Let u = tan - = = - sec - -

2 2 5 dx 5 5
dy 1
(b) Given y = in (COS ..) Then y=lnu => -= -
du u
Using the chain rule:
Let u=cos =--sm-
- = —

dx 4
4 4
dx du dx
dy1
Then y=lnu =-=- 1 1 2x
du u =-X -sec -

u5 5
Using the chain rule:
1 1 2x
= x-sec -

dx du dx tan 5
5
1 .x
x sm x
H 4 cos 51 -
1
= x-
1 (1.x ..x
= xl --sm- sin— 5 cos -

cOS- 5 5
4
5X X
sin - sin cos
4 1 2
- -

5 5
xk4
Cos - 1• x x
4 - cosec sec - -

5 5 5
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Alternative Method Alternative Method

(c) Given y 1n(tan) (d) Given Y=1n(sec--)

Let f(x) = tan. Let f(x)=sec-

1 x x
Then f(x)=2 sec 2 Then f(x)=—sec —tan-
6 6 6
dyf'(x) dyf'(x)
And And
dx f(x) dx f(x)
1 x 1 x
—sec 2- - sec - tan -
x
=5 5 6 6 6
X
tan —
x sec-
5 6
X 1 x
= - tart -
cos-- 6 6
1 2x
=—sec —x
5 .x
5 sm - -Example 8
5
Find the first derivative of each of the
X
1
—sec2 —x
5 5 sec
cosec--
= following logarithmic functions.

(a) y = ln(3x - 2) (b) y =

5
e3
1 x x
= —cosec—sec- -e 2
+1
5 5 5 (c)
Jnx
(d) y=ln
4-4
(d) Given
y = (:c X) - Solution
1 (a) Given y = ln(3x - 2)
Let u = sec - = - = - sec - tan -
6 dx 6 6 6 du
Let u=3x-2=—=3
Then y=lnu dx
4 3
du u -/
u -t U
Then y=lnu =-=----=-
Using the chain rule: du u u
Using the chain rule:
dx du dx
11 x x dxdu dx
= - x - sec - tan -
u6 6 6 4
=—x3
1 1 x x U
= X— sec — tan—
6 6 12
sec 6
- 3x-2

= - tan-
6 6
 Differentiation II

Alternative Method Alternative Method

(a) Given y = In (3x - 2) mx
Let f(x) = (3x - 2) (b) Given y= --
Then f(x) = 4(3x - 2)3 x 3 e3
= 12(3x - 2) x

dy Then y=e 3 lnx

And f(x)
dx f(x)
x
• - 12(3x - 2)
Let u=e 3 and v=lnx
- (3x-2)4
du 1- dvi
- 12 —=----e 3 and
dx 3 dxx
3x-2
Using the product rule:
In x dy dv du
(b) Given y- ---;-- -=
e3 dx dx dx
x 1
Let u=]nx and v=e3 =ex—+1nxxI --e
x
Then
du 1
-=-
dx x
dvi
and —=-e 3
dx 3 =e
-G 3
1
-mx
Using the quotient rule: 2x
du dv (c) Given y= - -----
mx
dx v2 Let u=e2 and v = In x
du dv 1
1 1
e3 x--lnxx---e 3 Then —=2e 2x and
dx dx x
- x
(e
3
J2 Using the quotient rule:
du dv
(i 1 dx v2
e 3 i---lnx
x 3
( x )2 lnxx2e 2x -e 2x x-
x
- (In X)2
e2 x(2Inx _-)
X

- e2x(2xlnx_1)
-1 1
=e i --- mx - x]n2x
(x 3
 L Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Alternative Method — 6x-8-6x-3

2x
(c) Given — 2(2x + 1)(3x - 4)
In x -11
Then y e2x (in x)' — 2(2x + 1)(3x - 4)
Let u = e2x and v = (In x) '
du =2e2) dv = _(1nx 2 x Alternative Method
...
and )
dx dx x
- -
1
An x
(d) Given y=1n 2x+1
3x-4 ~
Using the product rule: Then (2x+1
dy dv du 3x-4)
-= u +v--—

dx dx dx 1 ,
( 2x+ 1 )
= e2xx(_ + (In x )_1 x 2e2x
xln x} = {in(2x+1) — in(3x — 4)]
e2
2e 2x
+-
xln2 x in x 1 --(2x+1) --(3x-4)
= e2 '(-1+2xinx) dx dx
xin2 x 2 2x+1 3x-4
- e2x(2x lnx _1)
1(23
— xln2 x
— 22x+1 3x-4
_1 3
(d) Given y-in 2x+1
3x-4 ~ — 2x+1 2(3x-4)
Then y=1n'i2x+1-1ni3x-4 = 2(3x - 4) - 3(2x + 1)
1 1 2(2x + 1)(3x - 4)
=ln(2x+1) 2 -ln(3x-4) 2 = 6x-8-6x-3
d 1 d 2(2x + 1)(3x -4)
d —(2x+1) 2 —(3x-4) 2
So Ydx _dx -11
1
dx - 2(2x + 1)(3x -4)
(2x+1) 2 (3x-4) 2

(2x + 1) 2 x 2 -(3x 4) 2 x 3-

=
(2x+1) 2 (3x-4) 2
1 3
— 2x+1 2(3x-4)
= 2(3x - 4) - 3(2x + 1)
2(2x + 1)(3x -4)
 Differentiation II

Exercise 2b
dy
Find - for each of the following logarithmic functions
dx
1. (a) y=2]nx (b)y=in(4x+7) (c) y=ln(8-3x) (d)y=91n(3x+8)
2. (a) y = -7 in x (b) y = in (6x + 13) (c) y = in (9 - 4x) (d) y = 8 in (9x - 4)
dy .
Find the derivative - for each of the following logarithmic functions.
dx
3. (a) y = in 8x2 (b) y = in (4x2 - 3) (c) y = x2 in 7x3 (d) y = 5x3 in (6x3 - 1)
4.(a)y=lnlOx2 (b)y=ln(9x2 -5) (c)y=x2 1n9x3 (d)y=8x3 1n(7x3 -6)
Differentiate each of the following logarithmic functions with respect to x.

5. (a) y =in (sin i) (I,) y =in(cos..) (c) y =In (tan i) (d) y =1n(sec)

6.(a) y = In (sin (b) y = 1n(cos) (c) y 1n(tan) (d) y = 1n (sec _)

Find the first derivative of each of the following logarithmic functions.

= mx e3 '3x + 2
7, (a) y = ln(4x - 7)5 (b) y 2x (c) y=— (d)y=lnI
mx 4x-1
4x
21nx e7 -1
8. (a) y = in (7x + 2) (b) Y=
e 4x
(c) y =
3lnx Ix
(d) y = in 31
1
I+ x 1
Differentiate y with respect to x.

9. (a) y = in (4x2 ) (b) y = in (xi) (c) y = ml-) (d)y=in(--)

J) J)
10. (a) y=ln() (b) y=lnl -x I
"3 )
(c) y=in 14 (d)y=3x-lnx

1
11. (a) y=51n(x2)-x3 (b)y=4x 2 _lnx2 (c) y=in(x-3)2 (d)y=2ln (sin x)
Find the first derivative for each of the following logarithmic functions.
12. (a) y =3 In (cos x) (b) y =5 in (tan x) (c) y =2 in (sin x cos x) (d) y =5 in (sec x)
1-cosx
13. (a) y__3ex21n3x2 (b)Y=lfl (1-sinx) (c) y=5x2 in(4x-1) (d)y=In(2x-3)5
FM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

(1+3x'\
14. (a) y = in V3x -1 (b) y = In (1 + x 2 ) + in (x2 -1) (c) y = In x 3 (x - 5) (d) y = in 1-

x3 5-lnx 3+lnx
(b) Ine x
15. (a) y=ln(3-e') Y= (c)y= (d)y_
x x2

Differentiation of parametric Using the chain rule:

equations dy
The equation of a curve y =f(x), may be given dy - dt
by the parametric equations dx - dx
Jx=f(t) dt
y=g(t) -lot
3
where t is the parameter.
=-t
To find dy
- from the parametric equations 3
dx
the chain rule is then applied. Hence, in terms of t, =- t.
That is dx 3
dy (ii) Given x = 3t - 1

dx dt dx' Then t = x+1

dxdt dx 3
dt dt
So
where dx dx 3
dt - 1O(x+1
- 3 3
-Example 9 th
10
= - - (x +1)
(a) Given that x = 3t - 1 and y = 1 - 5t 2, 9
find dy.
- m terms of
dx Hence, in terms of x, -- = - (x + 1).
(i) t (ii) x dx 9
dy dy 10
(b) Hence, calculate - when (b) (1) Since —=- —t
dx dx 3
(i)t=3 (ii)x=8
Then
- Solution dx 3 3
(a) (I) Given x = 3t - 1 = -10
dx dy 10
Then —=3 (u )Smce
dt
Then
LYL
Given y=1-5t2 =-(8+1)
dx 5 9
Then =-10t = -(9)
dt 9
= -10
 Differentiation II

- Example 10 -Example 11
A curve is defined parametrically by the A curve is defined by the parametric
equations x =3 cos t and y =2 sin t. equations
dy Jx =21n(5t-1)
(a) Find an expression for
dx = 3e 2t
(b) Hence, evaluate LY when t =
d
dx 4 (a) Find Y in terms of t and e.
-Solution dx d
(a) Given x =3 cos t (b) Hence, evaluate - when t = 1.
dx
dx Leave your answer in terms of e.
Then —=-3 sin t
dt
Given y = 2 sin t - Solution
(a) Given x =2 ln(5t - 1)
Then di,
--=2cost
dt dx
Then —=21
1 5
Using the chain rule: dt 5t-1
dy 10
dy - dt 5t-1
dx dx Given y = 3e 2t
dt
- 2cost Then LY
dt
=2(3e2t)
—3 sin t
= 6e2t
= —cott Using the chain rule:
3
XL
dx dt dx
(b) = — cot
dxt 7C 3 4 dt
4
=6e2t x 5t-1
10
- 2 1
= 3e21 (5t-1)
3 tan It-
5
4
2(1 = e 2t (5t —1).
Hence, in terms of t,
dx 5
3(\ 1
(b) dy = 3e2 (5 x 1-1)
2
dx..1 5
3
3e2 (4)
5
12 2
=—e
5
H Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Given that x=1-2t and y=2t 2 +6t, 7. A curve is defined by the parametric
dy. Ix = 21n(4t+1)
find - in terms of
dx equations
(i) t (ii) X 1!? = 4e3t
.

- terms
(a) Find dy in of t and e.
(b) Hence, calculate dy when dx
dx (b) Hence, evaluate
d
when t = 1.-v.
U) t=2 (ii)x=-3 dx
Leave your answer in terms of e.
2. (a) Given that x = 3t 2 and y = (1 + 2t) 3 ,
dy i 8. A curve is defined by the parametric
find - in terms of t.
dx Ix = 41n(2t 2 )
(b) Hence, find
d -v.
when t = -1. equations
dx 1y = 3e2t
3. (a) Given that x = 3t 2 - 2 and
y = t2 - 5t + 1, find Yin terms oft. (a) Find in terms of t and e.
dx
dx dy
d
-JL (b) Hence, evaluate - when t = 2
(b) Hence, find dx when t = 5. dx
Leave your answer in terms of e.
4 A curve is defined parametrically by the
equations x =5 sin t and y = 2 cos t. 9. A curve is defined by the parametric
= 6e 2 t
(a) Find an expression for LY equations X
dx y = 51n(2t3)
(b) Hence, evaluate when t = dy
dx 4 (a) Find an expression for
dx
S. A curve is defined parametrically by the (b) Hence, evaluate LY when t =4. Leave
equations x = 4 cos 2t and y = 3 sin 2t. dx
your answer in terms of e.
dy
(a) Find an expression for
dx 10. A curve is defined by the parametric
d I
(b) Hence, evaluate when t =
dx 8 equations x -- 5e 5
'

[y = 101n(5t 4 )
6. A curve is defined parametrically by the
(a) Find an expression for
equations x = - cos3 2t and y = - sin 3 2t. dx
d
2 2 (b) Hence, evaluate when t = 5. Leave
dx
dy your answer in terms of e.
(a) Find an expression for
dx
(b) Hence, evaluate LY when t = -
6
dx
 Differentiation II IM
Parametric equations: equations
So
of tangents and normals Z l=2
,= 2
Here we shall investigate how to find the The gradient of the tangent to the curve
equation of a tangent and the equation of a
normal to a curve given by its parametric at the point (4, 1)is 3
equations.
We now need to find the equation of
Example 12 the tangent, which is a straight line, to
-

A curve is given parametrically by the

the point (4, 1) and with gradient
equations x = and y = 3t 2 -2.
Using the equation of a straightline:
Find, at the point (4, 1) y-y 1 =m(x-x 1 ).
(a) the equation of the tangent
(b) the equation of the normal. Then y-1=-.(x-4)
So 2(y - 1) = -3(x - 4)
(a) Given x = 4- i.e. 2y-2=-3x+12
t
Then x=4t 1 3x+2y-14=O
dx =_4t2 Hence, the equation of the tangent to
So
dt the curve at the point (4, 1) is
-4 3x+2y-14=O
(b) Since the gradient of the tangent is
Given y=3t2 -2 -3,

then the gradient of the normal is

Then dy =6t because the two lines are mutually
dt 3
Using the chain rule: at right-angles to each other.
We can use the formula m 1m 2 = -1 to
dx dt dx calculate the gradient of the normal.
dt We need to find the equation of the
normal, which is a straight line, to the
= 6t x - point (4, 1) and with gradient
-4
The gradient function for the tangent, Using the equation of a straight line:
y-y 1 =m(x-x 1 )
dx 2
Then y-1=(x_-4)
Whenx=4: x=-
t So 3(y-1)=2(x-4)
i.e. 3y-3=2x-8
2x-3y-5=O
Hence, the equation of the normal to the
curve at the point (4, 1)is 2x-3y-5=O
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

-Example 13
Ix=2cos 3 e
A curve is defined parametrically as
1y= 2 sin 30 . TE
(a) Find the equation of the tangent to the curve at the point where 0=
(b) Hence, find the equation of the normal to the curve at the point where 0=
- Solution
(a) Given x = 2 cos3 0
Then =3(2 cos2 0) x 4_ (Cos 0)

= 6cos2 0(- sine)

= -6 cos2 0 sinO
Given y=2sin3 0
Then = 3(2sin 2 0)- (sin 0)
6sin2 0 (COS 0)
= 6sin2 OcosO
Using the chain rule:
dydyX 1 T -

dxdO
dO
= 6 sin 2O COS O
-6 cos2 0 sinO
= - tan e
And =- tan =-
th 0 7C 3
3

When O=: x=2cosO=2 COS =2(' -') =

3 3 t2) 4

When O=: Y=2sin3 o=2sin3 2(]=-4i

Using the gradient as m = — .\F3 with the point , and the equation of a straight
line y-y1 =m(x-x1 ).
Then the equation of the tangent is y - i-iL =
- 1)
 Differentiation II ]1
- Solution
So y=-..Jx+---+- (a) Given x = 2e-3t
4 4
dx —6
(3+1)..i5 Then - = _3(2e 3t) =
= --j dt e
Given y=31n4t
dy 3 (4 3
Then --
dt 4t) t
y=—ix+-J5 Using the chain rule:
.
dydy
Using the gradient as m = with the ax1
dxdt
point and the equation of a dt
[, 3 e 3t
straight line y—y1 _
-m(x—x). = -x-
t —6
Then the equation of the normal is e3
31(1 —2t
y -----=--I x--- e3
4 4
2t
(X e 3(2) 6
41) dy
And -
dx L2 2(2) 4
= — X —.
3 12
When t =2: x = 2e -32) = 2e =2
3,F3 J
So y=—x+ -------
3 4 12 y=31n4(2)=31n8=91n2
9J-J The equation of the tangent is
= — x+ y—y 1 =m(x—x 1 )
3 12

= —X+ i.e. Y9In2:_(x)

3 12,

y =—x+---
3 3
1
y=--x+(91n2+—
Example 14 4 ' 2
A curve is defined by the parametric
Ix = 2e3 (b) Using m = -- and the point
equations
[y=31n4t
Find, at the point where t =2, (4,9ln2), then the equation of the
(a) the equation of the tangent normal is y-y1=m(x-x1)
(b) the equation of the normal.
Leave your answers in terms of e and In.
 : Pure Mathematics for CAPE

i.e. Y_91n2=4x_4)
e ( e
4 8
= x -

Y=--x+(91n2_)

1. A curve is given parametrically by the (a) Find the equation of the tangent to the
equations x = and y = 4t 2 —7. curve at the point where 9=

Find, at the point (5, —3), (b) Hence, find the equation of the normal
TC
(a) the equation of the tangent to the curve at the point where 0=
(b) the equation of the normal.
6. A curve is defined parametrically as
2. A curve is given parametrically by the
1
J x = 3 cos 0— cos 3O
equations x = and y = t 3 +4. = 3 sin 0—sin3O
(a) Find the equation of the tangent to the
Find, at the point 8). TC
(1, curve at the point where 0 =
6
(a) the equation of the tangent
(b) Hence, find the equation of the normal
(b) the equation of the normal.
to the curve at the point where 0=
3. A curve is given parametrically by the
equations x=2t 3 -5 and y=1-2t. 7. A curve is defined by the parametric
equations
Find, at the point (-7, 3),
x = 3e"
(a) the equation of the tangent
y = 21n3t
(h) the equation of the normal.
Find, at the point where t = 1,
4. A curve is defined parametrically as (a) the equation of the tangent
f
x =5 cos3 (b) the equation of the normal.
y =5 sin 3 0 Leave your answer in terms of e and In.
(a) Find the equation of the tangent to the S. A curve is defined by the parametric
TC
curve at the point where 0= equations
x = 5e3 t
(b) Hence, find the equation of the normal
y = 41n3t
to the curve at the point where 0=
Find, at the point where t =
5. A curve is defined parametrically as (a) the equation of the tangent
J x=3cos2O (b) the equation of the normal.
= 3sin2O Leave your answers in terms of e and In.
 Differentiation II go
9. A curve is defined by the parametric 10. A curve is defined by the parametric
equations equations
Jx=31n(t_1) fx=5 ln(t —2)
3e' Y = 5e 2t
Find, at the point where t =5, Find, at the point where t =4,
(a) the equation of the tangent (a) the equation of the tangent
(b) the equation of the normal. (b) the equation of the normal.
Leave your answers in terms of e Leave your answers in terms of e
and In. and in.

Implicit differentiation
So far all the functions that we have been differentiating were explicit functions and each was
differentiated explicity.
An explicity function of x is in the form y =f(x), where y is the subject of the equation, which
means that the dependent variable y is expressed in terms of the independent variable x.
p Example
y = 4x2 - 1, y = 2 cos3 x, y = 7e4x and y = in (5x - 2), which is a polynomial, a trigonometric an
exponential and a logarithmic function in x respectectively
L each of the four functions y is an explicit function of x.
In
The functions that we have to differentiate are not always explicity functions.
The functions that we have to differentiate are not always explicit functions, because the
function may not always have an explicit subject.
An implicit function of x relating two variables x and y does not have an explicit subject.
However, sometimes it is possible to rewrite an implicit function an an explicit functions, but
not in all cases.
Example
L 2xy + x2 y = 0, x tan y = 2y sec x, 2e3xY = 5x and in xy 2 = R.
In each of the four functions y is an implicit function of x.
We obtain dy from an implicit function by using implicit differentiation, where we
dx
differentiate both sides of the equation simultaneously with respect to x.
When using implicit differentiation we assume that each y is a function of x, that is, y (x).
dy
Thus f(y) = =f'(y)

and _(yfl)=ny11.
dx dx
 Pure Mathematics for CAFE

What then is dd(2) and d(3)?

dx
d Y2)2Y dY _(y3) =3y2 .
dx dx dy dx

What is (xy)?
dx
d _d d
- (xy) - x (y) + y (x) Using the product rule.
dx
dy
=
dx
- Example 15
Find an expression for in terms of x and y.
dx
(a) x3 +y2 -5y=10 (b) x2 +y3 =3x2y-5x
- Solution
(a) Given x3 + y2 - = 10

Then -4-(x3+y2_5y)=-(10)

So

i.e. 3x2 + _(y 2) . LY - =0

3x'+2y dy

(5_2y) = 3x2
dx
dy 3x2
dx 5-2y
3x2
This can also be written as y'(x) =
5-
Alternative Method

(a) Given x3 +y2 -5y=10

Then -(x3+y2_5y)=(10)
 Differentiation II

So

i.e. 3x2 +2y_5 =0

(5_2y) = 3x2
dx
dy 3x2
dx 5-2y
(b) Given x2 + y3 = 3x2y - 5x
Then
dx dx
So _(x2)+_(y3)=(3x2y)__(5x)

(Y) +y
i.e. 2x +i- (Y3 ) = 3x2 - (3x2) -5
dx
y 2 dy

3y2dY3 X2dY6XY2X5

(3y2 3x2 ) dY6xy 2x 5

dx

dx
dy6xy-2x-5
dx 3(y2 —x2 )
= 6xy-2x-5
3(y+x)(y—x)
Alternative Method
(b) Given x2 + y3 = 3x2 y - 5x
Then
dx dx
So
dx
i.e. 2x+3y2 = 3x2 (y)+y(3x2)_5
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

2 dy
dx dx
2 dY
+ 6xy -5
=
dx
3Y2dY 3x2dY_ 6Xy2x5
dx th
(3y23X2) dY_6xY 2x 5
dx
3(Y2 x2) dY_6xY 2x 5
dx
3(y+x)(y-x)=6xy-2x-5
dx
dy 6xy-2x-5
dx 3(y+x)(y-x)
-Example 16
Find in terms of x and y for each of the following implicit functions.
dx
(a) x2y =7 (b) (x + 2y)5 - 2x3 =0
- Solution
(a) Given - x 2 y=7

Then _(2yx' - x2y)= (7)

So 2y-(x 1 )+ x 1 .-(2y) _[x2 -(y)+ y-.(x2)] = 0

i.e. 2y(-x2)+ 2 dY
+ y(2x)] = 0

2 dy
x2 xdx dx
= (_ x2 ) = 2xy+ .4'.
= (2-xdy2x 3y+2y
x )dx x2
dy2y(x3 +1) x
dx x2
= 2y(x3 +1)
x(2- x3)
 Differentiation TI

(b) Given (x + 2y)5 - 2x3 =0

Then -[(x+2y) _2x3]=à4-(0)

So (x + 2y)5 - (2x3 ) = o

i.e. 5(X+2y)4-(X+2y)_6X2 = 0
dx
5(x+2y)4 (1+2) = 6X2
dx
d 6x2
= 1+2—y =
dx 5(x+2y)4
dy 6x2
= 2—= —1
dx 5(x+2y)4
= 6x2 —5(x+2y)4
5(x + 2y)4
dy6x2 -5(x+2y)4
dx - 10(x+2y)4
-Example 17
dy
Findm terms of x and y for the following implicit functions.
dx
(a) 2sinx=1+ysiny (b) xtany=sinx+3
-Solution
(a) Given 2 sin x = 1 + y sin y
d. d d . . d
Then
dy
So ä_+siny ä_
2cosx=O+ycosy dy

i.e. 2cosx=(ycosy+siny) dy
dx
dy 2cosx
dx ycosy+siny
(b) Given xtany=sinx+3
Then x d (tan y) + tan d - (x) = d (sin
(sm x)+ (3)
a- dxa--
So x sec 2y+ tan y(1)= cos x +0
dx
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

2 dy - y(e'_1)
i .e. x sec y -a-- cos X - tany
- -x(e' -1)
• dycosx-tany -y
dx x sec 2 y x
- Cos 2 y(cosx- tan y) 19
x If 2xy = In xy - 3, find an expression for Ly in
terms of x and y. dx
-Example i8
- Solution
Find an expression in terms of x and y for
the implicit function xy = exY - 5. Given 2xy=lnxy-3
- Solution Then 2x_(y)+y-(2x)=- (In x+1ny)- 4-(3)
Given xy= exY_5
d d d d So
Then x (y) (x) = (el) - (5) dx x ydx
+ y a-- a-
i.e. ( 2x--1 dy 1
So x+y(1)=-(xy)e'-O i—= --
y)dx x 2y
dy Id d l
i.e. x—+y= x—(y)+y— (x) e
dx dx
dX2x l
x ; Y(1)]e:
y
1-2xy
:: = [ yex y
dx dx x
2xy -1
dy dy
x--xe —=ye'-y y
l_ 2xy y
y(e xy x 2xy-1
dx
y
dyy(e'-1)
- x
dx x(1-e)
y
x

dy i
Find an expression for - n terms of x and y.
dx
1, (a) 5x2 +y2 =25 (b) xy+x2 =7
2. (a) 4x2 - 9y2 = 25 (b) x2y=9
3, (a) 3x2 +2y2 =1 (b) x2 -2xy+5y2 =0
4. (a) 2x3 - 3x2y - 9xy2 = 4 (b) y3-x2y+4y-2x=8
 Differentiation II

5. (a) x2 + y2 - 12x - 6y + 15 = 0 (b) 3x 2y+2xy2 =15

6. Given that x+2xy-3y= 7, show that + 2Y1 =0.

dx 2x-3

7. Given that x2 + 4xy - 3y = 8, show that dy2(x+2y)0

dx 4x-3
+x
8. Given that x2 + y2 - 12x - 6y +25 = 0, show that -6 =0
dx y-3

9. Given that 3x 3 - 2x2y - 9xy 2 = 4, show that 2x(x+9y)+4xy+9(y+x)(y-x)= 0.

dx
X
10. Given that 3x2 + 2y2 - 4xy = 24, show that 2+ _ = 2.
dx y-x

Find Ly in terms of x and y for each of the following implicit functions.

dx

11. (a) + =lox (b) (x + 3y) 5 = 3x2 ,

12. (a) -x2y =10 (b) (x - 4y) 3 + 5x = 0

13, (a) +3xy2=5x (b) (x-2y)4 =3xy

14. (a) - 4x 2y = 2x (b) (2x - y)3 + =0

15. (a) + 5x3 y =8 (b) (3x - y) 5 = 4xy

16. Given that (x+3) 2 + (y- 1) 2 =4, show that (1-y)=x+3.

dx

17. Given that x (x - =8, show that 4x dy + = 3x.

dx

18. Given that (x +y) 5 +xy= 1, show that [5(x+y)+x]+5(x+y)+y=0.

dx

19. Given that jx+y = xy, show that (1_2x2y)+1_2xy2 = 0

dx

20. Given that (x + y)5 - 6xy + 1 =0, show that [5(x + y)4 - 6x] Ly + 5(x + y)4 = 6y.
HM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Find Ly in terms of x and y for the following implicit functions.

dx
21. 3 sin x = 2 + y sin y
(a) (b) xtany=sinx-4
22. (a) 2 cos x = 3 + y cos y (b) 2x tan y = cos x + 3
23. (a) 2 tan 3y=5 sin x (b) 4 tan 3y=5 cos x
24. (a) 3 tan 2y — 6x sin y = 0 (b) 5 tan 3y + 2x cos y = 0
25. (a) 5 sin 3y=7xy (b) 7 cos 4y=4xy
26. Given that x cosy + y sin x = 3, show that (sin x—x sin y)+y Cos x+ Cos y=0.
dx
27. Given that x sec y +y tan x = 3, show that (x tan y sec y+ tan x)+ysec2x+ sec y =0.
dx
28. Given thatxy + tany = 9, show that (x+sec 2 y)+y = 0.
dx
29. Given that 2x sec y - x tan y =4, show that x(2 sin y-1)+ cos y(2— sin y)O.
dx
dy
30. Given that 7x tan y + 2 sec y = 5, show that (7x+2siny)+7sinycosy = 0.
Find an expression in terms of x and y for each of the following implicit functions.
31. (a) xeY_yex=5 (b) 2xy = exY+1
32. (a) 2xe + 1 = 3 e x (b) 4xex_1=5eY
33. (a) e23Y=4x 2 (b) x2y3 +e1 '=y2
34. (a) xey = (x + y) 2 (b) 3 xeY = (x - y)3
35. (a) xecosY = 5xy (b) 2xesiny = 3xy
36. Given that xe + 2yex = 7, show that (xe + 2 e x) Ly + 2exy + & =0.
dx

37. Given that 2eY = 5 e xY, show that (2ev - 5xe' ) - 5ye =0.
dx
38. Given that 2e3 Y = 7xy, show that (6 cos ye-7x)-7y = 0.
dx

39. Given that 3e2 COSY = 2xy, show that (x + 3 sin ye2c05Y ) + y =0.
dx
40. Given that 5e2 tany = 3xy, show that (3x —10 sec ye 2 ) + 3y =0.
 Differentiation II i:

Find an expression for dy in terms of x and y.

41.(a)y_-inxy+7 (b)xy=ln2xy-5
42. (a) 2xy=Ilnxy+5 (b) 5xy=ln4xy-3
43. (a) xlny+y=5 (b)xlny+xy=1
44. (a) y]nx+x]ny=4 (b) 7xlny+2xy=6
45. (a) lny__lnx5x (b) 1ny=1nx 1
46. Given that 3xy = in (xy) -1, show that x+y = 0.
dx
47. Given that 2xlny+xy =5, show that x(y+2)+y(y+2iny)=0.
dx
dy
48. Given that lny= inXCOS x show that x+xy1nx sin x-y cos x=0
dx
49. Given that in y = in (x + 1)x, show that (x + 1) - y [x + (x + 1) ln(x + 1)] =0.
dx
50. Given that In y = in X2n1x, show that x-2y(sinx+x cos xlnx)= 0.
dx

Differentiation of a combination of functions

CD Extended chain rule
Previously we have differentiated the composition of two functions (function of a function)
using the chain rule.
Given y = fg(x) where y =f(u) and u
Then
dx dudx
dy
f'(u)g'(x).
dx
pExample
• If v=ln (sin x)
dy 1
then -= x Cos x
dx sin
=cotx
Here f(u) = in u where u = sin x.
• If y = eCOSX

then LY eCOSX
dx
= -sin xecosx
= _e cosx sin
Here f(u) = e u where u = cos x.
RM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

This method allows us to directly differentiate the composition of two functions as can be
seen from the two examples above.
Sometimes it is required to differentiate the composition of three functions (function of a
function of a function). We achieve this by performing direct differentiation on the composite
function using an extended chain rule.
Given y —_ fgh(x) where y =f(u), u = g(v) and v = h(x).
Then
dx du dv dx
i.e. = f '(u) g'(v) h'(x).
dx
Example
• If y=]n (sin 2 x)
= In (sin x)2
= 1
then x2sinxxcosx
dx sin2 x
= 2cosx
sin x
=2 cot x
• If y = ec0s2X
- (cosx)2

then dy
—=e x2cosxx(—smx)
Co S

dx
= _2 sin x cos xeCO52

= _sin2xecoS2 x
= _eCoS 2 sin 2x
X

- Example 20
For each of the following composite functions, find the derivative of the dependent variable y
with respect to the independent variable x.
(a) y = Ve52 (b) y = sin3 (5x + 2)
(c) e sin (d) y = In cos (5x + 2)
Here we shall investigate a more structured approach to the differentiation of the
composition of three functions.
- Solution
(a) Given y
II.
Then y=(e52)
Let u=e52
 Differentiation II

Then y=f(u)=u3 =_f'(u)=-uTh

du 3
2
= _(e5x+2 )

u = g(v)= e v du
And
dv
= e5 x+ 2
dv
Also v = h(x) = 5x +2
Applying the chain rule:
dx
= h'(x) =5
ri
dy = dy du dv =
dx du dv dx 0
= (e52)
2
xe52 x5

= (e52 )_ 1

= Je52
3
(b) Given y = sin3 (5x +2)
Then y = [sin (5x + 2)]
Let u =sin (5x+2)
Then y=f(u)
=
dy =f '(u)
du
= 3u2
=3 [sin(5x + 2)]2
= 3sin2 (5x+2)
And u=g(v)
= sin v
du
—=g(v)
dv
= cos v
= Cos (5x+2)
Also v = h(x)
= 5x + 2
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

dv (d) Given y=ln COS (5x+2)

dx Let u= COS (5x+2)
=5 Then y=f(u)=h-tu
Using the chain rule: dy 1
dy dx u COS (5x+2)
= f'(u). g'(v). h'(x)
dx And u=g(v)= COS v
=3 sin2 (5x +2) x cos (5x +2) x 5 du
_=g(v)=_sin v=_ sin (5x+2)
=15 sin2 (5x +2) cos (5x +2)
Also v=h(x)=5x+2
(c) Given y = e (5x +2)
Let u= sin (5x+2)
Then y =f(u)= e u dx
Using the chain rule:
L=f(u)=eu =e52 dy
du = f'(u). g'(v). h'(x)
And u=g(v)= sin v dx
= 1
du XE-SM(5x+2)]x5
-=g(v)= COS v= COS (5x+2) cos (5x +2)
dv
Also v = h(x) = 5x +2 5 sin (5x+2)
cos (5x +2)
dx = -5 tan (5x+2)
Using the chain rule:
dy = dy du dv
dx du dv dx
x COS (5x+2)x5
= 5esm (5x + 2) cos (5x +2)

C> Combination of functions

Here we shall further investigate how to differentiate a combination of polynomial,
trigonometric, exponential and logarithmic functions using the various differentiation
rules re: addition, subtraction, product, quotient and power. We will also use the rules for
differentiating composite functions.
Example 21
Differentiate each of the following with respect to x.
(a) (3x2 - 1) sin x + e _2x in 5x
() sin 2xcos x-(x +1)]n-
x
(c) tan 3xcos3 2x+in(2- COS 5x)
nx
(d) -2e3xsinx
sin x
 Differentiation II

- Solution

(a) [(3x2 —1) sin x + e _2x in 5x]

dx
=(3x 2 _1)x cos x+ sin x x6x + e 2 x x +in 5xx (_2e 2 x)
5x
= (3x2 —1) cos x + 6x sin x + 1 e 2 x - 2e 2 x in 5x

=(3x2 _1) cosx +6xsinx + e 2x(i_21n 5x

)

2' (1— 2x in 5x)

= (3x2 —1) cos x + 6x sin x + e
x

(b) ._[sin2xcos3x_(x2+1)1n.]

= sin 2x x 3 cos2 x(— sin x) + cos3 x x 2 cos 2x - (x 2 + 1) x (- 2) + in x (- 72x)

=x+ _2 x in + cos 2x(_3 sin x sin 2x+ 2 cos x cos 2x)

=x+ - 2x in + cos 2 x [-3 sin x(2 sin x cos x) +2 cos x cos 2x]

=x+ - 2x in + cos 3 x(-6 sin x +2 cos 2x)

=x+ - 2x in + cos 3 x(3 cos 2x— 3+2 cos 2x)

=x+--2xln--+cos 3 x(5 cos 2x-3)

x x

(c) -- [tan 3x cos 3 2x + in(2 - cos 5x)]

dx
3x + —(—sin 5x)(5)
= tan 3x x (3cos2 2x)(— sin 2x)(2) + cos3 2x x 3 sec 2
2—cos5x
3x+ 5sin5x
= —6 sin 2x cos2 2x tan 3x +3 cos3 2x sec2
2—cos5x
= 3 cos3 2xsec2 3x —6 sin2xcos2 2xtan3x + 5 sin 5x
2—cos5x
=3 cos2 2x(cos 2x sec 2 3x —2 sin 2x tan 3x) + 5 sin 5x
2—cos5x
flj Pure Mathematics for CAPE

(d) d(1n5x23x.)
dx sin x
sin xx—ln5xxcosx _2
e3 x xcosx + sinxx (_6e3 x)
= sin2 x
sin x— COS xin5x
- X _2e3xcosx_6e3xsinx
sin2 x
sin x - x cos x in 5x - 2e3x (cos x +3 sin x)
x sin 2 x

LExercise 2f
For each of the following composite functions,
find the derivative of the dependent variable 9. (a) sec2 (x3 + 4) (b) jsecx
y with respect to the independent variable x. (c) tanx (d) esec 5x

1. (a) y = je' (b) y = sin2 (4x - 1) 10. (a) in cos5 (2x3) (b) tan 3 Jcos8x
(c) y = enl(4x_l) (d) y= In COS (4x —1) (c) sec J2x + 7 (d) sec J4x —1

2. (a) y=W5 (h) y=sin3 (6x+5) Differentiate each of the following with
respect to x.
(c) esin (d) y = In cos (6x + 5)
11. (a) (2x 3 1) sin x+e 3 ln4x
3. (a) y = ( e2 x+3 )2 (b) y = cos2 (2x + 3)
(c) y=ec0s(223) (d) y=ln sin (2x+3) (b) sin 3xcos2 x _ (XI _1)In
4. (a) y = (e5x_l)3 (b) y = cos3 (5x - 1) (c) tan 2xcos 3 2x+ln(2— COS 3x)
(c) y = ec0s(Sx_l) (d) y = In sin (5x —1) 4x
(d) ln4x —2e smx
sin x
Differentiate each of the following functions
with respect to X. 12. (a) (2x3 + 1) cos x - e _4x in 5x
5. (a) ..Jln(6x - 1) (b) in (cos2 x) (b) sin 4xsin x+(x —3)ln-
x
(c) In (1 + ex )3 (d) 1n3 (tan x) (c) tan 3x sin3 2x + in (4 - sin 3x)
6. (a) ( e5x+ 2 )3 ln5x
(b) e (d) —2e5x cosx
(c) esmx3 cosx
(d) e1
13. (a) (4x5 + 3) sinx - e _5x In 6x
7. (a) cos3 (x2 + 1) (b) cos5 (In x)
5
(b) COS 4xsin x+(x —2)ln-
(c) Jc07(x+1) (d) cos3 (8x2 - 1) x
(c) tan 4xcos5 2x—in(6+ sin 4x)
S. (a) sin 2 x3 (b) sin3 (5x2)
hI6X47
(c) s1Jsin(x+1) (d) sin3 (7x2 +4) (ci)
sin x
 Differentiation II

14. (a) (5x4 + 7) cos x + e_ 5x In 8x

(b) cos 5xcos 4 x—(x3 —5)In
(c) tan 5xsin4 2x—ln(7+ cos 5x)
ln7x
(d) +5e8xsin
cosx
15. Prove that
d [ln5x+ (e4 x _ e_3x)] = 4e4 x +e _x(1_ x ln 5x) + 3e_3 x .
dx e'

16. Prove that

d(I—e-x r
—lrisrnsin 2x = [cosecx (cot x_e' cot x+1)_2ex cot 2x]
dx sin x

17. Prove that

e _2 x [i - 2x in
I
dx
in x + 1 + ex
2 cosx 1 1 x
+exsecx+(ex+l)tanxsecx.

18. Prove that

- 5x2 7 + in x \ 5x 5 +3(5 x2 —1) in x + 20(5x 2 —1)
in Ji
--- (

dx - x3 ) x4 (5x2 -1)

19. Prove that

d( 2sin2x
—I in4x cos 2x-
dx e2x

= -4e -2x cos 2x + 2 sin 2x(2e2x —in4x).

20. Prove that

d (4sinx
dx 1—cosx _5in8x)
2 X 15 cos X (Ifl 8X +2)51n 8X 8.J10]
=cosec—I
2L
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Differentiation of inverse trigonometric functions

d
k einf(4] where k ie conetant
dx
Given u=sin 1 x
Then sin y=x where -i ~:x:! ~ 1 and -<y! ~ .

So cos y =1 Implicit differentiation.

dx
dij 1 Now cos2 y + sin2 y = 1
dx cos Y So cos2 y = 1 - sin2 y
= 1 ...
COSY =jisin2y
Vi_x2 =Ji_2
1
Hence ---(sin' x)= where -i :!~ x !~ 1 and 0 :~ y it.
dx J1_x2
1
or ---(arc sin x)= where-i <x <1.
dx ii_x2
° Given y = sin-' ax where a is a constant.
Then sin y=ax

So Cosy dy = a Implicit differentiation.

dx
dy a I
—= COSY = \f1-sin y .

dx cosy
=J1_(ax)2
- a
- ____

d a
Hence - (sin ax) = _______
dx Ji - (ax) 2
d a
or - (arc sin ax) = _______
dx \//i (ax)2 -

Given y = k sin-' ax where k and a are constants.

Then = sin ax

So sin =ax

1 ydy
i.e. -cos- --=a Implicit differentiations.
k kdx
 Differentiation II

dy_ ka y I
cos -= Il-sm 2Y -

dx cos- kV k
(ax)2
ka
(ax)2

d ka
Hence - (k sin ax) =
dx ji (ax)2 -

d ka
or - (k arc sin ax) = ________
dx Ji - (ax)2
Given y = k sin-' f(x) where k is a constant.

Then Y = sin f(x)

So sin .=f(x)

i.e. cos = f'(x) Implicit differentiation

dy = k '(x)
cos =
dx cos k Flsi k~
= l_[f(x)] 2
- kf'(x)
- l_[f(x)] 2

= kf'(x)
Hence -- [k sin' f(x)]
dx

dr kf'(x)
or s in
—[karcsrnf(x)j=
dx j1_[f(x)] 2

Example 22
Find the derivative of each of the following inverse trigonometric functions.
(a) y = sin-1 3x (b) y =4 sin-' 5x
(c) y = sin-' (2x 1)- (d) y = 3 sin (x2 + 1)
Solution
Method 1
(a) Given y = sin-' 3x
Then sin y=3x
ME Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Method 1
So cos y =3 Implicit differentiation. y = 4 sin 5x
dx (b) Given
Then y_ sin-' 5x
i.e. 4
dx cosy
3 So sin =5x
4
- sin2 y
1 ydy
3 i.e. –cos– — = 5 Implicit
4 4 dx differentiation.
- 1_(3 x)2
dy2O
3 dX Cos Y
- Ji1i9x 2 4
20

Cs
Method 2
Given y = sin-1 3x in2
4
du
Let u=3x =—=3 20
dx
= 1_(5 x)2
1
Then y=sm u => —=
dy 20
du J1_ u2
1 - J1_25x2
- _(3X) 2 Method 2
Using the chain rule: (b) Given y =4 sin 5x
dy = dy du du
Let u=5x
dx
dx du dx
1 -1 dy
x3 Then y =4 sin u = 4
V1_u2
j1_(3 x)2 du
=
3 Using the chain rule:
1_(5x)2
- 1_9 x2 LW

dxdu dx
Method 3
4
Given y = sin 1 3x = _____ x5
- (5x) 2
dy a
Then 20
dx j1_(ax)2
= 1_25x2
3
= where a=3
J1_(3x)2
3
= 1_9x2
 Differentiation II J
Method 3 Using the chain rule:
(b) Given y =4 sin-1 5x dy - dy < du
- ' dxdu dx
Then 1
dx - ji - ax)2 ( x2
J1_(2x _1)2
- 4(5)
where k =4 2
- 1_(5x)2 and a = 5
- j4x(1 - x)
20
2
= V1_25x2
_
- 2jx(1 - x)
Method 1
1
(c) Given y = sin (2x - 1)
Then sin y = 2x - 1 - x(1 -x)
Method 3
So cos y =2 Implicit
dx differentiation. (c) Given y = sin-' (2x - 1)
i.e. dy = 2 kf'(x)
Then dy
dx cosy dx - j1_[f( x)] 2
2 1(2) where
- ji - sin2 = 1 - (2x - 1) 2 k = 1 and
2 2 f(x)=2x-1
Ji - (2x - 1)2 = 4x(1-x)
2 2
- J4x(1-x) = 2x(1-x)
2 1
- 2x(1- x) = X_ a__x)
1 Method 1
- x(1-x) (d) Given y =3 sin-' (x2 +1)
Method 2 =sin1(x2+1)
Then
(c) Given y = sin-' (2x - 1)
du So sin =x2 + 1
Let u=2x-1 =—=2
dx 3
dy 1 1
Then y=sm u=—= i.e. -cos = 2x Implicit
du 3 3 dx differentiation.
1 dy6x
- J1_(2 x _1)2 dx cos-
3
 j Pure Mathematics for CAPE

6x Method 3
(di) Given y = 3 sin-1 (x2 + 1)
- sin7
Y3 dy kf'(x)
Then - = where
6x dx 2 k =3 and
- 1 (x2 +1)2
-
- 3(2x) f(x)=x2+1
6x
_x2(x2 + 1)
-
6x
Method 2 _x2(x2 +2)
-

(d) Given y = 3 sin-1 (x2 + 1) From Method 2 which uses the chain
U
rule, we have seen that:
Let u=x2 +1 => —=2x d 1 du
dx —(sin u)=
.
-

dy 3 dx Jju2 dx
Then y=3sm u => —=
du \J1_U2 where u = g(x) is a differentiable
3 function of x.

- 1 (x2 +1)2
-

Using the chain rule:

dydy du
dx du dx
3
x2x
(x + 1)2
6x
- _x2 (x2 +2)

CD k co 1 f(xfl where k i a tant

dx
° Given y = cos-1 x where 15: x f~, 1 and 0 :~ y :~ 7 t.
dd
Prove that —(cos-1x)= ______________
____ or —(arccosx)=
- -
______________
____ where-i <x < 1.
dx .J1_ x2 dx j1_ x2
° Given y = cos ax where a is a constant.

_(cos1 ax) - a - a
Prove that = or --- (arc cos ax) =
th s.Ji_(ax) 2 dx J1_(ax) 2
o Given y = k cos ax where k and a are constants.
- ka
Prove that p-- (k cos' ax) =
- - _______ or ---- (k arc cos ax) =
dx Vi - (ax)2 dx Vi - (ax)2
 Differentiation II °J

Given that y = k cos 1 f(x) where k is a constant.

Prove that Fkcos1 f(x)] = -kf'(x)

dxL 1—If (x)]2

d kf'(x)
or —Fk arc cos f(x)]= -__________
dxL j1_[f(x)]2

--
(a) If y = cos -1 4x, show that
dx il_16x2
dy6
(b) If y = 2cos 1 3x, show that - = -_______
dx J1_9X2
=_ 1
(c) Ify=cos 1 (2x-1), show that
dx ..jx(1-x)
= lOx
(d) If y =5 cos-1 (2x2 + 1), show that
dx /_x2 (x2 +1)
From Method 2 which uses the chain rule, it should be seen that:
d 1 du
—(cos 1x)=
dx Jl_u2 dx
where u = g(x) is a differentiable function of x.

- [ktan 1 f(x)] where k is a constant

dx
Given y = tan-' x
Then tan y = x where xc-R and -- <Y< - .

So sec2 y =1 Implicit differentiation.

dx
i.e. = 2 y Now 1 + tan2 y = seC 2 y
dx sec So sec2 y = 1 + x2
1
1+x2
Hence —(tan -1 x) =
dx 1+x 2

or ---(arc tanx) = 1 2 where x E D.

dx 1+x

© Given y=tan 1 ax where a is a constant.

Then tan y=ax
dy
So sec 2 y -=a Implicit differentiation
dx
 Pure Mathematics for CAFE

• dy = a • k '(x) sec2=1+tan2Y
sec2 y = 1 + tan' y
dx sec 2 y = 1 + (ax) 2 dx sec k
a
- 1+(ax) 2 kf'(x)
= 1 + tan2
a
Hence (tan -1 ax) =
dx 1+(ax)2 kf'(x)
d a = 1+[f(x)] 2
or —(arc tan ax) =
dx 1+(ax)
kf'(x)
Hence [ktan' f(x)]
Given y = k tan-' ax where k and a dx = 1+[f(x)]2
are constants.
or [karctanf(x)]= kf'(x)
Then = tan ax dx 1+[f(x)]2
-Example 23
So tan =ax Find the derivative of each of the following
inverse trigonometric functions.
i.e. 1 sec 2=a Implicit (a) y = tan 4x
k k dx differentiation. (b) y=7tan2x
(c) y = tan (3x + 1)
=ka (d) y=6tan(x2 +1)
• sec2 - =1 + tan 2Y
dx sec k - Solution
Method 1
ka
(a) Given y = tan 4x
1+ (ax) 2 Then tan y = 4x
dy
Hence --- (k tan' ax) So sec 2 yi---
-=4 Implicit
dx 1+(ax) 2 ux differentiation.
ka -=
or ---(karctanax)= 1+(ax)2 i.e.
dx dx secy
Given y = k tan 1 f(x) where k is a 4
constant. - 1 + tan 2 y
Then -- = tan -' f(x) 4
- 1+(4x)2
So tan--=f(x) 4
- 1+16x 2
i.e. sec2 = f'(x) Implicit
k k dx Method 2
differentiation.
(a) Given y=tan 1 4x
du
Let u=4x=—=4
dx
 Differentiation II .'E1

dy 1 Method 2
Then y=tan1u= —=
du 1+u2 (b) Given y = 7 tan 2x
- 1 du
Let u=2x
1+(4x)2 dx
dy
Using the chain rule: Then y =7 tan - u = - = 7
dy_dy du du 1+u2
dxdu dx 7
1 1+(4x)2
= x4
1+)2
(4x Using the chain rule:
4 dy - dy du
- 1+16x2 dxdu dx
7
Method 3 = x2
1+(4x)2
(a) Given y = tan-1 4x
14
Then dy_ a 1+16x2
dx 1+(ax)2
4 Method 3
= where a=4
1+(4x)2 (b) Given y =7 tan. 2x
4 ka
Then dy_
1+16x2 dx 1+(ax)2
Method 1 7(2)
where k = 7
(b) Given y =7 tan 2x 1+(2x)2 and a=2.
14
Then .=tan12x
7 = 1+4x2
Method 1
So tan =2x
(c) Given y = tan (3x + 1)
Then tan y=3x+1
1 2 ydy 2 dy
i.e. –sec -- 2 Implicit So sec y - =3 Implicit
7 7 dx differentiation dx differentiation.
dy = 14 dy 3
i.e. -=
dx sec2 dx sec2 y
7 3
14
- 1+ tan2 y
1+tan2
7
14 = 1+(3x+1)2
1+(2x)2
14
- 1+4x2
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Method 2 Method 2
(c) Given y = tan-' (3x +1) (d) Given y = 6 tan-1 (x2 + 1)
du du
Let u=3x+1 =—=3 Let u=x2 +1 => 2x
dx dx
> dy 1 dy 6
Then y=tan -1 u =: —= Then y=6tan -1 u — =
du 1+u2 du 1+u2
1 6
- 1+(3x+1)2 - 1 + ( x2 + 1)2
Using the chain rule: Using the chain rule:
dy = dy du dy - dy du
dx du dx dx - du dx
1 6
= x3 = x2x
1+(3x+1) 1+(x2 +1)2
Ct 12x
1+(X2+ 1)2
= 1+(3x+1)2 -
Method 3 Method 3
(c) Given y = tan-' (3x + 1) (d) Given y = 6 tan (x2 + 1)
kf'(x)
Then Y= Then dy
kf'(x)
dx 1 +[f( x )] 2 th 1 +[f(x )] 2
1(3) where k = 1 and - 6(2x) where k=6
= 1+ (3x + 1)2 f(x) = 3x + 1
1+(x2 +1)2 andf(x)=x2 +1
12x
= 1+(3x+1)2 - 1+(x2 +1)2
Method 1
From Method 2 which uses the chain
(a) Given y= 6 tan-1 (x2 + 1) rule, we have seen that:
Then = tan' (x +1) d 1 du
6 (tan-' u)= -
dx 1+u2 dx
So tan - = x2 +1 where u = g(x) is a differentiable
function of x.
1 2 ydy
i.e. - sec - - 2x Implicit
6 6 dx differentiation.
dy 12x
dx sec 2 Y

12x
1 + tan2
12x
- 1+(x2+1)2
 Differentiation II

Exercise 2g

Find the derivative of each of the following inverse trigonometric functions.

1. (a) y = sin-1 2x (b) y = 5 sin-1 7x (c) y = sin-1 (3x - 1) (d) y = 8 sin -1 (x2 +2)
2. (a) y = sin -' 4x (b) y = 9 sin7I 10 x (c) y = sin-' (5x + 1) (d) y = 10 sin (x2 - 1)

3. (a) y=sin x (b) y=15sin_1 X (c) y=sinx2 (d) y=5sinx3

4. (a) y=sin(3x2 -1) (b) y=3sinT1 (x2 +1) (c) y=sin(x2 +3) (d) y=7sin(3x2 -4)

5. (a) y = sin 1 (b) y = 8 sin-1 (3x2 +5) (c) y = sin' . (d) y =2 sin-'
1)
Find k'(x) for each of the following inverse trigonometric functions.
6. (a) k(x) = cos 4x (b) k(x) = 7 cos' 5x

(c) k(x) = cos (5x - 1) (d) k(x) = 6 cos-1 (x2 + 5)

7. (a) k(x) = cos-1 7x (b) k(x) = 8 cos 1 12x

(c) k(x) = cos-1 (6x + 1) (d) k(x) = 5 cos (7x - 2)

8. (a) k(x)-_ cos' T (b) k(x)=10cos_1

(c) k(x) = cos x2 (d) k(x) = 3 cos x4

9. (a) k(x) = cos (x2 - 1) (b) k(x) = 9 cos-1 (x2 + 1)

(c) k(x) = cos-1 (x2 + 7) (d) k(x) =2 cos-1 (5x2 -4)

10. (a) k(x) = cos' (b) k(x) = 3 cos (4x2 + 7)

(c) k(x) = cos-1 (d) k(x) =5 cos 1

Find Ly for each of the following inverse trigonometric functions.

dx
it (a) y = tan-' 5x (b) y =4 tan 3x (c) y = tan (2x +1) (d) y =3 tan' (x2 - 1)
12. (a) y = tan 8x (b)y=5tan(x2 +3) (c) y=tan 1 (4x-1)(d) y=3t'(x2 -5)

13. (a) y=tan' (b) y =2 tan' (c) y = tan-IX 2 (d) y = 7 tan-1 x4

14. (a) y = tan' (x2 + 1) (b) y = 7tan (2x2 - 1) (c) y = tan (x2 +5) (d) y = 8 tan (4x2 -3)

15. (a) y = tan' fx- (b) y =9tan 1 (2x3 +1) (c) y = tan' (d) y = iütani(11)
M
e Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Second derivative of a function

CT Higher derivatives
d
If y =f(x) wheref(x) is a differentiable function of x, then - f'(x) is the first derivative of y
with respect to x. dx

Further = f"(x) is the second derivative of y with respect to x.

For higher derivatives: We also have the alternative notations:

d3y - d (&y) = f ,,,
y' (x), y" (x), y" (x), y(4) (x),. .,y (n -1) (x), y(fl) (x) and
(x)
y1 W1 Y2 W1 Y3 (x), y 4 (x),.. 'Y(n-l) (x), y (x).

d4y - d (dy
dx4 - dxdx)

d' - d dn_2y
f (x)
dx 1 - dx ~( dX ,,
-

dy d(d 1 y
f (x)
df - dx dx' )

Further
2(dy(dy2(dy"3d y"\4
dx) dx
'¼ MY) '(äxAth) dx) (dx
L )dx
(AY-) dIJ
CD Polynomial functions
Here we shall investigate how to find the second derivative of polynomial functions.
Example 24

Find &Y for each of the following polynomial functions.

2
(a) y=5x3 -3x2 +7x-6 (b) y=
4x-3
Solution
(a) Given y = 5x3 - 3x2 + 7x - 6
Then = _(5x3 _3x2 + 7x _6)
dx dx
=
dx dx dx dx
= 5(3x2 )-3(2x)+7(1)-0
=15x2-6x+7
 Differentiation II

So 4_ = _( 15x2 _6x+ 7) (4x - 3)2 (-8) -(-8) (4x - 3)2

dx2 dx = dx dx
['4x - 3)2 ]2
=
cir dx dx - (4x - 3) 2 (0)+ 8(2)(4x - 3)(4)
= 15(2x) - 6(1) + 0
- (4x-3) 4
=30x-6
- 64(4x-3)
(b) Given y= 2 - (4x-3) 4
4x -3 64
Then y=2(4x-3) 1
(4x-3)3
So
dx dx CD Trigonometric functions
= _1(2)(4X_3) 2 (4)
Here we shall investigate how to find the
= -8(4x3) 2 second derivative of trigonometric functions.
-Example 25
th2th[ 8(4x3)] (a) Given that y=3cosx+5 sin x,find 4-4
= -2(-8)(4x - 3)_3 (4) d2 dx
(b) Hence show that -v + y = 0.
= 64(4x - 3) 3 dx2
- Solution
64
- (4x— 3)3 (a) Given y = 3 cos x + 5 sin x
dyd
Alternative Method Then - = —(3 cos x +5 sm x)
dx dx
2 d d
(b) Given y =
4x -3 =3 - (cos x) +5 - (sin x)
dx dx
Then dyd(2 = 3(- sin x) + 5(cos x)
dxdxk4x-3 = -3 sin x +5 cos x
(4x -3) (2) -2 -- (4x -3) So d2y d
dx dx --= —(-3 sin x+5 cos x)
dX2 dx
(4x-3)2 . d
- (4x - 3)(0) - 2(4) = -3 —d (sin x) +5 — (cos x)
dx dx
- (4x-3) 2 = —3(cos x) + 5(— sin x)
-8 = -3 cos x -5 sin x
(4x - 3)2
_-8 (b) Since 'I y = -3 cos x -5 sin x
So dx
dx2 dx[(4x-3) 2
d2
Then =-(3 cos x+5sinx)
dx
H[ Pure Mathematics for CAFE

- Solution
So Given y = 2 sin-1 x
d dy2d .i
Then —(sin x)
dx dx
( 1 "ti
-Example 26 =2 1 _ x2)

Given that y = 2 tan x, show that - 2

d2y dy 0 - 1
dx2 ' dx (1_xZ) 2
1
- Solution = 2(1_x2 ) 2
Given y = 2 tan x
So - 2---(1- x2)
Then =2-- (tan x) dx2 dx
dx dx
= 2sec2 x
= 2L 2 (l x2 ) 2 (-2x)
. )
2 3
cos2 x = 2x(1 - x2 )2
1
= 2(cos x) 2
= x(1-x2 ) x2(1_x 2 )2
2 2
= cos2 x =2sec x d2y x dy
i.e.
d dx2 lx2 dx
So d
—=2--(cosx) -2
(j2
dx (1_x2) d2y
_
= 2(-2)(cos x) -3 (- sin x)
ä
dx2 _xdy
sin =
cos3 x dx2 dx
sin 1
= x 2 - Example 28 rEFO
cosx cos x
= 2tanxx2sec 2 x Given that y = 3 tan' x, show that
• d2y dy 2 d2y dy
i.e. —=y-- (1+x )--+2x—=O.
cLx2 dx dx dx
- Solution
dx2 ' dx Given y=3tan'-x
Example 27 Then dy - 3 -- (tan ' x)
--
Given that y = 2 sin-' x, show that dx dx
(1_ x2 )_ x =0. = ( ±x2 )
= 3(1+ x2)
 Differentiation II L]

So
dx2 dx
= 3(-1)(1+ x 2 (2x)
) 2

=-2x(1+x2 x3(1+x2
) 1 ) 1

d2y —2x dy
i.e.
dx2 - 1+x2 dx
(1+x2)i=_2x dy
dx2 dx
:= (1+ x2 )i+2x= O
dx2 dx

CD Exponential functions
Here we shall investigate how to find the second derivative of exponential functions.
Example 29 2
If y = 4ex + 7e2x, show that 4-3+2y = o.
Solution
Given y = 4ex + 7e2x
Then
dx dx dx
= 4ex + 7(2e2x)
= 4ex + 14e2x

So dX2 dx dx
= 4(e x) + 14(2e2 x)
= 4e x + 28e2 x

Thus JL3Y + 2y
dx2 dx
= 4ex + 28e2 x - 3(4e' + 14e2 ' ) + 2(4ex + 7e2x)
= 4ex ± 28e2 x - 12e x - 42e2x + 8ex + 14e2x
= (4_12 + 8)ex+(28_42+14)e2 x
=0
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Example 30
So d y = 6x[—(3X2 +1)2(6x)]+(3x2 +1)1(6)
Given that y = 2esirl X - 5ec0s X, show that dx2
f

dX2 = cos x(2 cos xe s + 5e c0sx) 6x 6

1 +
3x2 +1) 3x2 +1
- sin x(2es +5 sin xe cos)
i.e.
dx2 kdx) xdx
Solution
Given y = 2esm X - 5ec0sx
... x= _x I12 +
dy
dx2 dx) dx
Then d2y 2 dy
th th dx
= 2(cos xe) - 5(– sin xe co)
x -+x
dx d (40
dx
=0

= 2 cos xe +5 sin xe cosx • Example 32

So Given that y = In(sinx), find an

dX2 dx dx 2
= 2 [cos x(cos xe) + (- sin x)] expression for - in terms of Cot 2 X.
dx2
+ 5 [sin x(– sin xeco) + e cosx (cos x)] Solution
(5x
= 2cos2 xeslI - 2sin xesrnx Given y=lni
(sin x )
5 sin2 xec0sx + 5 cos xe-sx Then y=ln5x–lnsinx
= cos x(2 cos xe + 5eco)
So
- sin x(5 sin xecos + 2ex) dx dx dx
5 cosx
C) Logarithmic functions 5x sin
Here we shall investigate how to find the = I - cot x
second derivative of logarithmic functions.
d2y d 1 ) d
Example 31 —=—( – ( cotx)
dx2 dxx dx
If y = in (3x2 + 1), show that d(x)– d (cosx)
d2y-+x (dy) 2 dx dx sin x
X—
dx dx dx - —x2 [sin x(– sin x)– cos x(cosx)
Solution
- L sin2 x
1 cos2 x+ sin 2 x
Given y = ln(3x2 + 1) X
.2
smx
dy 1 1
Then = [1n(3x2 + 1)] 2
X smx
1
=cosec2 x---
- 3x2 +1 x
= 6x(3x2 + 1)-1 = 1+ cot x – ---
x
 Differentiation II IM
Parametric functions
Here we shall investigate how to find the Hence d 2y d (dy)
second derivative of parametric functions.
d (di/)
Example 33 - d (dydt - dttdx
2y dx
(a) Find —i- for the parametric equations dtIdx)dx
dx dt
x=2t-1 and y=t4 .
dy
(b) (x+1'--3
) dx2 dx
(b) Hence show that (x+1)-4-3-=0.
dx dx =(x +1) x (x+ 1)2 -3(2t3 )
Solution
(a) Given x = 2t - 1 and ii t4
dx 4 ( x+1) _61 x+1)3
Then —=2 and 2
dt dt 3
Using the chain rule: = - (x + 1) - (x + 1)
dy = dy dt
3
dx dt dx =-(x+1) -(x+1)
_dy . 1 =0
- dt dx
dt -Example 34
Given the parametric equations x = 2 cos 0
= 4t3 x
2
=2t3
and y =3 sin 0, find an expression for 4.
- Solution
And Given x=2cos0andy=3sinO
dx2 dxdx dx dy
Then - = -2smO and— = 3cos0
= --(2t) dO dO
dx Using the chain rule:
= dydy dOdy 1
dt dx dx dO dx dO dx
=6t2 - dO
dx
=3cos0x
dt -2 sinO
3
= 6t 2I1 = --cotO
2
=3t2 x = 2t -1 And dX2
) x+1 2dx
=31x+ 1 2 2 3d dO
2 = - - - (cot 0)—
2d0 dx
=(x+1) 2 - 3IsinO(—sino)—coso(coso)1 1
- 2[ sin20
dO
[7! Pure Mathematics for CAPE

(1 - Solution
- 2sin2 OX_2 sin O Given x = 5 In 6t and y = 3t 4
- - 331 Then
CIX
=5 -- and = 4(3t 3 )
- 4sin3 O dt 6t) dt
3 5 =12t3
=--cosec 30
4 t
-Example 35 Using the chain rule:
dydy dt
Given the parametric equations x = 5e -4 t and
dx dt th
y = 3e2t, find an expression for dx .4-4. dy . 1
-Solution dtth
dt
Given x = 5e-4 t and y = 3e2 t
=12tx
Then = -20e and = 6e 5
dt dt
Using the chain rule:
dy = dy dt 5
dx dt dx And
= dy . 1 5th
dt dx
dt 5 d dx
- 6e2 t x =
- -20e t 5 dx
dt
= _.e 6t
10 =
5 5
d 3d (e6t)
And
dx2 10 d =
25
3 d 6t)dt
(e
10 d dx
() Implicit fticticna
-( 6e6t) 1
10 dx Here we shall investigate how to find the
dt second derivative of implicit functions
- Example 37
6e 6t
- -20e-4t ) (a) Given that x4 + y = 5, find
d 2y
= 2e10t (iii
100 (1)
dx dx
Example 36 (b) Hence show that
Given the parametric equations x =d2 In 6t 2dy 2 3=0.
3xy —+3xy
" dx2 dx
and y = 3t4, find an expression for -4.
dx
 Differentiation II Fa
- Solution
- - 3x2 (5) - - 15x 2
(a) (i) Given =5X4 + y4
- y7 - y7
—(x +y 4) = (5)
Then d Method 2: [From (a) (I)]
dx dx
3 dy
d (ii) Since x +y —=0
So - (x)+(y)=0 dx
dx dx
Then ---Ix+y.
dxx. )
dx i=0
i.e. 4x3 +4y3 .Y=0
dx
d y3dy 0
+4: x+y=0 dx dx)
dx
d 3 d(dy"\ dyd
y3 JL = _x3 So—(x )+y — I — I+ - -(y )=0
dx dx dx \ dx) dxdx

i.e. 3x2+y3i+(3y2-')=0
dx y3 dx2 dx dx)
- x3
3x2 +y3 4+3y2 () = 0
--
Method 1:
dy - x
(ii) Since = 3x + y3 + 3y2 (- --) =0
dxy

3x2 dX2
aa
Then-- dx3 J (Y 6
y —(x 3 )-x----(y) =
- - dx dx dx y
- (y3 )2
3d2y -3x 2 - 3x6
y3 (3x2)-x3 (3y2 d) y —=-
dx2
--
y6 - —3x2y4 — 3x6
y4
- - 3x2y3 - 3x3y2 d2y3x2 y4 +3x6
dx2 y7
y6
- 3x 2 (x4 + y4 )
3x2y3 +3-
- y y7
y6 - 3x2 (5)
3x2 y4 +3x6 y7
y7 15x2
3x2 (x4 +y4 ) y7

y7
La Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Method 1: [From Method 1 above]

2 dy
3X 2 3
(b) Since dx
y6
Then +3X3y2 dy
dx

So Y 6dY 3X3Y2dY +3x 2Y3_ o

Method 2: [From Method 2 above]

(b) Since 3x2 + y3d2Y+3 Y2 ( =

dx2 dx
3d 2 xciy=0
Then
y3 )dx

So 2 3 6dY 3x3y2dYO
3xy+y
dx
• 3 2 dY + 3x2y 30
Yd 2 3x Y dX

-Example 38
d2y dy (dy'\ 2
Givenxy = cos y, show that (x+ sin Y) +2-+cosYtj-) =0.
- Solution
Given xy= Cos y
d d
Then _(xy)= -(cosy)
d d d dy
So x ä_(y) + y -(x) = ä_( cos
• xdy
+Y(,)= . dy
i.e. - sm y
dy . dy
x — +y= — smy -
dx dx
d( dy ' d(_ s, dy
And —I x—+y 1=ny-
dx' dx ) dx dx
d2ydy dy . d2y dy( dy
So x—+--(1)+----=-smy--+—I -cosy--
dx2 dx dx dx2 dx dx
 Differentiation II

2 2 /
• dy dy dy_ . dy idy
i.e. x--+—+-----sJny------cosyI -
dx dx dx dX 2 dx
/ \2
. d2 j dy
(x+smY)-+2a-+cosY(j_) -o
•

-Example 39
Given that y2 = e2x - e 3 , show that

(a) (2y+3e3Y)_2e2x =0
dx

(b) (2y+3e3 +(2+9e- _4e2x = 0.

dx dx)
-Solution
(a) Given y2 = e2x - e 3

Then 2y=2e2x_3e3Y
dx dx

So (2y+3e3Y)=2e2x
dx

)LY
dx

(b) Since 2y = 2e2x - 3e3 dY

dx dx
Y)
Then 2y +I2L')= 4 e2 x -3e3 ' .+I_9e3!/
dx2 dx dx) dx2 dx dx
2
So
dx dx) dx2 dx

(2y+3e3Y)4+(2+9e 3 !1 )() _4e2x = 0

.• dx
Example 40
If in y = In x show that,
dy = 2y2
(a)
dx x(1-2ylnx)
(1_2yIny-I(dy24dy+2y=0
(b)
y )dx2 y2 dx) xdx x2
: Pure Mathematics for CAPE

- 'solution
(a) Given Jny=2y]nx
Then
ydx =2y1!+1nx12')
\x) '... dx1

So (1_21nX ))dy2y
_

(1_2yinxdy2y
i.e.
Y ) dx x
• dy2y( y
dx x 1-2y1nx
2y2
x(1-2ylnx)

(b) Since - +21nx

ydx x dx

Then y1 dY2yxi+21t.ixClY
dx dx
-_+_I
= 2y(_x2)+x1(2)+21nxd2y dy('\
So y' 2— I
dx2 dx dx dx2 dxkxj

i.e.
1 d2y 2 — 2y 2 dy +2 in x —
&y 2dy
+— -
X2 2
1 MY) dx2 xth
1 (2 2 dy
(--21nx'))dx2 +—
dx 2 Lx x)dx x2
y (dy)
(1_2yinx)d2y 1 (dy) 2 4y2y 0
y )dx2 y2 dx xdx x

Find .4 for each of the following polynomial functions.

dx
1
1. (a) y=2x3 +5x2 -3x+7 (b) Y =
4x-1
3
2. (a) y=4x3 -7x2 +5x-8
5x+1
3 (a) y = -5x 3 + 4x2 — 7x + 10 (b) y= 2x
4x+5
 Differentiation II L

4. (a) y = -3x3 + 6x2 - 9x +5 (b) y =

- 3x-2
- _X
5, (a) y = -6x5 + 8x3 - 5x - 11 (b) y=
7x -4
6. (a) Given that y=2 COS x+3 sin x, find 44 .

dx
d2
(b) Hence show that =0.
dx2 + y
7. (a) Given that y=5 sin x+4 COS x,find -4.
d2 dx
(b) Hence show that+ y =0.
dx2
8. (a) Given that y=-7 COS x-6 sin x, find 44.
d2 dx
(b) Hence show that -v2+ y =0.
dx
9. (a) Given that y=-8 sin x-4 COS x,find4.
(b) Hence show that 4+y = 0.
10. Given thaty = 5 tan x, show that 5-2y 4 =0.
dx2 dx
11. Given that y=7COS x, show that 4+ y = o.

Find -4 for each of the following trigonometric functions.

dx
12. (a) y= sin 3x (b) y= COS 2x (c) y=tan4x
13. (a) y=sinJi (b) y=cos -sJ (c) y= tan i
14. (a) y= sin (x2 +1) (b) y= COS (x2 +1) (c) y= tan (x2 +1)
15. (a) y=sin5 x (b) y=cos5 x (c) y=tan5 x
16. (a) y=sin4 3x (b) y= COS 4 3x (c) y=tan4 3x
17. (a) y= (sin x+ COS x)7 (b) y=(2 sin x- COS x)3 (c) y=(secx+ tan x)2
18. (a) y = x sin x (b) y=x COS x (c) y = x tan x
19. (a) y=x2 sin x (b) y=x2 COS x (c) y=x2 tan x
y= sin x cos x
20. (a) (b) y= (c) y= --tan
cos x sm x
21. (a) y = -5sin (b) y = -6cos (c) y = -cos (5x -2)
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

22. Given that y = 4 sin-' x, show that (1- x2)4_ _—O.

dx dx
23. Given that = 5 cos' x, show that (1_x2)+x = 0.
dX2 dx
24. Given that y = 10 tan-1 x, show that (1+ x2)+2x
dX2 dy = 0.
dx
Findf"(x) for each of the following trigonometric functions.
25. (a) f(x) = x sin-1 x (b) f(x) = x cos -1 x (c) f(x) = x tan-1 x
26. (a) f(x) = sin -..J (b) f(x) = cos' (c) f(x) = tan 'J
27, (a) f(x) = x sin' x2 (b) f(x) = x cos 1 x2 (c) f(x) = x tan-' x2

Find .4-1 for each of the following exponential functions.

dx2
7
28. (a) y = e (b) y = 5e 2+1) (c) y=--
e
29. (a) y = x 2 e5 2c (b) y =2x3 e4x (c) y = -3x e _2x
7
30. (a) Y= 7 (b) y = 2xe 2 (c) y =4e x

31. (a) y= 4e (b) y=x5 e 4 (c) y = 3e 1rX__1

32. (a) y = 5es in (b) y = 4ec0s 3x (c) y =_2etan

33. (a) y=ex sin x (b) y = e x cos x (c) y=e tan x
34. (a) y = ex sin 3x (b) y = e' cos 3x (c) y=e' tan 3x
1_ e x 1+e 3X e 2 5
35, (a) y= 2e3 x (b) y= 2x (c) y= ex
e
36. (a) y = 3e' x - 7e c0sx (b) y = 8es in + 2e c0sx (c) y=2ec0_3e1
37. If y = 2ex+ 5e, show that .41_3 + 2y =0.
dx2 dx
dy
38. If y = 2ex - 3x + 1, show that —i-
&Y - --3=0.
dx dx
39. If y = 3e 2x - 2ex +5, show that 2.41 -3 - + 2(5 - 3 e x) =0.
dx2 dx
1
-x
40. If y= show that 2+_y+1_12e 2 = 0.
1+4xe2X,
th2 dx
Find .4-iL for each of the following trigonometric functions.
dx2
41. (a) y = 8x (b) y = lnx 4 (c) y =In - 4=
'.Jx
 Differentiation II

42. (a) y =In (b) y = 1n-- (c) y =

3 4

43. (a) y = ln
4x
2

44. (a) y=ln sin x

(b) y =ln
rI
x
(b) y=ln cos x
(c) y =1nx2
(c) y=ln tan x
45. (a) y = in sec x (b) y = in 3 tan x (c) y = in 5 sec x

46. (a) y = J _
8x
sinx)
(b)
=
in
9x
cosx
(c) y=in
lOx
tanx
d2y 2
47. Ify=in(4x2 +1),showthat x --+x 0.
dx dx
(') dx
d2y (dy'\2 d
48. Given that y=in(2x3 +1), show that x+xI I -2-=O.
dx2 dx) dx
d2y d
49. Ify=ln(3x3 -2), show that x +x
dx ( dx) dx
x d2y (dy " 2 d
50, Given that y = in (2x4 - 1), show that + xi - I -3 =0.
dx2 t,dx) dx
Find for each pair of parametric equations.
dx
51. x=3t-1 and y=6t 3 +l 64. x = sin3 0 and y = cos3 0
52. x=2J and y=4t2 +5 65. x = sin2 8 and y = cos3 0
53. x=2-3t and y=1-t4 66. x= sin 2O and y= cos 2O
• 54. x=5t-6 and y=(2t-1) 3 67. x= sin 30 and y=cos 30
55. x=5t-2 and y=t3 +5t-2. 68. x=et and y =2e.t
2 69. x = 3e t and y = e_2t
56.x= and y=i
i+Tt 70. x = 4e _2 t and y = 4e'
57. x=3 cos 0andy=2 sin O
71. x = 2e _3t and y = 3 e 2t
58. x = 3 cos 0 andy = 3 sin 0
72. x = 5e t and y = 4 e3t
59. x= Cos 2 8 and y= sin O 73. x=2t2 and y=31n2t
60. x=3 sec O and y=2 tan 0 74. x=2t3 and y=21n3t
• 61. x = sin2 O and y = cos 0 75. x=2in2t and y=3t2
62. x=5 sec O and y=5 tan o 76. x=5in4t and y=4t3
63. x=sin3 O and y=cos2 O 77. x=6ln5t and y=5t4
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

d2 y dy =
78. Given the parametric equations x = and y = 4t2 - 1 show that x —+3
t dx2 dx
2 y dy 0
79. Given the parametric equations x = 5t 3 and y = 4t 5, show that 3x d- +8 —
dx2 dx

80. Given the parametric equations x = 5t –2 and y = t 5, show that (x +2) –4 Ly = 0.

dx2 dx

4 , d2 dy
81. If the parametric equations of a curve are x = 7t + 4 and y = 5t show that (x-4)4-3=0.
82. If the parametric equations of a curve are x = 3t 2 - 8 and y = 20, show that
2(x+8)-4-3 = o.
dx dx

Find dy and & Y for each of the following implicit functions.

dx dx2
83. (a) x2 + y2 = 36 (b) y2 = 4x
84. (a) x2 y3 =9 (b) x3 y2 =8
85. (a) 3xy-x4 =5 (b) 2x2 +3y2 =14
86. (a) + jy =16 (b) x2 y - 3x = 7
87. (a) 3x2 -4y2 =8 (b) 3x2 y=4x-1
88. (a) y2 = sin x (b) 2y = cos x
89. (a) x2 = sin y (h) 3x2 = cos y
90. (a) 5x2 = sin 2y (b) 7x2 = cos
91. (a) x=e7 (b) x2 =e4
92. (a) 2xy = exY + 5 (b) 3xy = e2Y - 10
93 (a) x = e 3 (b) 5x = e 2
94. (a) x2 =lny (b) 2x3 =5lny
95. (a) 4x2 =ln2y (b) 5x3 =ln4y
96, (a) xy =In y (b) xy=5hiy
97, Given that 3x2 + = 5, show that y4 - 2xy + y 2 0.

98. Given that 2 sin +4 cosy= 9, show that 2 sin 2 y4 + Cos x Cos y+ sin x sin y0.
dx
 Differentiation II go
99. Given that y2 ex3, show that 2 -4±3x2 — 3xy (3x3 + 2) =0
dx
100, Given that 8x3 =3 In 4y, show that -4-
dx
8x - - 16xy =0.
dx

First partial derivatives

CD Limit

If f(x, y) is a two variable function, then urn f(x, y) exists only if the
(x,y)-(a,b)
value of the limit is unique.

CD Continuous function

A two variable functionf(x, y) is continuous at (a, b) if

• urn f(x, y) exists, that is, the function is defined for the values.
(x,y)-(a,b)
• lim f(x, y) =f(a, b), that is, lirnlf(x, y) -f(a, b)J = 0.
(x,y)-(a,b)

cZ First principles
Consider a function z of two independent variables defined by the equation z =f(x, y).
Let öz be the increase in z due to an increment ax in x with y remaining constant.
Then öz =f(x + 8x, y) -f(x, y)
öz f(x+ox,y)-f(x,y)
and
ox Ox
So
ox- OOx t -O Ox

If this limit exists, then we can write - = urn

az f(x+Ox,y)-f(x,y)
)x öx - O Ox
This is the first partial derivative of z with respect to X.

It is denoted by . - ( f(x. y); fx;L;

ax f- f(x, y); ;J.
f(x, y + Oy) - f(x, y)
Similarly - = lirn
öy-O

This is the first partial derivative of z with respect to y.

az
It is denoted by y); f-; .-a f(x, y); z
ay ay ay
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

CD Partial derivatives
The rules for finding partial derivatives of z _- f(x, y) are as follows.
• To findf, treat y as a constant and differentiatef(x, y) with respect to X.
• To findf, treat x as a constant and differentiatef(x, y) with respect to y.
• The rules of differentiation are all valid, for example, the product rule, quotient rule and
chain rule.
1
In general, # ax
ax az
If z is a function of u, and u is a function of x and y, then
az = dz . au an
---- - where - is an ordinary derivative of z with respect to u.
here dz
ax du ax ay du ay du

r Example 41
Find the first partial derivatives of the
functionf(x, y) = 3x2 - + 5.
Solution
Given f(x,y)=3x2 -8y3 +5
Then f(x, y) = 2(3x) = 6x Let U=-
X au
L And f(x. y) = 3(-8)y2 = -24y2 y ax y
Example 42 cIZ
Then z = tan-' u
Find the first partial derivatives of the du 1+ u'
functionf(x, y) = y cos (3x + 2y). =
Solution i+11
Given f(x, y) = y cos (3x + 2y) y)
Then f(x, y) = y[-sin (3x + 2y) x 3] az dz au
And -
ax -du. ax
-
= 3Y sin (3x + 2y)
Andf(x. y) = y[-sin (3x + 2y) x 2] 1 i
+ cos (3x+2y)xl = X2
= -2y sin (3x + 2y) + cos (3x + 2y) 1+—
= cos (3x +2y) -2y sin (3x + 2y)
1 1
Example 43
= y2+x2 X y
Find the first partial derivatives of the
function z = tan-'( . 2
- 1

L Solution
Given
y)

z=tan'('1
- x2 +

x2+y2
y)
 Differentiation II

az dz . au -Example 45
Also
ay du ay Find the first partial derivatives of the
00 X
U = - - = - - function z=5y+x1n(J.
y ay y
-Solution
y2 (
Given z=5y+x1nI YX
2 2X1T
x+y y
x Then z=5y+x]nx-xlny
z (i
So —=x - i+lnxxl-lnyxl
ax
rExample 44 = 1+lnx-lny
Find the first partial derivatives of the
=1 + ln x-
function z=e 2 '2 .
y
Solution x
= in - +1
Given z = e 3 y

Then = 2(3x)e 22 - 6xe22 az =5_x1i

ax And
ay
az
And = 2(-3y)e 2 '2 = -6ye 22
ay =5-i
y

Exercise 21

Find the first partial derivatives of each of the following functions

1. (a) f(x, y) = 4x3 y5 (b) f(x, y) = -7x5 y3
2. (a) f(x, y) = 5x2 + y2 (b) f(x, y) = y3 - 8x2
3. (a) f(x, y) = 3x2 - 7y3 +4 (b) f(x, y) = 10 - 5x2 - 2y3

4. (a) f(x, y ) = 2x - (b) f(x, y ) = (3x 2y - x4 - 1)

5. (a) f(x, y) = 13x 2 + 4y 2 (b) f(x, y) = x 2 y - xJ

x3 +y3 2x3 -5y3
6. (a) f(x, y) 2 (b) f(x, y)
= x2 - = x4 + y4
• Find the partial derivatives and for each of the following trigonometric functions.
ax ay
7, (a) z = sin (5x + 2y) (b) z = cos (4x - y)
8. (a) z = tan (6x + 7y) (b) z = sec (8x - 3y)
 g Ti Pure Mathematics for CAPE

9. (a) z = y sin (2x - 3y) (b) z = y cos (4x + 7y)

10. (a) z = y tan (5x - 8y) (b) z = y sec (6x + y)

11. (a) z : z = x: COS [.)

=
12. (a) z x tan ( - D) z X
7y ) sec(8y)

13. (a) z =sin-'I - I (h) z = cos I -

y) X)
Y
(x2"\
14. (a) z = arc sin I--1 (b) z= arc tan l -j-

Find the partial derivatives

au
- and for each of the following exponential functions.
ax ay
15. (a) U = e' (b) u = e5xY
16. (a) u=y2e7xY (b) U = X2 elOxY

17. (a) U = (b) u=e

18. (a) u=& tan (2x-y) (b) u = e' sin (x - 2y)
19. (a) u= e x Cos y (b) u=e' tan y
20. (a) u= yet ' x (b) u = yesec
21. (a) u=y sin e' (b) u= y tan e x

Find the partial derivatives and for each of the following logarithmic functions.
ax ay
x
22. (a) v=lnxy (b) v=ln -
y
(c) v=y]n2xy (d) v=xln-
x
23. (a) v=ln(x-y) (b) v=1n4(x+y)

(c) v =In tjx2_y2 (cU v=y1nJx2+y2

24. (a) v = in sin (x + y) (b) v=ln Cos (x-y)

(c) v=ln tan (x-y) (d) v=ln sec (x-y)

25. (a) v = xy - x in (b) v=xy_xinV!-J

( YX )
(c) v= 2x2 y+xln (sin xy) (d) v = 2xy2 - x In (tan xy)
 Differentiation II

Second partial derivatives

In general, if z is a function of two variables x and y, that is, z =f(x, y), then its partial
derivatives -- and are also functions of the two variables.
ax ay
We can now consider their partial derivatives which are partial derivatives of the second order.
If z =f(x, y), then the second partial derivatives off are defined as follows.
a (af a, f — a,z — a (az)
(fx ) x =fxx axax) ax2 ax2 axax
o -
(f ) - -
ay I ay)I a, 2 -
a 2 ay I
=
= = 2 f
(f) yX xy
a ( ax) ayax ayax ay . ax
a([a 2 f = a2z
f) x f vx
(

axtiy) axay axay axay

The commutative property of partial derivatives states that

or
ayax aay
• or
a2z = a2z
• axay ayax
The commutative property holds if all the partial derivatives of z exists and are continuous
in the domain of the function.
At this level we will assume that the commutative property of partial derivatives holds true
for all functions.
Example 46
Find the second partial derivatives of the functionf(x, y) = 5x 4 y3 - 2x3 y.
Solution
Given f(x, y) = 5x4 y3 - 2x3 y
Then f = 5y3 (4x3) - 2y (3x2)
=20 x3 y3 - 6x2 y
So fxx = 20y3 (3x2) - 6y (2x)
=60x2 -12xy

And f = 5x4 (3y2) - 2x3 (1)

= 15x4 y2 -2x3
fyy = 15x4 (2y)
=30 x4 y
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Since fx = 20x3 y3 - 6x2 y

Then fXy = 20x3 (3y2 ) - 6x2 (1)
= 60 x3y2 - 6x2
Since = 15X4 y2 - 2x3
f,
Then = 15y2 (4x) - 2(3 X2 )
= 60 x3 y2 - 6x2
Note that fxy =f, the commutative law holds true.

Example 47
Find the second partial derivatives of the functionf(x, y) = y2 sin 2xy
Solution
Given f(x, y) = y 2 sin 2xy
Then fX = y2 cos 2xy x
= 2y3 cos 2xy
So fXX = 2y3 (—sin 2xy) x
= —4? sin 2xy
And f = y2 cos 2xy x 2x + sin 2xy x
= 2xy2 cos 2xy + 2y sin 2xy
f, = 2xy (—sin 2xy) x 2x + cos 2xy x 2x (2y) + cos 2xy x 2x + sin 2xy x 2
= —4x2 y2 sin 2xy + 4 xy cos 2xy + 4xy cos 2xy + 2 sin 2xy
= —4x2 y2 sin 2xy + 2 sin 2xy + 8xy cos 2xy
= —4x2 y2
Since f=2y3cos2xy
Then f, = 2y 3 (—sin 2xy) x 2x + cos 2xy x 6y 2
= —4xy3 sin 2xy + 6y2 cos 2xy
Since fy = 2xy2 cos 2xy + 2y sin 2xy
+ cos 2xy x 2y2 + 2y (cos 2xy) x 2y + sin 2xy x 0
fyX = 2xy (—sin 2xy) x 2y
Then
= -4xy3 sin 2xy + 2y cos 2xy + 4y 2 cos 2xy
2
= -4xy 3 sin 2xy + 6y2 cos 2xy
Note thatf =f, the commutative law holds true.

Example 48
Find the second partial derivatives of the function v = 5x2 arc sin (2xy).
Solution
Given v = 5x2 arc sin (2xy)
—=5x 2 x
JV
Then + arc sin (2xy)xlOx
ax l— (2xy
F )2

- lOx2 y
+ 10 arc sin (2xy)
- jl4x2y2
 Differentiation II

= lox arc sin (2xy) + 1Ox2y

j1_4x2y2

= lOx arc sin (2xy) + 1Ox 2y(1 - 4x2y2 )2

So
( av )= lOxx +arcsin(2xy)xlO+
ax aX Vi— (2xy)2
1Ox2y x (- ) (i - 4x2y2 ) x (-4y 2 )(2x) + (1— 4x 2 y2 )2 x 10y(2x)

3 y3 +2Oxy
- 20xy +lO arc sin (2xy)+ 40x 1
- - 4x2y (1— 4x2y2 ) (i - 4x2y2 )
- 40x3 y3 40xy
10 arc sin (2xy)
+ J(i- 4x 2 y2 )3 + Vi - 4x 2y 2
2x
And - = 5x2 x + arc sin (2xy) x 0
ay ji - ( 2xy)2
lOx3
= 1 - 4xy 2

So — 'V ) =lOX3 x1 _fl(l_4x2y2) x(_4x2)(2y)+(i_4x2y2) xO

a

ay ay(
2)
- 40x5 y
- 3
(1_4x2y2 )

40x5 y

C (l_4x2y2 )3

lOx3
Since
j;;
=
1_4x2y2

Then
ix ay J =lOx x

40x4 y2
- 4xy

30x2
x (_4y2) (2x) + (i - 4x2y2)2 x 30x 2

= 3+ 1
(1_4x2y2 ) (1_4x2y2 )
40x4 y2 30x2
+
F (l4x 2y2 )3 V1-4x2y2
j.:f Pure Mathematics for CAPE

1
av
Since - = lO xarcs in (2xy )+1OX 2 y(1_4X 2y2 ) 2
ax
)=2x
+ arc sin (2xy)x 0+lOx2 y x1(i - 4x2y2 ) 2 x(-4x 2 )(2y)
a aH

Then lOxx
(
ax j1_(2xy)2 . 2)
1
+(1-4x 2 y 2) 2 x 1Ox2
20x2 40x4 y2 + 1Ox2
+ 1
= 1 - 4x2y (1_ 4x2y2 ) ( i - 4x2y2 )
40x4 y230x2
= j(l_4x2y2)3 + J1_4x 2y2

a
av
a av ), the commutative law holds true.
Note that -
- ax
ax ay =ay

-Example 49 th
Find the second partial derivatives of the function z = xe2' +
Solution
Given z = xe2x + 3j
Then
az
- = x (2e2 3Y)+e23Y (1)
ax
= 2xe23 +e2' 3
a az 2x (2e2 x+ 3 Y)+e23!(2)+ 2e 23 '
So --
ax (ax )
a2
Y = 4xe23 ' + 4e23 "
ax2
And
az
- = x(3e23Y)+e2x+31 (0)
ay
= 3xe23
aaz- I=3x(3e 23Y )+e23!1 (0)
S0
ay ( ay)
a2z
—=9xe 3 y
ay
az
—=3xe 2x+3y
Since
ay
 Differentiation II

ThenI=3x(2e 2x+3Y )+e 2x+3Y(3)

ax ay)
= 6xe 23 " +3e23 '

Since +e2 x+ 3 y
ax

Then (az)=2x(3e2x+3Y)+e2x+3Y(0)+3e2x+3Y
ayax
= 6xe23 +3e23 '
a ( - zI = - iaz- I the commutative law holds true.
Note that -
axay) ay ax)'

Example 50
Find the second partial derivatives of the function z = y3 In (5xy).
Solution
Given z = y3 in (5xy)
Then -=yX--+ln(5xy)xO

y3
x
a(az 3
So (-x -2 )
ax ax)
a2 z y3
ax2 x2
And = y3 x -- + ln(5xy) x 3y 2
ay 5xy
y2 +3y2 1n(5xy)
= 3y 2 ].n(5xy) + y 2

5x
So a(az)=3 y 2—+ln(5xy)x6y+2y
ayay 5xy
= 3y + 6y ln(5xy) + 2y

4=6yin(5xy)+5y
ay

Since 3y2 1n(5xy)+ y2

ay
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

a raz=3 25Yin(5)oo
--1
Then
ax ay) 5xy
3y 2
X

Since az y 3
ax
a (az) 3y 2
Then
ay ax =
a(-
Note that - ( az
az I =a-I - I, the commutative law holds true.
axay) ayax}

Exarnple 51
Find the second partial derivatives of the function u = 2x2 y3 in (x2 + 2y).
- Solution
Given u = 2x2 y3 In (x2 + 2y)
au 2x
Then —=2x 2y3 x + ln(x2 + 2y) x 4xy 3
ax x2 +2y
= 4x3y3
+4xy3ln(x2+2y)
x2 +

=4xy3 ln(x 2 +2y)+ 4x3y3

x2 +2y
a au 2x 2
So - ( - I = 4xy x 2
) + ln(x + 2y) x 4y 3 + 4x 3y 3 x (-1)(x 2 + 2y) 2 x 2x
ax ax x +2y
+(x2 +2y)' x4y3 (3x2 )
= 8x2y3 + + 12x2y3
4y 3 In(x 2 +2)-_8x4y3
x2 +2y (x2+2y)2 X2 +2y
a2 U 20x2y3 8x4y3
-4y In( 2 +2y)+
ax2 x2 +2y (x2 +2y)2
au 2
And —=2x 2y3 x +ln(x 2 +2y)x2x2 (3y2 )
ay X 2 +2y
4x 2y 3
=6x2y 2 1n(x 2 +2y)+
+
 Differentiation II

So - (- au ) = 6X 2 y 2 x2 2 + ln(x2 + 2y) x 6x2 (2y)+ 4x 2y 3 x (-1)(x 2 + 2y) 2 x 2

ay ay x
+(x2 +2y) 1 x4x2 (3y2 )
= 12x2y2 + 12x - 8x2 y3 + 12x2y2
2y ln(x2 + 2y)
x2 +2y (x2 +2y)2 x2 +2y
• - 12x2yln(x2 +2) ____ 8x2 y3
24x2y2 ______
+ x2 + 2y - (x 2 + 2y) 2

Since
au = 6x 2 y 2
- 4x2y3
ln(x2 + 2y)

2x
Then - - = 6x 2 y 2 x
f + ln(x2 + 2y) x 6y2 (2x)
x 2 +2y
+4x2y3 x(-1)(x2 +2y) 2 x2x+(x2 +2y)' x4y3 (2x)
12x3y2 8x3y 3 8xy3
= +12xy 2 in (x2 + 2) -_
x 2 +2y (x2 +2y )2± x2 +2y
8x3y3 12x3 y2 8xy3
= 12xy2 ln(x2 + 2) + +
(x2 +2y)2 x 2 +2y x 2 +2y
- 8x3y3 12x3y2 + 8xy
= 12xy2 ln(x2 + 2) (x2+2y)2+
x2+2y
8x3y3 + 4xy2 (3x2 +2y)
= 12xy2 ln(x2 +2y)
(x2 +2y)2 x 2 +2y
au 4x3y3
Since = 4xy ln(x2 + 2y) +
ax x 2 +2y

Then 2
4xy 3 x2 +ln(x2 +2y)x4x(3y 2 )

+4x3y 3 x(-1)(x2 +y2 ) 2 x2+(x2 +2y) 1 x4x3 (3y2 )

3y3 12x3y2
= 8xy3 +12? ln(x2 +
+2 8x+ 2y)2 + x2 +
- (x2
8x3y3 + 12x3y2+8xy3
= 12xy2 ln(x2 +2y)- (x2+2y)2
x2+2y
8x3y3 + 4xy2 (3x2 +2y)
=l2xy2 ln(x2 +2y)-
(x2 + 2y)2 x2 +
(I' a (au"
Note that 1au- I = 1 - I' the commutative law holds true.
aXIay) aYaYJ
 ThJ Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Find the first and second partial derivatives of each of the following functions.
1, (a) f(x, y) = x 3 + 4xy (b) f(x, y) = 5x2 -
2. (a) f(x, y) = 7x2 + (b) f(x, y) = x 3 y4 + xy 2
3. (a) f(x, y) = x2 + y2 - 7xy (b) f(x, y) = 7x2 y3 - 8x3 y5
4. (a) f(x, y) = x 2 - xy + (b) f(x, y) = x 2 - 2xy - 4y3
5. (a) f(x, y) = - 3xy + -5 (b)f(x,y)=x 2 -5y3 +y
6. (a) v=x 2 +4xy-5y2 +1O (b) v = 4x 2 + 16y2 - 13
7. (a) v=8xy-3y 2 -7 (b) v = 5x2 y + 3xy2 - 2
8. (a) v = 5x3 - 4x2y + 6y3 (b) v=3x2 -5xy 4 +7x5 -6

6
9,( a) v=5X 4- (b) v=5-3x +-y
2xy 2

4x2 71 ,2 3i,2 4x2

10. (a) v=—+---- (b) v=----
y x x y
Find all the first and second order partial derivatives of each of the following trigonometric
functions.
ii, (a) f(x, y) = cos xy (b) f(x, y) = sin 3xy
12. (a) f(x, y) = x sin y (b) f(x, y) = y tan x

13. (a) f(x, y) = sin x2y (b) f(x, y) = x tan x2y

14. (a) f(x, y) = y 2 cos 2xy (b) f(x, y) = x 2 tan 2xy
15. (a) f(x,y)= sin (2x+5y) (b) f(x, y) = tan (3x -2y)
16. (a) u = x cos-1 y (b) u=ytan'x
17. (a) u = sin-' xy (b) u = tan-' xy
18. (a) u = sin-' 5xy (b) u = tan' 4xy
19. (a) u=7ycos 1 4xy (b) u=4xtan 1 3xy

20. (a) u = sin-' • (b) u=cos1

x x
 Differentiation II

Find all the first and second partial derivatives of each of the following exponential functions.
21. (a)f(x,y)=xeY (b) f(x, y) = ye x
22. (a) f(x, y) = 2xeY (b) f(x, y) = 3yex
XY
23. (a) f(x, y) = 5exY (b) f(x, y) = _4e 2

24. (a) f(x, y) = —8xe (b) f(x, y) = 9ye

25. (a) f(x, y) = ( 3x - y)&Y (1) f(x, y) = ( 2y - x)exY

26. (a) z = x3e5 (b) z = xe _xy

27. (a) z = ex3 I3 (b) z = ex_
28. (a) z-xe 25 (b) z=xe37
y

29. (a) z = 2x3y + e (b) z=3x2ex

(c) z = 5x2e32 (d) z=2x3e_23

30. (a) z=yex+x sin y (b) z=eY+x cos x 2 y

2
(c) z = sin 2x - x e5y( d) z=x 3 e8Y— cos 3xy
Find all the first and second partial derivatives of each of the following logarithmic functions.
31. (a)f(x,y)=lnx 5 y ( b)f(x,y)-ln8xy2

32. (a) f(x, y) = In yx 4 (b) In -

33. (a) f(x,y)=Inr (b) f(x,y)=ln3x 3 y

34, (a) f(x,y)= lnx 2y2 (b)

VIx-

35. (a)f(x,y)=x 3 lny (b) f(x,y)=(y +4)ln'd

f(x,y)=y3ln2j
36. (a) f(x, y) =y 2 ln(4xy) (b)

37. (a) f(x, y) = y3 In (5xy) (b) f(x, y) = 3x2 in (4x + 5y)

38. (a) f(x, y) = yin (x2 - 5y) (b)f(x,y)=xln(y 2 +7x)
39. (a) f(x, y) = e2' In (x + y) (b) f(x, y)= e _x In (x - y)
40. (a)f(x,y)=yln (sin 5x) (b) f(x, y) = y In (cos 8x)
(c) f(x, y) = y In (tan 2x) (d) f(x, y) = y In (sec 4x)
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

kWIi T4i-

1. Ify=lnl2x31then dy
3 3 x2 12
(a) — (b) - (c) — (ci) —
x x2 12 x2

2. Given that y = tan' ---, then y=

d
10 dx
1 10 1 10
(a) (b) (c) (ci)
x2+100 x2 -100
1+( 10 io)
3. If y = ln (2 sec x + tan x), then is
dx
2secx+tanx tan x-2sec2x in sin 2tanx+secx
(a) (b) (c) (ci)
sec x cosec 2x cos2 x sin x + 2
dy
4. Given that y in Vx2 +1, the is
dx
X X
(a) 2xJx2 + 1 (b) _2xJx2 +1 (c) (d
x 2 +1 x 2 —1
5, Find if y=x21
cos -.
dx x
1 1 1 1 1 1
(a) —x2 sin— (b) 2cos—+sin— —cos-- Cl 7
—--cos
cos—
x X X X
dy
6. Given that y = ex cos x, find
dx
(a) ex (cos x - sin x) (b) ex (cos x + sin x). (c) xex cos x (ci) _xex sin x
dy
7. If y= sec 2.,J, then —=
dx
sec JtanJ sec Jtan sec2 itan
(a) (ci)

S. Find Ly given that y=xln5 x

dx
(a) 5x In4 x (b) (5 — In x) 1n' x (c) 5x2 in x (d) (5 + In x) In4 x

9. Given that y = cos-1 x — ..ji — x2 , then =

dx
1—x 1+x x-1 x-1
(a) (b) — _____ (c) (ci)
Jfx2 ,f1_x2 j1_x2 ,J1_x2
 Differentiation H:

x=t-cost d
10. Given the parametric equations of a curve are . then the derivative -=
.
iy=1-sm t dx
(a) cos (b) - cos .
(c) sect (1 + Sm t) . (d) -sec t (1 + sin t)
1-smt .. 1+smt
11. Given the parametric equations of a curve are x = sin 3 0 and,y = cos3 0 then the
dy-
derivative .
X
(a) -cot 0 (b) cot 9 (c) -tan 0 (d) tan 0
12. Given the parametric equations of a curve are x = 1 + e2 t and y = 1 - e t then the
derivative =
dx -t -t
(a) -2e (b) 2e (c) (d)
2 2.
dy
13. Given the implicit function 2x3 - 4xy + 5y3 =7, then the derivative =
dx
2(3x2-2y) 2(3x2+2y) 2(3x2-2y) 2(3x2+2y)
(a) (b) (c) (d).
4x - 15y2 4x - 15y2 4x + 15y2 4x + 15y2
14.y is a differentiable function of x. If x = sin(x + y) then =
dx
(a) sec(x+y)+1 (b) sec(x+y)-1 (c) cos(x-i-.y)+1 (d)cos(x+y)-.1
15. If x=t2 5 and y=t4_5t3, then, _4=

(a) 2-t-1 (b) 2-pt' (c) 2---t (d) 2---t

16. Given thatf(x) = In x6 , thenf"(x) . ..: .
(a) 6x5 (b) --- (c) 6ln x5 .. (d) In 6x5
17.Iff(x) = 7 cos 2x +4 sin 2x, thenf"
(a) -l6 sin 2x+28 cos 2x (b) l6sin2x-28 cos 2x
(c) l6 sin 2x+28 cos 2x (d) -l6 sin 2x-28 cos 2x
18. Given thatf(x) = (1 + x) e-x, thenf"(x) is equal to
(a) (x - 1)e _x (b) (1 - x)e _x (c) -(1 + x)e' (d) -(1 _X)e_x
19.If x = sin t and y= cos t, then the second derivative =
7.
dx
(a) sec2 t (b) -sec2 t (c) sec3 t (d) -sec3 t
20. Given the functionf(x) = ln(3x5 - 2x4, thenf"(x) =
)

24x4 -5 24x4 -5 24x4 +5 24x4 +5

(a) - (b) (c) - (d)
x 2 x 2
x2 x2
- Pire Mathematics for CAPE

2LIf y = x2 cos 2x, then 4=

(a) —2(2x2 - 1)cos 2x - 8x sin (2x) (b) 2(2x2 - 1)cos 2x + 8 sin 2x
(c) —2(1 - 2x2)cos 2x - 8x sin 2x (h) 2(1 - 2x2)cos 2x + 8 sin 2x

22GiventheequatiOnx2 ±5y2 =7-3xy,then

(a) (3x+10y)4_10(J+6_2=0 (b) (3x+10y)+10)_6+2=0

dx
(dy
(c) (3x+lOy)+lOL6_2=0 (ci) (3x+10y)4+10 ) +6±2=0

23. Iff(x, y) = x3y2 , thenf, =

(a) 2x3 y 1. b) 6x2 y (c) 3x2 y (,d) 6xy 2

24. Iff(x, y) = 3xi/, thenf( -1, 1) =

yx
(a) 12 (IL,) —12 (c) 24 (ci) —24

25Iff( x, y)= 5x2e3Y,then4=

(a) 45x2e3Y (ib) 15x2e3Y (c) 1Oxe3Y (CO, 10e3Y

26. Iff(x, y) = 4x3 in 2y, then =

4x3 4x3 4x 8x
cj ----i-

27, Iff(x, y) = 5e4Y in 6x, then

af=
ay
5e 4' 5e4
(a) 80 in 6xe4Y (b) 20 in 6xe4Y (c) --_- (d)
x x
28. Given z = 2exY - 3 cos 2x, then
ax2
(a) 2 y2e xY —12 cos 2x (b) _2 y2exY + 12 cos 2x
(c) 2y2exY + 12 cos 2x id) 2y2exY - 12 cos 2x
ap
29 Given that PV = nRT, then the partial derivative of P with respect to V is =

- nVR - nRT
(a) n VRT (b) n V2RT
- V2
30. If V = Trr2h, then the second partial derivative of V with respect to r is =
2 ar
(a)2Tthr (b) 27th (c)— (d)th
 Differentiation II iT

31. Differentiate, with respect to x

(a) y = In(5x2), x # 0 (b) y = sin3 x cos x I
32.Find the gradient at the point (-1,3) on the curve 2xy + y2 —3 =0.
33.Differentiate, with respect to x ____
(a) y=e5c0 (b) y=x3 .J1+x
34.Show that, if y =2 sin x cosx, then
dy y
(a) - - 2cos2x 0 (b) d2
—i- + 4y = 0
dx dx
35 Differentiate, with respect to x, each function given below. Simplify your answers as
for as possible.
(a) e' (b) tan2 (x4)
x+3
36. The parametric equations of a curve are given by x = 5 - 2t and y = t(1 + t).
(a) Find - in terms of t
dx
(b) Hence, find dy
- when x —1. -

dx
(c) Determme the equation of the tangent to the curve at the point x = 1
37. A curve: is given parametrically byx =(5 2t)2 ,y = t3, T4t.
Find
(a)LY in terms of t
dx
(b) the gradient of the normal to the curve at the point t = 3.
38. Differentiate with respect to x.
+ sin (b) y = tan 4x + ln(x2 + 7)
(a) Y. = e4'
X

39 (a) Find the gradient of the curve x2 + xy - =0 at the point P(-1, —1)
(b) Hence, find the equation of the normal to the curve at P.
40.IIy= sin 4x+ cos 4x,
(a) find dy
dxd2
(b) show that +l6y =0.
41. If,f(x) = x5 in3 x,show that
(a)f'(x)=x4 In2 x(5lnx+3)
(b)f"(x) = x3 [20 In3 x +27 In2 x + in x6 ]
EM- Pure Mathematics for CAPE

42. (a) Differentiate with respect to x

x2 1
(i) e 5x sin itx (ii) in
IFX

(b) Given that y = 4-X, show that =

43. (a) Given that u=e2x+e_2x,s how that -4-4u=O

dx
(b) Differentiate with respect to x (x in x) sirr 1 4x,
44. A curve C has parametric equations x = 3t2 + 8, y = 2t3 + 8t.
dy 3t2 +4
(a) Show that —=H
H dx 3t
d2y 3t2 -4
(b) Hence, show that =
dx2 18t3
d
45. (a) Find yif
dx
(i) y = sin2 7x + sin 4x + cos2 4x
(ii) Vsin
(iii)y=xx
=
(b) Given that =5 sin1x,where sin-1 x ,prove that
2 2 dx j1_7
(c) The parametric equations of a curve are defined in terms of a parameter t as
x=5sirr1 tand y=JEit2, where O: ~ t<1.
(i) Show that - = --

dx5
(ii) Hence, find -in terms of t.
dx2
46. (a) Given that y = e 1 ,where —i < tan- (4x) < ic, show that (1+16x2) =
'

2 dx
= 2
(b) Hence, show that (1 + 16x2 )2 16y(8x -1)
47.(a) Findif
dx
(i) x2 +y2 -3x+3y-10=0
(ii) y = e os lOx
(iii)y= Cos 2 5x+sin2 7x
(b) Let y=x cos -,x:AO.
Show that
I. . dy 1 1"\ ,, d2y4

ü) x_=Y+sm(J x -- +y =O
H dx x dx
 Differentiation II KM

(c) A curve is given by the parametric equations x and y = 2t = -4=

vt
(i) Find an expression for dy
dx
(ii) Calculate the gradient of the tangent to the curve at the point where t = 1.
(iii) Hence, find the equations of the tangent and the normal to the curve at
the point where t = 1.

48. (a) Given the curve y = x3 e x, find

(1) and
dx dx
d
(ii) the x-coordinates of the points at which 0
dx
(iii) the x-coordinates of the points at which -4
dx
=o
(b) Hence, determine if the coordinates identified in (ii) and (Ili) above are at the
maxima, minima or points of inflection of the curve y = x3ex.
(c) A curve is defined by the parametric equations x = sin' and y. = - 4t.
Find
(1) the gradient of a tangent to the curve at. the point with parameter t.

(ii) the equation of the normal at the point where t =

2
49. (a) Calculate the gradient of the curve in (x 2y) - sin y = 2x + 5y at the point (-7,4).
(b) Letf(x, y) = 52 - e5x cos - 2y3 + 8.
Find
( jx x f .
50. (a) Calculate the gradient of the curve in (xy 2) + cos y '2x - 3y at the point (8, 4).
(b) Let it=7x 2y+'esin4y-3y5 -i0. ..
Find
• ..
(i) - (' 1) -
ax2 ay2
Pure Mathematics for CAPE

-i-1r
Differentiation of the Exponential Function ef(x)
If y = e, then = ex, that is, (e x) = &. If f(x) = e x, thenf'(x) = e x.

d d
+ If y = e, then - = ke, that is, —(e) = kex where k is a constant.

If y = ef(x), then dy = f'(x)e, that is, (e) = f(x)ef(x) wheref'(x) is a

differentiable function of x.
• If y = cef(x), then dy = cf ' (x)e 1
that is, _- (ce1
, )= cf'(x)e-1 W.
dx
dy dv du .

The product rule: —=u --+v —.

dx dx • dx
du. dv
• The quotient rule: = dxdx
dx
Differentiation of theLogarithmic Function Jnf(x)
+ If y = In x, then = -, that is, ---(1nx) = - where x> 0.
dx x dx x
1
• Iff(x)=lnx, then f'(x)=-.

+ If y = in kx, then = --, that is, --(lnkx)= - where k is a constant.

dx x dx x
= f'(x)
• If y = lnf(x), then that is, -4-- [In f(x)]= wheref(x) is a differentiable
function of x. dx f(x) dx f

+ If y= clnf(x),then thatis, [clnf(x)]=c.

Differentiation of Parametric Equations

+ Given the parametric equations dy
X - f(t)
where t is the parameter, then by the chain rule = Sii where 0.
= g(t) dx dx dt
dt
+ Gradients of the Tangent and Normal m m = -1.
+ Equations of the Tangent and Normal
Equation of the tangent: y - y1 = m (x - x)
Equation of the normal: y - y1 = m (x - x1 ) where the tangent and the normal
meet at the point (x 1 , y 1) on the curve.
 Differentiation II

y=f(x)
y-y 1 =m(x-x 1)
/ yy-y1=mj(xXi)

Curve

Tangent Normal

Implicit Differentiation
+ when using implicit differentiation, we assume that y is a function of t

+f(y)=

d / \ _1 dy
.•. —iy i=ny -
/ dx
d (Y) d 2 = dy d 2 dy
+ = . ) 2y – )=

+ –(xy)= x-(y)+y--(x) product rule

dy
= x—+y
dx
Differentiation of a Combination of Functions
+ Extended Chain Rule
If y =fg(x), where y =f(u) and u = g(x), thendy -=
dydu
Ox du dx
So d y
=f'(u).g'(x).
dx
If y =fgh (x), where y =f(u), u = g(v) and V = h (x),
dy dy
then - = - . dudv -•-
dx dudvdx
dy , /
So = f (u) g (v) h (x)
dx
+ Combination—of Functions
To differentiate a combination of polynomial, trigonometric, exponential
and logarithmic functions we use the various differentiation rules addition,
subtraction, product, quotient and power.
Differentiation of Inverse Trigonometric Functions
+ Let y =f(x) and its inverse be x , = g(y)
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

dx 1
Then - = -j- where
dy uY
dy
dx
~ 0.
dx

• ---
dx
[k sin' f(x)] where k is a constant
d. 1 1 d
—(sm x) = = —(arcsmx) where –1 <x < 1.
dx j1_ x dx
d . d
(sin' ax) = ____ = —(arc sin ax).
dx ..J1_(ax)2 dx

d ka d
(k sin ax) = (k arc sin ax).
=
dx Ji - (ax)2 dx

[k sin' f(x)] = –[(k arc sin f(x)].

dx [f(x)]2 dx

- (sin u) = - = - (arc sin u) where u = g(x) is a differentiable

dx -
•\'i u2 dx dx
function of x.

• -_
dx
[k cos-1 f(x)] where k is a constant

d( -i 1 d
— CoS X) —(arc cos x) where –1 <x < 1.
dx V1_ x2 dx
d1 a d
—cos-1 \
ax)=– =— (arc cos ax).
dx ji - (ax)2 dx
d1
—kcos 1
dx
ax\ = - Ji -ka(ax)2 =dx
d
—(k arc cos ax).

[k cos' f(x)] =
V,[f(X2 =_[k arc cos f(x)]

ä_(cos u) ä(arccosu) where u = g(x) is differentiable

function ofx.

•
dx [k tan' f(x)] where k is a constant
d1 -1 \ ________ =— d
—tan
( tan-' x,j= 2
(arc tan x) where x E R.
1+x dx
 Differentiation II r:

di a d.
• —tan -,

2 =—(arc.tanax)
dx 1+(ax) dx
d ka d
(k tan-' ax) =
.
= (k arc tan ax)
dx 1+(ax)2 dx
-[ktan 1 1(x)]
= 1+[f(x)]2
[k arc tan f(x)].

(tan' u) (arc tan u) where u = g(x) is a differentiable

= 1 L2 =
function of x.
Second Derivative of a Function
+ Higher Derivatives 4-Tor a, parametric function
Ify=f(x),
02y.d (dy.
then LY f'(x) y'(x) or y1(x) dx' dxdx
-

dx
d(dy'dO
dd d'
f"(x) y"(x) or y2 (x) - äxjdx
= 4 =
2 3 dy
d
X2 == X 3 f"(x) y"(x) or y 3 (x) = dOdxj
dx
dO
d (& y) ~Ly
~
y()e)ory(x)

(dy ) (dy ) = (dy )

dxdx dx
First Partial Derivatives . . .

• Limit
If f(x, y) is a two variable function, then lim f(x, y) exists only if the value of
the limit is unique
+ Continuous Function
• A two variable functionf(x, y) is continuous at (a, b) if
A urn f(x, y) exists, that is, the function is defined for the. values.
(x,y)—(a,b) .

lim f(x, y) =f(a, b), that is, lim

(x,y)—(a,b) Iflx, y) —f(a, b)] = 0.

First Principles
az = lim özf(x+öx,y)—f(x,y)
= lim . where
az
---
.

is the first partial derivative of z

ax ox— Oöx öx—,O ox
with respect to x.
J Pure Mathematics for CAPE

dz
- öz. f(x,y+öy)—f(x,y) iz .
= lim - = lim where - is the first partial derivative of z
ay oy-4o5y öy-O Ay ay
with respect to y.
Partial Derivatives
Rules for finding partial derivatives of z:=f(xt y).
To findf, differentiatef(x, y) with respect to x, treating y as a constant.
To findf, differentiatef(x, y) with respect to y, treating xas a constant.
The rules of differentiation are all valid
1
In general:
az
ax az
L. If z is a function Of
u, and u is a function of x and y, then
z dzauz.and = dzau dz
- where - is an ordinary derivative of z with
ax du ax du ay du
respect to U.

Second Partial Derivatives

If z =f(x), then the second partial derivatives off are defined as follows.
( af a'f a ' Z a (az
lxx - lx x
-
ax ax ax, ax2 - ax.,ax
- a (af ) af - a
- a
-
- ay ay ay2 - - ay ay
- a (f f - - a (az
xy - x
- ay (. ax) - ayax - ayax - ay . ax).
ç (ç\ - a (af af - - a ( aZ ).
Jyx 'UyJ ax kay ) axy - axay - axay
+ Commutative Property of Partial Derivatives
f=f
Jxy Jyx

or
a2f = a2f
ayax axay
a2 a 2z
or =
axay ayax
o The commutative property (law) holds if all the partial derivatives of x exists and
are continuous in the domain of the function
The commutative property (law) of partial derivatives usually holds for functions
used at this level.
 Integration II
Partial fractions
Previously, students have been asked to express the sum or difference of two or more algebraic
fractions with a common denominator.
Example
3 - 1 3(x-5)-1(x+8)
x+8 x-5 (x+8)(x-5)
= 3x-15—x-8
(x+8)(x-5)
= 2x-23
(x+8)(x-5)
Here, the difference of the two algebraic fractions is expressed as a single algebraic fraction.
We are now interested in the reverse process, that is, decomposing the single algebraic
fraction into two or more algebraic fractions.

r Example
2x-23 - 3 - 1
L (x+8)(x-5) x+8 x-5
In this reverse process, we have expressed the single algebraic fraction in partial fractions.
Our task is to learn how to decompose a single algebraic fraction (rational function) into
equivalent partial fractions.
The rational function can be a proper or improper fraction.
If it is an improper rational function, then we have to perform long division of algebraic
terms in order to convert it to a polynomial and a proper fraction.
The rational function may also have a denominator which is equivalent to a product of
distinct linear factors, repeated linear factors, distinct quadratic factors and repeated quadratic
factors.
Here we shall investigate the various methods of expressing & rational function in partial
fractions.

Proper and improper fractions

P(x)
Consider the rational function where P(x) and Q(x) are polynomials in x.
Q(x)
• is a proper rational function if the degree of P(x) is less than the degree of Q(x).
QW
IM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

P(x)
Q(x) is an improper rational function if the degree of P(x) is greater than or equal to the
degree of Q(x).

- Example

(x +3)(x— 8) is a proper rational function, since the highest power of x in the numerator is
1 and the highest power of x in the denominator is 2 (after expansion).
X 2+ 7
• is an improper rational function, since the highest power of x in the numerator
(x+3)(x-5)
is 2 and the highest power of x in the denominator is 2.
7x3 4
• is an improper rational function, since the highest power of x in the numerator
x2 +3x+8
is greater than the highest power of x in the denominator.

Decomposing
• If is a proper rational function, then we go directly into decomposing the algebraic
fraction.
• If is an improper rational function, then we first have to perform long division.
P(x) R(x)
Thus
Q(x) Q(x)
Where S(x) is a polynomial and is a proper rational function.

The proper rational function can then be directly decomposed.

Distinct linear factors

For a proper rational function, each linear factor (ax + b)

in the denominator has a corresponding partial fraction of
A
the form where A is a constant.
ax + b

Example 1 'l
2x +11
Express the rational function in partial fractions.
(x-5)(x+2)
Solution
Method 1:
2x+11
The proper rational function has two linear factors in its denominator.
(x-5)(x+2)
 Integration II

2x+11 A B
Thus +
(x-5)(x+2) x-5 x+2
= A(x + 2) + B(x - 5)
- (x-5)(x+2)
Then 2x+11A(x+2)+B(x-5)
Let x=5: 2(5)+11 =A(5+2) Ifx-5 = O,thenx=5.
So 10+11=7A
A==3
7
Let x=-2: 2(-2)+11=B(-2-5) Ifx+2=0,thenx= -2.
So 7=-7B
B=-1
2x+11 3 1
Hence - ____
(x-5)(x+2) x-5 x+2
Method 2:
2x+11
The proper rational function
(x - 5)(x +2) has two linear factors, x - 5 and x + 2, in its
denominator.
2x+11 A B
Thus +
(x-5)(x+2) x-5 x+2
Then 2x + 11 A(x + 2) + B(x - 5) multiplying each term by (x - 5)(x + 2).
So 2x + 11 (A + B)x + (2A - SB) collecting like terms on the RHS.
Equating the coefficients of x: A + B =2 (I)
Equating the constant terms: 2A - 5B = 11 ©
@x5: 5A+5B=10 ©
7A=21
A=3
From (D: B=2-3=-1
2x+11 3 -1
Hence +
(x-5)(x+2) x-5 x+2
3 1
- x-5 x+2
Method 3:
The proper rational function 2x + 11 has two linear factors in its denominator.
(x-5)(x+2)
2x+11 A. B
Thus +
(x-5)(x+2) x-5 x+2
When x=5: 2(5)+11=(5+2)A
So 21=7A
A=3
WZIII Pure Mathematics for CAPE

When x = - 2: 2(-2) + 11 = B(-2 - 5)

So 7= -7B
B=-1
2x+11 3 1
Hence
(x-5)(x+2) x-5 x+2
Example 2
1-6x-2X2_
Express the rational polynomial function inpartial fractions.
(x + 3)(x +2)
- Solution
Method 1
1-6x-2x2
The rational polynomial function (x + 3)(x +2) is an improper rational function with two linear
factors in its denominator.
So we need to perform long division.
1-6x-2x2 -2x2 -6x+1
(x+3)(x+2) X2 +5x+6

-2
x2+5x+6)_2x2_ 6x+ 1
-2x2 - 10x-12
4x+13
1-6x-2x2 4x+13
i.e.
(x+3)(x+2) x2 +5x+6
.
We now need to decompose 4x+13 into partial fractions.
(x+3)(x+2)
4x+13 A B
And +
(x+3)(x+2) x+3 x+2
= A(x + 2) + B(x + 3)
- (x+3)(x+2)
Thus 4x + 13 A(x + 2) + B(x + 3)
Let x = -3: 4(-3) + 13 = A(-3 + 2) If x + 3 = 0, then x = -3.
So -12+13=-A
A=-1
Let x=-2: 4(-2)+13=B(---2+3) Ifx+2 = 0, then x= -2.
So -8+13=B
B=5
1-6-2x2 1 5
Hence -2- +
(x+3)(x+2) x+3 x+2
 Integration II

Method 2:
1- 6x- 2X2
The rational polynomial function is an improper rational function with two linear
(x+3)(x+2)
factors in its denominator.
1-6x-2x2 B C
Thus A+ +
(x+3)(x+2) x+3 x+2
Then =-
1 - 6x - 2x2 A(x + 3)(x + 2) + B(x + 2) + C(x + 3)
So 1 -6x-2x 2 _=A(x2 +5x+6)+B(x+2)+C(x+3)
(6A +2B +3C)+(5A+B + C)x+Ax 2
after collecting like terms on the RHS.
Equating the coefficients of x2 : A = -2
Equating the coefficients of x: 5A + B + C = -6 ©
Equating the constant terms: 6A + 2B + 3C = 1 ©
Substitute A = -2 into ©: B + C =4
Substitute A = -2 into ©: 2B + 3C = 13 ©
x3: 3B+3C=12
B=-1
Substitute B=-1 into (): C=4+1=5
1-6x-2x2 1+5
Hence -2-
(x+3)(x+2) x+3 x+2
Method 3:
1-6x-2x2 4x+13 4x+13
Smce -2+ ,then we need to write in partial fractions.
(x+3)(x+2) (x+3)(x+2) (x+3)(x+2)
4x+13 A B
Thus +
(x+3)(x+2) x+3 x+2
When x=-3: 4(-3)+13=(-3+2)A
So -12+13=-A
A=-1
When x=-2: 4(-2)+13=(-2+3)B
So -8+13=B
B=5
1-6x-2x2 1 5
Hence -2- +
(x+3)(x+2) x+3 x+2
Example 3 1
x(x+1)(2x+1)in
Express the rational function partial fractions.
(x-1)(x+3)
Solution
Method 1:
x(x+1)(2x+1) . .
The improper rational function has two linear factors in its denominator.
(x-1)(x+3)
So we need to perform long division.
1I11I Pure Mathematics for CAPE

x(x + 1)(2x +1) 2x 3 + 3x2 + x

X2
(x-1)(x+3) +2x-3
2x-1
3
x2 +2x-32x +3x2 +x
2x3 +4x2 —6x
—x2 +7x
—x2 —2x+3
9x-3
x(x+1)(2x+1) 9x-3
i.e. 2x-1+
(x-1)(x+3) x2 +2x-3
3(3x —1)
We need to express in partial fractions.
x2 +2x-3
3(3x-1) A + B
And
(x-1)(x+3) x-1 x+3
= A(x + 3) + B(x - 1)
- (x-1)(x+3)
Thus 3(3x — 1) A(x + 3) + B(x — 1)
Let x=1: 3(2)=4A Ifx-1=O, then x=1
A
2
Let x = —3: 3(-10) = —4B If x + 3 = 0, then x = —3
B=
2
3 15
x(x+1)(2x+1) 2x-1+ _ + ___
Hence
(x-1)(x+3) x-1 x+3
2x-1+ 3 + 15
2(x-1) 2(x+3)
Method 2:
The improper rational function x(x(x-1)(x+3)
+ 1)(2x +1)has two linear factors in its denominator.
x(x+1)(2x+1) C D
Thus Ax+B+ +
(x-1)(x+3) x-1 x+3
Then x(x + 1)(2x + 1) (Ax + B)(x - 1)(x + 3) + C(x + 3) + D(x - 1)
So 2x3 +3x2 +xAx 3 +(2A+B)x2 +(-3A+2B+C+D)x-i-(-3B-i-3C-D)
after collecting like terms on the RHS.
Equating the coefficients of x3: A =2 (I)
Equating the coefficients of x2: 2A + B = 3 ©
Equating the coefficients of x: —3A + 2B + C + D = 1 ©
Equating the constant terms: -3B + 3C - D = 0
Substitute A=2 into ©: B=3-4=--1
 Integration II Im
Substitute A=2 and B=-1 into ©: C+D=1+6+2=9 ©
Substitute B = -1 into ): 3C - D = -3 ©
4C=6
C=
2
Substitute B = -1 and C = into & D =3+ =
2 22
x(x+1)(2x+1) 3 15
Hence - 2x 1+ +
(x-1)(x+3) =- 2(x-1) 2(x+3)
Method 3:
After performing long division, we get: x(x + 1)(2x + 1) 2x-l+ 3(3x -1)
(x-1)(x+3) (x-1)(x+3)'
3(3x-1)
We need to write in partial fractions.
(x-1)(x+3)
3(3x-1) A B
Thus +
(x-1)(x+3) x-1 x+3
When x=1: 3(3-1)=(1+3)A

42
When x=-3: 3(-9-1)=(-3-1)B

-4 2
x(x+1)(2x+1) 3 15
Hence - 2x 1+ +
(x-1)(x+3) = - 2(x-1) 2(x+3)

-Example 4
7x+3
Express the rational polynomial function in partial fractions.
x2 +3x-4

- Before a rational function can be expressed in partial fractions,

its denominator Q(x) must be completely factorized.

In other words, we express the denominator as a product of linear and irreducible quadratic
factors where possible.
- Solution
Method 1:
7x+3 - 7x+3
Since x2+3x4=(x+4)(x1)
Then 7x+3 A + B
x2 +3x-4 x+4 x-1
 I Pure Mathematics for CAPE

So 7x+3=A(x-1)+B(x+4)
Let x = —4: 7(-4) + 3 = A(-4 - 1) If x + 4 = 0, then x = —4.
So —25 = —5A
A=5
Let x= 1: 7(1)+3=B(1 +4) Ifx — 1 =0, then x= 1.
So 10=5B
B=2
7x+3 5 2
Hence +
x2 +3x-4 x+4 x-1
Method 2:
7x+3 7x+3
Since
x2 +3x-4 (x+4)(x-1)
7x+3 A B
Then +
(x+4)(x-1) x+4 x-1
So 7x +3 A(x - 1) + B(x +4) multiplying each term by (x + 4)(x - 1).
7x + 3 (A + B)x + (—A + 4B) after collecting like terms on the RT-IS.
Equating the coefficients of x: A + B = 7
Equating the constant terms: —A + 4B = 3 ©
5B=10
B=2
From J): A=7-2=5
7x+3 5 2
Hence +
x2 + 3x-4 x+4 x-1
Method 3:
7x+3 7x+3
Since
x2 +3x-14 (x+4)(x-1)
7x+3 A B
Then +
•2 +3x-14 x+4 x-1
When x=-4: 7(-4)+3=A(-4-1)
So -25 = -5A
A=5
When x=1: 7(1)+3=B(1+4)
So 10=5B
B=2
7x+3 5 2
Hence +
•2 +3x-14 x+4 x-1

Repeated linear factors

For a proper rational function, each repeated linear factor (ax + b)2 in the denominator has
corresponding partial fractions of the form + where A and B are constants.
ax+b (ax+b)2
 Integration II ED
-Example 5
2X2 +15x-3
Express the rational function (2x - 1)(x + 2)2 in partial fractions.

- Solution
Method 1
2x2 +15x 3
The proper rational function 2 has a linear factor (2x - 1) and a repeated linear
(2x-1)(x+2)
factor (x + 2)2 in its denominator.
2X2 +15x-3 A B C
Thus + +
(2x-1)(x+2) 2 2x-1 x+2 (x+2)2
= A(x+2) 2 + B(2x - 1)(x + 2) + C(2x - 1)
- (2x-1)(x+2) 2
Then 2x2 + 15x - 3 A(x + 2)2 + B(2x - 1)(x + 2) + C(2x - 1)
1(1\2 1 1\
Let x=—: 21—I+151—I-3=AI—+21 If2x—l=O
2 2) 2) ) 1
then x=-.
So 5=A
4

5
Let x = -2: 2(-2) 2 + 15(-2)-3 = C[2(-2) - fl If x + 2 = 0,
So -25 = -5C then x = -2.
C=5
Let x=0: -3 = 4A - 2B - C
So -3=41-L2B-5

i.e. 2B=3-5+3
5
2B=
5
3
B =-
5
2X2 +15x-3 4 3 5
Hence + +
(2x - 1)(x + 2)2 5(2x-1) 5(x+2) (x+2) 2 '
Method 2
2X2
2x2 +15x-3 A B C
Since +
(2x-1)(x+2) 2 2x-1 x+2 (x±2) 2
Then 2x2 + 15x - 3 A(x + 2)2 + B(2x - 1)(x + 2) + C(2x - 1)
multiplying each term by (2x - 1)(x + 2) 2.
So 2x2 + 15x - 3 A(x 2 + 4x + 4) + B(2x 2 + 3x - 2) + C(2x - 1)
(A + 2B)x2 + (4A + 3B + C)x ,+ (4A - 2B - C)
after collecting like terms on the RHS.
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Equating the coefficients of x 2 : A+2B=2

Equating the coefficients of x: 4A+3B+2C=15 ©
Equating the constant terms: 4A-2B-C=-3 ©
x 2: 8A-4B-2C=-6 ©
12A-B=9 ©
x 2: 24A-2B=18
25A = 20
A=1
5
From & 2B= 2—=
55
B=
5
From ©: 4
C=4( )-2()+3
5
166
= ---+3
55
=5
2X2 +15x-3 4 3 5
Hence
5(x+ 2) + (x + 2) 2
(2x - 1)(x + 2)2 5(2x -1) + -

Distinct quadratic factors

For a proper rational function, each quadratic factor ax 2 + bx + c in the denominator has
Ax+B
a corresponding partial fraction of the form 2 where A and B are constants.
ax +bx+c

Here, the quadratic factor ax + bx + c is irreducible, that is, cannot be factorized.

-Example 6
2 -2x-7
Express the rational function in partial fractions.
(x -1)(x2
3x -x+4)
- Solution
Method 1:
2 2x 7
The proper rational function has a linear factor, x - 1, and a quadratic factor,
(x —1)(x2
3x —x+4)
x2 - x +4, which cannot be factorized, in its denominator.
3x2 -2x-7 A Bx+C
Thus 2 + 2
(x-1)(x —x+4) x-1 x —x+4
= A(x 2 —x+4)+(Bx+C)(x-1)
- (x-1)(x2—x+4)
 Integration II

Then 3x2 - 2x - 7 A(x - x + 4) + (Bx + C)(x - 1)

Let x=1: 3-2-7=A(1 -1+4)
So -6=4A
A=-
2
Let x=O: -7 = 4A - C
So C=4(-)+7
2)
c=1
Let x=-1: 3+2-7=6A+2B-2C
So _2=6(_)+2B_2(1)
i.e. 2B=9
B=
2
9
3x2 -2x---7 _____
Hence
(x-1)(x2 - x+4) 2(x-1)+-x2 -x+4
= 9x+2 - 3
2(X 2 -x+4) 2(x-1)
Method 2:
3x 2 -2x-7 A Bx+C
Since 2 + 2
(x-1)(x - x+4) x-1 x -x+4
Then 3x2 - 2x - 7 A(x - x + 4) + (Bx + C)(x - 1)
multiplying each term by (x - 1)(x 2 - x + 4).
So (3x2 - 2x - 7) A(x 2 - x + 4) + [Bx2 + B + C)x - C]
(-

_=(A+B)x2 +(-A-B+C)x+(4A-C)
after collecting like terms on the RHS.
Equating the coefficients of x2: A +B =3
Equating the coefficients of x: -A - B + C = -2
Equating the constant terms: 4A - C = -7 ©
From: B=3-A
Substitute B=3-A into ®: C=-2+3=1
Substitute C=l into ©: 4A=-7+1=-6
A=-
2
Substitute A=- into:
2 22
3 9
2 -- -x+1
3x -2x-7 2 + 2
Hence 2
(x-1)(x -x+4) (x-1) x 2 -x+4
= 9x+2 - 3
2(X 2 -x+4) 2(x-1)
Go Pure Mathematics for CAPE

-Example 7
2x3 +1
Express, in partial fractions, the rational function
(x+1)(x 2 -3)
- Solution
Method 1
2x3+1
The improper rational function has a linear factor, x + 1, and an irreducible
(x+1)(x 2 -3)
quadratic factor, x 2 - 3, in its denominator.
So we need to perform long division.
2x3 +1 - 2x2 +1
(x+1)(x2 -3) x3 +x2 -3x-3
2
x3 +x2 —3x-3) 2X 3 +1
2x3 +2x2 -6x-6
-2x2 +6x+7
2
2x3 +1 -2X +6x+7
i.e.
(x+1)(x 2 -3) x3 +x2 -3x-3
2
-2X +6x+7 .
We now need to decompose into partial fractions.
(x+1)(x2 -3)
And -2X 2 +6x+7 A Bx+C
+
(x+1)(x 2 -3) x+1 x2 -3
= A(x 2 -3)+(Bx+C)(x+1)
- (x+1)(x2 -3)
Thus -2x2 + 6x + 7 A(x -3) + (Bx + C) (x + 1)
Let x=-1: -2-6+7=A(1-3)
So -2A=-1
A=-
2
Let x=O: 7 = -3A + C
So 7=-+C
2

2
Let x= 1: -2+6+7= -2A +2B +2C
So 11=-1+2B+17
i.e. 2B = -5
B=-
2
1 5 17
2x3 +1 - - -x+ --
Hence 2+ 2 + 2 2
(x+1)(x 2 -3) (x+1) x2 -3
 Integration II IM

1 5x-17
2(x+1) 2(x2 -3)
1 17-5x
+
2(x+1) 2(x2 -3)

Method
2X + 1
The rational function has a linear factor and an irreducible quadratic factor in its
(x+1)(x2 —3)
denominator.
2x3+1 B Cx+D
Thus A+ +
(x+1)(x 2 -3) x+1 x 2 -3
Then 2x3 + 1 A(x + 1)(x2 - 3) + B(x 2 - 3) + (Cx + D)(x + 1)
A(x 3 + x2 - 3x - 3) + B(x 2 - 3) + C(x2 + x) + D(x + 1)
multiplying each term by (x + 1)(x2 - 3).
So 2x3 +1Ax 3 +(A+B+C)x2 +(-3A+C+D)x+(-3A-3B+D)
after collecting like terms on the RI -IS
Equating the coefficients of x 3 : A=2 (1)
Equating the coefficients of x 2 : A +B+C=0 ©
Equating the coefficients of x: —3A + C + D = 0 ©
Equating the constant terms: —3A - 3B + D = 1
Substitute A=2 into © B±C=-2 ©
Then C=—B-2 ©
Substitute A=2 into © and : C+D=6 ©
—3B+D=7
Substitute C = —B —2 into ©: —B + D = 8
2B=1
B= 2
2
1 1
Substitute B = - into ©: C= -- —2
2 2
C=-
2
Substitute C = - into ©: D=6+—
2 2
17
D
2
1 5 17
- --x+--
2 X +i 2+ 2 + 2 2
Hence
(x+1)(x2 -3) x+1 x 2 --3
5x-17
=2+ 1
- 2(x+1)2(x 2 -3)
1 + 17-5x
2(x+1) 2(x2-3)
IM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Repeated quadratic factors

For a proper rational function, each repeated quadratic factor (ax2 + bx + c) in the
denominator has corresponding partial fractions of the form
Ax+B Cx+D
2 + 2 where A, B, C and D are constants.
ax +bx+c (ax +bx+c)2

-Example 8
U -1
Express, in partial fractions, the rational number
(x-2)(x2 +1)2
- Solution
The proper rational function 3x-1 has a linear factor, x — 2, and a repeated quadratic
(x-2)(x2 +1)2
factor, (x2 + 1)2, which cannot be factorized, in its denominator.
3x-1 A Bx+C Dx+E
Thus + +
(x-2)(x 2 +1)2 x-2 x 2 +1 (x2 +1)2
= A(x2 + 1)2 +(Bx + C)(x — 2)(x 2 + 1)+(Dx + E)(x —2)
— (x-2)(x 2 +1)2
Then 3x —1 = A(x 2 + 1)2 + Bx + C)(x — 2)(x 2 + 1) + (Dx + E)(x —2)
(

Let x=2: 6-1=A(4+1)2

So 25A=5
A=
5
Equating the coefficients of x4 : A+B=0
B=—A=— —
5
Equating the coefficients of x3 : -2B + C = 0
C = 2B = --
5
Equating the coefficients of x2 : 2A + B - 2C + D = 0
D = —2A — B + 2C
214
= --+---
555
= —1
Equating the coefficients of x: —2B + C - 2D + E = 3
E = 2B - C + 2D +3
22
= --+--2+3
55
=1
 Integration II ED
1 1 2
3x - 1 ______ -x+1
Hence + +
(x-2)(x 2 +1)2 x-2 x 2 +1 (x2 +1)2

1 + -(x+2) _ -(x-1)
= 5(x-2) (x2+1) ±(21)2
- 1 x+2 x-1
- 5(x-2)5(x 2 +1)(x2 +1)2

-Example 9
2X 2 +5
Express the rational function(x2+ 1)2 in partial fractions.

- Solution
2x2+5
The proper rational function (X2+ ) has a repeated quadratic factor, (x 2 + 1)2 in its
,

denominator.
2x2 +5 Ax+B Cx+D
Thus
(x2+1)2 x2 +1 +
(x 2
+1)2

= (Ax+B)(x 2 +1)+(Cx+D)
- (x2 +1)2
Then 2x2 +5= (Ax +B)(x2 +1)+Cx+D
Equating the coefficients of x3: A=O
Equating the coefficients of x2 : B =2
Equating the coefficients of x: A+C0
C=0
Equating the constant terms: B +D=5
D=5-2=3
2x2 +5 2 3
Hence
(x2 +1)2 x2+1 + (x2+1)2

Example 10 J
Express, in partial fractions, the rational function 3x2-4x
(x2+ 1)2
Solution
3x2 -4x
The proper rational function has a repeated quadratic factor, (x 2 + 1) 2 in its
,

denominator. (x2+ 1)2

3x2 -4x Ax+B Cx+D
Thus x2+1 +(21)2
(x2 +1)2
= (Ax +B)(x 2 +1)+Cx+D
- (x2+1)2
IM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Then 3x2 -4x (Ax +B)(x2 +1)+Cx+D

Equating the coefficients of x 3 : A=O
Equating the coefficients of x 2 : B=3
Equating the coefficients of x: A+C=-4
C=-4
Equating the constant terms: B+D=O
D=-3
3x 2 -4x 3 —4x-3
Hence +
(x 2 +1)2 x2 +1 (x2 +1)2
- 3 4x+3
= x2 +1 (x2 +1)2
- Example 11
3x 2 - 2x
Express the rational function (x - in partial fractions.
1)(x2+ 1)2
Solution
3x 2 -2x
The proper rational function (x - has a linear factor, x - 1, and a repeated quadratic
1)(x2+ 1)2
factor, (x2 + 1)2, which cannot be factorized, in its denominator.
3x 2 -2x A Bx+C Dx+E
Thus
(x-1)(x 2 +1)2 x-1 x 2 +1
= A(x2+ 1)2 +(Bx + C)(x - 1)(x 2 + 1)+(Dx + E)(x —1)
- (x-1)(x 2 +1)2
Then 3x2 - 2x A(x 2 + 1)2 + Bx + C)(x - 1)(x 2 + 1) + (Dx + E)(x - 1)
(

Let x=1: 1=A(2)2 = A=

Equating the coefficients of x4 : A+B=0

4
Equating the coefficients of x3 : —B + C = 0
C=-2
4
Equating the coefficients of x 2 : 2A+B—C+D=3
11 1
So ---+— +D-3
244
D=2=
22
Equating the coefficients of x: —B - C - D + E = —2
 Integration II IM

11
So
44 2
E= 1
2
1 1 15 1
2
3x-2x - -- X-- -X+-
Hence
H 4+ 2 2
(x-1)(x 2 +1)2 - x-1 x 2 +1 (x 2 +1)2
- 1 x+1 5x+1
= 4(x _1)4(x 2 +1)2(x 2 +1)2

Exercise 3a

Express each rational function in partial Express each rational function in partial
fractions. fractions.
2x-1 2x+1 x(x+1)(2x-1) x(2x+1)(x-2)
1 (a) (b) 11. (a) (b)
(x+2)(x-1) (x-3)(x+1) (x-3)(x-1) (x-3)(x+2)
3x+4 4x-5 x(x+2)(3x+1) x(x-1)(3x-1)
2. (a) (b) 12. (a) (b)
(x + 3)(x + 2) (x + 4)(x -1) (x - 4)(x -2) (x + 3)(x + 1)
4x-15 5x-9 x(x+3)(2x+1) x(4x+1)(x-3)
3. (a) (b) 13. (a) (b)
(x-2)(x+5) (x-5)(x+2) (x+4)(x-3) (x+5)(x-2)
6x-13 7x-15 2x(3x+2)(x-1) 3x(x±2)(2x-1)
4. (a) (b) 14. (a) (b)
(x+4)(x+1) (x-3)(x+2) (x+3)(x+1) (x-3)(x-2)
8x-15 9x-10 x(4x-3)(x-1) x(x+2)(3x2)
5. (a) (b) 15. (a) (b)
(x + 3)(x + 4) (x - 5)(x -3) (x + 2)(x -5) (x + 5)(x -3)
Express each rational polynomial function in Express each rational polynomial function in
partial fractions partial fractions.
5-2x-3x2 4+2x-3x2 2x+5 3x+2
6. (a) (b) 16. (a) (b)
(x+2)(x+1) (x-3)(x-1) x 2 +3x+2 x 2 +&+8
1+3x-4x2 1-4x-5x2 5x-2 4x-7
7. (a) (b) 17. (a) 2 (b) 2
(x+5)(x-2) (x-4)(x+2) x +4x-5 x -x--6
3-2x+7x2 6x+5 7x-2
2-x+2x2 18. (a) (b)
8. (a) (b) x 2 +2x-8 x 2 -7x+12
(x+3)(x-5) (x+4)(x-1)
8x-3 2 2-5x
x 2 - 2x + 1 x 2 +3x+1 19. (a) 2 (b)
9. (a) (b)
(x+3)(x+1) (x-5)(x+2)
5-6x 4-9x
3x 2 - 4x + 2 4x 3 - 3x + 5 20. (a) (b)
10. (a) (b) 2 +3x-10 x 2 - 5x-14
(x+3)(x-2) (x+7)(x+3)
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Express each rational function in partial fractions.

2x2 —4x+3 2 +3x+5
21. (a) (b) 2x
(2x + 1)(x - 2)2 (3x - 1)(x + 2) 2
2 -2x-6 4x2 +x-3
22. (a) 3x (b)
(2x - 1)(x - 3)2 (3x + 1)(x + 3)2
5x2 +2x+4 t-ki
3x 2 - 5x+3
(4x_3)( x +1)2 (5x _2)(x_1)2
4x2-3x+2 5X 2 +2x-3
24. (a) (b)
(3x + 2)(x + 4)2 (2x - 1)(x - 5)2
2—x-6x2 4+2x-5x2
25. (a) + 5)2 (b)
(2x - 3)(x (4x + 1)(x - 1)2
Express each of the following rational functions in partial fractions.
x2+2x-5 x2-3x-1
26. (a) (b)
(x+1)(x2 +x-3) (x+2)(x2 +x-1)
x2+2x+3 x2-4x+1
27. (a) (b)
(x-1)(x2 -2x+3) (x-2)(x2 —x+2)
2x2—x+4 3x2 +2x+1
28. (a) (b)
(x + 3)(x2 +x-5) (x - 4)(x2 - 3x + 1)
3x2-2x+4 1+2x-3x2
29. (a) (b)
(x+4)(x2 +2x-1) (x+2)(x2 -3x-1)
2+5x-4x2 3-2x-5x2
30. (a) (b)
(2x + 1)(x2 +3x-2) (3x - 1)(x2 - 2x+4)
Express, in partial fractions each of the following rational functions.
2x3-1 3x3+2
31. (a) (b)
(x— 1)(x2 +1) (x+1)(x2 —3)
4x3-3 5x3+1
32. (a) -. (b)
(x+)(x +3) (x-3)(x +)
2x3 +5 33 4
33. (b)
(a) (x+4)(x2+2) (x-2)(x2 +4)
2x3 —3x 4X3 +5x
34. (b)
(a) (x+2)(x2+5) (x+3)tX +1)
1-2x3 1- 4X 2
35.(a) (b)
(x+2)(x 2 +3)
Express, in partial fractions, each rational function.
3x+1 2x-1
36. (a) (b)
(x+2)(x2 +1)2 (x - 2)(x2 + 1)2
 Integration II

3x-2 4x +1
37. (b)
(a) (x + 1)(x 2 +2) 2 (x-1)(x2+3)2
2x+1 5x —1
38. (a) (b)
(x - 2)(x 2 +4) 2 (x-3)(x2+1)2
4x -3 7x+4
39. (a) (x - 2)(x2 (b)
+ 1) (x+1)(x2+2)2
Y-L Qv- ,)
40. (a) (b)
(x - 2)(x2 +3) 2 (x - 3)(x2 + 1)2
Express each of the following rational functions in partial fractions.
2x2 +3 2x2 -7
41. (a) (b)
(x 2 +1) 2 (x 2 +1) 2
3x2 -2 3x2 +8
42. (a) (b)
(x2+1)2 (x2+1)2
4x2 +5 5x2 -6
43.(a) (b)
(x2 +4) 2 (x 2 +9) 2
Express, in partial fractions, each of the following rational functions.
2x2 -3x 2x2 +5x
44. (a) (b)
(x 2 +1) 2 (x 2 +1) 2
4X2 +5x 7x2 -6x
45 (a) (b)
(x2+1)2 (x2+1)2
2
5x2-4x 8X +7x
46.(a) (b)
(x 2 +9) 2 (x2 +4) 2
Express each of the following rational functions in partial fractions.
2X2 +3x 4x2 -5x
47. (b)
(a) (x-1)(x2+1)2 (x-1)(x2+1)2
3X2 +2x 6x2 -x
48. (a) (b)
(x+1)(x2+1)2 (x+1)(x2+1)2
2
5x2-3x 8X +3x
49.(a) (b) (2x+1)(x2+2)2
(2x _1)(X 2 +2) 2
7x2 +x 3x2 —x
50.(a) (b)
(3x-1)(x 2 +1) 2 (3x+1)(x2+1)2

Integration of rational functions

Here we shall use partial fractions in order to integrate a rational function.
A sketch of the graphs of the function f = and the function g(x) = In lxi are shown
X
below.
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Y ==
g y =In x

f = - ,x E D, x # 0.

g(x)=1nx,x E P,x # 0.

1
When x> 0: 5 dx = in x +

When x <0: $dx =in(-x)+C

(i.e. -x> 0)
Thus $1cix=inIxl+C,xER,x#o.

Example 12
f
-

5
Find -dx. When either one of these formulae is used, then we are said to have
(x + 2)(x -1) used recognition in order to integrate the function.
- Solution
Let 5 A+B
(x+2)(x-1) x+2 x-1
Multiply each term by (x + 2)(x - 1):
5A(x-1)+B(x+2)
Let x=-2: 5=-3A
A=-
3
Let x=1: 5=3B
B =
3
5 5
So =—+
(x+2)(x-1) x+2 x-1
 Integration II FM

5 5 ri ri
dx
+ =j x-3 dx+J x-2
...J (x+2)(x-1) dx=J x+2 x-1 =lnIx-3+lnx-21+C
=1n(x-31.Ix-2I)+lnA
5
= 1nA(x 7 3)(x-2)
=f 3 dx-f 3 dx
X-1 x+2
Sr 1 5r 1
= .-i dx--i dx
3J x-1 3J x+2
- Example 14 1J
= - lnIx -1
3 1 --1
3 nx+ 2 I+C r 2x-3
FindI dx.
x-5x+4
= (lnx -1 nIx+ 2
3 I -1 I)+c
- Solution
5 lx-11
=In +lnA 2x-3 r2x-3
3 lx+2 f
I
x2 -5x+4
dx =i
(x-4)(x-1)
dx

X-1 2x-3 A + -B
= in A ( Let
x+2 ) (x-4)(x-1) x-4 x-1
Multiply each term by (x -4) (x - 1):
2x-3_=A(x-1)+B(x-4)
Let x=4: 2(4)-3=A(4- 1)

-Example 13 A=
3
Find j_2x-5 dx. Let x=1: 2(1)-3=B(1-4)
(x-3)(x-2)
B=
- Solution 3
2x-5 A B 2x-3 2x-3
Let = + So =
(x-3)(x-2) x-3 x-2 x2 -5x+4 (x+4)(x-1)
Multiply each term by (x - 3)(x - 2): 5 1
2x -5 _=A(x -2) + B(x -3) =+
Let x=3: 2(3)-5=A(3-2) x+4 x-1
A=1
Letx=2 2(2)-5=B(2-3) 2x-3
dx=f + dx
B=1
x2 -5x+4 x+4 x-1
2x-5 1 1
So = +
(x-3)(x-2) x-3 x-2 1
Sr ir1
=- dx
r 2x-5 r(1 1 '\ 3JI +- i
x+4 3J x-1
idx
... J (x-3)(x-2) dx=ji'x-3 + x-2)
Rn Pure Mathematics for CAPE

=—lnx+4I+—lnlx-1I+C lOr 1 lr 1
=—I dx--i dx
3 3 72x+1 73x-2
2: 10 ir 2 1 ir 3
=ln(x+4) 3 +ln(x-1) 3 +1nA =—x- dx--x-i dx
7 2 2x+1 7 3J 3x-2
5( 1
= 71nl2x±1I---lnI3x-21+C
21
=lnA (x+4)3tln(x1)3
= In (2x + i) - In (3x - 2)1 + in A
-Example 15
51
r4x-3 In (2x+1)
Find I dx. =
' 6x-x-2 il
(3x-2) 21
Solution
r4x-3 r 4x-3 -Example 16
I dx=i dx
' 6x2 -x-2 ' (3x - 2)(2x + 1) 2X22 -
4x-3 A B Find r dx
Let + (2x+3)(x+1)
(3x-2)(2x+1) 3x-2 2x+1
Multiply each term by (3x - 2)(2x + 1): - Solution
4x - 3 A(2x + 1) + B(3x - 2) 2x2 -1 .
is an improper rational
(2x + 3)(x + 1)
Let x2: 4I-)-3=A(2x+1 function.
3 3 3
1 7 So we need to perform long division.
So 2x2 -1 2x 2 -1
33
(2x+3)(x+1) = 2X 2 +5x+3
7 1
2x2 +5x+ 3)2x2 1
Let x=- 4(--'1_3=BI3xI2l_2
2 2) L2J 2x2 +5x+3
So -5=--B
2 2x2 -1 —5x-4
10 i.e.
B (2x+3)(x+1) (2x+3)(x+1)
7
4x-3 - 4x-3 We now need to decompose —5x —4
So 6x into partial fractions. (2x + 3)(x + 1)
-x-2 - (3x - 2)(2x + 1)
And -5x-4 A
+ B
1 10
(2x+3)(x+1) 2x+3 x+1
= Multiply each term by (2x ± 3) (x ± 1):
3x-2 2x+1
1 -5x-4A(x+1)+B(2x+3)
10
3
7 Let x : —5 (_
$ 6x24x-3dx=J
-x-2 2x+1 3x-2 2 2)
 Integration II

7 1
So
A-7
Let x= -1: -5(-1)-4= B(2[-1] + 3)
1=B
So 2x2-1 1
i+ -7 +
(2x+3)(x+1) 2x+3 x+1
7 1
+
2x+3 x+1
2 -1
LX r
j (2x+3)(x+1) dx=J 1- + dx
2x+3 x+1
1 1
=$lth_75_ dx+f_ dx
2x+3 x+1
=x_f _2
2 2x+3 dx+lnIx+1+C
7
=x- lnl2x+31+lnlx+ll+C
2
= X+1flIX+1I--2 lnl2x+31+C

X+1
=X+lfl 7
+C
(2X+3) 2

- Example 17
3x2 -2x+1
Fm dJ dX
x+4
- Solution • 3X2 -2X+1 57
i.e. 3X-14+
3X2-2X+1 i x+4 X+4
a improper rational function.
X+4 3X2_2X+ld = $(3 14+_
• dx
So we need to perform long division. $ x+4 X+4)
3x-14 1
X+4)3 X2 _2X +1 =5(3x -14) dX + 575 x+4dx
3X2 +12x
-14X +1 = --14X+571nIX+4l+C
-14X -56
= 3X2_28X574Ic
FM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

CD Repeated linear factor

-Example 18
Find dx.
(3x+2)(x-1) 2
- Solution
4 A B C
Let + +
(3x + 2)(x - 1)2 3x+2 x -1 (X_1)2
Multiply each term by (3x + 2)(x - 1) 2 :

4_=A(x- 1)2 +B(3x+2)(x.- 1)+C(3x+2)

Let x=1: 4=5C
C=
5
Equating the coefficients of x2: A + 3B = 0
Equating the coefficients of x: -2A - B +3C = 0 ©
-2A-B=--- ©
5
x 2:
5B=-
5

25
From (D: A=--
25
12 4
4 = 25 -
So x _1(x
± _1)2
(3x+2)(x-1) 2 3x+2

J(3x+2)(x_1)225 3x+2 25f x-1 5f

36 1 3 12 4 (x-1)
=_x_f dx------lnIx-1J+-
25 3 3x+2 25 5 (-1)(1)
12 12 4
= -1 n13x+ 2 1 -- lnIx --1 1 —
25 25 5(x-1)
12 3x+2 4
=—ln - +C
25 x-1 5(x-1)
12
(3x+2'\ 4
=1n - +C
X-1 J 5(x-1)
 Integration II go
-Example 19
• r 3x+4
Fmdi dx
(2x+1)(x+1)2
-Solution
Let 3x+4 A B
+ +C
• (2x+1)(x+i)2 2x+1 x+1 (x+1)2
Multiply each term by (2x + 1)(x + 1) 2:
3x + 4 A(x + 1)2 + B(2x + 1)(x + 1) + C(2x + 1)
Let x = Ti: 3(-1) + 4= -c
C=-1
Equating the coefficients of x2: A + 2B = 0
Equating the coefficients of x: 2A + 3B + 2C = 3 ©
•2A+3B=5 ©
2A + 4B = 0
B=-5
From T: A 1
So 3x+4 10 + -5 + -1
(2x+1)(x+1) 2 2x+1 x+1 (x+1)2
3x+4 1 1 dx _J(x+ ly2 dx
dx=10f dx_5f
(2x+1)(x+1) 2 2x+1 x+i

=lox
i
f
2dx_51nlx+1I_+1)+C
2 2x+1
=5 I2x+ 1I -51 nIx+iI+x+1
_ +C
(2x+1 5 1
=lnl 1+
x+1 ) x+1

Exercise 3b

Find each of the following integrals.

2 (a) 1 _6 dx (b) 5 (x-5)(x+3) dx
1. (a j (x_2)(x+1) U ' ' 1 (x+5)(x-2)
(x-2)(x-1) 8
f dx (b) $_dx -

_
4 -2 'a)
2. (a) 1 (x + 3)(x +2)
dx (b)
(x + 4)(x -2)
dx ' (x-6)(x-4) (x+5)(x+4)
Find each of the following indefinite integrals.
-3 r
3. (a)
1 (x - 2)(x dx (b) (x + 4)(x + 3)
dx
6. (a) $
2x+i
(x + 3)(x + 2)
dx (b)
3x-1
(x + 2)(x -1)
dx
IM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

_4x+1 2x+3 2x2 +5 3x2 +1

7• (a) f (x-3)(x-1) dx(b) 1 (x+4)(x+1) dx 23 (a) $
4x2+7x-2
dx (b) 14x2 +4x_3 dx
_2x+5 5x+2 2+8 4x2 +3
8 • (a) $ dx(b) dx 24 (a) $ 3x dx (b) 52x2 _5x+ 2 dx
(x+2)(x-3) (x-4)(x-2) 4x2 -8x+3
_3x-2 _4x-3 2 -2 8x2 -3
9 • (a) $ dx(b) $ (x-5)(x-2) dx 25 (a)$ 5x dx (b) 53x2 _8x+ 4 dx
(x+4)(x+1) 3x2 -7x+2
_4x-7 _3x-8
10 • (a) f
(x+5)(x+2)
dx(b) $ (x-4)(x-3) dx Find each of the following integrals.
1
2x2 +3x+1 2x2 -4x+1
Find the following integrals. 26. (a) dx (b)$ dx
x+3 x-3
j_2x+3 2x+5
11 • (a) dx (b) $ dx 3x2-4x-2 j 4x - 2x+3
x2 +4x+3 x2 -5x+4) 27 (a) j dx (b)
x+4 x-2
3x+5 3x-2
12 • (a) $ dx (b)j 2 dx 16x2+3x-2 5x2-3x-2
x2 +2x-3 x +5x+6 28. (a) dx (b)J dx
x+2 x-2
4x-3
13 • (a) f dx (b) ç 5x-2 (IX 3x2-2x+4 4X 2 +3x-4
x-3x--10
2
6x+5
x2+4x-12
3x+4
29 (a) 5 x-6
dx (b)$
x+3
dx
14. (a) $ dx (b) j dx 6x 2 +2x-3 8x2 +2x-3
x2 - 2x -8 x2 - 7x+6 30 (a) 5 dx(b) 'f dx
5x-4 7x-3 x-5 x+5
15. (a) 1
x2
_4x_5 dx (b Jx2 +7x+10
dx
Find each of the following indefinite integrals.
Find the integrals given below. 2
31. (a) J(2x+l)(x+l)2 dx
2x-3 4x-1
16 • (a) $ dx (b) $3x2 _5x _2 dx
2x2 +5x+2
17 • (a)
3x-2 2x-5
(b) S (2x _l)(x+ l)2 dx
$ 2x2 -3x-2 dx (b) j2x2_4x 3 dx
4x-5 4x+3 32. (a) J(3x+1)(x_1)2 dx
18 • (a) j dx (b) 53x2 + 8x+ 4 dx
3x2 -8x-3
5x+2 6x+1
19 (a) $
4x2 +llx+6
dx(b) 5 4x2 + 5x _6 dx (b) S (3x+ 2)(x+ 1)2 dx
7x+2 7x-4 -2
20 (a) j
5x2 +9x-4 1
dx (b) 5x2 + 7x _6 dx 33. (a) I(3x_2)(x+2)2 dx
Find
2x2 -1 3x2 -2 (b) 1(4x_1)(x_2)2 dx
21. (a) $ dx (b) 52x2 _5x+ 2 dx
2x2 +x-1
2x 2 +3 3x2 -5
22• (a) $ dx (b) 13x2_4x+1 dx
3x2-5x+2
 Integration II

5x -2
34. (a) $ (5x-2)(x+1) 2 dx (b) $ (2x-3)(2x--1) 2dx
(b)
(2x + 5)(x - 2)2 dx 38. (a)
5 (5x +1)(x+ 2)2 dx
(b) 1 dx
$ (2x+1)(x+3)2 dx (2x+1)(x+1) 2
35. (a)

(b) dx 39. (a)

'(2x-1)(x+22) '(4x :_ 1)2 dx
Find the following integrals.
(b)
5-6x dx
2x+1 $_
(4x +3) (2x - 1)2
36. (a) _ 5
(4x-1)(x+1)
2 dx
) x— X+
(b) • dx 40. (a) j (2x+3)(2x-1) 2dx
(5x+1)(x-1)2
8x-5
4x-3 (b)J 2dx
37. (a) dx (2x -1) (3x + 1)
(2x + 1) (x + 1)2

Integration of trigonometric functions

Basic trigonometric functions
The relationship between the formulae of differentiation and integration for trigonometric
functions are stated below.

dx
(sin x) = cos x 5 cos x dx = sin x + C
•(cos sin x J sin xdx=- cos x+C
dx
--- (tan x) = sec2 x <=> $ sec x dx = tan x + C
dx
• ---(cotx) = —cosec2x $ cosec 2xdx = —cotx+C
dx
• ---(secx)= sec x tan x =5 sec x tan xdx = sec x + C
dx
• --(cosecx)= —cosec x cot x =5 cosec x cot xdx = —cosec x+C
dx
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Example 20El Example 22a3

Find $3 sec x (sec x— tan x)dx. 1
Find $5( 1 + )dx.
sin 2 x sinxtanxj
Solution
Solution
$3 sec x (sec x - tan x) dx
r(1 1 'VI
j S sin 2 x+sin Idx
= 3$ (sec' x - sec x tan x) dx
= 3J sec 2 xdx-3$ sec x tan xdx = 5$ (cosec 2x + cosec x cot x) dx
=3 tan x —3 sec x + C = 5$ cosec 2x dx + 5$ cosec x cot x dx
= 3(tan x - sec x) + C = —5cotx-5cosecx+C
= —5(cot x + cosec x) + C
-Example 21
c2(1
Fmdi

- Solution
r2(1
I +1 dx.
Cos x Cos x cotx)

1\
I Find j
Example
1
sin 23
Solution
x-1
dx

J cosx'\ cosx cotx)idx

I + 1
1 dx Cos 2 x+sin2 x=1
$ sin 2 x-1 dx=$ —Cos 2x sin2 x —1 = —cos 2 x
= 2$ sec x(sec x + tan x) dx
= _$ sec 2 xdx
= 2$ (sec 2 x + sec x tan x) dx
= - tan x + C
= 2$ sec xdx+2j sec x tan xdx
=2 tan x +2 sec x + C
= 2(tan x + sec x) + C

The following trigonometric identities are sometimes necessary to integrate certain trigonometric
functions.
• cos20 + sin2 0 = 1 • sin 20 = 2 sinO cosO
• 1 + tan20 sec2 0 • 1 + cot2O cosec20
• sin 20= —(1— cos 20) • cos 2 0 —(1+ cos 20)

CD Even powers of sin x, cos x and tan x

For an even power of sin x or cos x, we rewrite using a double angle formula. For an even power
of tan x, we rewrite using the formula tan 2 x = sec2 x - 1.
rExample 24
Find
(a) f8 sin 2xdx (b) $ cos' xclx (c) $(5_ tan 2x)dx
 Integration II IM
Solution
(a) $8 sin2 x dx = $8 x (1- cos 2x) dx

H =$4(1_ cos 2x)dx

=$4dx_4f cos 2xdx

(sin2x
=4x-4i i+C
2)
=4x-2 sin 2x+C
(b) $cos4xdx=J(cos2x)2dx

=J[(1+ cos 2x)]dx

2

=f -(1+2cos2x+cos 2x)dx
=f [i+ 2 cos 2x + (1 + cos 4x)] dx
=-1 -+2cos2x+-cos4x dx
42 2 )
1[3 1 11
=-i -x+2x-sin 2x+-x-sin4x i+C
4L2 2 2 4 j
= - x+ sin 2x + --- sin 4x + C
8 4 32

(c) J
$ (5- tan2 x) dx = [5- (sec 2 x - 1)] dx
= $(5_ sec 2 x+ 1)dx
= $(6_ sec 2 x)dx
= $6dx _$ sec 2 xdx
= 6x- tan x+C

Odd powers of sin x, cos x and tan x

For an odd power of sin x or cos x, we rewrite as an even power of sin x or cos x multiplied by
sin x or cos x. The even power is then converted using the formula cos 2 x + sin2 x = 1.
For an odd power of tan x, we rewrite as an even power of tan x multiplied by tan x. The
even power is then converted using the formula tan x,= sec x - 1.
Example 25 '&-A
Find
(a) $sin 5 xdx (b) $cos 3 xdx (c) $4 tan 3 xdx
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Solution
(a) $ sin" xdx=$ sin x sin xdx

= $ (sin2 x)2 sin xdx

= f (i - cos2 x)2 sin x dx
=$(1_2cos2 x+cos 4 x)sinxdx

= f (sin x —2 cos 2 x sin x + cos4 x sin x) dx

$ sin x dx - 2$ Cos 2x sin x dx + $ cos4 x sin x dx
=—cosx-2— Cos x + --cos 5 x +C
}

5
=—cosx+—cos 2 3x— 1—cos x+C
3 5
(b) $ Cos 3xdx = $ cos2 xcosxdx
= $(1 - sin2 x) cos x dx

= $ (cos x - sin2 x cos x) dx

=$ cos xcix_$ sin 2 xcosxdx

= sin x - - sin 3 x + C
3
= sin x - - sin x + C
3
(c) $4 tan 3xdx=4$ tan 2 x tanx dx
=4$ (sec 2x1) tan x dx
= 4$ (sec2 xtanx_tanx)dx
= 4$ (tan x sec 2 x - tan x) dx
= 4$ tan sec2 x dx - 4$ tan x dx
-4 -l tan 2 xI-4J sinx dx
- 2( ) cosx
=2 tan 2x+4J dx
- sin x
cosx
= 2tan2 x+41ncosx+C
Note: $ dx = lnf(x)
 Integration II Sm
r r - Srn X Example 27 ;ii
So – itanxdx=i.1 dx
.7
Cos X Find
r .X X
d (a) J8sm–cos–dx
—(cosx)
Jdx dx 2x X
cosx (b) $_6 sin sin dx
= In cos x+C
Product of the form sin mx cos nx • Solution
r X X
A factor formula is used to rewrite the product (a) i8sin– cos –dx
2 2
as a sum or difference.
r .x x
The factor formulae are: =41 2 sin - cos - dx
sin (A + B)+ sin (A - B)2 sin A cos B 2 2
sin (A+B)-sin (A -B) _=2 cos Asin B r[. (x x"
=411
J [
smi –+– I+sml(x ---
x)]dx
cos (A + B) + cos (A - B) 2 cos A cos B t\ 2 2) 2 2
cos (A + B) - cos (A B) –2 sin A sin B.
= 4j sin xdx+4f sin odx
Example 26 O
= 4(– cos x)+C
Find
(a) J6 sin 3x cos xth
4 cos x + C

(b) J4 cos 5x cos 2xdx (b) j –6sin

sm sin
sin - dx
3 3
2x x
Solution
S
=3 –2sin--–
3
sin
3 dx
(a) f 6 sin 3x cos x dx (2x x)2x ( x'\1
3f Cos — + - —cosi
=3iicosi ---iidx
= 3j2 sin 3x cos xdx L \3 3 3)J
=35 {sin(3x + x) + sin(3x - x)J dx = cos x dx – cos x
- dx
= 3j sin 4xdx+3j sin 2xdx
= 3(sinx)_3(3sin)+C
=3-- cos 4x +3 –cos2x +C
) 2 ) =3 sm x –9 sm – + C
3
= - cos 4x - cos 2x + C
4 2 Alternative Method
(b) $4 cos 5x cos 2xdx r • x x
(a) I 8sm–cos–dx
2 2
= 2f 2 cos 5x cos 2x dx
= 452 sin cos dx
=25 [cos(5x + 2x) + cos(5x - 2x)J dx
= 2j cos 7xdx+2j cos 3xdx =45 sin 2 dx sin 2 2 =2 sin cos
(f. )
(. (1.
=211–sm7x 1+21 –sin3x i+C =4j sin xdx
) k3 ) .'. sin x=2 sin Cos
=4(– cos x)+C 2 2
= - sin 7x + - sin 3x + C = –4 cos x + C
7 3
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

CD Integrals of tan x, sec x, cot x and cosec x

Some further formulae of integration are:
• $ tan xdx=ln(secx)+C
• 5 sec xdx=ln(secx+ tan x)+c
• f cot xdx=ln(sinx)+c
• f cosec xdx=–ln(cosecx+ cot x)+c
- Example 28 Alternative Method
Prove that: sec x (sec x + tan x) dx
(a) $ tan x dx = ln(sec x) + C
f sec x dx = $ sec x+ tan x
d
(b)f sec xdx=ln(secx+ tan x)+c fdx
(sec x + tan x)
dx
- Solution (Proof) sec x+ tan x
r r SiflX = in Isec x + tan x + C
(a) Itanxdx=i dx
cosx
r–SinX -Example 29
= –I dx
J
cosx Find
d (a) jl + cos x dx (b) J sin dx
—(cosx) cosx
dx - Solution
cosx
= –ln(cosx)+C rl+cosxdx=jir( 1 cosx'\dx
(a) j + l
= ln(cos x) 1 + C cosx \cosx Cos x)

=in
1
+C = J sec x dx + $1 dx
cosx = ln(sec x + tan x) + x + C
= in sec x + C
(b) f _dx=3f
sin x cos x
1 dx
sin x cos x
(b) ---[1n(secx+tanx)+C]
dx
d dx
—(sec x+ tan x) A –sin 2x
dx
secx+tanx dx 2
secxtanx+sec 2 x dx
= +0 sin 2x
sec x+ tan x = 6$ cosec 2xdx
-sec x(tan x + sec x)
[–ln(cosec2x ± cot 2x)1
- sec x+ tan x =i6 I +C
= sec x L 2 ]
Hence $sec xdx = ln(sec x + tan x) + C. =3 [- ln(cosec2x + cot 2xJ + C
= –3 ln(cosec 2x + cot 2x) + C
 Integration II

Exercise 3c

Find each of the following integrals.

1. (a) J2 sec x(secx— tan x)dx (b) $_5 sec x(secx_ tan x)dx
2. (a) $4sec x(sec x + tan x)dx (b) f-3 sec x(sec x + tan x)dx
3. (a) J5 cosec x cot xdx (b) J_4 cosec x cot xdx
4. (a) 5(7 sec2 x —4 cosec2 x) dx (b) $ (5 cosec 2x —4 sec2 x) dx
5. (a) $6 cos x(1+ tan x)dx (b) 5
1—cos x 2 dx
Find each of the following indefinite integrals.
6. (a)$ 3 1 1
cosx'cosx cotx)
+ 1')d (b)5 4 ( 1 - 1 d
cosxkcosx cotx)
7. (a)$ 2 1 1 +
smx'sinx tanx)
1 )d (b)J 5 ( 1 _ 1 d
sinxsinx tanx)
8. (a)J 8 1 1 - 1 d
sec x\ sec x cotx)
(b)$ 4 1 1 + 1 )d
secxksecx cotx)
8(1 1 r 4(1 i dx
9. (a) J cosecx I cosecx - tanx )d x (b) J+cosec x cosec x tan x)
—6 1 - 1 —4 1 - 1
10. (a) j. )dx (b) $ )dx
S m x '\ sin x tan x) cos x cosx cot x
Find the following integrals.
11. (a) $4(
1 + 1
s in x sin x tan x}
dx (b) 571 sin x - sinxtanx}
1
')dx

12. (a) 561+_

1
cos x Cos x cot x}
dx (b) 551'\ cos x - Cos x1 cot x} dx
+_ 1 - 1
dx
13. (a) 541 dx (b) 581
sec x sec x cot x) \ sec x secxcotx)
1 + 1
14. (a) 521
-1

cosec x cosec x tan x)

2
dx (b) 541 _
cosec x cosec x tan x)
2
dx
1 - 1
dx
15. (a) 531+ dx (b) 551
tan x cot x tan x) ' cot x tan x cot x)
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Find the integrals given below.

16. (a) 5 1—sin2 x dx (b) 5 2

sin 2x-1
dx

17. (a) 5 22_ dx (b) $_ __ dx

cos x-1 1— cos2 2x
18. (a) 5 dx (b) $ sec2 2x-1 dx
1—sec 2 x
6
19. (a) 5
1—cosec 2 x
dx (b) 5
cosec 2x-1
dx

20. (a) $ 2-2sin2 x dx (b) 5

2-2cos 2 x
dx

Find
21. (a) 54 sin' x dx (b) $6 cos4 x dx (c) $8 tan x dx
22. (a) $_2 sin 4 xdx (b) $_6cos2 xdx (c) $-4 tan 4 xdx
23. (a) $3 sin 6 xdx (1) $5cos' xdx (c) J7tan ' xdx
24. (a) $(5+sin4 x)dx (b) $(3+cos4 x)dx (c) $(7-i-tan 4 x)dx
25. (a) 5(1 —sin 6x)dx (b) 5(4_ cos' x)dx (c) f(3 —tan 4 x)dx

Find each of the following integrals.

26. (a) $2 sin 3 xdx (b) f4cos5 xdx (c) f8 tan 3 xdx
27. (a) $_3sin' xdx (b) $_4cos3 xdx (c) f_7tan' xdx
28. (a) 55 sin 3 xdx (b) f7cos3 xdx (c) f3 tan 3 xdx
29. (a) 5(5+sin7 x)dx (b) $(2+cos7 x)dx (c) f(6+tan7 x)dx
30. (a) 5(3 —sin 3 x) dx (b) 5(1 - cos3 x) dx -
(c) 5(5 tan3 x) dx

Find each of the following indefinite integrals.

31. (a) f 4 sin 3x cos x dx (b) $2cos5xcos2xdx
32. (a) J3 cos 4x sin 2xdx (b) 5_5 sin 6x sin 2xdx
33. (a) J3 sin 4x cos 2xdx (b) $5 cos 7x cos 3xdx
 Integration II

34. (a) J4cos8xsin4xdx (b) J_6sinloxsin6xdx

35. (a) J8sin9xsin5xdx (b) j5 cos 8x cos 2xdx

Find the following integrals.

L 36. (a) J4sin Cos dx (b)S 5 cos -

44
X.
sin - dx
X

2x x 4x x
37. (a) J-3 sin sin ..dx (b) j2cos—_ cos _dx
33 5 5
2x x
38 (a) J_5 sin —sin dx (b) j8cos_ cos _dx
3 3

H
39. (a) f 6 cos 3x5 sin x dx (b)S 10 sin -
4x
7
x
sin - dx
7
r .7x 3x 9x 3x
40. (a) j 9sm—8 Cos —dx (b) $ 14 cos - sin - dx
8 10 10
Prove that
41. $ cot xdx=ln(sinx)+C.

42. $ cosec xdx=ln(cosecx+ cot x)+C.

Find the integrals given below.

43. (a) J2 tan xdx (b) j5 sec xdx

44. (a) f4 cot x dx (b) f_3cosecxdx

45. (a) $_7 tan xdx (b) J8 cosec xdx

Find
j i +Slfl X
4 6. (a) dx (b) f dx
sin sin x cos x
47. (a) jl+SlnXd (b)$ _dx
cosx sin x cos x
j i +COs X 6
48. (a)
sin
dx (b) J 1-2 sin2 x dx
8
49. (a) jl_sinXdX
cosx
(b)f _
2cos2 x-1
dx
10
50. (a) jl_COSXdX (b) J cos2 2x— sin 2 2x dx
sin x
IM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Integration of the exponential -3x

function ef(x) =5—+C
—3
Here we shall investigate how to integrate
= _ e 3x +C
the exponential function ef(x).
ex =ex <=> f exdx = e x + c.
d ce ax
dx Hence Scedx = cf edx = +C=
where a and c are constants.
- Example 30
Find -Example 32
(a) $e3xdx (b) $e_2xdx Find
(a) Je52dx (b) 5e1_4xdx
- Solution
3x 3x
(a) $e3xdx= d - Solution
5x+2
—(3x) (a) $ e52 dx= d e +C
dx
—(5x+2)
J e2xdx = d dx
+ = =-e +C e 5x+2
(b)
—(--2x)
dx 5
e ax 1 = e52 + C
Hence fecix = +C = e +C where a
5
is a constant. 1-4x
(b) $el4xcix= d
-Example 31 —(1-4x)
Find dx
1-4x
(a) J-dx (b) fse3xdx = +C
- x —4
- Solution = _e 1_4x +C
e 2x
J__dx= .i_$ e2xdx 4
(a)
= e ax + b
Hence fe+bdx c +C
a
--(2x) where a and b are constants.
dx
1 e 2x Example 33
=--+c Find
42
= e 2 +C (a) 5(e3 x _e_x)2dx (b) $( e x +e _2 x)2 dx
8
Solution
(b) f5e 3' dx = 5S3xth
e _3 x (a) $( e3 x _e)2dx
5 d
—(-3x) = J[(e3x)2 _2(e3 x) e_x +(e_x)2]dx
dx
 Integration II

= f(e62 _2e2 x + e_2 )dx (b) J2xe2dx = —8xe 2

e6 e_2 x 2
2e 2x = 2Jxe dx
= c
6 2 —2
= .J_8xe 2 dx
= e6 —e2' _e _2x +C
6 2
= _ e Ax' + C
(b) 5(e
x + e_2 )dx 4
= $[(e )2 +2(e x) e _2 + (e_2x)2 ]dx Hence Jf'(x)edx = + C where
f(x) is a differentiable function of x.
=J(e2 +2e +e)dx
Example 35
e2' 2e_x
e Find
= _+++c _e2' dx e3x
2 —1 —4 (a)j 1+4e (b) j_ dx
2x 5-6e 3 '
= e 2 _2e_x —e +C
2 4 - Solution
_e2x dx
Example 34 (a)j 1 + 4e2x --- (i + 4e 2x) = 8e 2x
dx
Find
8e 2x
(a) J7xe' 2 dx (b) J2xe 2 dx 8j1 + 4e2 x dx
=–i

Solution = . h + 4e2x +
(a) f7xex2dx d / 2\
— le j=2xe _(5_6e 3 x) = 18e-3x
dx' / (b) 15_6e3x
= 7Jxe' 2 dx Cdx

= _$2xe2 2 dx 18 5_6e3x dx

= 7 ex +C 2-ln5-6e+C
2
Hence $ dx = 1nlf(x) + C

Exercise 3d

Find
(b) $e3xdx 4. (a) $e4Xdx (b) fe+dx
1. (a) $e4xdx
5. (a) $e8'cix (b) JelOXdx
2. (a) $ e5xdx (b) $edx

3. (a) fe2Xdx (b) $e3Xdx

IM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Find each of the following integrals. e _2 x)2 dx

18. (a) 5( e3 x (b) 5(e4x +e _2 x)2 dx
e3 -2x
6. (a) 5- clx (b) J4e dx
19. (a) $(e_ 2x _ e4 x)2 dx (b) $(e5x +e')2dx
4x
7. (a) J-_dx
e (b) J7 e_5xdx 20. (a) 5(e _ e5 x)2 dx (b) 5 (es' + e_5x )2dx

8. (a) 5_x (b) $ -5edx Find the following integrals.

e 5x 21. (a) 54xex2dx (b) 52xe_2x2dx

9. (a) J_ -dx (b) $ _8e_3xdx
22. (a) $5xex2dx (b) 5 7xe'2dx
10. (a) Je6)dx (b) $e_7xdx
23. (a) $6x2ex3dx (b) J10 x2 e_23 dx
Find each of the following indefinite integrals. 24. (a) $7x 2 e x3 dx (b) f8x2e3dx

11. (a) Je32dx (b) 5e1_5xdx 25. (a) 58x 3 e x4 dx (b) $14x3 e_7x4dx
12. (a) 5e5x44dx (b) 5e2_7xdx Find the integrals given below.
13. (a) $e7x_3dx (b) $e4_9xdx e x_ dx
26. (a) f 1+e x (b)
14. (a) 5 e4 x_9 dx (b) $e_3x_4dx e 2x
27(a)S 1+6e 2x dx (b)
53-4e-2x
dx
15. (a) 5e_8dx (b) 5 e_7x_iOdx
çe 3x dx
28.(a) (b) 54
Find each of the integrals given below. 5+9e 3x 6e'
e 4x
16. (a) J(ex _e)2 dx (b) J( e x +ej2dx 29(a)J dx
7+8e 4x
17. (a) $( e3 x _e_x)2dx (b) $(e 2x +e _x)2 dx e 5x
30(a)5 dx
1O+5e 5x 5-1Oe 5 '

Integration of the logarithmic Then $(lnx+1)dx=xlnx+A

function lnf(x)
So $lnxclx+Jldx=xlnx+A
Since ---(xlnx)=x--(]nx)+1n(x)---(x)
dx dx dx i.e. Jlnxdx+x=xlnx+C
= x(-J+inxxi $inxdx=xlnx-x+C
=1-i-lnx Hence Jlnxcix=xlnx-x+C.
 Integration II IM

5 ink xdx =Jlnkdx+flnxdx Hence Jclnkxdx=c(xinkx_x)+C

= in kJ dx + in x dx where c and k are constants.
=]nkxx+x]nx-x+C n+1 (n + 1)(ln x) (in x)
Since_ () = dx
=xlnk+xlnx-x+C dx n+1 n+1
= x In kx - x + C
Hence 5lnkxdx=xlnkx_x+C where kis (In x)' x-x
I \fl

a constant. = (In x)
- Example 36 X

Find Then $ dx=

(a) fln7xdx (b) f5ln2xdx x n+1
where n-1.
- Solution
(a) $ln7xdx=Jln7cix+$lnxdx -Example 37
= ln7Jdx+Jlnxdx Find
= In7xx+xlnx-x+C (a) 5 (lnx)5 dx
X
(b)
4 (]nx)7d

= x in 7+ x in x - x + C - Solution
= x(1n7+lnx)-x+C (In x) dx = (in )5+1 +

= xin7x-x+C (a)5
(b) J5ln2xcix=5fln2xcix (mx)
= +C
= 5fln2dx+5jlnxdx 6
=1n6 x+ C
=5 In 25th +55 In x dx 6
4(1n x)
=5 in 2 x x + 5(x in x - x) + C
(b) $ th =45 (In x) th
= 5x in 2 + 5x in x - 5x + C
(in X)7 + 1
= 5x(in2+hix)-5x+C I
=5xln2x-5x+C 7+1
Alternative Method (In x)' +C
(a) Since $Inkxdx=xlnicx_x+c
= 2(In x)8 + C
Then 5In7xdx=xln7x_x+c
where k=7 =-ln x±C
2
(b) Since Jcinlcxdx=sjlnkxdx r c(lnx) c(inx)'
Hence I.' dx=
Then $sln2xdx=5Jln2xcix x n+1
=5(xin2x-x)+C where c is a constant and n # —1.
=5xln2x-5x+C
UO Pure Mathematics for CAPE

- Solution
Since d[(lnxn)2l )d()
in x' (in x5 )2
2n j 2n dx dx =
dxL (a) $ X 2(5)
nx-1
=–1 In x' x (51n. X)2
n =
+c
10
In x' 25 5
X =—in 2 x+C=–ln2 x+C
10 2
f In Xn dx= (inf)2 X6
Then (b) 31nx6 dx=35 In dx
X 2n 5x
(nlnx)2 (6 In x)2
= +c =3 +C
2n 2(6)
n2 In x 36 2
= +c In x+C=91n2x+C
2n 4
In 2 x+C
Hence
where n t 0.
clnx2 dx= c(lnxhl)2 +C=In2X+C
5
r Example 38 '
Find
flflXS
X 2n 2
where c is a constant and n # 0.
(a) dx (b) f3lnx6d
X x

Exercise Se

Find kin x
8. (a) J dx (b) J4(lnx) 7 dx
1. (a) fln2xdx (b) 53 in 5x dx X

- (In x)' (b) f5(inx)6dx

2. (a) Jin3xdx (b) f6ln7xdx 9. (a) dx
I -
3. (a) fln4xdx (b) f2ln9xdx j(lnx)6
10 (a) dx (b) f7(lnx)8 dx
4. (a) fln6xdx (b) $5lnl0xdx x
Find each of the following indefinite integrals.
5. (a) Jln8xdx (b) $7lnllxdx
jlnx2 21nx3
11 (a) dx (b) dx
Find each of the following integrals. X Ix
j (in x)2 dx jinx3
6. (a) 5
(b) 3(in x)2 dx 12 (a) dx (b) f3lnx4d
X x
j (In jlnx4 41n X 5
7. (a) x)' dx (b) 5 2(ln x)3 dx 13 (a) dx (b) dx
 Integration II SM

J71nx8 in X 10
14. (a) jinx dx (b) dx 15. (a) f dx (b) J 81nx9 dx

Integration by substitution
The method of substitution (change of variable method) allows us to integrate certain types of
functions that are not easily integrated by direct methods.
If y = ff(x)dx, then = f(x).
dx
Assume that x is a function of another variable u.
By the chain rule:
dy - dy du
dxdu dx
du
So f(x)=.-
du dx
dyf(x)
ie
du du
dx
dx
= f( x )ä_
dx
y=jf(x)ä_. du

Hence ff(x)dx = jf(x)du.

du
This is the method of substitution.
In general:
if f(x) = g(u(x))u'(x) If u = u(x)

and Jg(u)du = F(u)+C, then = u'(x).

dx
then ff(x)dx = F(u(x)) + C. So . . . du =. . . u' (x) dx (Separating the variables)
Proof: By the chain rule:
if u=u(x)
d
dx
d
du I
—[F(u(x))J=—F(u) —j
dul
dx]
= &W) . u (x)
du
then - = U (X )
dx
So ... du =. . . u' (x) dx (Separating the variables).
=f (x)

$ f(x)dx = F(u(x)) + C.
When asked to use the method of substitution (change of variable method) to integrate a
function, the substitution will normally be given in cases where it is not so easy to chose a
universal substitution.
IM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

- Example 39 du 2 dx 1
Find J 4X 3 (X4
- 3)5dx by using the substitution
Then —=3x
dx
=-=--
du 3x2
u = x4 - 3. r 8x 2
So j dx
- Solution (x + i) 5
Method 1
r8x 2 1
Given u=x4 -3 i—x--du
3x2
du dx
Then —=4x =-=--
dx du 4x3
So J4x3 (x4 _3)5 dx = 8(u-4)+C

=54x3 (u)5 x----d

= fu 5du 3 u4
2
=—+c +c
3(x3 +1)

=1(x 4 _3)6 +C Method 2

Given u=x3 +1
Method 2 Then ... du= ... 3x2 dx
Given u=x4 -3 So r 8x 2
I dx
Then ... du =... 4x 3 dx ' (x3+1)
So f4x3 (x4 -3)5 dx - 8 ç3x 2dx
=S(x4 _3)5 x4x3dx 3 (x3 +1)5
- du
=$u5du 8f
- 3 u5
r
83J iu_du
=—
6
3)6 - 8(u
=(x +c
6 3-4
2( 1 ) +C
Example 40 '
3u
Use the substitution u = x3 + 1 to find
2
r 8x 2 +c
CXT+i) dx. 3(x3 +1)4

Example 41
Solution
Find f dx by using the substitution
Method 1
Given u=x3 +1 u = x4 - 7.
- Solution
Method 1
Given
Then
u=x4 -7
du
—=4x =-=--
dx
=xi)+c

=x-7+C
Integration II IM

dx du 4x3

=
$_5x3 Example 42 J
So dx
-7 Use the substitution u = x5 +4 to find
3 X r 6x 4
5=3thl j ____ dx.
( +4)

Solution

-
Method 1
=-Iu 2 du Given u=x5 -i-4
4.,
du dx
Then —=5x =-=----
5 u dx du 5x4
+c
41
So $ 6x4 dx
( ,IX 5 +4)
=-X- +C ç 6x 4
=j 3 d
=Jx-7+C = ()c+4)
Method 2 f 6X4

-
Given u=x4 -7 5x
Then ... du= ... 4x3 dx u2
3
5x3 dx u 2 du
So $
Jx-7 5.,
5 f 4X 3 dx 6u 2
Jx-7 =----+c
51
5 f du 2
= 4Jj
6( 2"\l
--
du 5 i)
5f u2

-
1
U2 12 1
=---+c
=-5fI u -- 5J
4., 12
5,[x5+4
5 u2
±c
4 1
2
IZ!i Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Method 2 $3 sec 2 x tan3 xcix

So
Given u=x5 +4
Then ... du= ... 5x4 dx =$3sec2x(u3)x du
r 6x4 sec x
So 3
j (VX5
_____ dx
+4) 3f U du
U4
6ç5x4dx =3( C
4)
(X+)3 3 4
=-tan x+C
6ç du 4
=J ( / )3
Method 2
6 çdu Given u = tan x
5J 3 Then . . . du =. . . sec 2 xdx
u2 $3 sec2 x tan 3 x dx
So
= fudu
= 3f tan xsec 2 xdx

= 3fu 3du
='± + c 4
51
=3 —+C
2 ( 4)
61 2'\ 1
=—I -- l- +C
5(\ 1) = -tan4 x+C
u2 4
12 1
=---+c -Example 44
5
Use the substitution u = 7 -2 cos x to find
12
r 4sinx
5Jx 5 +4 If
' (7-2 cos x)
dx.

Example 43 - Solution
Find f3sec2xtan3 xdx by using the Method 1
substitution u = tan x. Given u=7-2 cos x
du dx
Solution Then —=2sinx='—=
dx du 2 sin x
Method 1 srnx
So 3 dx
Given u= tan x '(7_2cosx)
du2 dx 1
Then —=sec x=—= 2 4sinx 1
dx du se cx du
u3 2sinx
= 2f du
d
-
U
 Integration II IM

= 25 u 3du ç sin 3xdx

So
u_2 (6- cos 3x) 2
2+c rsin3x —I
(-2) du
u2 3 sin 3x
1
=- --+c 1 çdu
U i u
1
+c = f u 2 du
(7-2cosx) 2 3
Method 2 1 (U-,+C
Given u=7-2 Cos x 3 -1)
Then .du=. . .2sinxdx
4sinx 3u
So j (7-2cosx) 3dx 1
2sinxdx = - 3(6- Cos 3x)
=25_
(7-2cosx)
-Example 46 1
=2J 4 Use the substitution u = sin x to find
$9 sin x Cos xdx.

- Solution
= 2( U-2 )+C
Method 1
Given u= sin x
du dx
Then —= COS x=—=
dx du cosx
(7-2 cos x). So J9 sin 5x COS
xdx
C5
Example 45 ' =J9u cosxx du
cos x
sin3x = 95 u5 du
Find $ (6- Cos 3x)
2 dx by using the

substitution u = 6 - cos 3x. ( 6\

=9I-I+C
6)
Solution
Method 1 3 .6x+C
=-sm
2
Given u=6- Cos 3x Method 2
du
Then —=3 sin 3x=----= Given u= sin x
dx du 3sm3x Then . . .du=. . .cosxdx
 : Pure Mathematics for CAPE

-Example 48 1
So f9sin5x cos xdx
Use the substitution u = ex - 7 to find

T 5
5e' (ex -7)3dx.
= - Solution
91
Method 1
=-sm 6x+C Given u=e'7
2
du dx 1
- Example 47 Then —=e -=-
dx du e x
Find J8x3ex4dx by using the substitution 55 e (ex _7) 3 dx
So
u=x4 .

- Solution =55e)(ex _ 7)_3 dx du

du
Method 1
= 55e x( u 3 )-du
Given u=x4 ex
dudx = 5Ju 3du
Then —=4x =-=---
dx du 4x3 -2
X4
=5+C
So 5 8xe dx (-2)
dx 5( 1
= $8x3e' 4 du - t+C
du 2 u2}
= f8x3e u x---du 5
4x3 +c
2(e' 7)2
= 2e'1du
5
Method 2
= 2Jeudu
Given u = ex_7
=2 (eu) + C Then . .du=.. . exdx
=2ex4 +C So $5ex(ex _7)3 dx

Method 2 = 5$ (ex _7)-3 x exdx

Given u = x4 = 55u 3du
Then ... du= ... 4x3 dx
\
( -2'+C
So J8x3e' 4dx =5I-
-2)
= 25 ex4 (4x3)dx 51
=---+c
= 25 eudu 2 u2
5
=2(e')+C +c
2(e' 7)2
= 2e x4 +C
 Integration II

-Example 49 ," -r
=6I—I +C
5
Find _6ex 2 dx by using the substitution
(1 + e x)
-1)

U = 1 + ex.
(U)
- Solution
=_
1 +e x
Method 1
Given u=1+ex
dudx 1 -Example 50 J
Then — =e =-=-
dx du ex Use the substitution u = 1 - 4e to find
fr 5e 2x
So 6ex 2dx dx.
. 14e2 x
(1+ e x)
f 6e x dx - Solution
= (1 +e x) du 2 —du Method 1
Given u = 1 - 4e2x
=f —x—
6e x 1
du du 2x dx
ex Then —=-8e -=
dx du _8 e2 x
= 6J u 2du
c'- e 2x
1 -1" So i
. 14e2' dx
=6L—I+C
-1) 5e 2 x dx
=1. i4e2x —du
du
1
+ c+ r 2x
r ce 1
=16 =i—x
. u 2X
du
1 +e x 51
= - - $ - du
8u
Method 2
Given u=1+ex = -h-IuI+C
8
Then ... du= ... exdx
= _1nh1_4e2 +C
So 6ex 2dx 8
(1+ e x)
Method 2

- 6f Given u = 1 - 4e 2x
(1 +e x)2 Then . . .du=. . .-8edx
r 5e2x
=65 du So
-'i 1- 4e2x dx
- 5 ç _8e2xdx
= 65 u 2du 1_4e2x
- -8
IM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

= 5f du
- Example 52
-
r2ln5 x
u Use the substitution u = in x to findI.1 dx.

= --1nlu+c - Solution
Method 1
= _1n 1_4e2 +C Given u=lnx
du 1 dx
Then —=-=—=x
-Example 51 dx x du
r 21n5 x
Find
f 3 in x by using the substitution u = In x. So j X dx
- Solution
r2ln5 x dx
Method 1 =1 x—•du
X du
Given u=lnx r 2u 5

=:T+
du 1 dx =J x x du
Then —=-=—=x.
dx x du
So j3 Inxdx

= X
dx
f-lnx—.du
du =1n6 x+C
3
=5(u).xdu
Method 2

=
3f udu Given u=lnx
Then

r 2 1n5 x
In 2 x+C So dx
2 j
Method 2
=f2 U5 du
Given u=]nx
Then =2( +C
—6)
So 51nxdx = in6 x+C

= 3flnxx
1
dx
Example 53
3

=3judu

= 3(]+C
Find

u=4-7x.
5 4- 7x dx by using the substitution

= in2 x +C
2
 Integration II Sm
Solution - Solution
Method 1 Method 1
Given u=4-7x Given u=3x2 -8
dudx dudx
Then —=-7=—=— Then —=6x=—=—
dx du -7 dx du 6x

So J_ dx _4x
4- 7x So $ 3x2 -8 dx
r3 1
= i-x—du r 4x dx
u -7 =1' —du
3x -8 du
= - 3f du 4x 1 du
7'u = f —x—
u 6x
= -1nIul+c
7 - 2 du

= --1n14-7x1+C 2
7 = -lnul+C
Method 2
3
Given u=4-7x =h3X2 _8l+C
3
Then ...du=.. .-7dx
Method 2
So 5 _4-7x dx Given u=3x2 -8
3f -7dx Then ... du=...6xdx
=
4x dx
-

74-7x So
= 3çdu $ 3x2 -8
7J U 4ç6xdx
6 3x2 -8
= --lnIul+C 2 du
7 -

3u
= --ln4-7x+C
7
= 1nuI+C
Example 54 = lfl3X2 -8+C
Use the substitution u = 3x2 8 to find
-

4x
3x2 -8

Exe rcisejf 7~
each of the following integrals by using the ;iven substitution
1. (a) 3x (x2 - 6) 3 dx,
$ given u = x2 - 6
(b) $4x(2x2 5)3 dx, given u = 2x2 + 5
 Pure Mathematics for CAFE

2. (a) X2 (X3 +9)4 dx,

given u = +9 5x3

(b)
f2
56x2(2x3 -7) 4 dx, given u = 2x3
10 (a) $ +2
dx, given u=x4 +2
7
-7x3
3. (a) j_5x3 (x4 +3)5 dx, given u = x4 + 3
(b) $ V3x -8 dx, given u = 3x4 -8

(b) J_8x3 (2x4 -1)5 dx, given u = 2x4 1 2x4

-
11 (a)
$ Jx +2
dx, given u=x5 +2
4. (a) $_7x4 (x5 +8)6 dx, given u = x5 + 8 3x4
(b) J_9x4 (4x 5 7)6 dx, given u = 4x5
- - 7
(b) f J3x - 4
dx, given u = 3x5 - 4

-2x 5
Use the given substitution to find each of the 12. (a) $ Jx6 dx, given u = x6 _ 3
following integrals. 3
4x -4x5
5 (a)
$(x2_ +1 )3 dx, given u = x2 + 1 (') $ J2x6 +9
dx, given u = 2x6 +9

Use the given substitution to find each of the

0') I _5x
(3x2 4)3
dx, given u = 3x2 following indefinite integrals.
5x 2
6 (a) j_6x2 dx, given u=x3 -4
13. (a) 5 (,,X3 +4) 3 dx, given u = x3 +4
(x3_4)4
7x2 4x2
(b) 5 (2x +5)
dx, given u = 2x3 +5 (b) $ (V2x3 _5) dx, given u = 2x3 - 5

-2x 3 3x5
7. (a) 5 (x4 —5)
_______
dx, given u = x4 - 5 14. (a) $ (Jx64) dx, given u = x6 -4

—4x 3
(b) 5 (2x +7)5 dx, given u=2x4 +7
(b)
7x5
5 (2x6 +3) dx, given u = 2x6 + 3
-3x4
8 (a)
$_(x + 4)
6 dx, given u = x5 +4
-8x4
15. (a) 5 (6x5 +6) 2 dx, given u = x5 + 6
-lOx4 .

(b) $ (2x5 _9) 6 dx, given u = 2x5 - 9

_9 X 4

Find each of the following indefinite integrals

(b) $ (~47- -7)
2 dx, given u = 4x5 - 7

by using the given substitution.

—4x3
9. (a)
3x2
5 -7 dx, given u = x 3 - 7
16. (a) 5 ( ~[X4 -5) dx, given u =x4 - 5

6x2 5x3
(b) $_2x+9 dx, given u = 2x3 +9 (b) 5 (3x4+2) dx, given u = 3x4 +2
 Integration II

Integrate the following trigonometric j_-6sinx

functions by using the given substitution. 26. (a) dx, u = 2 - 5 cos x
(2-5 cos
17. (a) J 4sin3 xcosxdx, u = sin x —2 sin x
(b) j dx, u=8+3COS x
(8+3 cos x)5
(b) J7sin6 x COS xth, u = sin x
cos X
27. (a) $_ dx, u =5 —2 sin x
18. (a) f-s sin7 x cos x dx, u = sin x (5-2sinx)2
r 4cosx
(b) $_8sin4 xcosxdx, u = sin x (b) J . dx, u=6+5smx
(6+Ssmx)
19. (a) f6cos4 x sin xdx, u = cos x cos X
28. (a) j_ dx, u =4 - 9 sin x
(4-9sinx)4
(b) f5cos7 x sin xdx, u = cos x r —lOcosx
(b)j dx, u=5+8smx
20. (a) f _4cos5 xsinxdx, u = cos x (5+8 sin x)5
Integrate the following trigonometric
(b) f_9 cos8 x sin xdx, u = cos x functions by using the given substitution.
$_sin 2x
Integrate each of the following trigonometric 29. (a) dx, u = 3 - cos 2x
(3— cos 2x) 2
functions by using the given substitution. rsin 3x
(b) j dx, u=4+COS 3x
21. (a) $4sec' x tan 4 xdx, given u =tan x (4 + cos 3x)3
(b) J_2sec2x tan' xdx, given u =tan x j_8 sin 4x
30. (a) dx, u =5 - cos 4x
(5— cos 4x)5
22. (a) J5sec5 x tan xdx, given u = sec x rlOsinSx
(b) j dx, u=8+COS 5x
(b) f_7sec6 x tan xdx, given u = sec x (8 + cos 5x)4
$_cos 2x
23. (a) J2tan' xsec 4 xdx, given u = sec x 31. (a) dx, u = 8 - sin 2x
(8—sin2x)3
(b) J-3tan' xsec 2 xdx, given u = sec x Cr OS 5x
(b) jdx, u=6+sm5x
(6+sin5x)4
24. (a) $5tan' xsec 2 xdx, given u = tan x
$_12 cos 4x
= tan x 32. (a) dx, u =7—sin 4x
(b) $ —7 tan x sec' x dx, given u (7— sin 4x) 5
r l5cos7x dx,
Use the given substitution to integrate each of (b) 'I u=4+s7x m
the following trigonometric functions. (4+sin7x)6
r5sinx Integrate the following exponential functions
25. (a) I dx, u = 3 —2 cos x by using the given substitution.
(3-2cosx)
r 8 sin x 33. (a) $4x2e x3 dx, given u = x3
(b) I dx, u=7+4COS x
' (7+4cosx)
(b) f7x3e x4 dx, given u = x4
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

34. (a) f_2x6ex7 dx, given u = x7 Integrate the following logarithmic functions
by using the given substitution.
(b) f_6x7ex5 dx, given u = x8
41. (a) Jinxdx, given u =In x
Integrate each of the following exponential
functions by using the given substitution.
(b) $_lnxdx, given u =In x
35. (a) f4e x (ex -_52dx, given u = ex_5.

(b) $9 e (ex +7) dx, given u= ex+7 42. (a) $-1nxdx, given u =In x

36. (a) 5_5& (e x _4)5 dx, given u=&'4 (b) $Tlnxdx, given u =In x

(b) f_8ex (ex +5)dx, given u=&+5 Integrate each of the following logarithmic
functions by using the given substitution.
Use the given substitution to integrate each of
the following exponential functions. 51 nX
4
43. (a) dx, given u =In x
5ex
given u=1+ e x 101n
37. (a)
5 (1 +e x) 3 dx, x
(b) $ dx, given u =In x

-81n6 x
(b) 5( dx, given u =1 - e x 44. (a) $ dx, given u =In x

-x
r-151n9 x
(b) I dx, given u =In x
38. (a) 5 _ 4e 2 dx,
(3+e" )
given u =3 + e X

Use the given substitution to integrate each of

f(_7e:)5dXF the following rational functions.
(b) given u=6e
45. (a) $_ ' dx, given u = 8 - 3x
8-3x
Integrate the following exponential functions
by using the given substitution. (b) $_ 6 dx,
4x+7
given u = 4x + 7
7 e4 x
-
39. (a) $ 1 - 8e4 x
dx, given u =1 - 8e4'
46. (a)
$_ 8 dx,
9— 4x
given u = 9 - 4x
lOe5 x
given u _-1+7e5x
(b) hl+7e5x(X
(b) S 8x+5
-11 dx, given u = 8x +5

-6e 3x Integrate the following rational functions by

40. (a) dx, given u = 1 - 5e 3x
$1-5e 3x using the given substitution.

given u =1 + 4e 8x 5x
(b) hi+4e8xdX 47 dx, given u = 8x2 - 3
8x2 —3
8x
(b ) J _
9x2 +4
dx, given u = 9x2 +4
 Integration II

-4x dx, -
48.(a) $_
6x2 -1
given u=6x2 -1 (b)
5_5x27x
+3
dx, given u=5x2 +3

Integrate using the given substitution.

4x2 7x2 dx,
given u=5x3 -8
49. (a)j_
5x3 -8
dx, (b) 5 _
4x3 +1
given u=4x3 +1

-8x2_dx,
50 (a) j 5X2 given u=7x3 +4 (b) $ given u=6x3 -5
H 7x3 +4 6x3 -5

Integration by parts
Integration by parts is used to integrate two functions which is in the form of a product,
especially those products which cannot be integrated using standard integration or the method
of substitution.
Consider two differentiable functions of x, u =f(x) and v = g(x).
The product rule for differentiation stats:
d dv du
- (UV) = u - + v -
dx dx dx
Integrate both sides with respect to x:
d dv
5-
dx =5
(uv) dx u - dx + $ v -
dx
du dx
dx
rdv rdu dx
So uv=iu — dx+iv -
' dx dx
r r
i.e. f
iu —
dv dx=uv-iv du
' dx
--dx
' dx
rdu rdv
or iv—dx=uv-iu—dx.
-' dx dx
The formulae can also be written as:
-5
$ u dv = uv v du
or fvdu=uv_udv.
The product of the two functions which are to be integrated consists of two parts:
• one function is to be differentiated, v (or ii). (This function should be easily differentiated,
• one function is to be integrated, du (or dv). (This function should be readily integrated.
When the right choices are made for v and du (or u and dv), then the integral on the RE-IS
becomes simplier than the integral on the LHS, if not, then it becomes more complicated.
OM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

-Example 55
7) 5 6x-x+7'\
Find f x(x - 7)4 dx using integration by parts - 1(x I+c
-- ( 6
- Solution 1
=—(x-7) (5x+7)+C
30
Method 1
Let u=x and = (x - 7)4 -Example 56 '
dx
Find $ 2x cos x dx.
du (x-7) 5
Then —=1 and v= - Solution
dx 5
Integrating by parts: Method 1
rdv rdu d
iu—dx=uv- iv—dx Let u = 2x and - = cos x
dx dx du dx
Then —=2 and v= sin x
1(x-7)5 dx
So $x(x_7) 4 dx = x7 (1)dx Integrating by parts:
rdv
=(x-7) _J(x_7)dx u—dx = uv- Irdu
I v—dx
' dx ' dx
So $2x cos xdx=2x(sinx)-$sinxx2dx
+
= 2x sin x - 2$ sin x dx
= 2x sin x -2 (- cos x) + C
5 [6 ]
= 2x sin x +2 cos x + C
1 s(6x-x+7'\
=-(x-7) I l+C = 2 (x sin x + cos x) + C
5 6)
Method 2
= 1 (x-7)(5x+7)+C
30 Let v = 2x and du = cos x dx
Method 2
Then dv = 2 dx and u = sin x
Integrating by parts:
Let v = x and du = (x - 7)4 dx Jv du = uv - $ u dv
(x-7)
Then dv=dx and U=
5 $ 2xcosxdx = sinxx2x-fsinxx2dx
Integrating by parts: $ v du = uv - J u dv = 2x sin x - 2$ sin x dx
So $x(x_7)4 dx_ xx- 5(x- 7)5 dx = 2x sin x-2(— Cos x)+C
55 5 = 2x sin x +2 cos x + C
= (x -7)"--1 (x -7) 5 dx
$ = 2 (x sin x + cos x) + C

= i(x7) [ c
 Integration II Sm
-Example 57
So f3xe dx = _e(3x)_f_e(3)dx
Find $ 5xe'dx.
= -3xe + 3f ex dx
- Solution
= -3xe + 3(_e_x)+C
Method 1
-1 q,
Let u 5 and = -3e(x+1)+C
dx
du Method 2
Then —=5 and v=e'
dx Let v = 3x and du = e _x dx
Integrating by parts: Then dv = 3dx and u = -e
dv du Integrating by parts:
u dx = uv - $v
$ a-- a-- dx f du = uv_f u dv
So J 5xexdx = 5x(e7) - $ e'(5) dx So $ 3xe dx = 3x(-e) - $ -e (3dx)
= 5xe x 5$ eXdx = -3xe + 3f e -' dx
= 5xe x - 5ex + C = -3xe + 3(-e)+C
= 5e x( x _1) + C =-3e(x+1)+C
Method 2 -Example 59
Let v = 5x and du = ex dx Find $7xlnxdx.
So dv = 5 dx and u=e'
Integrating by parts: - Solution
Method 1
$ vdu = uv_fudv dv
Let u=Inx and —=7x
So f5 xexdx = ex(5x)_f e (5dx) dx
du 1 7x2
= 5xe x - 5$ exdx So -=- and
dx x 2
= 5xe x - 5ex + C Integrating by parts:
= 5e x( x _1) + C r dv rdu
j u - dx = uv - j vdx
- dx

- Example 58 ' So J7xhth=1nxxf-()dx

J
Find 3xedx
= 7 x 2 1nx _f x dx
- Solution 2
Method 1
dv =-x lnx-----+C
Let u = 3x and 2 22
dx
Then
du
-=3 and v=_ e _x =-x 2 Jnx--x 2 +C
dx
Integrating by parts: = x2 (21nx _1) + C
rdv rdu
I u—dx = uv- I v—dx
dx dx = x 2 (in x2 -1) + C
FM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Method 2
Let v = in x and du = 7x dx
7x2
Then dv = 1- dx and U-
X 2
Integrating by parts:
f v du = uv_J u dv
So J7xinxdx=i (In x)_S{-)dx

=-x 2 mx-- Ix dx
2
7x2
=-x lnx---+C
2 22
=-x 2 inx- -x 2+C

=x2 (2inx _1) + C

= x2 (In x2 -1)+C

- Example 60
Find 54x sin 3x dx.
- Solution
Method 1
dv
Let u = 4x and - = sin 3x
dx
du 1
Then —=4 cos
and v=-- 3x
dx 3
Integrating by parts:
r dv r du
iu — dx=uv- iv --dx
dx ' dx
So f4x sin 3x dx = 4x_i cos 3xJ_f — 2 -cos3xx4 dx

= ----xcos3x+-3JI cos 3x dx
3
4 4(1
=--xcos3x±--i sin 3x i+C
3 3'3 )
—xcos3x+sin3x+C
3 9
4 (s.
= - in 3x - 3x cos 3x) + C
 Integration II Im
Method 2
Let v = 4x and du = sin 3x dx
Then dv = 4 th and u = - - cos 3x
Integrating by parts:
$ v du = uv-$u dv
So $4xsin3xdx=-cos3xx4x-5-cos3xx4dx
3 3
4
= ---xcos3x+-J cos3x dx
3 3
4 4(1
=--xcos3x+-i -sin3x i+C
3 3t\ 3 )
= - - x cos 3x + sin 3x + C

=(sin 3x-3x cos 3x)+C

-Example 61 Method 2
5
Find 6xe2x dx. Let = 6x and
v du = e 2 dx
2x
- Solution Then dv = 6 dx and u=e
Method 1 Integrating by parts:
Let u = 6x and
dx
=e $ v du = uv - $ u dv
2x 2x
Then
du
-- =6 and
dx
V=
e
2
So $ 6xe2 c dx = - (6x) -5 —(6) dx

Integrating by parts: = 3xe2x - 35 e2x dx

$udx=uv_5vdx = 3xe2x_3_ + C

=6x(_J_$_(6)dx = 3xe2 x_ e2 x+C

= 3xe2x_3J :2xdx =e2x(2x _1) + C

2x
= Re 2x -3e
! -- J C Example 62
Find 55xe 3 ' dx.
= Re 2x - e 2 +C Solution
3 Method 1
=-e 2x(2x-1)±C
2 Let u = 5x and -dv= e 3 x
dx
du
Then—=5 and v=-
dx -3
SM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Integrating by parts: Integrating by parts:

r dv du r dv cdu
I u - dx = uv - I v - dx I u - dx = uv - I v - dx
dx •' dx dx ' dx
So 55 xe 3 x dx = 5x)_5_(5)dx So 5 4x in 7x dx = in 7x x 2x2 -5 2x dx

2x2 1n 7x _2f x dx
=--xe + -3Jfe dx
3
55(e -3x ) +C = 2x2 in 7x -2(2 +C
xe3x+ )
3 3-3 _X2
= 2x2 in 7x +C
5 -3x 5 -3x
=--xe --e +C = x2 (21n7x-1)+C
= x2 [in(7x)2 -
1]+C
= _ e 3x(3x± 1) + C
= x2 (1n49x2 -1)+C
Method 2 Method 2
Let v = 5x and du = e 3x dx Let v = in 7x and du = 4x dx
-3x
Then dv =5 dx and u= Then dv = dx and u = 2x2
-3
Integrating by parts: Integrating by parts:

5 vdu = uv_J u dv 5 v du = uv - $ u dv
Ax
So 54x1n7xdx=2x2 (In 7 x)_52x2 2)dx
So $ 5xe3x dx = -- 5_-(5) dx
= 2x2 in 7x -25 x dx
=--xex+_fe
3J dx
3.
= 2x2 in7x _2( )+C
'- X e 2
=---xe '
+-i — +C
3 3-3
= 2x2 ln7x-x2 + C
5 -3x_-3x
=--xee +C = x2 (21n7x-1)+C
= x2 {in(7x)2 -1j+C
= _ e 3x(3x+ 1) + C
= x2 (in 49x2 _1)+C
Example 63 II
Example 64 1J
Find $4xln7xdx.
Solution 5
Find x2 cos 2x dx.
Solution
Method 1
Let u = x2 and dv = cos 2x dx
Let u=ln7x and =4x
dx Then du = 2x dx and v = sin 2x
du 7 1 4x2 2
Then -=-=- and v=- = 2x2 Integrating by parts:
dx 7x x 2
5 udv = uv_5vdu
 Integration II

So $ x2 cos 2x dx = x2
(2- sin 2x) - $ - sin 2x x 2x dx
=—x2• sm2x—jxsin2xdx
2
We now need to find $x sin 2x dx.
Consider f sin 2x dx
Let v = x and du = sin 2x dx
Then dv = dx and u = - cos 2x
Integrating by parts:
J
vdu = uv_f u dv
1
So j x sm 2x dx - - cos 2x x x - jr - -i cos 2x dx
2 2
1 ir
= --xcos2x+—J cos 2x dx
2 2
1 1(1. '\
=--xcos2x+—t —sm2x i+C
2 )

= --xcos2x+— sin 2x
2 4
Hence 2 •
j x cos 2x dx = -2 x sin 2x -
1
Hxcos2x+ sin 2x i + C
4 )
=—x2•sin2x+—xcos2x--sm2x+C

= (2x2 sin 2x+2x cos 2x_ sin 2 x ) + C

-Example 65
Find $5x2e3x dx.
- Solution
Let u = 5x2 and dv = e3 dx
Then du = lOx dx and v = e 3
3
Integrating by parts:
$ u dv = uv - $ v du
So $ 5x2e3x dx = 5x2 (2- e3x) - $ - e 3' (lox) dx

=5 —2xe3x—lOr
—ixe
3
3x dx
3 J

We now need to find $ xe3 x dx

Consider $xe3x dx
SM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Let v = x and du = e3x dx -Example 66

Then dv = dx and u= Find $ 3x2 In 4x dx.
Integrating by parts: - Solution
f vdu = uv_Su dv
Let u = in 4x and dv = 3x2 .
So $ xe3xdx= -- e3 x( x )_f.- e3 xdx Then du = dx and v = x3 .
Integrating by parts:
1
=-xe3x --le
ir 3xdx
3 3J $ u dv = uv - $ v du
i i( 3x So 3x2 in 4x dx = in 4x x x3 - $ x3 (2) dx
=—xe 3x - - I- $
3 33
= x3in4x_$x2 dx
= ._ xe3 x -
3 9
=x 3 in4x--+C
Hence $ 5x2e3 x dx = x2e3 x - xe3 x - e + C 3
3 33 9 )
=(3 in 4x -1) + C
=-x 2 e
3x --xe 3x+—e 3x +C
3 9 27
= - [in(4x)3 -1] + C
= e3x(9x2 _6x +2) + C
27
=x(1n64x -1)+C

-Example 67
Find $ ex cos 2x dx
- Solution
Let v = ex and du = cos 2x dx
Then dv=&dx and u= sin 2x
Integrating by parts:
$ v du =uv_fu c
So 5ex cos 2x dx = sin 2 x(e x) 2x(exdx)

ex sin 2x__Je sin 2xdx

2 2
We now find an expression for Je' sin 2x dx.
Let v = ex and du = sin 2x dx
Then dv = ex dx and u = - cos 2x
2
 Integration II

So f e' sin 2x dx = - - cos 2x (ex) - f cos 2x ( exd

=--ex cos 2x+_Je cos 2xdx ©

2 2
Substitute the expression for Jex sin 2x dx into :
1 [_ 1 ex cos2x ± ..$ e x
Thus Jex cos2x dx = —.ex sin 2x - cos2x dx]

=—ex sin 2x+—e cos2x— 1 f ex cos2xdx+C

2 4 4
1 .
So
J e cos 2x dx + 4- J e cos 2x dx = -2 e sm 2x + -4e cos 2x + C
•
le. 5r e cos 2x dx = -l.e sm 2x + -
l
e cos 2x + C
-4 J 2 4
. 1
je cos2xdx= —I 4(1—e sin 2x+ —ex cos 2x I+C
52 4 )
= e x sin 2 x+e x cos 2x+ C

= ex(2 sin 2x±cos 2x) ± C

-Example 68
f
Find e 3' sin 4x dx
-Solution
Let v = e_3x and du = sin 4x dx
Then dv = —3e-3x dx and u = - - cos 4x
Integrating by parts:

f v du = uv—$u dv
So fe3x sin4x dx = —cos4x (e3x)_f -cos4x (_3e 3xdx
4 4
cos4x-- i4Jec cos
= --e -3x -3x 4x dx
4
We now find an expression for Je3x cos 4x dx
Let v = e_3x and du = cos 4x dx
Then dv = _3 e 3x dx and U = sin 4x

So f e 3 cos 4x dx = sin 4x (e3x) - $

x sin 4x (_3 e 3xdx)

=—e sin 4x+—4 J e m

s4xdx
4
IM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Substitute the expression for fe3x cos 4x dx into :

Thus $ e 3 x sin 4x dx = - e 3 x cos 4x - e 3 x sin 4x + $ e 3 x sin 4x dx] +

= - - e 3 x cos 4x - e sin 4x - —9 e 3 X sin 4x dx + c

4 16 16 f
So J e 3 x sin 4x dx + 169 5 e 3' sin 4x dx = -4 e 3' cos 4x - 16 e 3 x sin 4x + C
15 e 3 x 3
i.e. $ sin4x dx = _e3x cos 4x - e3x sin 4x + C
16 4 16

5
e 3 X sin 4x dx = (_ e cos 4x - e 3 x sin 4x ') +
25 4 16
c
)
=---e -3x -3x
cos4x--e sin 4x+C
25 25
= - e (4 cos 4x +3 sin 4x) + C
25
dx = e ax
Hence 5e cosbx (acosbx+bsinbx)+C
a +b2
ax
and fe ax sinbx dx= e 2 (a sin bx—b cos bx)+C.
a

Proof using De Moivre's theorem

• 5e cosbx dx = Ref e" dx where Re(e x )
=Re(cosbx+i sin bx)
=Rel __1e+Cl
a+bi j
bi
=Re[(2ab2 a2±b2)CO5b151X)]
= 2e ax
2 (a cos bx + b sin bx) + C
a +b

e(a + bi)x
• 5e sin bx dx = I. 5 dx where 'm (e" x )
1 =Im (cosbx+i sin bx)
+c1
=ImE a+bi j
=Im
fta 2 + b2 - a2±b2Je05b15mb]
eax
(a sin bx - b cos bx) + C
= a +b2
2
 Integration II WI'1

Thus $ ex cos 2x dx = Refe (1 + 2i)x dx

=Re__1
11+21
= Re [(2 1 - 12122)ex (cos 2i2x)+C]

[(1 2 f'\
= ReL _ ) e x (cos 2x+i sin 2x)+C]

=— (cos 2x+2 sin 2x)+C

And fe_3 xsin4xdx=Im Je(_3+4 dx

1
e3 + 4i)x + C
L —3+4i
= Tin 42 - (3)2±42 e 3x (cos 4x + i sin 4x) + c]

=
[-3 4i
- e"(cos 4x + i sin 4x) + Cl
1m[ 25 25
= _ X (3sin4x+4cos4x)+C

Exercise 3g )
Find each of the followi rg i itegrals using Integrate each of the following functions
integration by parts. using the method of integration by parts.
1. (a) Jx(x_2)5 th (b) 5 x(x±5)8 dx 8. (a) xex dx
5 (b) xe dx
2. (a) 5 2x(x + +3)47)6dxdx (b)
(b) $ 3x(x-4)7 dx 9. (a) J2xex dx (b) 5 5xe x dx
3. (a) 5 —5x(x 5_-4x(x_6) 5 dx 10. (a) 5_4xe dx (b) 5_7xex dx
4. (a) 53x(2x_5) 9dx (b) 5 8x(3x + 2)6 dx Use the method of integration by parts to find
the following integrals.
Use integration by parts to find each of the
following integrals. 11. (a) J4xlnx dx (b) J_7xlnx dx
5. (a) $x sin x dx (b) Jx cos x dx 12. (a) Jxlnxdx (b) f_.x1nxdx
6. (a) 5 3x cos x dx (b) 5 4x sin x dx Find each of the following integrals usin g the
7. (a) $-2x sin x dx (b) J_3x cos x dx method of integration by parts.
13. (a) f2x sin 5x dx (b) f5xcos4x dx
14. (a) $-3xcos6x dx (b) 5_8xsin7x dx
IM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Find the following integrals using integration Find using the method of integration by parts.
by parts.
23. (a) fx2ln5xdx (b) Jx2ln4xdx
15. (a) J5xe3xdx (b) J4xe_2xdx 24.(a) f2x2ln3xdx (b) f3x2ln6xcix
16. (a) f_8xe4xdx (b) 5_lOxe_5xdx
Find
Find each of the following integrals.
25. (a) f2x cos 1-xdx (b) f3x sin ixdx
17. (a) $2xln5xdx (b) J4xln6xdx
26. (a) Je' sin x dx (b) Sex cos x dx
18. (a) f_x1n6xdx (b) J_xln8xdx
Find each of the following.
27. (a) 5 ex cos xdx (b) $e_x sin xdx
28. (a) 5 e 2' sin 2xdx (b) 5e2x cos 2xdx
19. (a) Ix2 sin 3xdx (b) Ix2 cos 4 x dx (c) 5e 4' cos2xdx (d) f sin2xdx
20. (a) 5 2x2 sin 4xdx (b) 5 4x2 cos 5xdx 29. (a) fe sin 3xdx (b) 5ecos3xdx
Find using integration by parts. 30. Use the method of integration by parts to
21. (a) f3x2e2xdx (b) 54x2e_2xdx prove that
(ax+b)ln(ax+b)—ax
22. (a) $6x2e5xdx (b) flox2e5xdx fIn (ax + b) dx =
a
where x> 0.

Integration of inverse trigonometric functions

Integrals involving inverse trigonometric functions
d1. -1x)=\ 1 dx
• —(sin I =srn x + C.
dx j1_ x2 JJ1_ x2
d 1 1 r dx -1
• —(tan x)= C.
dx' / 1+x2 1+x2 =tan
dx
Consider t where a > 0.
Va X2
Let x=at => t=
a
Then dx=adt
dx dx
So
Ja2_x2 JaT(=1 )

f adt
— a1_t2
.dt
—J 1_t2
 Integration II VU

= sin' t + C = f cosOdO
cosO
=sin'+C
a =5dB
r dx
Hence j ..Ja2 _x2 = sin-' -a + C.
=:5 ifl 1 +C
r
f
• Consider I 2 dx 2
a +x
where a > 0.
r dx
a
Hence I =sin —±C.
Let x=at => =. sja2 _x2 a
a
Then dx = adt. dx
• Consider j 2 where a > 0.
So
r dx dx a +x 2
I2 1 /
a+x2 x2
a 2'I 1+-- Let x=a tan O=9=tan'.
a a
Then dx = a sec2 0 dO
fadt asec 2 OdO
r dx
— a 2 (1+t 2 ) So J 2 2j 2 2
a +x a +(a tan 0)
_lcul+t2
_dt ça sec 2 0d0
a
- a 2 + a 2 tan2 0
=1 tan 1 t+ c - çasec2OdO
—J a 2 (1+ tan 2 O)
=—tan-' —+C - 1çsec 2 OdO
a a
dx 1 1x a sec 2 0
Hence 2 2 = - tan - + C.
fa+x a a
We can also prove these two formulae by
f
= 1 dO

using a trigonometric substitution instead.

rdx
• Consider j where a> 0. =.°+ x
Va2 - x 2
_1 x tan-, —+C.
Let x=asinO=0=sin -. a a
a r dx 1 1x
Then dx=acos Ode. Hence 2 2 = - tan - + C.
a+x a a
Soç dx = ç_acosOdO When a > 0, it can be proved that:
77 —x
77 7 ' Ja2_(asin0)2 f'(x)(dx) =
• j a
- ç acosOdO Va 2 - (f(x))2
- Va 2 -a 2 sin2 0
f
= acosOdO •• f'(x)(dx) =1tan'11+C
a2 + (f(x)) 2 a a
aJ1—sin0 Further, if u is a differentiable function of x
- çcosOd0 and a > 0, then
— Jcos2 O
•
f du
=sin
ja2 _u2 a
SM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

• 1 du = .tan 1 + C. dx dx
(b) Consider $ - =$
ja2+u2 a a
-Example 69
J([)2 -
Find Let x= sin => 0= sin' --.
j dx
(a) 'j4 - Then dx='J cos 0d0.
jdx dx sjcos 0d0
(b) So
2 = (-,r3)
F 2 —( sin 0) 2
- Solution
dx dx = Jcos0d0
(a) f '.Jj1-sin0
1 V4_x2 f22 x2
- çcosOd0
= sin 1 +C —J cos20
2
= f cosOdO
(b)
1 J3x2 - cosO
= =f do
=e+c
Alternative Method = sin-'
dx dx
(a) Consider f ij4_x2 = $ 722 _x2 - Example 70
_1 x Find
Let x=2sinO=O=srn -.
fx
rd rdx
(a) I
Then dx=2cosOd8. 9+x 2 5+x2
dx 2cosode - Solution
So $
22 _ x2 $22 _(2sinO)2 rdx r dx
(a) I =1
9+x2 32 +x2
=' _ 2cosOdO
1 1x
2.jl - sin2 0 =—tan —+C
3 3
- çcos0d0 çdxç dx
b
—J cos20 j5+x2 _J()22
= f cosOdO
cosO = =tan +C
= $do Alternative Method
=e+c r dx r dx
(a) Consider I =I
• lx 9 + x2 32 +x2
sin-' +C
2 Let x=3 tan O=0=tan.
3
 Integration II

Then dx = 3 sec2 0 dO. Solution

dx 3sec 2 OdO r3dx r3dx
So $ 32 +X2 = 32 (a) If =1J
(3 tan 0)2 j16-9x 14' —(R)2
3sec 2 OdO 1 3x
= f 32 2) =sln
4

1 çsec 2 OdO If u=3x

-

then du=3dx
3 sec2 0 2dx
2dx ç_ _________
(b) $ 7 — 4x2 — J
=Jd0
3 ~( r )2 — (2x)2
3 = sm

=– tan -1 —+
x If u = 2x
3 3 then du = 2 dx
Alternative Method
(b) Consider .15 ±x2 = x 3dx 3dx
(a) Consider f__ = j
J16 — 9x2 j42 (3x)2 -

Let
V-5 x
Then Let 3x=4sm0='0=sm 1 -.

4
. JgSC299 Then 3dx=4 cos 0d0.
dx
So JJ ( =J (5) 2 + ( ,F5 tan 0) 2 3dx r4cosOd0
(r)2 + 2 So
i (3x)2 Jj42(4 sin o)2
ç ,Jsec20d0
—J (.J)2(1+ ç4cos0d0
tan 2O)
-

— J 4sj_ jfl2 Ø

1 çsec 2 0d0 - ç cos 0d0

=jgJ sec20
Vcos 0
-

=- f dO = f cosOdO
cosO
=i0+c +dO0
=O+c
1 1 x
= — tan — +C • 1 3x
s in
4
Example 71 '1 2dx 2dx
(b) Consider $ J7 4x2 = f
Find -

J(T)2 — (2x)2
r 3dx I_2dx
(a) (b)
j J16_9x2 V74x Let
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Then 2dx = cos edO. Then 2 dx =3 sec2 0 dO.

So j
2dx -ç 'Jcos0d8 So 1 2dx
32 +(2X)2 $32
3 sec 2 OdO
+(3 tan 8)2
- (2x)2 - - ( T sin r 3sec2 OdO
= sfi cos ede J 32( fl2)
f fiii - sin2 e 1 sec 2 0dO
- çcos0d0 sec2 0
- cos = 2 Jd0
=f cosOdO 3
cosO
+0 3
2x
=O+C --it -1 —+c
3 3
• 1 2x 3dx 3dx
sm
=
(b) Consider f 5+ 9x2 1() +(3X)2
-Example 72 3x
Let 3x=-Jtan0=0=tan
Find
r2dx r3dx 3dx = ,,/g S2 OdO
(a) I (b) I
9+4x 2 5+9x 2 3dx ,J sec2 0d8
- Solution So $ (T)2 +(3 X)2 f(r)2 + ( tan 0)2
2dx 2dx
(a) 19+4X2 If u 2
$32 +(2x)2 sec20d0
1 1 2x
=—tan —+C
then =2 dx
= SJ (T)2
(i + tan 2 o)
3 3
3dx 3d 1 sec 2 Od8
(b) 1 5+9X2 _$(T)2()2 If u=3x
then du = 3 dx
sec2 8

1 13x =J-5do
= —tan —+C

=ie+c
Alternative Method
2dx 2dx =itan1+C
(a) Consider 19 + 4x2 = 132 + (2x) 2

Let 2x= 3 tan 0 = 0= tan-' 2x

 Integration II

Partial fractions: Distinct quadratic factors

Example 73 ;ii
Find dx
(3x - 1)(x2 + 1)
Solution
5 A Bx+C
Let +
(3x-1)(x2 +1) 3x-1 x2 +1
Multiply each term by (3x - 1)(x2 + 1):
5 A(x 2 + 1) + (Bx + C)(3x - 1)
10
Let x= 1-; 5=—A
3 9

2
Let x=0; 5=A-C
C=-5=-
2 2
Let x=1; 5=2A+2B+2C
So 2B=5-9+1
B=-
2
9 3 1
Thus ____ 2 +_2 2
(3x - 1)(x 2 + 1) 3x-1 x2 + 1
1 X 1
So $ (3x-1 )(x2 +1)
dx=5_
2 3x-1
dx_.$_ dx_J
2 x2 +1 2 x2 +1
dx

9 ir 3 3 lr2x ir 1
=-x- dx--x-I dx--i dx+C
2 3' 3x-1 2 2 x2 +1 2 1+x2
= lnl3x_11_lnk2 +1_tan1 x+C

= lnI3x_1_lnx2 +1_tan1 x+C

ii (3x-1)6
=-iln
1
-2tan-1xi+C
L (x2+1)3 ]
Example 746A
r 3x+4
FindI dx.
' (2x +1)(x2 +1)
Solution
3x+4 A Bx+C
Let +
(2x+1)(x2 +1) 2x+1 x2+1
IM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Multiply each term by (2x + 1)(x2 + 1):

3x+4_=A(x2 + 1) + (Bx + C)(2x + 1)
Equating the coefficients of x 2 A + 2B = 0
:

Equating the coefficients of x: B + 2C = 3 ©

Equating the constant terms: A +C=4 ©
From (1: A=4-C
From: 2B-C=-4 ©
4B-2C=--8
5B=-5
B=-1
From (D: A=2
From Z: C=2
So 3x+4 2 -x+2
+
(2x+1)(x 2 +1) 2x+1 x2 +1
r 3x+4 2 x
I dx = rI' dx - rI dx + rI
2
dx
(2x+1)(x2+1) 2x+1 ' x+1 x2 +1
2 2x 1
_ dx-J_
j 2x+1 2 x2 +1 dx+2f_ dx
1+x2
=1nI2x+1l_lnx 2 +1+2arctanx+C

=[21nJ2x+il_1nx 2 +1+4arctanx]+C
ii (2x+1)2
=-iln 1
+4arctanxi+C
2L x2+1 ]
-Example 75WA
r2x-3
Fmdi-' 2 +1 dx
4X
- Solution
2x-3 2x -
J 4x2 +1
dx- 4x2+1 4x2+1) dx
_lj8x
4 TX--2-+-1dx- 3-f 2
2 1+(2x)2
dx

= In 14X 2 +1-arctan2x+C
4 2
= 1n(4x2+1)_ arc tan 2x+C
4 2
 Integration II IM

-Example 76
r5x-2
Fmdi dx
' 9x2+4
- Solution
r5x-2 r5x r-2
j 9x2 +4 dx=j dx+j dx
9x2 +4 9x2 +4
5r18x ir 3
=—i dx-2x-i 22+ dx
18 ' 9x 2 + 4 3 (3x)2
= 1n 9x2 +4-(arctan +C
18 3'2 2)
= 1n(9x2 +4)-arctan+C
18 3 2

Integration of inverse trigonometric functions

The integration of inverse sine function is investigated below.
Prove that $sinlxdx = xsin' x+j1_x2 +C.
Proof: Let u = sin-' x and dv = dx
1
Then du= dxand v=x
Integrating by parts:
$ udv=uv_$vdu
1.-i 1
So jsin xdx=sin xxx - jxi )dx
i1_ x2

=xsin l x _$ x 1 dx
I Vi-x2 )
1
We now need to find $ xl dx.
V1x2 )
Let t=1-x2
Then dt = -2x dx = x dx = - -
dt
2
__ dt
So $xI dxl=J- ----
k1_x2 ) 2J
1 ç dt
-

=
 Im Pure Mathematics for CAPE

1t
21

=-
= _V1_ x2
And j sin' x dx = x sin-' x - (— Vi - x2 ) +

D
Hence $sinl xdx = xsin 1 x+V1_x2 +C.
The integration of inverse cosine function is investigated below.
Prove that Jcosl xdx = xcos1 x_,.J1_x2 +C.
Proof: Let u = cos-1 x and dv = dx.
-1
Then du = dx and v = x
Integrating by parts:
5 u dv = uv - vdu
1
So $cosl xdx = cos -' xxx _Jx(_ dx
Vi-x
=xcoslx+fxI 1 dx

= x cos x + (— Vi - x2 ) +
Hence Jcos- 1 xdx = xcos1 xV1_x2 +C.
• The integration of inverse tangent function is investigated below.
Prove that 5 tan-lx dx xtan1 x_ln(1+x2)+C.
Proof: Let u = tan-1 x and dv = dx
1
Then du= dxand v=x
1+x2
Integrating by parts:
5
vdv = uv-$vdu
Softanlxdx=tanlxxx_Jx1+X2 1 dx
k.
1
=xtan x— ri x dx
' i+x2
 Integration II

-1 ir2x
=xtan x--i dx
2' 1+x2
= xtan x _l1n l+ x2 +C
2
r 1 1 1 2
Hence J tan x dx = x tan x - - 2in 1 + x + C.

Partial fractions: Repeated quadratic factors

Example 77 'IJ
2
Find i th.
' (x2+1)2
Solution
3x2 -4 Ax+B Cx+D
Let
(x 2 +1)2 x2+1 + (x2+1)2
Multiply each term by (x 2 + 1)2 :
3x 2 -4 (Ax + B)(x 2 + 1)+ Cx+ D
Equating the coefficients of x 3: A =O
Equating the coefficients of x 2 : B = 3
Equating the coefficients of x: A + C = 0
C=0
Equating the constant terms: B + D = —4
D=-7
3x2- 4 3 7
0
(x2+ 1)2 = x2 + 1 - (x2+ 1)2
r3x 2 -4 r7
... I dx=ir3 dx—i dx
' (x+1)2 ' x2+1 ' (x2+1)
__ r 1
=3J x2 +1 dx-7J (x2 +1)2 dx
=3 tan- lx_75 1
xsec2OdO
(sec2 O)2
de
=3 tan- x_7f
sec2 O
=3 tan' x —7$ cos 2 e dO Let x = tan 0
Then dx = sec 2O dO
=3 tan x - 7$ (cos 20+1) dO So x2 + 1 = tan20 + 1
2 = sec 29
=3tan'x_J (cos 2O+1)d0 Since cos 20 = 2 cos 2 0-1
7(1 Then cos2 0= (cos 20+1)
=3tanx--I —sin20+0 I+C 2
2 \2 )
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

= 3tan 1 x-(x2sinOcos9+O ')+C x

22 ) 'y

=3tan x--sinOcosO--O+C 1
2 2
1 Since x = tan 9
=3tan1x_( _X _tan1x+C X
2jx2 +1 Vx2
+1) 2 Then sinO=
J2 +1
1 x 1
=3tan —1 x-3-tan—1 x--i i+C and cos9=
2 2x2 +1) jx2 +1
1 7x Also 9 = tan x
--tan —1 x- +C
2 2(x2 +1)

Exercise 3h
Find each of the following indefinite integrals.
r dx dx 5dx 6dx
1.(a) i
sJ9_X2
(b) j
V16_ x2
12. (a) $ - 25x2
(b) j
49 - 36x2
dx ç dx 2dx 3d
i25_ x2
(b) j
j49_x2 13. (a)
S4X2
(b) $ 10_9x2
r dx r dx 7dx 8dx
3.(a)J
J5_X2
(b)J
V7_x2
14. (a) $
13 - 49x2
(b) f
17 - 64x 2
dx . dx 6dx 7dx
(b) j 15. (a) (b) j
J10 _ X2 i15 _X2 S11_16x2 15_81x2
çdx r dx Find
5.(a) j (b) I
i12_ x2 V18_ x2 3dx 7dx
1
16. (a) I 4+9x2 (b)
$ 16+49x2
Find each of the following integrals.
rdx r dx 17. (a) 4dx (b) 6dx
6.(a) (b) i
16+x2 $ 25+16x2 $ 49+36x2
dx dx 4dx 7dx
7.(a)J _
25+x2
(b) _f 64+x2
18. (a)
$
7+16x2
(b)
f 1O+49x2
rdx r dx 5dx 8dx
8.(a)J
7+x 2 (b)j
13+x 2
19. (a)
f
17+25x2
(b)
$
26+64x2
6dx 5dx
9.(a) j dx (b) _dx
I 20. (a) (b)
12+x2 18+x2 10+4x2 $ 7+16x2
10. (a) ç _dx (b) i _dx Find the integrals given below.
20+ X2 28+x2 2
21.(a)J _ dx
Find the following integrals. (5x+2)(x2 +i)
2dx 3dx dx
(b)J
11. (a) j_
J16_4X2
(b) _$ J25_9x2 (4x+3)(x2 +i)
 Integration II

-2
22. (a) j. dx (b) dx
(2x - 5)(X2 + i) '( 3x - 4)(x2 + i)
6
23.(a) $_8dx (b) $(3x _2)(x2 +1) dx
(4x _3)(x2 + 1)

24. (a) 5 (5x +2)(x2 +1) dx (b) J(4x+ 1)( x2 + 1) dx

50 -61
25 (a) 5 (7x+ 1)( x2 + 1) dx (b) $
(6x +5)( x2 +1)
dx

Find
2x +7 3x+8
26. (a) 5 _
(4x+ 1)( x2 + 1)
dx (b) $ (6x _1)( x2 +1)
dx

4x_ 5x-2 dx
27. (a) 5_(4x _3)( x2 +1)
dx (b) j
(5x +3)( x2 +1)
5- 2x 3x
28. (a)$_
(4x+ 3)( x2 + 1)
dx (b) $ (6x _1)( x2 +1) dx
r-2x-3 r -3x-4
29. (a) j (4x _3)(x2 + 1) dx (b) j dx
(4x-5)(x 2+1)

30. (a)j_2x
+1dx
3x+2
(b) j (x _1)(x2 +9) dx
(2x _1)( x2 +4)

Find each of the following integrals.

2x-1 dx
31. (a) $
4x2+1
(b) j 9X2+1
3x-1 dx
2x+3 dx 4x-1 'dx
32. (a) $
16x2 +1
(b) $25x2 +1
3x+2 dx j 2x-3
33. (a) $ (b) Cix
2x2 +1 3x2 +1
3x_ 4x+
34. (a) j
4x2 +1
dx (b) $5x +1
dx
5x+2 dx 8x+5dx
35. (a) $
6x2 +1
(b) $25x +1
Find each of the following indefinite integrals.
2x+5dx
36 (a) $
25x2 +1
(b) j 3x-7 dx
9x2 +1
4x+1 j 5x_
37. (a) j dx (b) dx
9x2 +1 4x2+1
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

38. (a) j _6x —5

25x2 +1
dx (b)
$_7x —3 dx
16x2 +1
_3— 4x dx _2— 5x
39. (a)
5 1+16x2
(b) j
1+25x2
dx

_4— 7x _8x+5
40. (a)
5 1+49x2
dx (b) j
16x2 +1
dx
Find
x2+3 x2-2
41. (a) $_(x2 + 1)2 dx (b) $_ + dx
(x2 1)2
3x2+2 dx 2x2-3 dx
j (x2
42. (a)
$ (x +1) (b)
+1)2
2x2+4 dx 2x2-5 dx
43. (a)
$ (x2+ 1)2 (b) $ (x2+ 1)2
3x24 dx 3x2+4 dx
44. (a)
$ (X 2 + 1) (b) S
(x +1)
4x2+1 5x2-2
45. (a)
$_(x2 +1)2 dx (b) j
(x2 +1)2
dx

Prove that:
46. 52 sin-' x dx =2 (x sin -' x + V1_-x2 ) + c
2x+ 1_4x2
47. (a) $sin' 2xdx = xsin 1

(b) $6sin1 3xdx = 6xsin 1 3x+2V1_9x2 +C

16x +
48. (a) fcosl 4x dx = x cos 1 4x -

(b) $12 cos 1 6x dx = 12x cos 1 6x - 2J1 - 36x2 + C

49. J4tan xdx = 4xtan 1 x _21n (1 +x2 ) + C

50. (a) 56t an 1 3xdx = 6x tan-' 3x—ln(1+9x2 )+C

(b) J3taifl 4xdx = 3xtan 1 4 x -1n(1 + 16x2 ) + C

Integration by reduction formula

A reduction formula is a general formula which is normally derived using integration by parts,
although other methods of integration can be applied. The formula is represented by the notation
I, which is an integral involving a variable n and usually another variable x.
A reduction formula is a type of recurrence relation.
 Integration II Ea
-Example 78
sin xCos xn__I
(a) Prove that if I =$ sin xdx, then J
' 2 forn ~!2,nEz.
(b) Hence, find

(i)
J Sm6 x dx (ii)
J sin' x dx
-Solution
(a) Consider I = sin n x dx
f
Then I =f sin 1 x . sinx dx
Let u = Sinn-1 x and dv = sin x dx
So du = (n 1) srn 2 x(cos x)dx
- and v = —cos x
Integrating by parts:

$ u dv = uv - $v du

i.e. sin x sin x dx = sin n-1 x(— cos x) cos x• (n—i) sin 2 x(cos x) dx
= - sin n- 1 x cos x + (n i)f sin n-2 x cos2 x cLx
-

= -
sin` x cos x + (n - 1)5 sin n-2 x (i sin x) dx
-

= - sin n- 1 x cos x + (n - i)J sin n-2 x dx (n i)$ sin x sin

- - x dx

5 sin n x dx = - sin 'x cos x + (n - i)f dx (n —1)5 sin n x th

-

= 5 sing x dx + (n i)f sing x th =

- - sin n- 1 x cos x + (n - 1)5 sin -2 x dx
=> nJ sin n x dx = - sin n- 1 x cos x + (n - 1)5 sin n-2 x dx

r . sin' x cos x n - 1 r
i n x dx + s in x dx
Js =-
J sin
1I 2
Hence I for 2,ner.

(b) (I) Consider 5 sin x dx = '6 where n =6.

sin 5 xcosx 5
Then '6
6 6
sin xcosx 3
1=—
4 +—I
42
4
sin cosx i
I.2 =- +—Io
2 2
And Io= J sino x dx

=Jidx
I'MiI Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Thus '6
=-
sin' x cos x +—
5 ( sin3 x cos x
I J 5
j +_x_ -
(
3 sin x cos x
J
5 3 1
+ – x – x–x+C
6 4 2
1. 5
6xdx=__sm 5 15 15
Hence
5 sin 6
xcosx--sin xcosx------sinxcosx+--x+C
24 48 48
5.6 1 5 5 5
Hence sin xdx=--sin xcosx---sin 3 xcosx---sinxcosx+—x+C
6 24 16 16
It
- IL

°5 2
o 1-6
5 15 51
sin6 xdx=–sin xcosx--sin 15
xcosx--sinxcosx+—x I
24 16 16 ]

= 1 ( )]j (0)
,,

[16216
Sic
32

Since cos =0 and sin 0 = 0.

2
-Example 79
(a) Derive a reduction formula for the indefinite integral
in =
5 co? xdx.
(b) Hence, find

(i) 5 cos 5 x dx (ii) 5 cos5 x dx

Solution
(a) Consider I n= 5co? xdx
Then I =5cos1x. COS x dx
Let u = co? - and dv = cos x dx
So du = (n - 1)cos 2 x(–sinx)dx and v = sin
Integrating by parts:
$udv=uv_fvdu
i.e. $co?_1 x COS xdx = COS' - 1 x(sinx)_5 sin x .(n —1)cos 2 x(— sin x)dx
= cos 1 xsinx+(n _1)f cos 2 x sin 2 xdx
= co? x sin x + (n - 1)5 co? —2 x(1 - cos 2 x) dx
= co? 1 x sin x + (n –1)5 cos 2 x dx - ( n –1)5 co? —2 x cos2 x dx

J co? xdx = cos' xsinx+(n_1)$cos2 xdx_(n-_1)$co? xdx

 Integration II

=> 5cos x dx + ( n – 1)f COSn xdx = cos 1 x sin x+(n_i)5 Cos' 2 xdx

= COSn x dx = cos' - 1 x sin x + ( n — 1)J cos 2 x dx

nf
r COSXS1IIX n–ir n-2
jcos xdx= + Jcos xdx
= COS x sin X fl–i1
Hence in + f > 2,n E
(b) (1) Consider $ cos5 x dx =15 where n =5.
Cos 4 x sin x 4
Then I =
5 5
Cos 2 xsinx 2
1=
3 +–I
31
3
And I =$cosxdx
= sin x
cos4 x sin x 4 (cos2 x sin x 4 2
Thus 15 = +— i+–x–(smx)+C
5 5'.. 3 ) 5 3
1• 8
=–cos xsmx+—cos2• xsmx+—sinx+C
5 15 15
.2 41 •2 \ 8
=–(1---srn X) smx+—(1–sm xlsmx+—smx+C
5\ 15 / 15
=- (i –2 sin 2 x + sin4 x) sin x + -i- (1– sin x) sin x + sin x + C
5 15 15
1. 2. 3 1. 5 4. 4. 3 8.
=–smx--sm x+–sm x+—sinx--sin x+—smx+C
5 5 5 15 15 15
1. 5 2. 3
=–sm x--sin x+sinx+C
5 3
It
2 -
5 1
xdx = .sin5 –sin3 x+ sin x
fCos
0 10
=1 – sm ---sm –+sm–i–[O]
L5 2 3 2
= [1 (i) — ( i) + 1
[5 3

=
[5 3
8
15
I1 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

-Example 80 '1J
(a) Given that I = Jtan xdx, obtain a reduction formula for I.
(b) Hence, find

(i) 5tan xdx (ii) Jtan6 xdx

- Solution
(a) Consider I = $ tan' x dx
Then I = $ tan x tan' x dx
n-1
= 5 tan x (sec' x i) dx -

tan n-1 x sec' x dx tan` x dx

=5 -5
= tan
So In 'n-2 forn ~! 2,n E
(b) (i) Consider $ tan' x dx = 1 6 where n =6.
Then I6= tan5x
14
tan x
14
= tan xl0
12
And Io= ftanb x dx
= dx

Thus 1 6 =tanx-tan+tanx-x+C
It

f tan xdx =fl tan 5X_1 tan x+tanx-xl

[5 3 io
[1 5 it 1 3 it it it]
=1 -tan ---tan -+tan---
[5 4 3 4 4 4]

= F[5 (i) - -

3
(i) +1-
4
[1 1 it
=1
[5 3 4
13 it
15 4
 Integration II

- Example 81
(a) J
Given that I, = sec x dx, prove that the reduction formula
sec 2 x tan x n-2 +
I + 2 for n ~ 2,nE7Z
n—i n—i
(b) Hence, find

(i) J sec x dx (ii) $ sec5 x dx

- Solution

J
(a) Consider I n = secn x dx
Then I =Jsecn_2xsec2xth
Let u=sec 2 x and dv=sec2 xdx
So du = (n — 2) sec7' x sec x tan x dx and v = tan x
= (n — 2)sec 2 x tan xdx
Integrating by parts:
$ udv=uv—Jvdu
i.e. $ sec xn_2x sec 2 xdx = sec 2 x.tanx_5tanx.(n_2)sec_2 xtanxdx
-

= sec 2 x tan x — (n — 2)$ sec 2 x tan x dx

= sec 2 x tan x — (n — 2)f sec 2x(sec 2 x - i) dx

= sec 2 x tan x — (n — 2)f sec" 2 x• sec2 x dx + (n — 2)J sec 2 x dx
i n = sec -2 x tan x (n — 2)I + (n -
-
2)I -2
I +(n-2)I = sec 2 xtanx+(n-2)i_2
(n—i)I = sec '
- 2
x tan x+(n-2)I_2
2 x tan x n-2
sec +
I = + -2 for n ~ 2,nE7Z
n—i n—i
(b) (i) Consider $ sec 5 xdx =15 where = 5.
sec xtanx 3
Then I = +—I
4 4
sec x tan x i
1= +—I1
2 2
And 11 =f sec xdx
= ln(sec x + tan x)
sec x tan x 3 sec x tan x i 3
Thus '6
+— +—x—]n(secx+ tan x)+C
4 4 2 24
i 3 i3 i 3
sec xtanx+—x—secxtanx+—x— ln (sec x+ tan x)+C
4 24 24
=sec xtanx+ sec x tan x+1n(secx+ tan x)+C
4 8 8
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

It

f sec 5 xdx Fisec3 xtx+ sec x tan x+1n (sec x+ tan x)l
L4 8 8 Jo
Ii 3 it it 3 it it 3 it iti
=L_s —tan—+—sec—tan—+—ln(sec----+tan—j—{O]

= +i+in(*i+i)

= J+in(sJ+i)
- 7ñ+31fl(si1)
8
- Example 82 WI
(a) Derive a reduction formula for
I= f x'e'dx.
(b) Hence, find
(I) $xexdx (ii) Jxexdx

Solution
(a) $
Consider I = xnexdx.
Let v=x and du = ex dx
Then dv = nX n dx and u = ex
Integrating by parts:

5 v du = uv $ u dv -

So J xn exdx = e x(xn) _Jex nx1dx

= xn ex _ n5f_l exd x

In
= xe' - n I n -j for n ~! 1, n E

(b) (i) Consider 5 x4e'dx =14 where n =4.

Then I4 =x4e' —413
= x4e x —4(X 3 ex — 312 )
= x4e x —4X 3 ex +12(x2ex —2I)
2
= x4e' 4x3ex + 12X ex - 24(xe' I)
-
-

= x4ex - 4X 3 ex + 12x2ex 24xex + 24e' + C

-

= e x (x4 - 4X 3 + 12X 2 24x + 24) + C

-

Since J, =Jx0&dx=51.e'dx=e'
 Integration II I'Mi

$xexdx =[e3 (34 —4x3 3 +12x32_24x3+24)]_[e1(14 —4x13 +12x12 _24x1+24)]

= e3 (81-108+108-72 + 24) e (1-4+12-24+24)

-

= 33e3 —9e

- Example 83
(a) If I =5x
n e_2xdx, find a reduction formula for I.

(b) Hence, find 3

x3e2cdx
(1) $ (ii) xe2dx 5
- Solution
(a) Consider I =5xne_2cdx
Let v = Xn and du = e_2x dx
Then dv = nx 1 dx and u = e2x -

2
Integrating by parts:

5 vdu=uv-fudv
e2X (X) -2x
So 5 xe 2'dx = -
-5- nx'dx

=--xn e -2x + — njx

c n-i -2x
e dx

= _xe +nI 1 for ~ ! 1,n E

(b) (i) Consider 5 x3e 2 xdx =13 where n =3.

1 3( 1 2 -2X3( 1 -2x 3 i( 1 -2x
Then I =--x e -2x +—i --Xe i—i --Xe i+—x—i --e i+C
2 22 )22 )222 )
1 3 3
=--e -2x (I x3 +—x 2+—x+— i+C
2 2
'. 2 4)
= 1 e2X (4x + 6X 2 + 6x +3) + C

Since T = $ e 2xdx = 51. e 2xdx = _ e 2x .

e2x (4X 3 + 6X 2 + 6x+ 3)

(ii)
5 X3e_2xdX = [_
=[_e(1O8+54+18+3)]_[_..e2(4+6+6+3)]
I:Ii Pure Mathematics for CAPE

=e (183)1_ e-2 (19)

[_
183 19 -2
= --- e + — e
8 8
= 19 e ----e
8 8
-Example 84
(a) Prove that if I = $ (in x) '1 dx, then the corresponding reduction formula is
= x (in x) - n for n ~! 1, n E
(b) Hence, find 10
(i) f (in x)3dx (ii) J (in x)3 dx
- Solution
(a) Consider I n = $ (in x)dx
Let v = (In x)11 and du = dx
Then dv = n (in x)n1 (2- Jdx and u =x

=- (in x) dx
X
Integrating by parts:

$ vdu = uv_Judv
_f
So f (in x) dx = x (in x) x (in x) dx
x (in x) _n$ (in x)dx
=
I = x (in x) n for n ~! 1, n E
-

(b) (1) Consider f (In x) 3dx = 13 wheren =3,

Then 13 = x (In X) _3x (In x): +3x2(xlnx - x)
=x (In x) -3x(lnx) +6xlnx-6x+C
= x [(in x)3 -3 (in x)2 +6 in x -6] + C
(ii) J (in x)3 dx = [x (in x)3 3x (in x)2 + 6x in x 6x] 5
- -

5)3 5)2
10 [(in 10) -3 (in 10)2 +6 in 10-6] -5 [(in -3 (in +6 in 5-6]
=10(12.21-15•91+13•82-6)-5(4•17-7•77+9•66-6)
= 41.2-0.3
= 40.9
 Integration II SM

Exercise 31 PP
1. (a) Prove that if I $sin mxdx, then
-1
in = - sing ' mx cos mx + n 'n-2 for n >- 2, n E
mn n
(b) Hence, find
(i) $sin 4 2xdx (ii) J sin 4 2xdx

2. (a) Derive a reduction formula for the indefinite integral I = $ CoSn mx dx.
(b) Hence, find Ir

(1) $cos 3xdx (ii) Jcos 3xdx

= tan mx
3. (a) Prove that if I = Jtanhl mxdx, then J _ for ~ 2,n E
m(n -1)
(b) Hence, find
It
(i) $ tan 4xdx (ii) $ tan 6 4x dx

4. (a) Given that I = $ sec nix dx, prove the reduction formula
sec -2 mx tan mx n -2 +
I = + I n2 forn ~ 2,nE7Z
m(n-i) n-i
(b) Hence, find
(i) Jsec 2xdx ( 2xdx

5. (a) Given that I = f x sin x dx, derive the reduction formula

I =-f cos x+nx 1 sin x-n(n-i)I 2 for n ~!2,nE7t.
(b) Hence, find
(i) $x 3 sin xdx (ii) 5x 3 sin xdx

6. (a) Derive a reduction formula for I = $ x cos x dx.

(b) Hence, find
(i) Jx cos xdx f x3 cos xdx
7. (a) Given that I = $ xedx, prove that the reduction formula
xe'
In =
T
for ~ ! i,n E=- Z + .
a a
IM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

(b) Hence, find

(i) $ xedx (ii) f x3e4'dx
8. (a) If I = $ xne_xdx, find a reduction formula for I.
(b) Hence, find
(1) 5 xedx (ii) 5 x4edx
9. (a) Prove that if I = 5(1 - x)&'dx, then the corresponding reduction formula is
I = (1— e + I n -1 for n ,n E

(b) Hence, find

(i) $ (1— x)3e2xdx (ii) 5(1— x)3 e 2xdx
10. (a) Given that I = f x (In x) dx, derive the reduction formula
2
I —(lflX \)fl --- I
X1 fl

2 2
(b) Hence, find
(i) f (In x)3dx (ii) $x (In x) 3 dx

Trapezium rule
Consider the graphs of the two continuous functions shown below.
1/ y

We can find the approximate area under each graph, enclosed by two vertical lines, x = a
and x = b, and the x-axis.
 Integration II MI
To evaluate this area, we consider a number of trapeziums of equal heights (strips of equal
widths):

:9

V'l
T-` li
0 x0 =a x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 =6
-
1
I

r 1 Y3 1/4 ij= yn

0 x 0 =a x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 = X

Overestimate case Underestimate case

The number of trapeziums = n
In this case the number of trapeziums = 5.
The number of y-coordinates = n + 1.
In this case, the number of y-coordinates = 6.
h=b-a
The height of a trapezium (width of a strip),

In the diagrams:
h=x1 —x 0 -x 2 —x 1 =x3 —x 2 =x4 —x 3 =x5 —x 4 .

The lengths of the sides of the trapeziums are:

YO' Y11 Y2' y31 y4 and y5
These are all y-coordinates on their respective curve.
In each case:
The sum of the areas of the five trapeziums:

=h(y0 +y1 +y1 +y2 +y2 + 3+ 3 +Y 4 +Y4 +Y5 )

=h[(y0 +Y5)+ 2(y, +Y4)]

In general:
the sum of the areas of the trapezium:
A = h [(y0 + y ) + 2(Y + Y2 +- +

Case 1:
When the graph of the function is a continuous curve which is concave downwards, then
this approximation method will give an overestimate of the exact area.
Case 2:
When the graph of the function is a continuous curve which is convex upwards, then this
approximation method will give an underestimate of the actual area.
The greater the number of trapeziums (strips) used, then the more accurate is the evaluated
area to the exact area.
FM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

-Example 85 O

(a) Estimate the value of the definite integral Jx2dx, using the trapezium rule with
(i) 5 ordinates (ii) 6 ordinates
(b) Evaluate J xdx using definite integration.
- Solution
(a) (I) The number of ordinates =5
.. the number of trapeziums, n =5 - 1 =4.
The height of each trapezium, h = b—a
n
5-1
4

I
Since f(x) = x2
Then f(1)=1 2 = 1 = y0
f(2)=22 = 4 = y1
f(3)=32 = =
f(4)=42 = 16 = y3
And f(5) = 52 = 25 = y4
The sum of the areas of the four trapeziums:
A_— h[(y0 +y4)+2(y1+y2+y3 +y4)]

= x1[(1+25)+2(4+9+16)]

= .[(26)+2(29)]

= 13 + 29
=42 square units

Hence fx2dx 42

The required area is approximately 42 square units.

(ii) The number of ordinates =6
the number of trapeziums, n = 6 - 1 =5
'7
The height of each trapezium, h

4
5
 Integration II IM
Since f(x) = x2
Then f(1)=12 =1 =y0
)2
=
(14
= =
f(1*)
f(2)=(2) =6 =Y2
)2
2) 2 14
f (3 + =11 = Y3

f(4.)=(4j) =17 Y4
And f(5) =52 =25 = y5
The sum of the areas of the five trapeziums:
A=_h[yo +y5 +2(yi + y 2 +y3 +y4 )]

=—x—1 (1+25)+21 3—+6—+11—+17—

1 41 6 19 14 16 )]
2 5[ 25 25 25. 25
= F26+2(39
'\ 5
- 2 26+78 2)
5' 5
= (1o4
5 5
= 41 square units
25
19
Hence I xdx = 41-
25
The required area is approximately 41 square units.

(b) Sx2dx=[x3 ]
(i)]
= [ (5)3] - [..
125 1
- 3 3
124

41 13 units

The required area is exactly 44 square units.

IM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Exercise 3j

1. (a) Estimate the value of the definite integral 5x3 dx, using the trapezium rule with
(1) 5 ordinates (ii) 6 ordinates 2
(b) Evaluate $ x3 dx using definite integration.
2. (a) Estimate the value of the definite integral sin x dx, using the trapezium rule with
(i) 5 ordinates (ii) 6 ordinates o

(b) Evaluate 5 sin x dx using definite integration.

0 3n

3. (a) Estimate the value of the definite interval

(1) 4 intervals (ii) 5 intervals
$ cos x dx, using the trapezium rule with
3m 2

(b) Evaluate 5 cos x dx using definite integration.

(1) 4 intervals (ii) 5 intervals o
5
4. (a) Estimate the value of the definite interval tan x dx, using the trapezium rule with

(b) Evaluate 5tan x dx using definite integration.

5. Use the trapezium rule with 6 strips to find an approximate value of

(a) Jxexdx (b) 5xedx

6. Use the trapezium rule with 5 strips to find an approximate value of

(a) $xe2xdx (b) $xe2xdx

7. Use the trapezium rule with 4 strips to find an approximate value of

(a) Jex2 dx (b) Je 2 dx

8. Use the trapezium rule with 6 intervals to find an approximate value of
7 10

(a) J(x+lnx) dx (b) f(x—lnx) dx

9. Use the trapezium rule with 5 intervals to find an approximate value of

8 10 1

(a) j x ln x dx (b) j - x in x dx
3 5

10. Use the trapezium rule with 4 intervals to find an approximate value of

(a) 5_—dx (b) 5-dx

2 inx 3
x
 Integration II Sm

dy
1 If = Cos 3x, then y =
dx
(a) 7 cos3x±C -(b) sin3x+C- . . . .

(c) - sin 3x + C (d) cos 3x + C

(a) --_ (b) - (c) (d)

72- . 9. ..72.:.. .......... .9 . ... . .
3 JVx+idx

(a) (b) (c) - (d) 2

3 3 3

4 ' dx=
$ _1+x2
-
(a) .7x --7+ C (b) +C (c) 7 arc tan x + C (d) 7 In (1 +x 2) + C
x (1+x) 2
5
rx-5
J1 x 2 dx=
(a) (b) 1n5-4 (c) - (d) 1n5+4
5 5
6. 2x
V1_x2
(a) 14 (b) 2s x (c) -2 (d) 2
7t - - --- - ------

7 J2tan2 x dx

it
(c) 2-

8 Jsin (2x+5)dx=
(a) - sin(2x + 5) (b) - cos(2x +5) (c) cos(2x + 3) (d) sin(2x + 5)
Em Pure Mathematics for CAPE

9. If 5(ex)dx = f
then (e 2 )dx =

(a) 2e- (b) 2e- (c) 4e— (d) 8e-.-

If dx
10

(a) 2(J-1) (b) 2(/_1) (c) 2(J+1) (d) 2(J+1)

11. fx sin xdx=
(a) sinx+xcosx+C (b)sinx-xcosx+C
(C) -sin x + x cos x + C (d) cosx+C
7t 2
12. 5xsinxdx=
12
(a) -t (b) 7t (c) 0 (d)
13. $xcosxdx=
(a) xsinx+cosx+C (b)xsinx-cosx+C
(c) —x sin x + cos x + C (b)
1 x2sin x + C
-

7t

14. Jxcosxdx=

(a) (2-it) (b) (c) (d)

3x =
15.1
(x+2)(x-1)
(a) lnlx -1I --21nIx+ 21+C (b) 21nx+2l+1nx-1l+C
(c) 1nlx-1-31njx+21+C (d) 31nx+21±1njx - 1I+C
=
16.1_3x
(x+2)(x-1)
(a) 41n27 (b)271n4 (c) In 4 (d) -In
1
17. I
' x2 -3x-10
dx=
1 x-5 1 x+2I
In
(a)
7 lx+2 ~ (b) in
7 x-51
k C -

(c) 1n.I(x -5)(x± 2)I+C (d) inl(x+5)(x-2)1+C

 Integration II SM

18 52x2__- 3x1 - 10 dx=

1 (15 1(15\
(a) —in - (b) --in -

(c) ln(15x 8) + C (d) - -In(15x8)+c

19 If $ x3 dx =0, then the possible value of k is

(a) 6 (b) 5 (c) 4 (d) 3

20 5(3 x2 _4x)dx =

(a) 6 (b) 4 (c) 2 (CO 0

21 fx J9_ x2 dx=
(a) j(9_x2)3+C (b) ..x2j(9_x2)3+C

(c) - j(9 - x) 3 + C (d) - x 2 J(9 - x2 )3 +C

3.
22 J(x _1)ex2 _ 2x dx
(a) (x_1)ex2_2x+C (b) e2_2x+C

(c) _.-(x_1)ex2_2x+C (d)

23 5
J.
dx =

(a) (e-1) (b) —(e-1) (c) —.(e-1) (d) (e-1)

24Given that F andf are continuous functions such that F'(x) =f(x) Vx, then Jf(x) dx =
(a) F(a) - F(b) (b) F(b) - F(a) (c) F'(a) - F'(b) Y.
25 5--dx=

(a) X.
+C (b) - in ex3 + C (c) - (x2 + 1)e 2 + C (d) - e' 3 + C
IM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Cos Xdx=
26. f
sin x
(a) 1ncos x - sin x + C (b) 1nsin x - cos x + C
(c) 1nsinx+C (d) lnjcosxj+C

sin Xd
27.
cos x

(a) 1n2 (b) .?1n2

(c) 1n2 (d)

12
28. fx2+ldx=

(a) (21nx+X2)+C (b) _i(2lnX+x2)+C

X+1
(c) X±lC (d)

29. f 2_1
X d
2
(a) -e+ (b) e2 - (c) (d)
2
x2
30. Use integration by substitution to find
$ 5x3 -8 dx
_3X3
(a) lfl(5x_8)c (b) In 5X 3
+C
15 8
(c) In 5X3 — —+C 1
(d)
1

15 5x2 -8x
3L Use the substitution u = cos x find $ec0 sinx dx

32. (a) Express 3x+1

. AB
m the form - C
2 + -- + ,where
B A, and C are constants.
x(x-1) x x x-1
(b) Find3x+1
d 2 dx.
x(x-1)
3x+1
• (c) Hence, evaluate _5
2 x (x-1)
dx
Integration II Im
IM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

(c) (1) Use integration by parts to show that, if I = $ sji + x2 dx, then
Ix1+x2_I+5 1 dx.
x2
+ X+ tan X
(ii) Deduce that J = x1 + C.

(iii) Hence, find J Ji +x 2 dx.

(iv) Use the results in parts (b) and (c)(iii) to find an approximate value for t.

39 (a) Determine $ 5 dx by using the substitution = ex .

e'+1

(b) Determine $ e- 1 dx by first multiplying the numerator and the denominator of

the integrand e- 1 by ex before integrating.

40. (a) Given that k $(ln x) dx, derive the reduction formula I = x (in x) - n I .

(b) Use this reduction formula to determine $ (in x) 3 dx

41. (a) Express (21)2 in partial fractions.

(b) Hence,
2x2 -3
U) find dx
$(x2+1)2

2x2 -3
(ii) evaluate $ dx
(x2 +1)2
3x2+4
42. (a) Express in partial fractions.
(1+x2 )2
(b) Hence,
3x2+4 dx
Wfind
J 1+22

(ii). 3 x+ 4 .. dx
evaluate (1+
x2)2
 Integration II Im

5
44 (a) Prove that sm x cos" x dx
-1
= Sj n + x co? x.. m -1 ri sin x cos . ............... .. ......
x dx.
n+m n+fl ..,: .• .;
L. .•
(b) Hence, find $sir 5 xcos3 x dx: . .. . ..
FM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

> Partial Fractions

4 Proper and Improper Rational Functions
• is a proper rational function if the degree of P(x) is less than the degree of Q(x).

P(x). .
Q(x) is an improper rational function if the degree of P(x) is greater than or

equal to the degree of Q(x).

+ Decomposing
• If is a proper rational function, than we go directly into decomposing the
algebraic fraction.

• If is an improper rational function, than we first have to perform long

division.
P(x) R(x) . . R(x) isa
Thus S(x) + where S(x) is a polynomial and proper
Q(x)
rational function.
+ Distinct Linear Factors
• Proper Rational Function
A Each linear factor in the denominator has a corresponding partial fraction.
P(x) A+B
A where A and B are constants.
(ax+b)(cx+d) ax+b cx+d
• Improper Rational Function
P(x) A B
A S(X)+- +
(ax +b)(cx+d) ax+b cx+d
• Before a rational function is expressed in partial fractions, its denominator Q(x)
must be completely factorized.
+ Repeated Linear Factors
P(x) A B C
+ + where A, B and C are constants.
(ax +b)(cx+d) ax+b cx+d (cx+d)2
2

•. Distinct Quadratic Factors

• P(x) A + BX + C
where A, B and C are constants.
(px+q)(ax +bx+c) px+q ax+bx+c
+ Repeated Quadratic Factors
P(x) A Bx+C Dx+E
- + 2 + 2 where A, B, C, D and E
(px+q)(ar+bx+c px+q ax -i-bx+c (ax +bx+c)2
are constants.
 Integration II 1M1

> Integration of Rational Functions .

+ 5'dx =In If(x)I+c

f'(x)
• 2 dx= tan 1 f(x)+C
1+[f(x)]
= arc tan f(x)±C. . .
_f'(x)
•:• 5 dxitan''+c
a2 +[f(x)]2 a a
1 f
= –arc tan—+C. .• ..
•. ..

aa . . ... ... .... ...,.

..

+ Distinct Linear Factors . .

• Proper Rational Function
.A j. .
P(x)
dxJ
rA
dx+j
__ dx.
J
(ax+b)(cx+d) ax+b cx+d
.. ..

• Improper Rational Fun unction

-
P(x) r rA rC
AI dx = I S(x) dx +. &+I di.-
(ax±b)(cx+d) ax •±b . cx±d. . .. . .
•. Repeated Lmear Factors
P(x) rB r C
• j (ax =j ax dx+j dx+J dx..
cx+d (cx+d)2

> Integration of Trigonometric Functions

+ Basic Trigonometric Functions
• $cosxdx=sinx+C

• $sin xdx=–cosx+C
• $ sec2 xcix = tan x+ C

• Jcosec2 x dx = –cot x+C

• f sec x tan xdx= sec x+c
• Jcosecx cot xdx=–cosecx+C

+ Trigonometric identities
• cos2 0+sm2 81 • sin 2O=2 sin O Cos O
• 1 + tan2 0 sec2 0 • 1 + cot2 9 = cosec 0
• sin 0=1(1 cos 29) • co s2 0= (1 + cos 20)
IIl Pure Mathematics for CAPE

+ Even Power of sin x, cos x and tan x

Even Power of sin x or cos x
A Rewrite using a double angle formula
A sin2x=..(1_ Cos x )

Acosx=-(1+cosx)
• Even power of tan x
A Rewrite using the formula tan 2 x = sec2 x - 1.
•. Odd powers of sin x, cos x and tan x
• Odd powers of sin x or cos x
A Rewrite as the product of an even power of sin x or cos x times sin x or cos x.
A: The even power is then converted using the trigonometric identity
cos2 x+sin2 x= 1 =sin2 x=1-cos2 xorcos2 x=1-sin2 x.
• Odd powers of tan x
A Rewrite as the product an even power of tan x times tan x.
A The even power is then converted using the trigonometric identity
1 + tan2 x = sec2 x => tan2 x = sec2 x - 1.
+ Product of the Form sin mx cos nx
• A factor formula is used to rewrite the product as a sum or difference.
• The factor formulae are: .
A sin (A+B)+ sin (A—B)2 sin A cos B
A sin (A+B)—sin (A — B) 2 cos Asin B
A cos (A+B)+ cos (A—B)2 cos A cos B
A cos (A+B)— cos (A—B)_=-2 sin A sin B
+ Integrals of tan x, sec x, cot x and cosec x
• The following formulae of integration are used:
A $tan x dx = ln(sec x) + C

A jsec.xdx=ln(secx+tanx)+C

J
A cot xdx=ln(sinx)+C
A :5 cosec x dx = - ln(cosec x + cot x) + C.
Integration of the Exponential Function ef(x)
+ f e xdx=e+C ..
.C ax
+ j e dx = -1 eax+ C where a is a constant.
=
5
+ ce dx e +. 0 where a and c are constants
Integration II EM
EM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Integration of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

+ Integrals involving Inverse Trigonometric Functions
r dx
• I ,= sin. x + C.

rdx
T-7
• I =tanx+C.
dx 1x .

• f Ja2 x2 = sin a + C where a >0.

-

dx 1 1x
• f 2 2 = tan + C where a > 0.
- -

f'(x) dx L+ C where a> 0.

= sin-1
• $ a 2 _ (f(X))2
V f'(x) dx =1
a

• tàn + C where a > 0.

a2 + (f (X)) a a . ...

du-1
= sm - + C where u is a differentiable function of x and a> 0.
• j a 2 _u2 a .

du I 1u ...

2 2 = atan ' -a + C where u is a differentiable function of x and a>0.

• j a+u -

•• Distinct Quadratic Factors .

r P(x) cA r Bx+C
• I dx I' dx + j dx.
'
(px+q)(ax2+bx+c) px+q ax 2 +bx+c .

+ Repeated Quadratic Factors H

P(x) A .Bx+C .. c Dx+E .
• IJ. dx= . dx+I dx+j dx . .

(px+q)(ax2+bx+c) '
px+q '
ax2 +bx+c (ax2 +bx+c)2 . .

+ Integration of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

.$ sin ' di1J12 +C. . . . .
..

• fcos1xdx=xcos1x_j1_x2 +C

• Jtan 1 xdx = xtan 1 x_ln1+x2 +C.

2
- Integration by Reduction Formulae
+ A reduction formula is a type of recurrence relation. It is normally derived using
integration by parts, although other methods of integration can be applied where
applicable. .. . . .

.:.IfI = f sin" x dx ,
sin'xcosx /I--I
then I = - + Ifl _ for n ~ 2, n e , i s a reduction formula.
n n
 Integration II E3

Trapezium Rule
+

o x0 =a x1 x 2 x 3 x 4 x,_ 2 x_1 ;
• The number of trapeziums (strips or intervals) = n
• The number of y-coordinates (ordinates) = n + 1
• The height of a trapezium (width of a strip or width of an interval), h =
Where h=x1 —x 0 =x2 —x 1 =.. . = x,_ 1 —x_ 2
=xn —x n _ 1
• The lengths of the sides of the trapeziums (lengths of the strips) are:
Yo' Yi' Y2' Y3' Y4' • ' Y_2' Y_i' Y•
+ The sum of the areas of the n trapeziums:

A=h[(y0+y)+2(y1±y2+y3+... +y1)].
•• The area under the curve enclosed by the x-axis and the two vertical lines x = a and
x = b is:
A=Jydx.

•AAt
• •Ah[(y0+y)+2(y1+y+y3+..+y1)].
 A sequence is a list of terms which are usually numbers in a definite order,
where each term is generated by a rule or formula.

A term is sometimes called an element (or member)

Consider the sequence:
—7, —3,1,5,9.
The rule: add 4 to the preceding term in order to generated the next term.
The first term, a 1 = —7.
The second term, a 2 = —3•

The fifth term, a 5 =9.

The number of terms in the sequence, n =5.
This sequence is a finite sequence.

A finite sequence is a sequence in which each term is known and the

number of terms can be counted.

The sequence is an arithmetic sequence with first term —7 and a common (constant)
difference of 4.
Inductive definition: a n+1 = a n + 4, a1 = —7
where nE 1I and 1: ~ n<4.
The formula: the nth term, a n= 4ii 11 where n E %I and 1 !~ n !~ 5.
-

This is also known as the explicit (general) formula.

• Consider the sequence:
5,3,1,-1,-3,.
The three dots after the fifth term which is —3, indicates that the sequence goes on
indefinitely (forever).
The rule: Subtract 2 from the preceding term in order to generate the next term.
The first term, a 1 = 5.
The second term, a 2 = 3.
The three dots shown here indicates that the terms a 3 and a4
have not been stated.
The fifth term, a 5 = —3.
IIEIJ Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Each term in the sequence is not known and the number of terms cannot be counted.
However, any term can be found.
The number of terms in the sequence is unknown. The sequence has an infinite number of
terms.
The sequence is an infinite sequence.

An infinite sequence is a sequence in which each term is not known but can
be found and the number of terms cannot be counted.

Inductive definition: a n +1 = a n 2, a1 = 5 where n (—= N.

-

The formula: the nth term, a n= 7 2n where n E N.

-

An inductive definition expresses a term in terms of the term preceding it

and the first term is specified.

• The sequence with n terms, {a} = a1, a2, a3,. a nwhere n E N.

. .,

The nth term of a sequence which is defined by a function can be written asf(n) (or f: n 4).
-

Consider the finite sequence:

555 55551
'2' 3/4hhI6I7 8' 9'2 '
This sequence can be defined by the function
f:n --> where and 1: ~ n:!~ 10.

Since f(n)= - ,

Then the nth term, a n=

Hence, the sequence with n terms, {a} is a function from the positive
integers, (or Ni) to the real numbers, R .

Sequence defined by recurrence relations

A recurrence relation expresses the nth term of a sequence in terms of one

or more of the preceding terms. It may also express the (n + 1)th term in
terms of the nth term in the sequence.
A sequence can be generated by a recurrence relation of the form
u +1 —f(u).
 Sequences EM
-Example 1
Un_i
The sequence {un} is defined by the recurrence relation ; = , u1 = 10
fl+i
Where and 2~ n<5.
State the terms in this sequence.
-Solution
Given u1 =10
U1
'

and u = where n e N and 2_<n_<5.

n+l
U2_1 U 10
When n=2: u2= —=—i -=—
2+1 3 3
10
U31 u2 10 5
When n=3: u3 =—=—=—= 3
3+1 4 4 3x4 6
5
U41 U36 5 1
When n=4: u4= —=—= —=
4+1 5 5 5x6 6
1
U5 _ 1 U4 1
- 1
When n=5: u5= —=—=—=
5+1 6 6 6x6 36
Hence, the terms in the finite sequence {u} are:
10 5 1 1
3 '6'6'36
- Example 2
Given the infinite sequence: 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64,...
(a) State the function that defines the infinite sequence.
(b) Write a recurrence relation that defines the infinite sequence in terms of
(1) Un (ii) u + 1
-Solution
(a) Given the infinite sequence: 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64,...
This infinite sequence can be written in terms of powers of 2:
20, 21, 22, 2, 2, 2, 2 6,.
Hence, the function that defines the sequence is f: n —* 2n1 where n E N.
(b) (i) The first term is U l = 1.
The second term is U2 = 2 x 1 = 2U1
The third term is u3 =2x2 =2u2
The nth term is U = 2 x (n - 1) = 2 Un n ~! 2
Hence, the recurrence relation that defines the infinite sequence is:
Un =2uni ,Ui =1,nE and n >2.
 iI'J Pure Mathematics for CAPE

(ii) The first term is u1 = 1.

The second term is u2 =2 x 1 = 2u1
The third term is u3 =2x2 =2u2
The (n+i)th term is u 1 =2xn =2u,n>1
Hence, the recurrence relation that defines the infinite sequence is:
u 1 = 2u, u1 = 1,n E N.
This sequence is a geometric sequence with first term 1 and a common (constant)
ratio of 2.

Convergence, divergence and limit of a sequence

CD Limit of a sequence
• Terms tend to approach a real number.
Consider the sequence:
123
where nENi.
2'3'4' *** n+1
n
As noo, 11 i
1+—
n
1
Since as n - 00, - - Q•
n
Hence, lim = 1.

• Consider the sequence:

IiHi 1 1
where nE1j.
F3n3 6 9 3nJ
Asnoo,
3n
Hence, lim --- =0.
3n

If the values of the terms of a sequence tend to a definite finite number

(unique real number), then the sequence has a limit.
The limit L of a sequence {a} is denoted by L = urn a.
n ->-

Convergent sequence
sequence is convergent if it has a limiJ
We say that the sequence converges to the limit.
A sequence cannot have two or more different limits.
• Consider the sequence:
4,3,2,..., 2n ,•• with n1 =5 and
3 n—i
 Sequences IM
The table below shows the first 10 terms in this sequence
I I I

W
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

3 2 5 3 7 4 9

A sketch of the graph of the sequence is shown below.

Un

N
5
4 "S

3
2- u, = 2
1
0
I Z J 4 0 b 1 It)
n

The graph shows the first ten terms in the infinite sequence.
This graph consists of a set of discrete points, since a sequence is defined only on the
natural numbers (positive integers).
If the points are joined by a curve or dotted lines, then intermediate values, that is, values
between the plotted points, will have no meaning.
The behaviour of the sequence can be observed on the graph.
As the number of terms increase, it can be seen that the terms in the infinite sequence get
closer and closer to the value 2. This is the limiting value of the sequence. We say that the
sequence converges to the value 2
2n
Thus lim =2.
-'°° n–i
Hence, the infinite sequence defined by the recurrence relation
2n
u= —,u 1 --5 where nF_N and n>2
n–i
is a convergent sequence whose limit is 2.

A sequence is convergent, if the values of its terms tend to a fixed number:

as n increases. The fixed number is the limit of the sequence.

Divergent sequence

A non-convergent sequence is a sequence that does not converge

A non-convergent sequence may:

• be divergent
• be periodic
• oscillate
FM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

A sequence is divergent, if as the number of terms increase, then the values

of the terms increase and tend to infinity.
A divergent sequence has no limit.

• consider the sequence:

1,3,9,27,81,243,...,31,... with nki.
A sketch of the graph of the sequence is shown below.
Un

250

200

150

100

50

0
123456 n
The graph shows the first six terms in the infinite sequence.
The behaviour of the sequence can be observed on the graph.
As the number of terms increase, it can be seen that the terms in the infinite sequence get
larger and larger and tend to infinity. We say that the sequence diverges.
Thus lim3 1
Hence, the infinite sequence defined by the formula
u=3' where nEi
is a divergent sequence and it tends to infinity.

CD Periodic sequence

A periodic sequence repeats its pattern for a fixed number of terms (each
cycle).
The period of the sequence is the minimum number of terms that is
required to complete a cycle.

• consider the sequence u = (— l)n where n € N.

The table below shows the first seven terms in this sequence.
 Sequences EM

A sketch of the graph of the sequence is shown below.

Un

0
-1
.L

The behaviour of the sequence can be observed on the graph.

Notice that the pattern repeats itself completely 3 times.
Each complete pattern represents a period.
The period of the sequence is 3-1 = 5-3 = 7-5 = 2.
The sequence u = ( 1)n where n € N is a periodic sequence with period two.

CNI Oscillating sequences

An oscillating sequence has terms that oscillate about a real number or

between some real numbers.

• The sequence 11, —1, 1, —1, 1, —1,. . . 1. is a periodic sequence with period two.
u=(-1) 1 where nErl.
It is also an oscillating sequence since it oscillates about the value 0. It oscillates from 1 to
—1, so the sequence oscillates finitely.

[finitely oscillating sequence is an oscillating sequence with finite ami]

• consider the sequence u,,=1 + (- ) where n E N.

The table below shows the first six terms in this sequence

A sketch of the graph of the sequence is shown below.

Un

11/2

1 I------

I Z 6 4 0 ti fl
germ
I i[i Pure Mathematics for CAPE

The behaviour of the sequence can be -Example 3

observed on the graph. A sequence is defined by
The sequence is oscillating about the
value 1. u= ---+5, u1 = —2 where n E NJ and n>1.
It is an oscillating sequence. un-i
As the number of terms increase, the (a) State the first five terms of the sequence
sequence converges to a limit of 1. (b) Hence, determine whether the sequence
is convergent or divergent.
Thus urn u = urn
L .. 2) - Solution
Hence, the sequence is an oscillating (a) Given that U1 = — 2
sequence that converges.
Consider the sequence for n>1.
un-i
u_—(-2) where nEJ.
1
The table below shows the first six terms Then U2 = - + 5
U1
in this sequence.
1
=—+5
—2
Un
41
A sketch of the graph of the sequence is 2
shown below. 9
Un 2
1
64 U3 = - + 5
U2
48
2
32 =—+5
9
16
0
=5
9
-16 47
-32 9
1
The behaviour of the sequence can be U4 = - +
U3
observed on the graph.
The sequence is oscillating about the 9
=—+5
value 0. 47
It is an oscillating sequence.
As the number of terms increase, the 47
sequence diverges, so it oscillates infinitely. 244
Hence, the sequence is an oscillating 47
sequence that diverges.

An infinitely oscillating sequence is an

osci llatin g sequence with infinite amplitude.
 Sequences EM
1 Example4
and u5 =—+5
U4 A sequence is defined by
47 u 1 =u-3,u1 =5 wherenERl and n>1.
=—+5 (a) State the first five terms of the sequence.
244
(b) Hence, determine whether the sequence
= 5:! is convergent or divergent.
244
- Solution
Hence, the first five terms of the
sequence are: (a) Given that u1 =5
and u 1 =u-3forn>1.
- 2,4 - , 5 ., ,5 Then u2 =u1 -3=5-3=2
2 9 47 244
3 = U2 _ 3=2-3=-1
(b) The behaviour of the sequence can be u4 = U - 3=-1 - 3=-4
observed by sketching a graph of u and u5 =u4 -3=-4-3=-7.
against n. Hence, the first five terms of the
U A sequence are: 5, 2, -1, -4, -7.
(b) The behaviour of the sequence can be
6 observed by sketching a graph of u
against n.
5
Un A
4 6
4
3
2
2 0
-2
1
-4
C -6
-8
-1
Clearly, the sequence is divergent.
-2 This fact can also be deduced by
Clearly, the sequence is convergent. observing the first five terms in the
This fact can also be deduced by sequence.
observing the first five terms in the
sequence.

Exercise 4a

For each of the following sequences: 2. (a) 2,7,12,17,22,...

(1) state its inductive definition (b) 3,7,11,15,19,...
(ii) write down a formula for the nth term.
3. (a) 4,-3,-l0,-l7,-24,...
1. (a) 2, 4, 6, 8, 10,... (b) -8, -5, -2, 1, 4,. .
(b) 3,6,9,12,15,...
tH:I Pure Mathematics for CAPE

3 7 11 15 19 14. (a) u1 = liUn =2u_1 +5

4 (a)
(b) Ui =2iUn =3 Un 1 4
11 15 19 23
(b) 7 15. (a) U1=5,Ufl= Un-i
n—i
2 9 7 19 14 Un - i
5 (a) (b) U1=_8/Un=n+i
11 7 17 5
(b) 2 State the first five terms in each of the
3 12 6 12 following sequences defined by a recurrence
State the first five terms of the sequence relation. For each recurrence relation
defined by each of the following functions. nERi and n~!i.

6. (a) f:n -,nEi 16. (a) u +1 =3+u,u1 =8

(b) Un+ i = Un 2iUi =5
(b) f:n—,nEN
17. (a) Un+ 1 =2Un + 5 iUi=4
7. (a) f:x—n 2 +3,nE
(b) Un +1 = 3u - 1, u = -

(b) f:x—n 2 -2,nERJ

18. (a) Un+i=Un =3
Un
8. (a) f:*_2n,nER,i
1
(b) f :—* (-2), n E (b) U n+ i=iUi=5
Un
9. (a) f:—n(n-1)(n+3),nE 19. (a) Un+ i=Un (Un 3)iUi=i
2
(b) u +1 = u -1, u1 = —2
(b) f :—* —n(n + 1)(n —2), n E Ri
(_1)n 1
10. (a) f : E Ri
,
20. (a) U n+ i=1Ui=2
+1 Un
1
(b) f:- 21 ,nRi (b) Un+i=Un +Ui=l
+1 Un

Write down the first five terms in each of the Sequences are defined by their nth term u
following sequences defined by a recurrence below.
relation. For each recurrence relation (i) State the first six terms of each of the
nERi and n ~!2. sequences.
11. (a) u1 =5, Un = 3un (ii) Determine if the sequence is convergent
i
or divergent.
(b) u1 =-4,u=2u_1 (iii) If the sequence is convergent, then
determine the limiting value to which it
12. (a) U1 =3, Un = nu n _ 1 tends.
(b) z 1 = —2, Un = nu n -
21. (a) u = 2n + 1 (b) u =4 - 3n
13. (a) u1 =-2,u=3nu_1
22. (a) u = n2 + 2 (b) u = 3 -

(b) u 1 =4, u = — 2nun _ 1

23. (a) Un = (b) Un=7
 Sequences EM
5j - 2 26. (a) Un +1 = 3 + u, u1 = 4
24. (a) u,= (b) Un— fl+
2
n+1 (b) Un+ 1=Un 2iU1= 5
=2 n+1 27. (a) u +1 = - U,u1 =3
25. (a) U 1
(b) u = (- ) —
Sequences are defined by their recurrence (b) un+ i=l4un iUi= 7
relation below. 28. (a) u 1 =7-3u,u1 =-2
(i) Write down the first six terms of each of
(b) Un+ 1 = 1 + 2 Un FU1 = 1
the sequences
1
(ii) Determine if the sequence is convergent, 29. (a) U, 1 =—,U1 =-8
divergent or periodic. Un
(iii) If the sequence is convergent, then (b) Un+ i1Ui5
determine the limiting value to which it U11
tends. 30. (a) Un+i =U2iUi =1

(b) u +i = Un(Un3)i u1 = 2

Application of mathematical induction to sequences

Sum of n terms in a sequence
The method of induction can be applied to a sequence in order to find the sum of n terms.
-Example 5W11
The first five terms of the sequence {U n } = 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, •••, Un where the n the term is u = 3n - 1
and ne N.
Prove that the sum of the first n terms of this sequence, S = (3n + 1).

- Solution
Let Sn =2+5+8+11+14+••+(3fl1)=(3fl+1)

Then S1 =3(1)-1=(3x1+1)
So 2=2 LHS=RHS
The statement S 1 is true.
Let Sk =2+5+8+11+14+...+(3k-1)=(3k+1)
Assume that the statement Sk is true.
Then S k+1 =2+5+8+11+14+...+(3k-1)+[3(k+1)-1]

= !-[3(k +1) +1]

=.(k+1)(3k+4)
We need to prove that the statement Sk +1 is true.
LEIJ Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Now !(3k+1)+[3(k+1)_1]

= k 2 +k+3k+3_1
2 2
= —k2 +—k+2

= (3k 2 +7k+4)

= (3k + 4)(k +1)

= (k+l)(3k+4)

So S k+l =(k+1)(3k+4).
The statement is true when n = 1, and assuming that 5k is true, then Sk +1 is true, hence
S=(3n+1) VnE N.

Example 6
(a) write down the first six terms of the sequence {Ur} defined by the recurrence relation
Ur+ 1 = Ur+ 2 with r and u1 =3.
(b) Hence, use the method of induction to prove that the sum of the first n terms of this
sequence is S = n(n + 2).
Solution
(a) Given u1 =3
and Ur+1=Ur+2
When r=1: u2 =u1 +2=3+2=5
When r=2: u3 =u2 +2=5+2=7
When r=3: u4 =u3 +2=7+2=9
When r=4: u5 =u4 +2=9+2=11
When r=5: u6 =u5 +2=11+2=13
Hence, the first six terms of the sequence are: 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13.
(b) Since Ur+i=Ur+2
Then u =U +2 where n = r + 1
=3+(n-1)2
So Un = 2 fl+l
Let S n :3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + 11 + 13 + ... + (2n + 1) = n(n + 2)
Then S 1 :2(1)+1=1(1+2)
So 3=3 LHS=RHS
The statement S 1 is true.
Let Sk:3+S+7+9+11 + 13+.. .+(2k+1)k(k+2)
 Sequences EM
Assume that the statement Sk is true.
Then S k+1 =3+5+7+9+11+13+...+(2k+1)+[2(k+1)+1]
= (k+1)(k+1+2)
=(k+1)(k+3)
We need to prove that the statement Sk +1 is true.
Now k(k+2)+2(k+1)+1
=k2 +2k+2k+2+1
= k'+4k + 3
= (k+1)(k+3)
So Sk +l =(k+ 1)(k+3)
The statement is true when n = 1, and assuming that Sk is true, then Sk +1 is true, hence
Sn =n(n+2) VnEJ.

Recurrence relation and explicit formula

Example 7
Given that the sequence {u} is defined by the recurrence relation u = u +2, u1 =1 V n E J,
Prove by induction that u = 2n —1.
Solution
Proposition: u = 2n - 1 n>1
Base case: Given u1 = 1
When n= 1: u1 =2(1)-1 =2-1 = 1
the proposition is true for n = 1.
Assumption: Uk =2k - 1
Assume that the proposition is true for n = k.
Inductive step: Uk +1 = 2(k + 1) - 1 = 2k + 1
and Uk + lUk+ 2
= 2k - 1 + 2
=2k + 1
The proposition is true for n = k + 1.
Conclusion: The proposition is true for n = 1. Assuming that the proposition is true for n = k,
then it is true for n = k + 1.
Hence u = 2n —1 VnEN.
Example 8
If a sequence {un is defined by the recurrence relation u1 = 1, Un +1 = 2U with n E Fi, then prove
}

by mathematical induction that its explicit formula is u 2

Solution
n-1
Proposition: Un = 2 n>1
Base case: Given u1 = 1
When n=1: U1 =211 =20 =1
The proposition is true for n = 1.
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Assumption: = 2k-1 Base case: Given a 1 =4

Uk
Assume that the proposition is true for n = k. Then 4!~ 4!~ 9
Inductive step: Uk +1 = 2k +11 i.e. 4:~ a1 ! ~ 9
and Uk + 1 =2Uk the proposition is true when n = 1.
Assumption: 4 :~ ak :~ 9
= 2(2 1)
Assume that the proposition is true for n = k.
21.2 k-1 Inductive step: 4 :~ ak +1 !~ 9 where
= ak + l= 3+2j.
The proposition is true for n = k + 1.
It is now necessary to prove that the
Conclusion: The proposition is true for n = 1.
proposition is true when n = k + 1.
Assuming that the proposition is true for
If 4!~ ak!~ 9
n = k, then it is true for n = k + 1.
Then a~ 4 and a:~ 9
Hence U=2 VnEN.
So j 2 and j!~ 3
Example 9
i.e. 2j 4 and 2j! ~ 6
The sequence {an} is defined by a 1 = ... 3+2J 7 and 3+2j!~ 9
a +1 =3+2j where j>o. = a 41 ~ 4 and ak+l !~ 9
Use mathematical induction to prove that Hence 4 !~ a 1 :~ 9.
4!~ a:~ 9 VnEZ. The proposition is true for n = k + 1.
Conclusion: The proposition is true for n = 1
Solution and if it is true for n = k, then it is true for
n=k+1.
Proposition: If a sequence {a} is defined by Hence, by the principle of mathematical
a1 = 4, a + 1 = 3+ 2j where a> 0, then induction
4:~ a:~ 9 VnE. 4!~ a!~ 9 VnE7t.

Exercise 4b

1. Given the sequence {U} = 1,3,5, 7, 9,. . ., U where the nth term is u = 2n - 1 and n E Ni.
prove that the sum of the first n terms of this sequence, S = n2.
2. If the sequence {u} = 21, 22, 2, 2, 2,. . ., u where the nth term is U = T' and n E N , then
prove that the sum of the first n terms of this sequence, 5 n = 1). -

3. The sequence {un} = 5, —2, —9, —16, —23,. . ., u where the nth term is u = 12 - 7n and n E N.
Prove that the sum of the first n terms of this sequence, S = (17 7n).
-

4. Given the sequence {U} = 30, 31, 32, 33, 34,• •, U where the nth term is u =3 n 1 and n E N.
Prove that the sum of the first n terms of this sequence, S = (3fl
- 1).

5. If the sequence {u} = 8, 3, —2, —7, —12,. . ., u where the nth term is u = 13 - 5n and n E
then prove that the sum of the first n terms of this sequence, S = n(21 5n).
-
 Sequences IM
6. The sequence {u} = 4, -8, 16, -32, 64,. . ., u where the nth term is u = (_2)n +1 and n e N.
Prove that the sum of the first n terms of this sequence is S = -

3L
Ii - (-2)

7. Given the sequence {u} = 15, 11, 7, 3, -1,. u where the nth term is u = 19 4n and
. ., -

fl E N. Prove that the sum of the first n terms of this sequence is S = 17n 2n2. -

8. If the sequence {u} = 1, -3, 9, -27, 81,. u where the nth term is u = (-3)'
. .,
1 and n E
(_3)fl
= 1-
then prove that the sum of the first n terms of this sequence is S n

9. The sequence {u} = -19, -11, -3,5, 13,. Un where the nth term is u = 8n
. .,
- 27 and n E N.
Prove that the sum of the first n terms of this sequence is S = 4n2 23n. -

u = 5)fl 1
10. Given the sequence {Un} = 1, -5, 25, -125, 625,. . ., U where the nth term is (

= 1- (_5)fl
and n E Ni. Prove that the sum of the first n terms of this sequence is s
11. (a) Write down the first six terms of the sequence fu rl, defined by the recurrence relation
Ur+i=Ur_3W1thTE 1,r ~! landu1 =8,
(b) Hence, use the method of induction to prove that the sum of the first n terms of this
sequence is S = - (19 3n).
-

12. (a) State the first six terms of the sequence {Ur} which is defined by the recurrence relation
U , +l= 3Ur with r E N r ~! 1 and U 1 = -1.
,

(b) Hence, use the method of induction to prove that the sum of the first n terms of this
1
sequence is S =-(1-3 ).

13. (a) The recurrence relation Ur+i= 2Ur with r E NI, r ~! 1 and U 1 = -3
Defines the sequence tU}.
State the first six terms of the sequence.
(b) Hence, use the method of induction to prove that the sum of the first n terms of this
sequence is S = (_2)n -1.

1 with r E FkI, r ~! 1 and U1 = 2 defines the sequence

14. (a) If the recurrence relation Ur+i=-U7
fu r l, write down the first six terms of the sequence.

(b) Hence, prove by mathematical induction, that the sum of the first n terms of this
(1 2
sequence is S =4-i -
.

15. (a) The recurrence relation U +1 = Ur - 5 with r E FkI, r ~! 1 and U1 = 10 defines the
sequence fu r l'
Write down the first six terms of the sequence.
En Pure Mathematics for CAPE

(b) Hence, prove by mathematical induction, that the sum of the first n terms of this
5n
sequence is S11 = (5— n).

16. Given that the sequence {u} is defined by the recurrence relation
u 1 =u+8,u1 =5 VnE,

Prove by mathematical induction that u = 8n —3.

17. Given that the sequence {u} is defined by the recurrence relation
u= u11 1 +2, u1 = —3, n > 2,
Prove by mathematical induction that u = 2n —5 Vn E N.
18. If a sequence {u} is defined by the recurrence relation
u + 1=; + 4, u, = 1 with n E
Then prove by mathematical induction that its explicit formula is u = 3fl - 2.
19. If a sequence {u} is defined by the recurrence relation
u= 5u11 1 ,u1 = 3,n ~! 2,
Then prove by mathematical induction that its explicit formula is u = 3(5n1) V n E N.
20. The sequence {a} is defined by a 1 = 1, a n+ 1 = 2j where >0.
Use mathematical induction to prove that 1 !~ an:~ 9 Vn E

1. The common difference of the sequence 4, 10, 16, 22, 28,. .,. is
(a) 4 (b) 6 (c) (d) —6
2
2. If the general term of a sequence is a = —5 + 2(n - 1), then the 51st term of the
sequence is
(a) —105 (b) —95 (c) 95 (d) 105
3. The 10th term of the sequence u '2n (n 5) is
-

=
(a) 100 (b) 150 (c) 200 (d) 250

4. The 5th term f the se quence li640(} is

(a) 8 (b) 40 (c) 320 (d) 1280

5 The next term in the sequence —4, 12, —36, is

(a) —108 (b) —28 (c) 40 (d) 108
 Sequences IM

6. The nth term of a sequence is a n — (_.1)1 The%fourth term of the sequence is

.

().

27 81 81
(a) - (b) ----- (c) -- (d)
16 256 256 16
7. The next term in the sequence .., , , .... is

(a) (b) (c) (d)

9 .10 9 10
n—1 ~
8. What is the nth term of the geometric sequence —50, —20, —8,...?
n -1 ,)n-1
(a) 50( (b) 20() (c) _50( (d) _20()
9. The nth term of the sequence —1, 4, —9, —16, —25,.. is .

(a) a n = —2n (b) a n= —3n (c) an = (_1)n (n2) (d) a n = (-1) +1 (112)
10. The 5th term of the sequence an = 2(n-1) 2 -

(a)..11 (b) 17
.. . (0 27 . (d) 37
11. The 5th term Of the recursive sequence ak +1 = 2ak - 5 where a1 = •3 is
(a) —59 (b) —27 (c) 7 . (d) 12
12. The nth term of the arithmetic sequence —9, —5, —1, 3, 7,. is . .

(a) a = —5 + 2 (n+1) (b) a 7 = —9(2) - ' (c) an= 4 —13(n-1) (d) an 4n —13
13. The sum of the first n terms of the arithmetic sequence 3, 5, 7, 9, 11,. is . .

(a) S = n(n +2) (b) S = n(n —3) (c) S17 = (ii + 4) (d) S n(n 3)
14. The nth term of the geometric sequence —4, 8, —16,32,.. is .

(a) an = —4(-2) (b) a n = —4(-2) + 1 (c) a: = 4(-2) (d) a n —4(-2) 1

15. The sum of the first 100 terms of the arithmetic sequence 1, 3, 5, 7,. is . .

(a) 100 (b) 1000 (c) 10 000 (d) 100 000

16. The sum of the first 100 terms of the geometric sequence 1, 3, 9, 27,. . . is
3100 +1 3100+1 . 3100 1 3100 +1
(a) (b) S100 = (c) S00= (d) S100
2 2 2
17. Which of the following sequence is convergent?
(a) a n = (-1) (2n) (b) a= (c) a n = 2n3 + 1 (d) a =2— 3n
18. Which of the following sequences is divergent?
=
(a) u = -- (b) u (c) u = (-2) n (d) u = 5n2 —2
T1 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

19. The first 5 terms of an arithmetic sequence are plotted on a graph. The coordinates of
two points on the graph are (3, 7) and (5, 17).
An expression for the general term of the sequence is
(a) 8n + 24 (b) 5n 8 - (c) 3n + 7 (d) 3n 10 -

20. Which of the following sequences converge?

8n 5e
•
2n+1J e — iJ L ii
(a) I only (b) Ill only (c) I and II only (d) II and III only
21. A sequence of real numbers {u }
satisfies the recurrence relation:

(a) Show that u 2 =u.

(b) Given that an = u +1 + u and b = u +1 u, state the first four terms of the
-

sequence
(i) fu n I (ii) fa n I (iii) {b},
(c) State which of the sequences in (ii) above is convergent, divergent or periodic.
23. A sequence fu n) is defined by the recurrence relation U + = U + n, U1 7, n E FI.
State the first four terms of the sequence.
24. A sequence {tn} is defined by the recurrence relation
t 1 = t+8, t 1 =14 for all nRi.
(a) Determine t2, t3 and t4.
(b) Express tn in terms of n.
25. The sequence {an} is defined by a 1 = 1, a +1
=5 +

Use mathematical induction . to prove that 1 :~ an !~ 27 V E

- Concept of a sequence {a n}
• A sequence is a list of ordered elements.
• Each element is called a term.
• A term can be a number or pattern.
• The first term is a 1
The second term is a 2

The nth term is a n where n e N.

 Sequences ED
+ Sequence —8, —6, —4, —2,0,2,4
• Rule add 2 to the preceding term in order to generate the next term
• This sequence is an arithmetic sequence with first term —8 and a common
(constant) difference of 2
• Induction definition a1 = —8 and a +1 = a + 2 .

where n E N and 1 !~ n :!~ 6

• Explicit (general) formula a n= 2n 10 -

where n E %i and 1 n 7
+ Finite sequence
1(-iy1 1 I 1 1 ,a where neRI isafimtesequence .

2
It is a geometric sequence with first term - and common (constant) ratio -

1 11 1 (_1)1
+ Infinite sequence: 32 3 3
-, -
34-, . ..,
-, -
3 ... where n E is an infinite
-, /
3
sequence
1
It is a geometric sequence with first term and common (constant) ratio -

+ A sequence is a function with the natural numbers as the domain and the real
numbers as the range.
That is f: -.
> Sequence defined by Recurrence Relations
• Recurrence relations
• un = 2u +5, u1 = —3
where. fl EN and 2 n !~ 7.
• {u} = —1, 3, 11, 27, 59, 123
Sequence: —3, --1, 3, 11,27,59, 123.

where n F'* and 1 :9ñ ~9 6.

• {u +1 } —1,3,11,27,59,123.
Sequence:-3,-1,3,11,27,59,123 .

Convergence, Divergence and Limit of a Sequence

+ Limit of a Sequence
• The Limit L of a sequence {a} is denoted by L = hm an
Inn
A lim
n
—=0

A lim — = oo
fl>oofl

5n2 -2n3 2
A lim = - -
7+5n3 5
FM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

+ Convergent Sequence
• A convergent sequence has a limit
• Convergent Sequences:
(a) (b) u

•'

S
.• •
S
-
•
___
o .
• fl
-- 5 -

• 0 n
• S • • • •

A These graphs tend to a single value called the limit.

A Each graph converges.
+ Divergent Sequence
• A divergent sequence has no limit.
• Divergent Sequences:
A un un
•
S S S •
0
• S fl
S
S
• S
S
S • S
o n S

This graph increases forever This graph decreases forever.

A Each graph diverges.
+ Periodic Sequence
• A Periodic sequence is a sequence with regularly repeating values.
• The period of the sequence is the minimum number of terms before the sequence
starts repeating itself.
0-
= 0.285 714 285 714 285 714 has period 6 = 0.285 714 written as a recurring
decimal.
• Graph u

a
0

-a
 Sequences E3

+ Oscillating sequence
• An osculating sequence is a sequence where the values of the terms neither
converge nor diverge, but oscillates about a real number of between some real
numbers.
• All periodic sequences are also oscillating sequences.
• A finitely oscillating sequence is an oscillating sequence with finite amplitude.
• Graph of an oscillating sequence with finite amplitude.
A UnA

S
5 0 •
-------------------

n
A The graph represents an oscillating sequence that converges.
• An infinitely oscillating sequence is an oscillating sequence with infinite
amplitude.
• Graph of an oscillating sequence with infinite amplitude.
A UnA

A The graph represents an oscillating sequence that diverges.

>- Application of mathematical Induction to sequences
+ Principle of Mathematical Induction
• State the conjecture which is P (or Sn ).
• Show that the base case P1 is true.
• Assume that the statement P k is true.
• Show that if k is true, than k+1 is true.
• Hence, the conclusion is that the statement P is true for all positive integers Z
(or natural numbers rk1).
 -
Series

Series and summation notation ()

A series is the sum of the terms of a sequence.

Consider the sequence:

U11 U2 U31 .. . / Un - 2' Un - 1' Un.
This is a finite sequence with n terms.
We can write:
{U} = U 1, U2, U3 ,..., Un _2i Un _iUn
Consider the series:
Ui+ U2 + U3 + +U U 1+ U
This is a finite series with n terms.
We can write:
S n = U1 + U2 + U3 + U U 1+ Un
S is the sum of the n terms of the series.
We can also write:
+U 2 +U 1 +U.

Thus Sn =Ur•

U means the sum of all terms Un where r takes integral values from 1 to n.

, is known as the summation notation (sigma notation; series notation).

Consider a particular finite series:
3±8+13+18=(5r-2)

We can write S4 =3+8+13+18=42.

or Y (5r-2)=3+8+13+18=42.
,

What is the value of S 7 ?

Whenn=5: 5r-2=5(5)--2=25-2=23.
Whenn=6: 5r-2=5(6)-2=30-2=28.
Whenn=7: 5r-2=5(7)-2=35-2=33.
Em Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Thus 57 =3+8+13+18+23+28+33
=42 + 84
= 126
Also (5r —2) = 126
The nth term of this series is an = 5n - 2.
Consider the sequence.
U 1, U2, U3, . . •, U,
This is an infinite sequence.
Consider the series:
U1 + U2 + U3 + + U+•
This is an infinite series.
We can write:
S=U1 +u2 +u3 +... +U+••
or Ur =Ui+U2 +U3 +•••+Uii +••

Thus S- Ur'

S00 is the sum to infinity of the series.

Consider a particular infinite series:
12+22+32+42+...
r=1
We can write:
S4 = i + 2 2 + 32 +42
= 1 +4+9+ 16
=30
or r2 = 12 +22 +32 +42 = 30 .

The nth term of this series is an= n2 .

S4 is the 4th partial sum of this infinite series.
Since 54 = U1 + U2 + U3 + U4.

5m is the m partial sum of a series/sequence since

Sm = Ui+U2+U3+•••+UM '

The mth partial sum of a series/sequence is the sum of the first m terms of
the series /sequence.

M m
Thus in = Ur or =
 Series IM

Further:. S 1 =u1
= U1 + U2
S 3 =u1 +u2 +u3
S4 = u1 + U2 + U3 + U4

Sn =u1 +u2 +u3 +u4 +...+un . .

S, =
where Uk

Hence, the partial sums form a sequence

S, S 2. 53, •/ Sfl•

- Example 1 J (ii) The series in notation is

(1) Find the nth term for each of the 1+ 8+27+64=
following series.
(ii) Hence, write the series in I notation. The series 1 - 8 + 27 - 64 +•..
(d) U)
(a) 1 + 5 ± 9 + 13+17 = (1)1 + (-1)2 + (1)3
(b) —5-3-1+1±3+•••
(c) 1+8+27+64 The nth term of the series is
(d) 1 - 8 + 27.— 64 + u ( _ 1) + 1 n3 where n E N.
- Solution (ii) The series in . notation is
(a) (i) The series 1 + 5 + 9 + 13 +17
=1 +(1 +4)+(1 +2 x4) 1-8+27-64±..-=(-1) 1 n3
+ (1 + 3 x 4) + (1 + 4 x 4)
The nth term of the series is - Example 2
u=1±(n-1)4 For each of the following sequences, find
=4n-3 where (i) the 2nd partial sum
(ii) The series in I notation is (ii) the 5th partial sum
1+5+9+13+17= (4n-3) (a) (4k + 7) (b) (5-2k)

(b) (i) The series —5-3-1±1+3+•••

= —5 + (-5 + 2) + (-5 +2 x 2) (c) 12 k_1 (d) j32( 11
k=1 2
+ (-5 + 3 x 2) + (-5 x 4 x 2)
The nth term of the series is -Solution
U = —5 + (n - 1)2 (a) (i) The 2nd partial sum of the series is
n
=2n-7 where
(ii) The series in I notation is 2 =(4k±7)

—5-3-1+1+3±.=(2n-7) =(4x1+7)+(4x2+7)
= 11 + 15
(c) (1) The series l+8+27+64 =26
= i +23 +33 +4 (ii) The 5th partial sum of the series is
The nth term of the series is S5 =(4k±7)
u=n3 where n N.
____ Pure Mathematics for CAPE

= (4 x 1 + 7) + (4 x 2 + 7) =32+16
+ (4 x 3 + 7) + (4 x 4 + 7) =48
+ (4 X 5 + 7)
(ii) The 5th partial sum of the series is
=11+15+19+23+27 5 k-i
=95 (32)
(b) (i) The 2nd partial sum of the series is k=1(2)
2
1-1 2-1
S2 =(5-2k) =( 1 )(32)+(— (32)
k=1 2(2)
=(5-2x1)+(5-2x2) 3-1 4-i
= 3+1 +(1)
2 (3 )+ ( - (32)
=4 2) 2)
(ii) The 5th partial sum of the series is +(1)5-1
5 (32)
S5 =(5-2k)
k=i
(1) (1)
= (5-2 xl) + (5-2 x 2)
+ (5 — 2 x 3) + (5 — 2 x 4) ' (,
1)
(1) 4
+(5-2x5)
=3+1-1-3-5 (32) (32)
+ () +
= —5
= 32+16+8+4+2
(c) (i) The 2nd partial sum of the series is
2 =62
=
Example 3
k=i
= 21 + 22 _i A sequence is defined by the formula
=20 +21 Uk(_l)X2k.
=1 +2 (a) Write down u1 u2, u3, u4 and u5.
,

5
=3
(ii) The 5th partial sum of the series is (b) Hence, find
5 Solution k=i

(a) Given Uk(_l)X 2 k

= 211 + 22_i +23-1 Then u1 = (_1) 1 + 1 x 2(1)2
+2 4-1 +25_i = (_1)2 x 2(1)
=20 +21 +22+23+24 =1x2
=1+2+4+8+16 =2
= 31 U 2=
(_1)2 + x 2(2)2
(d) (i) The 2nd partial sum of the series is = (1) X 2(4)
1 )k -i -1x8
s2 =j( (32) =-8
U 3 = (-1) + 1 x 2(3)2
(l\11
-1 =(-1)4x2(9)

=J 0
(32)+(—
+
J (32) =1 x 18
= 18
= (32) (32) U4 = (-1) +1 x 2(4)2
21 ) = (-1) x 2(16)
 Series EM
=-1 x 32 -Example 5
= -32 The sum of the first n terms of a series is
and u5 = (-1) +1 x 2(5)2 given by
= (_1)6 x 2(25)
Sn = (3n 2 5n) for n ~! 1.
-

=1x50
=50 Find an expression for the nth term, u, of
the series.
(b) I UkUl+U2+U3±U4+U5
- Solution
= 2+(-8)+18+(-32) +50
Since S=u1 +u2 +u3 +...+u 1 +u
=70-40 and
=30 Then S-S 1 =(u1 -i-u2 +u3 +...+u 1 +u)
-(u1 +u2 +u3 +.. .+u 2 +u 1)
- Example 4
=Un
Find the sum of the first five terms of the
sequence defined by Ur = (_1)r- 1 5r for r 1. Given S = - (3n 2 5n)-

- Solution
Given Ur =(_1)r _ l 5r Then Sn1 =[3(n_1)2_5(n_1)]
Then U 1 = (-1)1- 151 1
= (-1) 0 5 [3(fl 2 2fl+1)5fl+5]
= (1) 5
=5 = (3n - 6n + 3- n + 5)
U 2 = (_1)2 152
-

=(_1) 1 25 = 1 (3fl2 11fl+ 8)

=(-1)25
= -25
= (-1) -
1 53 1 (32 5)1(32
So Sn S -11n+8)
= (-1)2 125
= (1) 125 = l (3fl 2 5fl3fl2 +11fl8)
= 125
u4 =(-1)41 54
(-1) 3 625 =-(6n-8)
= (-1) 625 u=3n-4
= -625
and u5 =(-1)51 55 Hence, the nth term of the series is given by
125 U n = 3n -4 for n > 1.
= (1) 3 125
= 3 125
Example 6
The sum of the first n terms of a series is
So I (_1)r5r=u1+u2+u3+u4+u5 given by
1
=5+ (-25) +125 + (-625) +3125 S = n(4n2 1). - -

=3255-650 Find the sum of the second five terms of the

=2605 series.
 ; Pure Mathematics for CAPE

- Solution And the sum of the first ten terms of the

The sum of the first n terms of the series is: series is:
=fl(4fl2_1)
= (10)(4X10 2 _1)
S fl 3

So the sum of the first five terms of the =(400-1)

series is: 3
1 = (399)
S5= (5)(4 x 5 —1) 3
= 10(133)
= -(100-1) =1330
.. the sum of the second five terms of the
=-(99) series is:
S10 —S5 =1330-165
= 5(33)
=1165
= 165
Hence, the sum of the second five terms is 1165.

Exercise 5a

(i) Find the nth term for each of the following series.
(ii) Hence, write the series in I notation.
1, (a) 1+3+5+7+9 (b) 2+4+6+8+10+...
(c) 3+8+13+18+23 (d) 9+11+13+15+17+...
2. (a) 1-4+9-16+25-36 (b) —1+4-9+16-25+36—...
(c) —1+8-27+64 (d) 1+2+22 +23+24 + ...

3. (a) _1+2_22+23_24 (b) 1-2+4-8+16—...

(c) 12+32+52+72 (d) —1+9-25+49—...
4. (a) 22+32+42+52 (b) 4-9+16-25+...
1 1 1 (d) 1 1 1 1
(c) 1— —+ -- —+ 1 — —+—+—+—+...
2345 4567
5. (a) 7+11+15+19 (b) —3-8-13-18—...
1 2 3 4 2 3 4 5
(c) - + -____ (d) + + +
2x3 3x4 4x5 5x6 3x4 4x5 5x6 6x7
6. For each of the following sequences, find
(i) the 2nd partial sum
(ii) the 5th partial sum
00 k-i-i
(a) Y, (3k + 4) (b) Y (4-7k) (c) 2 11 (d) 10()
 Series EM
7. For each of the following sequences, find
(i) the 3rd partial sum
(ii) 6th partial sum
2k+1
32k_1
(a)(2k-5) (b) (1-6k)

8. For each of the following sequences, find

(c) (d)
i
k (1)

(1) the 2nd partial sum

(ii) 4th partial sum
25 00 [8 1r+1
(a) (2r2 —1) (b) (3r + 1)2 (c) (d) (_1)T_1(1+r2)
-
9. For each of the following sequences, find
(i) the 3rd partial sum
(ii) the 5th partial sum

(a) (b)
10
(c) (d)
I12 r
r2 + 1 2 —r2 i (r + l)(r + 2) ,= (r+2)(r+3)
10. For each of the following sequences, find
(i) the 4th partial sum
(ii) 6th partial sum
49(1) _,)k -, (k+ 2)
(a) (b) (c)
(d) k=11 k]
For each of the following sequences defined by the formula Uk
(i) writedown u1 , u2, u3 , u4, and u5

(ii) hence, find Y Uk.,

11. (a) Uk='ji+1 (b) uk=k2- 3

12. (a) Uk 2k3 + 1 (b) uk 2k+k
4 1 1
13. (a) Uk k(k) (b) u k
k k+1
/ 1\k+1
= ( 2Y - 1
14. (a) Uk ='I 2)
-I (b) Uk
k-1
15. (a) Uk2 - ( b) Uk --

Find the sum of the first five terms of the sequence defined by
16•Ur =2T+3T for 1

17. Uk = (1 - 2k) 2 for k 1

18. u=n(n2 -1) for 1
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Find an expression for the nth term, u, of

19. Ur =3[1_(_J] for 1 the series.
26. The sum of the first n terms of a series is
20. u=10(1-0.5) for 1 given by
21. The sum of the first n terms of a series is S= n(n + 1)(2n + 1).
given by
S5n(n+1) for n ~!1. Find the sum of the second five terms of
the series.
Find an expression for the nth term, u,
of the series. 27. The sum of the first n terms of a series is
given by
22. The sum of the first n terms of a series is
given by =n(n +1)].
S=3n2 -8 for n>1.
Find the sum of the second three terms of
Find an expression for the nth term, u, the series.
of the series.
28. The sum of the first n terms of a series is
23. The sum of the first n terms of a series is given by
given by
S= —n(n+1)(n+2).
S=(2n2+1) for > 1.
Find the sum of the second six terms of
Find an expression for the nth term, u, of the series.
the series.
29. The sum of the first n terms of a series is
24. The sum of the first n terms of a series is given by
given by
Sn =fl(fl+1)(fl+6)(fl+7).
S n = (n + 1)2n for n ~!1
Find an expression for the nth term, u, of Find the sum of the second four terms of
the series. the series.

25. The sum of the first n terms of a series is 30. The sum of the first n terms of a series is
given by given by
[ n(n+1)12 S= n(n +1)(n+2)(n— 1).
Si I for n> 1.
L 2]
-

Find the sum of the second five terms.

Arithmetic sequence and arithmetic series

Consider an arithmetic sequence (arithmetic progression) with first term a and common
difference d.
The inductive definition for the arithmetic sequence is
u +1 =u+d,u1 =a and nE1J.
The inductive definition will generate the terms:
U2 = a + d
= a + 2d
 Series EM
u4 =a+3d

U = a + (n - 1)d (nth term)

Thus {u} = u 1 , u2, u 31 u4, . . .,

=a,a+d,a+2d,a+3d 1 ...,a+(n-1)d.
The sum of the first n terms is given by:
Sn _
— u1 +U2 +U3 +U4 +...+Un
=a+(a+d)+(a+2d)+(a+3d)+...+[a+(n-1)d].
This series is called an arithmetic series. - Example 7
Thus The tenth term of an arithmetic sequence is
S fl =Uk
18 and the fifteenth term is 33.
(a) Find
Y.
=[a+(k—l)d] (i) the common difference d
c4J
(ii) the first term a.
C.)
=a+ I kd - d (b) Write down an expression for
(i) u (ii) S n
=
(c) Hence, evaluate 0
= na + d k - nd (i) U20 20
- Solution
= n(a - d) + d[ n(n + 1)] (a) (i) The 10th term of an arithmetic
sequence is: U 10 = a +9d n = 10
The 15th term of an arithmetic
= n(a - d) + dn(n + 1)
sequence is:
U 15 =a+14d n=15
Note:rn(n+1) Thus a+9d=18
and a+14d=33 ©
Here, Sn is the sum to n terms (nth partial 5d=15
sum) of the arithmetic progression. d=3
Hence, the common difference d = 3.
Further S = (a +1) where 7 is the last term
(ii) Substitute d = 3 into @:
(nth term) a + 9(3) = 18
and S=[2a+(n—l)d] So a+27=18
i.e. a=18-27
since u=l=a+(n-1)d. a=-9
The common difference d = - U Hence, the first term a = —9.
.
(b) (i) The nth term u = a + (n - 1)d
= —9 + (n - 1)3
=3(n-1)-9
=3(n-1-3)
= 3(n —4)
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

(ii) The sum to n terms (ii) The sum to 20 terms is

S= 20= 3(20) (20-7)
S 20 AI]
2
= 3(10)(13)
= [-9+3(n-4)]
= 390
=[3(n-4-3)] -Example 8iM
An arithmetic series has a first term of 5 and
= [3(n-7)] an nth term of —43. Given that the sum of
the first n terms is —475, find
=—(n-7) (a) the number of terms in the series
(b) the common difference
or S=[2a+(n-1)d] - Solution
(a) The sum of the first n terms is:
= [2(-9) + (n —1)3]
S= -' (a+l)
= .[-18+(n-1)3]
So -475=(5-43) a=5,un=-43and
= [3(n-1)-18] i.e. —950 = n(-38) S = —475
—950
= [3(n-1-6)] —38
= n=25
= [3(n -7)] Hence, the number of terms in the
series is 25.
=—(n-7) (b) The nth term is u = a + (n - 1)d
So —43=5+(25-1)d
or S=n(a-d)+dn(n+1) i.e. —48 = 24d
d=-2
= n(-9-3)+(3)n(n+1) Hence, the common difference is —2.

= —12n + (n +1)
-Example 9
= (n + 1) - 12n
An arithmetic series is defined as
15 +25 + 35 +45 + —
= - (n+1-8) Determine the least number of terms
3n necessary so that the sum of the arithmetic
=—(n-7) series exceeds 4800.
(c) (i) The 20th term is - Solution
= 3(20 —4) n =20 The first term a = 15
=3(16)
=48 The common difference d = 25 - 15 = 10
 Series EM
The sum of the first n terms is i.e. n2 +2n-960>0
Factorizing (n + 32)(n - 30) > 0
S,= [2a+(n-1)d]
Either Jn+32>0 or Jn+32<0
= [2(15) + (n - 1)101 ln-30>0 ln-30<0
= 15n + 5n(n —1) fn>_32 or fn<_32
5n2+ iOn ln>30 ln<30
=5n(n+2) => n>30 or n<30 since n>0
Given S > 4 800 => n=31
Then 5n(n +2) >4800 Hence, the least number of terms is 31.
So n(n+2)>960

Divergence of an arithmetic series

Consider the two arithmetic series stated below

[4+(n-1)2]= 4+6+8+10+12+• ,[-13+(n-1)3]=-13-10-7 4-1—..-

Do these series converge or diverge?

Let us look at a graph of Sn versus n for n = 1 to n = 5/n = 6.
In MMMMM 1 2 3 4 5 6
SI' —13 —23 —30 —34 —35 —33

Sn

0 n
Sn
—5
40
—10

32
—15

24 cc
—20

1
—25

—30
I I in
0 1I+2 3 4 5 —35
Number of terms

[4+(k-1)2] [_131)3] H

It is clear from the graphs that the two arithmetic series do not converge to a single value.
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

As a matter of fact, each of the two arithmetic

series is divergent. Note:I rk-1rl ifr>1
r-1
An arithmetic series is divergent. 1— r
= if r < 1.
1—i
Geometric sequence and Here, 5n is the sum to n terms (nth partial
geometric series sum) of the geometric progression.
Consider a geometric sequence (geometric
I 1'
progression) with first time in a and common Further S =' if r> 1
ratio r
The inductive definition for the geometric
sequence is and S= " if r < 1.
1—r
u +1 = Un (T) u1 = a and fl E N.
The inductive definition will generate the a(r-1) a(1—r)
However S = =
terms: r-1 1—r
U2 = ar The two formulae for S are equivalent.
U3 = ar We use the formula for S 11 which is suitable
U4 = ar depending on the value of the common ratio r.
Actually, it does not really matter which of the
two formulae is used to calculate the value of
Un = am -1 (nth term) In reality, either formula can be used once
the arithmetic is performed correctly.
Thus Jun} = u1 , u 21 u 31 u41 . . ., u The nth term u = am -1
=a,ar,ar2,ar31 . .
Find the common ratio r = Un

The sum of the first n terms is given by: -1

Example 10
S n = Ui+U2+U3+U4+•+U
=a+ar+ar 2 +ar3 +...+arn_l. The fourth term of a geometric sequence is
This series is called a geometric series. 40 and the seventh term is 320.
(a) Find
Thus Sfl=Uk (i) the common ratio r
(ii) the first term a
(b) Write down an expression for
= (i) u (ii) S n
(c) Hence, evaluate
= ark _ l (i) u10 (ii) slo

- Solution
(a) (i) The 4th term of a geometric
(r-1 sequence is
=aI u4 =ar3 n=4
The 7th term of a geometric
a(r-1) sequence is
= ifr>1
i—i U7 =ar6 n=7
 Series EM
Thus ar3 =40 1093(r-1)=r"-1
and ar6 = 320 © = 1093r-1093=r-1
r3 =8=23 => 1093r-1092=f ©
r=2 Thus 1 093r 1092 = 729r
Hence, the common ratio r 2. So 1093r-729r= 1092
(ii) Substitute r3 = 8 into D: i.e. 364r= 1092
a(8)=40 r=3
a=5 Hence, the common ratio is 3.
Hence, the first term a = 5. (b) Substitute r = 3 into (1):
(b) (1) The nth term u = 3fl = 729(3)
=5(2) 1 So 3=2187
(ii) The sum to n term i.e. nlg3 = ig 2187
a(r-1) 1g2187
n
r-1 lg3
— 5(211_i) n=7
2—i Hence, the number of terms in the
= 5(211 _i) series is 7.
-Example 12
(c) (i) The 10th terms is
n = 10 A geometric series is defined as
= 5(2)9
= 2560 256 + 128 + 64 + 32+...
(ii) The sum to 10 terms is Determine the least number of terms
S10 = 5(2 10 — 1) necessary so that the sum of the geometric
= 5 115 series exceeds 510.
- Example 11 - Solution
A geometric series has a first term of 4 and The first term a = 256
128 1
an nth term of 2916. Given that the sum of The common ratio r = = =0.5
the first n terms is 4 372, find 256 2
The sum of the first n terms is
(a) the common ratio
(b) the number of terms in the series.
a(1—r)
1—r
- Solution
= 256(1-0.5)
(a) The nth term is u = arn
So 2916=4r - 256(1-0.5)
i.e. 729=r'
729r=r 0.5
The sum of the first n terms is = 512(1-0.5)
n
Given S> 510
n
r-1 Then 512(1 - 0.5) > 510
4! 1 510
So 4372= " So 1-0.5 n > —
r-1 512
r11 -1 255
i.e. 1093= i.e. 1-0.5 n > —
r-1 256
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

= 2.408 <0.301 n
1— > 0.5n
256 => 0.301 n > 2.408
1 2.408
= —>0.5
256 0.301
1 => n>8
=> lg —>nlgO.5
256 Hence, the least number of terms is 9.
= —2.408 > n(-0.301)

Convergence and divergence of a geometric series

Consider the two geometric series stated below.

8(3)1= 8+24+72+216+648+... 6(— =6+2+—+—+—+—

,i=1 n=1 3) 3 9 27 81
Do these series converge or diverge?
Let us look at a graph of S versus n for n = 1 to n = 51n = 6.

Sn
SI'
100C

90C

Si
80C

cn 70C
E
- 600

P- 500
E
400
ns
300

200

100
I
I Ifl I I
0 1 2
0 1 2 3 4 5 3 4 5 6
Number of terms Number of terms

8(3), r =3 16
1 11
n=1 n=1
It is clear from the graph on the left above that the geometric series does not converge to a
single value. This geometric series is divergent.
 Series EM
It is clear from the graph on the right above The sum to n terms of a geometric series,
bottom of previous page that the geometric
series converges to a single value which is 9. 1—r
This geometric series is convergent.
a—ar
A geometric series is divergent if I r I > 1, 1—r
that is, r<—lorr>1. - a ar0
A geometric series is convergent if I rl <1 1—r 1—r
Consider the infinite geometric series:
, )n—l +...
5 5 5
Sum to infinity of a convergent 5+—+—+—+•••+5( -
2 4 8
series
The sum to n terms of a geometric series, where a=5 and r= - .
2
n
The sum of the first n terms,
n r-1 n
ar'1 —a S =------
1—r 1—r
r-1 /
ar?i a - 5
5I
r-1 r-1
Consider the infinite geometric series: 2 2
5 + 10+20+40+... +5(2) 1 +... / \fl

where a=5 and r=2. 51—

_5 2
The sum of the first n terms,
1
arn a
r-1 i—i
0

- 5(2) 5 = 2[5)]
2-1 2-1
- 5(2)n 5
=2x5[1()]
1 1
n
- 5(2) —5
= 5(2 —1) = io[i(]
And S=limS
And S=limS0
n -4—
= lim 5(2 —1)
,] / \fl

00 =liml0 i—I-
Since as n -
oo,2 - 00 fl-400

Hence, this infinite geometric series is a = 10(1+0)

divergent series. =10

A divergent series has no limit. Since asn°°, (2)O.

 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Hence, this infinite geometric series is a The sum to infinity of the geometric series,
convergent series. 27
=-4 -
A convergent series has a limit. - 27 3
=27x
Note that S —f-- 3) 4
1—r 81
27
5
- 1 4
1+—
2 =20k
4
5
1
- Example 14
2
=5x2 Express the recurring decimal 0.015 015 015...
as the sum to infinity of a geometric series.
=10
Hence, state this recurring decimal as a
rational number in its simplest form.
If I r I > 1, then
- Solution
( ar a
S=1imS=1imI 0.015 015 015...
-° r-1 r-1)
= 0.015 + 0.000 015 + 0.000 000 015 +...
ar This is the sum to infinity of a geometric series.
since lim = oo.
-°° r-1 The first term, a = 0.015
Hence S=oo. 0.000 015
If I r I <1,then The common ratio, r = = 0.001
0.015
a
(I ar a
S =hmS =h mi 1=- The sum to infinity, S = —f---
n—o 1—r
n-,"*1r 1—r) 1—r
11(11
ar
since urn = 0. - 1-0.001
a - 0.015
Hence S =
1—r - 0.999
15
- Example 13 999
5
Calculate the sum to infinity of the series
27 - 9 + 3 - 1 + 333

- Solution Alternative Method

0.015 015 015...
The first term, a = 27 15 15 15
—9 3 1
The common ratio, r= —=--=--. 1 000 1 000 000 1 000 000 000
27 —9 3
The series is a geometric series. This is the sum to infinity of a geometric series.
= 15
The first term, a
1 000
 Series EM
1 This series is a geometric series.
Since I r <1, then the series converges.
The common ratio, r - I UUU UUU
15 The sum to infinity, S
1 000 1—r
15 1000 8
= x
1000000 15 = 1-1-i
1

- 1 000 8
1
The sum to infinity, 1+-
1-r 4
ii:; 8
- Iuuu . 5
1 4
1 000 4
=8x -
ic 5
- I UUU 32
QQQ
5
I

15 1000 .5
= x
1 000 999 8 32 128
(b) 2+—+--+--
15 3 9 27
999 The first term, a = 2
8 32
5
333 The common ratio,
283
3
- Example 15 This series is a geometric series.
Determine whether the following series Since I r > 1, then the series diverges.
are convergent or divergent. If the series a(r-1)
The sum ton terms, S , =
is convergent find its sum to infinity,
otherwise find the sum to n terms.
= 2[()1]
(a) 8-2+---+.••
28
8 32 128•••
(b) 2+—+------+--+
3 9 27
- Solution
= 2[(.)_1]
1 1
(a) 8-2+ -- —+•
28
The first term, a = 8
1
=6 [(4)n_,]
The common ratio, r = -- = -- = - -
8 —2 4
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Exercise 5b

1. The tenth term of an arithmetic sequence is 30 and the fifteenth term is 55.
(a) Find
(i) the common difference d (ii) the first term a.
(b) Write down an expression for
(i) u (ii) S
(c) Hence, evaluate
(i) u20
2. The fifth term of an arithmetic sequence is —2 and the tenth term is 8.
(a) Find
(i) the common difference d (ii) the first term a
(b) State an expression for
(i) u (ii) S
(c) Hence, evaluate
(1) u15 (ii) S 5
3, Given that the seventh term of an arithmetic sequence is —42 and the twelfth term is —57
(a) Find
(i) the common difference d (ii) the first term a.
(b) State an expression for
(i) u (ii) S
(c) Hence, evaluate
(1) u10 (ii) S 10

4. (a) Given that the eight and fourteenth terms of an arithmetic sequence are —18 and —54
respectively, determine
(i) the common difference d (ii) the first term a
(b) write down an expression for
(i) u
(c) Hence, calculate the value of
(I) u12 () 5
5. (a) If the tenth and the twentieth terms of an arithmetic sequence are —54 and —144
respectively, determine
(1) the common difference d (ii) the first term a
(b) State an expression for
(i) u (ii) S
(c) Hence, calculate the value of
(i) u14 (ii) S14

6. An arithmetic series has a first term of —48 and an nth term of 104. Given that the sum of
the first n terms is 560, find
(a) the number of terms in the series (I,) the common difference
 Series EM
7. An arithmetic series has a first term of 27 and an nth term of —37. Given that the sum of
the first n terms is —85, find
(a) the number of terms in the series (b) the common difference
8. An arithmetic series has a first term of —15 and an nth term of 132. Given that the sum of
the first n terms is 1287, find
(a) the number of terms in the series (b) the common difference
9. An arithmetic series has a first and nth term of 18 and —138 respectively. Given that the
sum of the first n terms is —1620, find
(a) the number of terms in the series (b) the common difference
10. An arithmetic series has a first and nth term of 36 and 315 respectively. Given that the sum
of the first n terms is 5 616, find
(a) the number of terms in the series (b) the common difference
11. An arithmetic series is defined as 21 + 25 + 29 + 33 +...
Determine the least number of terms necessary so that the sum of the arithmetic series
exceeds 1971.
12. An arithmetic series is defined as 35 + 30 + 25 + 20 +... S

Find the least number of terms necessary so that the sum of the arithmetic series exceeds - 190.
13. An arithmetic series is defined as —27 - 20 - 13 - 6
Determine the least number of terms necessary for the sum of the arithmetic series to
exceed 2608.
14. An arithmetic series is defined as 41 + 54 + 67 + 80+
Find the greatest number of terms necessary so that the sum of the arithmetic series does
not exceed 1980.
15. An arithmetic series is defined as 54 + 68 + 82 + 96 +...
Determine the greatest number of terms necessary for the sum of the arithmetic series to
not exceed 5160.
16. The fifth term of a geometric sequence is 112 and the eight term is 896
(a) Find
(i) the common ratio r (ii) the first term a
(b) Write down an expression for
(i) U7j (ii) S
(c) Hence, evaluate
(i) u10 (ii) S10
17. The fourth term of a geometric sequence is and the seventh term is --.

4 32
(a) Find
(1) the common ratio r (ii) the first term a
(b) State an expression for
(i) Un (ii) S
(c) Hence, calculate the value of
(i) u10 (ii)
 I Pure Mathematics for CAPE

18. The second term of a geometric sequence is 60 and the filth term is 7500.
(a) Find
(i) the common ratio r (ii) the first term a
(b) Write down an expression for
(i) u (ii) S
(c) Hence, evaluate
(i) u7 (ii) S7

19. The sixth and eight terms of a geometric sequence are - and - respectively.
(a) Find
(I) the common ratio r when r> 0
(ii) the first term a
(b) State an expression for
(i) u (ii) S
(c) Hence, evaluate
(i) u10 (ii) S10
20. The seventh and ninth terms of a geometric sequence are 16 and 64 respectively.
(a) Find
(i) the common ratio r when r <0
(ii) the first term a
(b) Write down an expression for
(i) un (ii) S11
(c) Hence, calculate the value of
(i) u11 (ii) s11
21. A geometric series has a first term of 5 and an nth term of 10 935. Given that the sum of the
first n terms is 16 400, find
(a) the common ratio (b) the number of terms in the series.

22. A geometric series has a first term of and an nth term of 48. Given that the sum of the
4
first n terms is find
4
(a) the common ratio (b) the number of terms in the series.

23. The first and nth terms of a geometric series are —8 and - --- respectively. Given that the
128
sum of the first n terms is - 2047 , find
128
(a) the common ratio (b) the number of terms in the series.

24. The first and nth terms of a geometric series are 4 and respectively. Given that the
256
3367,
sum of the first n terms is find
256
(a) the common ratio (b) the number of terms in the series.
 Series EM
25. A geometric series has a first term of –10 and an nth term of 5 120. Given that the sum of
the first n terms is 3 410, find
(a) the common ratio (b) the number of terms in the series.
26. A geometric series is defined as 8 + 24 + 72 + 216 +...
Determine the least number of terms necessary so that the sum of the geometric series
exceeds 8 744.
27. A geometric series is defined as 1 248 + 624 + 312 + 156 +..•
Find the least number of terms necessary in order for the sum of the geometric series to
exceed 4953
2
28. A geometric series is defined as 25 + 50 + 100 + 200 +.•
Determine the greatest number of terms necessary for the sum of the geometric series not
to exceed 25 575.
29. A geometric series is defined as 48+36+27+
4
Find the greatest number of terms necessary so that the sum of the geometric series does
not exceed 42591
256.
30. A geometric series is defined as 6 + 18 + 54 + 162.–
Determine the least number of terms necessary in order for the sum of the geometric series
to exceed 59 046.
Calculate the sum to infinity of each of the following series.
1 10
31. (a) 25+5+1+ +--- (b) 90+30+10++•

32. (a) (b) 72-12+2–+•

4 16 3

33. (a) –98-14-2--–• (b)-96+12–+---•

7 2 16
125 —+
512 4096
34. (a) 64+40+25+ —+• (b) 72+64+
8 9 81

35. (a) –100+80-64+–••. (b) 63-54+– 1944

5 7 49
Express each recurring decimal as the sum to infinity of a geometric series. Hence, state the
recurring decimal as a rational number in its simplest form.
36. (a) 0.222 222 222.. (b) 0.555 555 555...
37. (a) 0.040 404 040... . (b) 0.090 909 090...
38. (a) 0.242 424 242... (b) 0.575 757 575...
39. (a) 0.345 345 345 +... (b) 0.768 768 768.
40. (a) 0.277 777 777 +... (b) 0.866 666 666...
im Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Determine whether the following series are convergent or divergent. If the series is convergent
find its sum to infinity, otherwise find the sum to n terms.
45 135 5 5
41. (a) 10-15+ -- --+..• (b) 10-5+ -- —±.
2 4 24
42, (a) 80-20+5--+... (b) 80-100+125—+...
4 4
4 8 (b) 5+ 25 125 625
43. (a) 5+2+ —+ —+... —+----+--+...
5 25 24 4
49 343 2 401
44. (a) —14-2-------•.. (b) —14------- —
7 49 2 8 32
45. (a) 48-64+ -----
2561024 (b) 48-36+27—+...
3 9 4

The method of differences All terms exceptf(n+1) andf(1) have been

The method of differences is a method that is cancelled.
used to find the sum of certain special series. • Given a series u for which we can find a
If the general term of the series is an sequencef(r) such that
algebraic fraction which can be decomposed
into the difference of two fractions by the u=f(r)-f(r--1) VnE
method of partial fractions, then the method Then Sn =Ur
of differences may be used.
• Given a series u for which we can find a
sequencef(r) such that
= [f(r) — f(r -1)]
ur=f(r+1) - f(r) VnE =Rifo
Then Sn =Ur

= + 1)— f(r)]

= f(2)f(1) +)— 4)
+f(f(2) + ç 2f-3)
+ fE4)fE3 —2)

=f(n) — f(0)
+n4—J2) All terms exceptf(n) andf(0) have been
cancelled.
• ff) [f(r)—f(r_1)]= f(n)—f(0) is called the
+f(n+1)f(n)
=f(n+1) -f(1) fundamental theorem of summation.
 Series EM
-Example 16 - Example 17
Given f(r) = r(r + 1), findf(r +1) -f(r) Given f(r) = r(r+1), findf(r) -f(r - 1).

Hence find (r+1). Hence find I r.

- Solution
- Solution
Giver f(r)=2r(r+1)
Given f(r)=Jr(r+1)
Then f(r+1) = (r+1)(r+2)
Then f(r-1)= 2 (r-1)r
So f(r+1)-f(r)=(r+1)(r+2)-r(r+1)
= r(r -1)
= (r+1)(r+2-r)
So f(r)-f(r-1)=r(r+1)-r(r-1)
=-(r+1)2
=-r(r+1-r+1)
=r+1
And (r + 1) = f(n + 1) - f(1) =r(2)

= (n+1)(n+2)-(1)(2) And I r=f(n)-f(0)

= (n+1)(n+2)-(2)
= n(n +1) -0
= 1 {(n + 1)(n +2) -2]
= - n(n +1)
= (n2 +3n+2-2) - Example 18;ij
= Given f(r) = r(r + 1) (2r + 1),
findf(r + 1) -f(r). Hence find
1
=-n(n+3)
Solution
Check: (r + 1) = r +1 Given f(r) = r(r+1)(2r+1)
Thenf(r+1) = (n-1)(r+2)(2r + 3)
So f(r+1) -f(r)
= -n(n+1)+n
= (r + 1)(r + 2)(2r + 3) - r(r +1)(2r + 1)
1 = (r + 1) [(r + 2)(2r + 3) - r(2r + 1)]
= - n(n +1+2) = (r + 1)(2r2 + 7r + 6 - 2r2- r)
=(r+1)(6r+6)
1
=-n(n+3) =6(r+ 1)(r+1)
= 6(r + 1)2
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

And So
f(r) - f(r -1) = r(r + 1)(2r + 1)- r(r - 1)(2r -1)
6(r + 1)2 = f(n + 1) - f(1)
= r [(r + 1)(2r + 1)- (r - 1)(2r -1)]
= (n + 1)(n + 2)(2n + 3)- 1(2)(3)
=r(2r2 +3r+1-2r2 +3r-1)
= (n + 1)(2n2 +7n+6)-6 =r(6r)
=2n3 +7n2 +6n+2n2 +7n+6-6 = 612
= 2n3 +9n2 +13n
= n(2n2 + 9n + 13) And I 6r2 =f(n)-f(0)
= n(n + 1)(2n +1) -0
i.e. 6( r+1) 2 = n(2n2+ 9n + 13)
n(n+1)(2n+1)
1 + 1)2 =(2n2 +913)
i.e. 6>r2= n(n+1)(2n+1)
Check: Y (r +1)2
,

= 1 2 +2r +1)
-Example 20
Express 1m partial fractions
= r2 + 2r + 1 (r+1)(r+2)
1
Hence find as a single
= 12 +2r+n 4 (r+1)(r+2)
fraction.
=n(n+1)(2n+1)+2xIn(n+1)+n - Solution
1 A B
Let
= n(2n 2 + 3n + 1) + + n + n (r+1)(r+2) r+1 r+2
= A(r+2)+B(r+1)
= n(2n2 +3 n+1) +n2 +2n
- (r+1)(r+2)
Thus 1_=A(r+2)+B(r+1)
= n(2n2 +3 n+1 +6n+12) Let r=-1: 1 =A(-1 +2)
A=1
= n(2n2 +9n+13) Let r = -2: 1 = B(-2 + 1)
B=-1
-Example 19 1 = 1 -
In partial fractions:
Givenf(r) = r(r + 1)(2r + 1), findf(r) -f(r - 1). (r+1)(r+2) r+1 r+2
Hence
Hence find I r2 .
Solution 5
' (r+1)(r+2) r5CT+1T+2J
Given f(r) = r(r+1)(2r+1)
1
Thenf(r-1)=(r- 1)(r)(2r-1)
= r(r - 1)(2r - 1) 5+1 5+2
 Series EM
1 1 -Example 21
+--
6+1 6+2 2
Find s_
1 1 r =1T(T+2)
+--
7+1 7+2
- Solution
1 1 2 A B
+ Let
(n-2)+1 (n-2)+2 r(r+2) r r+2
1 1 = A(r+2)+B(r)
+
(n-1)+1 (n-1)+2 — r(r+2)
1 1 Thus
+ 2A(r+2)+B(r)
n+1 n+2 Let r=O: 2=2A = A=1
Let r=-2: 2=-2B => B=—i
In partial fractions:
Here, the 2
6 /7 first and (i
:i( 1 the last r=i T(T+2) r =i TT+2)
terms
arenot
1 1/
V
49 cancelled.
1
+--

4-~ 5

+; 6 Here, two
terms at the
+1 n+2
+
y
start and
_1 1 't 3 X -1 two terms
6n+2 at the end
i/
1(n+2)-1(6) + arenot
71Z2 /n cancelled.
6(n +2) 1/1
+
n+2-6 Zi n+1
6(n+2) 1/1
/n n+2
1 n-4 ii 1 1
(r+i)(r+2)6(n+2) asasingle 12 n-i-i n+2
fraction. 31(n-i-2)+i(n+1)
2 (n+i)(n+2)
3 n+2+n+i
2(n+1)(n+2)
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

2n+3 i(iy
2 (n+1)(n+2)
= 3(n + 1)(n ± 2)— 2(2n + 3) 1
2(n+1)(n+2)
+--
25
— 3n 2 +9n+6-4n-6 1 / Here, three terms at
+
the start and three
— 2(n+1)(n+2) terms at the end are
not cancelled.
= 2(n+1)(n+2)
= n(3n+5)
2(n + 1)(n + 2)

- Example 22 + yx
4'-47n-1
Find Y_ 1
r(r+3)
r=1
1/1
+
/-2 n-i-i
1 A B v/ i
Let
r(r+3) r r+3 —i n+2
= A(r +3) + B(r) / i
+/I -____
— r(r+3) 'fln+3
Thus 1A(r+3)±B(r) ill 1 1 — 1 — 1
=—I —+—+— -___
Let r=O: 1=3A = A= 3k,1 2 3 n+1 n+2 n+3
3 — 1 [ii 1(n + 2)(n +3) + 1(n + 1)(n +3) + 1(n + 1)(n +2)
Let r=-3: 1=-3B => B=-- — 3[ 6 (n+i)(n+2)(n+3)

In partial fractions: 1[11 3n2 ±12n-i-11

— 3[ 6 (n+i)(n+2)(n+3)
1 1 11 3n2 ±12n±11
-- 18 3(n+1)(n+2)(n+3)
r(r+3) =
Example 23 1
n
5 .
(a) Express m partial fractions.
r=i 3 r r+3 412 _i
n 5 5n
(b) Hence, show that
3 r =iT r+3 —1 = 2n+1
 Series EM
(c) Find
() () +/ -t
14r_1 24r-1

5 /,/
~
r~ 7
3 4r_1
- Solution
where the
VV H
5 5 21-5 21-3
(a) Now
4T21 = (2r)2-12 denominator
is the v-v 2-1
5 difference of
(2r + 1)(2r —1) two squares
So let 21'-1 2n+1
5 B A 1
+ 2n+i
(2r+1)(2r-1) 2r+1 2r-1 2(

= A(2r — 1) + B(2r + 1) _1 1(2n +1)_ 1 1

- (2r+1)(2r-1) 2[ 2n-i-1 j
5(2n±1-1"
Thus 5 A(2r — 1) + B(2r + 1)
22n+1) :

Letr=— : 5=-2a = 5(2n

2 2 22n+i
Let r=: 5=2B => B= - 5n
2 2 2n+i
In partial fractions:
5 5 5 (c) (i) = in
4r2_ 1
412_i
+ 4 1 - 2n+1)
2(2r+1) 2(2r-1)
- 5 5
- 2(2r —1) - 2(2r +1)
(b) Now 2

r= 1 4r [ 2(2T 1) 22T+1)]

2 (2r —1 - 2r +1
5n( 1 1
- 2 =1 2r -1 2r + 1
5(1 ,,'

21/3
1FJ Pure Mathematics for CAPE

+ _1/_V - Example 24
+: Sum to n terms the series
:1 1 1
+ + +...
'2n+1) 3x5 5x7 7x9
_5 Hence, deduce the sum to infinity.
(3 2n+1) - Solution
00

5 5(1 1 \ Given the series:

And =lim— --___ 1 1 1
71 4r2 —1 n002 3 2n+1) + + +...
3x5 5x7 7x9
2\3 —0) Then the general term is 1
5 (2r + 1)(2r + 3)
6 1 A B
Now +
(2r+1)(2r+3) 2r+1 2r+3
n
5 = 5(l = A(2r +3) + B(2r +1)
3 4r-1 25 /7 - (2r+1)(2r+3)
Thus 1A(2r+3)+B(12r+1)
+ I Let r=—:i=A(2)= A-
+/- Let r=—:1=B(-2)= B=-
2 2
+ In partial fractions:
2n7 1 1 1
5 2z-3 (2r+1)(2r+3) 2(2r+1) 2(2r+3)
iZ 1/
+ _7Z_ Then
-
t-3 ,Zn-1
/ 1 1
+ __ i — i I + + +...+
2n-1 2n+1 1 [3x5 5x7 5x9 (2r+1)(2r+3)
5(1 1
25 2n+1
- =1L22r+1 - 2(2r+3)
Andy _5 =1im(—_1
r=34T21 fl40025 2n+1 r=1 2 2r+1 2r+3
1(1 1
25 23
1
2

+ Y- 9/
 Series

Hence, the sum to infinity;

S,,, = Jim S
n -> -
3 • 1(1 1
+ I n*oo2 \ 3 2n+3

11
2 \3 -0)
i2n+3
1
1(1
The sum to n terms, Sn =I 23 6

n
= 3(2n+3)

Exercise 5c

1. Givenf(r) = r(r + 2), findf(r + 1) -f(r). 8. If f(r) = (r + 2)(r +5), findf(r) -f(r - 1).
Hence find I (2r + 3) Hence find I 2(r + 3). 1

2. If f(r) = r(r - 1), findf(r + 1) -f(r).

9. Givenf(r) = 12 (r - 1)2 , findf(r) -f(r - 1).
Hence find Y, 2r. Hence verify that 4(r - 1)3 = n2 (n - 1)2.
r=1
3. Givenf(r) = 5r(r + 4), findf(r + 1) -f(r).
10. If f(r) = (r - 2)(r - 3), findf(r) -f(r - 1).
Hence find 5(2r + 5)
r=1
Hence show that I 2(r-3)--n(n-5).
4. If f(r) = 3r(r - 6), findf(r + 1) -f(r). r=1

Hence verify that 3(2r -5) = 3n(n -4). 11. Givenf(r) = r(r + 2)(r + 3), findf(r +1) -f(r).
5. Givenf(r) = r2(r + 1)2 , find f(r + 1) - f(r). Hence find (r + 3)(3r + 4).

Hence show that

12. If f(r) = r(r - 2)(r - 3), findf(r +1) -f(r).
(r+ 1)3 = _ n(n3 + 6n2 + 13n+12)
=1 4 Hence find Y, (r - 2)(3r - 1).
6. If f(r) = r(r + 2), findf(r) -f(r - 1) 13. Givenf(r) = r(r + 1)(r - 4), findf(r+1) -fir).
Hence find Y. (2r + 1). Hence find I (r + 1)(r -2).
7. Givenf(r) = (r + 1)(r + 3), findf(r) -f(r - 1).
14. Iffir) = (r + 1)(r + 2)(2r - 1), findflr + 1) -fir).
Hence find Y, 2(r + 1) Hence verify that
(r + 2)(3r + 2) = (2n2 + un + 17).
 O Pure Mathematics for CAPE

1
15. Givenf(r) = (r + 1)(r + 2)(3r + 1), find 24. Express in partial fractions.
f(r + 1) — f(r). (2r-1)(r+1)
Hence show that 1
+ 2)(9r + 11) = n(3n 2 + 19n + 38).
Hence find 1
r=3 (211)(21'3)
as a single
fraction.
16, Iff(r) = (r + 1)(r +2)(r+3), findf(r) —f(r - 1) 1
25. Express in partial fractions.
Hence show that (2r+1)(2r+3)
3(r + 1)(r + 2) = n(n2 +6n +11). Hence find I 1
(2r+1)(2r+3)
as a single

17. Givenf(r) = (r + l)(r + 2)(r - 1), find fraction.

f(r) —f(r-1). Find

Hence find Y (r+1)(3r-2).

,
26.(a)
=1 r(r+1)
(b)
r =iT(T+2)
18. Iff(r) = (r + 1)(r + 2)(2r - 1), findf(r) —fir - 1).
27.(a) (b)
Hence find Y (r + 1)(1 - 3r).
,
73 r(r-2) 4 r(r-1)
2
19. Givenf(r) = (r + 2)(r + 3)(2r + 1), find 28.(a) I r(r+1)
4
(b)
r =iT(r+2)
f(r)—f(r— 1).
Hence verify that 1
29.(a) (b)
(2n2 +11n+17). r =2T(1'+l) 1 (r+3)(r+4)
1 1
20. Ifftr) = (r + 2)(r + 3)(3r - 2), findfir) —f(r - 1). 30.(a) (b)
r =3(T+4)(T+5) r =2(T+5)(T+6)
Hence show that
(r + 2)(9r —1) = n(3n2 + 13n + 8). 31. (a) Express 1 in partial fractions.
4r2 —
n
8 8n
(b) Hence, show that Y,
21. Express in partial fractions. 4r 2 1 = 2n+1
(r+2)(r+3)
(c) Find
Hence find I 1
as a single
= 5 (r+2)(r+3) ()
fraction. 4r — 1 r=2 4r2 — 1
1
22. Express in partial fractions.
(r+3)(r+4) (111)
I 42
r=3 '
1
Hence find as a single
=2 (r+3)(r+4) 32. (a) Express 10 in partial fractions.
fraction. r2 — 1
1
23. Express in partial fractions. (b) Hence, show that
(n+3)(n+5) n
10 5(3n2 —n-2)
1
Hence find 1
= 4 (r+3)(r+5)
as a single r =2T2 1 2n(n+1)

fraction.
 Series EM
(c) Find
35. (a) Express m partial fractions.
() (1 1)
i6r2 —8r-3
8

(b) Hence, show that

n
8 -

2 _i 116r2_8r_3 - 4n+1

i (c) Find
33. (a) Express in partial fractions.
4r 2 +4r (1)
i6r2_8r_3
(b) Hence, show that
in
4r2+4r 4(n+1) , =6 i6T8'3
-

(c) Find 36. Sum to n terms the series

i 7 7 7
(1)
+ +...
4r2+4r 4r2 + 4r 1x3 3x5 5x7
r=2 r=3
Hence, deduce the sum to infinity.
37. Sum to n terms the series
r= 4r2 +4r 4 4 4
3x5 5x7 7x9
34. (a) Express in partial fractions. Hence, deduce the sum to infinity.
4r 2 + 16r+i5
38. Sum to n terms the series
(b) Hence, show that 5 5 5
~ 3 + + +...
-

2x4 4x6 6x8

4r2+16r+i5 5(2n+5) -

Hence, deduce the sum to infinity.

(c) Find 39. Sum to n terms the series
3 7 7 7
(i)
r=2 4r2 2x5 5x8 8x11
3 Hence, deduce the sum to infinity.
r=5 4r2+i6r+i5 40. Sum to n terms the series
4 4 4
+ +...
1x5 3x7 5x9
Hence, deduce the sum to infinity.

Taylor's theorem and Taylor series

Suppose thatf is a function that can be represented by a power series:
2
f (x) = CO + C1 (x a) + C2 (x a) + C3 (X - a)3 + C4 (X - a)4
- -

where CO3 C 11 C21 C31 C4 are all constants

F ,M Pure Mathematics for CAPE

If we let x= a, then
f(a) = CO =0! C O, By convention 0! = 1.
Differentiatingf(x):
f'(x) = C1 + 2C2 (x - a) + 3C3 (X - a)2 + 4 C4 (X - a)3 +...

If we let x = a, then
f'(a) = C1 = 1.C1 = 1!C.
Differentiatingf'(x):
f"(x) = 2C2 + 2.3C3 (x - a) + 3.4C4 (x - a) 2 +•••

If we let x = a, then
f"(a) = 2C2 = 1.2C2 = 2!C2

Differentiatingf"(x):
f ... (x) = 2.3C3 + 2.3.4C4 (X- a) + 3.4.5C5 (X - a)2 +•••

If we let x = a, then f" (a) = 2.3C3 = 3! C3 .

We can deduce that: f(a) = 1.2.3.4.••• .nC= n! C,
Since f() (a) = n! C
(n)
a
then C, = By conventionf(°) =f
n!
We have proved the following theorem.

If

ç(n)
a
then

Ifhas a power series expansion at a, then the theorem is applicable.

We now substitute the formula for C into the series forf(x).
j f(n) (a)
Thus f = (x - a)hl
n=O
f'(a) f"(a) f"(a)
= f(a)+ (x—a)+ (x—a) 2 + ( x—a)3 +...
1! 2! 3!
This is the Taylor series for a functionf(x) centred at x = a, wheref(x) is infinitely differentiable
at x = a.
This series expansion of a function about a point a is called a Taylor series.
 Series IM

A Taylor series is a power series expansion of a functionf at a (about a; centred at a).

Taylor's theorem states that any function that satisfies certain conditions may be
represented by a Taylor series.

The conditions are:

• It must be possible to find all the derivatives of f(x).
• Each derivative must be defined when x = a.
• The series obtained must be convergent.
In a more general way, we can state that the Taylor series is a power series expansion of a real
functionf(x) in the neighbourhood of x = a (at point x = a) such that:
/.(
\ ,/.' f \ ç(n)1 \
f(x) = f(a)+ f'(a)(x - a)+ \aJ (x - a)2+ a, (x-a)'+..,.+ ' (x-a)"+---
Here,f(x) has been expanded as a series of ascending power of (x - a).

C%J
Example 25 C,
(a)
1
Use the Taylor series to expand — i- as a series of ascending powers of (x - a), stating the =
a
-
X
first six non-zero terms. a
Use the Taylor series to expand as a series of ascending powers of (x - 1), stating the
2
(b)
first six non-zero terms. X

1
(c) Hence, calculate the value of correct to three decimal places.
1 .022

Solution
(a) The Taylor series forf(x) about x = a is:

f(a)
fW = (x -
n=O n!
f(4)
= f(a) + f'(a)(x - a) + - (x - a)2+ f"(a) (x - a)'+ (x - a)4
2! 3! 4!
4(5)f \
a1
+j (x—a)'+..-

Let f(x) = —2 f(a) =

Then f'(x)=-2x=---=> '(a)=----

f"(x)=6x=-. = f"(a)=-.
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

f" (x)=-24x=— = f"(a) 24

—- -

f 4 (x) = 120x= x 6 = f(4) (a) -- 120

--
720 f(S) (a) = 720
and f 5 (x) = — 720x7 = - =

The Taylor series for f(x) =4 about x = a is:

X

1 1 2"
(x—a)+
1\ tlJ (x-a)2 + aJ (x —a) 3+ 1aJ (x — a)
2! 3! 4!

a
5!
12 32 35
= ------ (x — a)+--- (x — a) ----- (x — a) +-- (x — a)4
a a a a a
5
----(x—a) +•••
a
This is the Taylor series expansion of 4 as a series of ascending powers of (x - a), with
the first six non-zero terms stated.
(b) Since (x—a)=(x-1)
then a=1
The Taylor series for f(x) =4 about x = 1 is:
1 2 (X _ 1)+ --
3 (X_1)2 4
-12 __ 13
-=1 14 +4
= 1— 2(x —1) + 3(x - 1)2 - 4(x - 1) + 5(x - 1)' - 6(x - i) +•.

This is the Taylor-series expansion of 4 as a series of ascending powers of (x - 1), with

the first six non-zero terms stated.
(c) Since
ce =1
x2 1.022
then x=1.02
So x-1=1.02-1=0.02
1
1.022 =1-2(0.02)+3(0.02)2 - 4(0.02) 3 +5(0.02)4 - 6(0.02) 5 + . ..
=1-0.04+0.001 2-0.000 032+•••
sL'I.iSL'r4;
= 0.961 correct to 3 d.p
 Series IM
Example 26 J
(a) Use the Taylor series to expand sin x as a series of ascending powers of (x - a) up to and
including the term (x - a) 4 .

(b) Use the Taylor series to expand sin x as a series of ascending powers of (x - up to
( k 2)
and including the term i x-
2
(c) Hence, calculate an approximation to sin it.
Solution
(a) The Taylor series forf(x) about x = a is:
ç(n)
f(x) = - a)

= f(a) + f'(a)(x - a) + f) (x - a)2+ f') (x - a) + (x — a )4 +_.

Let f(x) = sin x => f(a) = sin a
Then f'(x) = cos x => f(a) = cos a
f"(x) = —sin x = f"(a) = —sin a
f"(x) = —cos x = f ... (a) = —cos a —
and f(4)(x) = sin x = f(4)(a) = sin a
The Taylor series forf(x) = sin x about x = a is:
sin a)2 (—cosa sina
sin x= sin a+ cos a(x—a)+ (x—a) + )(x_a) + 4! (x—a) +..
2!
sin 2 cosa sina
=sma+ cos a(x—a)-- (x—a) — 6 (x—a) + 24 (x—a) +•••
2
= sin a + (x — a) cos a - - (x — a) 2 sin a - -- (x - a) 3 cos a + (x - a) 4 sin a +•

This is the Taylor series expansion of sin x as a series of ascending powers of (x - a) up

to and including the term (x - a) 4

ci
.

it
(b) Let f(x)= sin x = sm—=1
2

Then f'(x) = cos x =

f"(x) = —sin x =
f" ( " )
=:!;: —1

f ... (x) = —cos x =

f ... (")
= —cos-- = o
and f(4)(x) = sin x = f(4) (J =sin =1
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

TE
The Taylor series forf(x) = sin x about x = is:
,,,(

/\ / \/ \ it f / it \ 3 J 1i, 7t
,(iM(ifl f (12\2 }t t 2)t x-- I +"
smx=fi - i+f i - ii x-- 1+ i x-- + i x-- I + i
2) 2! 2) 3! 2) 4! 2)
I \/ 3
,' / ,.
/ _\
t-1)( it Ut 7t1 1 TC
=1+01 x-- i+—i x-- I +—I x-- I +—i x -- I
2) 2! ' 2) 3R. 2) 4R. 2)
2
i (
=1--( x-- I + —I x-- I +•.•
2) 2)

This is the Taylor series expansion of sin x as a series of ascending powers of X- up

TC )4 . 2)
to and including the term (X-

,(7C ) 2 r
• 11 IM
(c) Since smx =1-- x-- I +—I x-- I+.
2 2 24' 2)
/ /
it n it it
then sinit=1--i it-- I +—I It-- I
2) 24 2)
/ ( 7C
1tith
=1--i - I+--
22) 242
= 1-1.233 7 +0.253 7
= 0.02
Hence, an approximation to sin it is 0.02. To the nearest whole number sin it is 0.
Example 27
(a) Use the Taylor series to expand ex as a series of ascending powers of (x - a) up to the
term containing (x - a)5.
(b) Use the Taylor series to expand e' as a series of ascending powers of (x - 2) up to the
term containing (x - 2).
(c) Hence, evaluate e201 correct to five decimal places.
Solution
(a) Let f(x)=ex => f(a)=ea
Then f(x) = ex => f(a) = ea
f"(x) = ex => f"(a) = ea
f"(x) ex
= f ... (a) = ea
f (4)(x)= e'1 => f(4) (a) =
and f(5)(x) = ex => f(5)(a) = ea
The Taylor series forf(x) = ex about x = a is:
 Series EM
ea
e x =ea+ea (x–a)+—(x–a)2 e
a ea ea
+—(x–a) +—(x–a) +—(x–a) +•••

=ea +ea (x–a)+–e

a (x–a)
2 a (x–a)
+–e 3 +—e
a (x–a)
4
+—ea (x–a)5 +••.
2 6 24 120
This is the Taylor series expansion of e' as a series of ascending powers of (x - a) up to
the term containing (x - a)5 .

(b) Since ex = ea+ea(x_a)+-et(x_ a )2

in ascending = + - e a (x - a)' + ea (x - a)4 + e' (x - a)' +. ..

powers of (x - a) 6 24 120

Then ex = e2 +e2 (x_2)+e 2 (x _2)2,a= 2

in ascending =+–e 2 (x-2) 3 + —e 2 (x-2) 4 + —e 2 (x-2) 5 +•••

powers of (x - 2) 6 24 120

This is the Taylor series expansion of ex as a series of ascending powers of (x - 2) up to

the term containing (x - 2).

(c) Since ex = e201, then x = 2.01.

So x-2=2.01-2=0.01.
e2°'= e2 + e2 (0.01) +e2 (0.01)2 +e2 (0.01)3 + e2 (0.01)4 +_1 e2 (O.O1)5
2 6 24 120

1
= e 2 1+0.01+ (0 .01)2
2
=e2 (1.01+0.000 05+...)
+ ( 0.01)3+
6
-- 0.01)4
24
(
+ -- ( 0.01)
120

=e2 (1.01005+...)
= 7.46332 correct to 5 d.p.

Example 28El
(a) Use the Taylor series to expand In x as a series of ascending powers of (x - a) up to the
term (x - a)6 .
(b) Use the Taylor series to expand In x as a series of ascending powers of (x - 1) up to the
terms (x - 1)6.
(c) Hence, calculate the value of In 1.04 correct to six decimal places.
Solution
(a) Let f(x)=]nx => f(a)=lna
X -1
Then f'(x) = = = f'(a) -- -
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

1
f"(x) = –x 2 = -- = f"(a) = ---

f 3 (x) = 2x 3 = - - ; f(3) (a) =

a
6
f 4 (x) = –6x = - = f(a)=---

-
f 5 (x)= 24x 5 = 24 = f(5) (a) =
a
and f (6) (X) = – 120x6-
- 120 =
p-
-- a
The Taylor series forf(x) = In x about x = a is:
2 24
1 121 aj 14 a )6
lnx=lna+ –(x–a)+ (x–a) 2 + a —(x–a) + )(x—a)+x—a)+
a 2! 3! 4!
x - a (x - a)2 (x - a)3 (x - a)4 (x - a)5 (x - a)'
=lna+ - + - + +...
a 2a2 3a3 4a4 5a5 6a6
This is the Taylor series expansion of in x as a series of ascending powers of (x - a) up to
the term (x - a)6 .
(b) Since In x x - a - (x - a)2 + (x - a)3 - ( x - a)4 (x - a)5 (x - a)6
in ascending = in a + +
power of (x - a) a 2a2 3a3 4a 4 5a5 - 6a6

Then In x x –1 (X_1)2 (x - 1) (x - 1) (x - 1) (x - 1) 6
=lnl+ -____ ____ ____ ____
in ascending 1 2(1)2 + 3(1) - 4(1) + 5(1) - 6(1) 6 +
powers of (x - 1)
= (x _1)_( x _1)2 + (x _1)3 _(x _1)4
2 3
4(x _1)5 _(x _1)6 + ...

This is the Taylor series expansion of in x as a series of ascending powers of (x - 1) up to

the term (x - 1)6.
(c) Since Inx=lnl.04, then x=1.04.
So x-1 = 1.04-1 = 0.04.
In 1.04 = (0.04)– (0 .04)2 + ( 0.04)3- -( 0.04)+ -(0.04)– .- (0 .04)6 +...
= 0.04-0.000 8 +0.000 021–-
= 0.039 221 correct to 6 d.p.

Example 29
(a) Use the Taylor series to expand cos 2x as a series of ascending powers of (x - a) up to
and including the term (x - a)5. ( \
(b) Use the Taylor series to expand cos 2x as a series of ascending powers of I x - up to
4
and including the term (X-
J.
 Series EM

(c) Hence, calculate an approximation to cos

- Solution
(a) Let f(x) cos 2x
= => f(a) = cos 2a
Then f'(x)
= —2 sin 2x =' f(a) —2 sin 2a
f"(x)= —4 cos 2x = f"(a) = —4 cos 2a
f"(x) = 8 sin 2x = f ... (a) = 8 sin 2a
f (4) (x)
= 16 cos 2x => f (4) (a) = 16 cos 2a
and f (5)(x)
= —32 sin 2x => f (5) (x) = —32 sin 2a
The Taylor series forf(x) = cos 2x as a series of ascending powers of (x - a) up to and
including the term (x - a)5 is:
8 sin 2a (x — a) 16cos2a
Cos 2x = Cos 2a-2 sin 2a(x--a)— 4cos2a (x — a) 2 +
3!
.+ (x—a) 4
2!
32 sin 2a 5
- (x—a)+...
2
= Cos 2a-2(x—a) sin 2a-2(x —a) 2 Cos 2a+(x—a) sin 2a + (x — a) 4 Cos 2a

--(x — a) 5 sin 2a
15
(b) The Taylor series forf(x) = cos 2x as a series of ascending powers of X - f-') up to and
I 4)
including the term (x -is:
4) 2 3
( ( (
cos2x=cos2t - i-2i x-- isin2i - 1-21 x--I cos 2l - 1+—i x-- I sm2i
sin -
k 4) '4) 4) 4) 3. 4)
2/ / / /
\4 '5
it tni \ 4t Ifl (it
+—Ix--I cos2i—i--ix--i sm2i-
3'\ 4) k4) 15t 4)
/\2
it in 4' iM.it
cos--2 (X— isin--21 x— Icos—+i x— I
2 4) 2 4) 2 3t 4) 2
2( ic it 4 ic '\ it
+ —i x-- I cos---I x-- I Sm—
3 \ 4) 2 15 4) 2
3 5
= -2 (x_J(1)+-(x_) 4(
(1)+...
4 3 4 15 4
( it "\ 4( it 4(
=-2i x-- 1+—i x-- I --I x -- I
. 4) 3k. 4) 15k. 4)
7C 7r
(c) Since cos 2x = then 2x=—
33
it IC
So x=
2x3 6
it it It It
x--=---=--
4 6 4 12
L1iI Pure Mathematics for CAPE

TE 1 it\ 41 41
Thus cos—=-21 --1+—I -- I --I -- I +"
3 12) 3 12) 5 12)
= 0.523 599— 0.023 925 + 0.000 328
= 0.500 002
Hence, an approximation to cos is 0.500 002.

- Example 30 1

(a) Use the Taylor series to expand e as a series of ascending powers of (x - a) up to the
term containing (x - a)5.
(b) Use the Taylor series to expand e 3 as a series of ascending powers of (x —4) up to the
term containing (x - 4)5 .
(c) Hence, evaluate e1206 correct to six significant figures.
Solution
(a) Let f(x) = => f(a) = e3
Then f'(x) = 3e3X ==> f'(a) = 3e3a
f"(x) = 9e3X => f"(a) = 9e3a
f ... (x) = 27e3x => f ... (a) = 27e3a
f(4)(x) = 81e3x => f(")(a) = 810,
and f( 5)(x) = 243e3x => f( 5)(a) = 243e3a
The Taylor series forf(x) = as a series of ascending powers of (x - a) up to and
including the term containing (x - a)5 is:
9e e 81e 243e
e3x =e 3a+3e3a (x— a)+---- (x — a)2+27 (x — a) + (x — a) + (x—a) +••

= e 3 + 3e 3a (x -a)+ e 3 (x - a)2 + e 3 (x - a)3 + e 3 a(x - a)4 + e 3 (x - a)5 +••

(b) The Taylor series forf(x) = as a series of ascending powers of (x —4) up to and
including the term containing (x - 4)5 is:
93(4) 9 27 81
e3'= e34+3e34(x-4)+ e

= e12 +3e12 (x_4)+e12 (x _4)2+e12(x-4)3+ 27 e 12 (x— 4)4+-e12(x - 4)+...

(c) Since = e 1206 , then 3x = 12.06

12.06
So x= =4.02
3
x-4=4.02-4=0.02
+ 27 + 81
Thus e12°6 = e12 [1+3(0.02)+ 9 (0.02) 2 + 9 (0.02) 3 (0.02) 4 (0.02)

= e12 (1 + 0.06 + 0.0018 + 0.000 036 + 0.000 000 54 + 0.000 000 006)
 Series EM

= e12 (1.061836 546)

L =172 819 correct to 6 s.f.
Example 31
(a) Use the Taylor series to expand In (x + 1) as a series of ascending powers of (x - a) up to
the term (x - a)5 .

(b) Use the Taylor series to expand in (x + 1) as a series of ascending powers of (x - 2) up to

the term (x - 2).
(c) Hence, calculate the value of In 3.05 correct to six significant figures.
- Solution
(a) Let f(x)=]n(x±1) = f(a)=ln(a+1)
Then f'(x)= 1 =(x+1' => f'(a)=-J--

f"(x) = -(x ± 1) 2
f"(a) =
- (a +1)2
f ... (x) = 2(x + 1)-3 f"(a)
= (a ±1)

f(4) (x) = -6(x + 1) f() (a) =

- (a +1)
f (5) (X) = 24(x ± 1)-5 =
and f5 (a)
= (a +1)

The Taylor series forf(x) = in (xi-1) as a series of ascending powers of (x - a) up to the

term (x - a) 5 is:
1 2 6
I I 1\2 ( x—a / \,a +1) I\3 I a +1)
1\4
ln(x+1)=ln(a+1)+—(x-a)- + ( x - a) - (x-a) 4
a+1 21 31 4!
74
______
± (x-a)5-...
5!
(x - a) - (x - a)2 (x - a)3 - (x - a)4 + (x - a)5
= ln(a + 1) + +
a + 1 2(a ± 1)2 3(a +1)3 4(a +1)4 5(a + i)
(b) The Taylor series forf(x) = In (x + 1) as a series of ascending powers of (x - 2) up to the
term (x - 2) 5 is:
2 (x - (x
2) 3 - 2) (x - 2)
ln(x+1)= ln3+ x-2 (x-2)_ 3(3)3_ -_____ 4 (3)4 +_____
5(3)5
2(3)2 +
=In3+(x_2)_(x_2)2+I(x_2)3_(x_2)4+_1 (x-2)5-...
3 18 81 324 1215
EM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

(c) Since in(x+1)=1n3.05,

then x+1=3.05
So x=3.05-1=2.05
x-2=2.05-2=0.05
Thus in 3.05 = in 3 + -(0.05) - _(0.05)2 + 1 (0.05)3 — 1 (0.05)—...
3 18 81 324 1215
= 1.098 612 + 0.016 667— 0.000 139+...
= 1.115 14 correct to 6 s.f.

Exercise 5d

In numbers i to 4.
(a) Use the Taylor series to expand each 6. f(x)= cos x, cos --
function as a series of ascending powers of In numbers 7 and 8.
(i) x—a (ii)x-1
(a) Use the Taylor series to expand each
stating the first six non-zero terms. trigonometric function as a series of
(b) Hence calculate the stated value correct to ascending powers of
four decimal places. (i) (x - a) up to and including the
11 term (x - a) 2
1. f(x) =
.., i-:oi Ufl (x - up to and including
1 1 TC )2 .
2. f(x) = 31 the term -
X 1.02
(X
55 (b) Hence, calculate an approximation to
3. f(x) = 1.032 the stated trigonometric ratio.

66
7. f (x) = tan x, tan
4. f(x) =
1.02
8. f (x) = sec x, sec
In numbers 5 and 6.
(a) Use the Taylor series to expand each 9. (a) Use the Taylor series to expand e _x
trigonometric function as a series of as a series of ascending powers of
ascending powers of (x - a) up to the term containing (x - a) 5
(i) (x - a) up to and including the (b) Use the Taylor series to expand e_x as
term (x - a) 4 a series of ascending powers of (x - 3)
up to the term containing (x - 3)5 .
(ii) ( - 71 up to and including the
(c) Hence, evaluate e 301 correct to five
4)
decimal places.
I It
term X— —
10. (a) Use the Taylor series to expand in x as
4)
a series of ascending powers of (x - a)
Hence, calculate an approximation to
up to the term (x - a )5.
the stated trigonometric ratio.
(b) Use the Taylor series to expand In x as
It a series of ascending powers of (x - 4)
5, f(x)= sin x, sin —
2 up to the term (x - 4)5.
 Series EM
(c) Hence, calculate the value of In 4.03 16. (a) Use the Taylor series to expand e_4' as
correct to six decimal places. a series of ascending powers of (x - a)
up to the term (x - a) 5 .
In numbers 11 and 12.
(a) Use the Taylor series to expand each (b) Use the Taylor series to expand e as
a series of ascending powers of (x - 2)
trigonometric function as a series of
ascending powers of up to the term (x - 2).
(i) (x - a) up to and including (c) Hence, evaluate e 812 correct to six
significant figures.
the term (x - a) 5
w (x - up to and including 17.'(a) Use the Taylor series to expand In (x +2)
2) as a series of ascendin g powers of (x - a)
up to the term (x - a) 5 ;
the term ( x _
2 (b) Use the Taylor series to expand In (x +2)
(b) Hence, calculate an approximation to as a series of ascending powers of (x —2)
the stated trigonometric ratio. up to the term (x 2).
(c) Hence, calculate the value of In 5
37t correct to four significant figures.
11. f(x) = sin2x, Sm —
c'J
2
18. (a) Using the Taylor series and expanding C)
12. f(x) = cos 3x, cos it in ascending power of (x - a), show
that -c
In numbers 13 and 14. 0
(a) Use the Taylor series to expand each e COSC
=e - (x - a) sin a 5
trigonometric function as a series of
ascending powers of + (x - a)2 eCO (sin2 a - cos a)
(i) (x - a) up to and including
the term (x - a) 2 (b) Hence, find an expression for ecos
It
(ii) Ix - up to and including at x= - .
4) 2
2
the term (X— 19. (a) Using the Taylor series and expanding
4 in ascending powers of (x - a), show
(b) Hence, calculate an approximation that
to the stated trigonometric function.
ex sinx = e a sina+ea(x _ a) (sin a+ cos a )
It
13. f(x) = tan 2x, tan —

3 + e a (x - a)2 cos a
It
14. f(x) = sec 2x, sec - + ez (x - a)3 (cos a - sin a)
3
15. (a) Use the Taylor series to expand e 2 as - (x - a)4 ea sin a
a series of ascending powers of (x - a)
up to the term containing (x - a) 5 . (b) Hence, find an expression for ex sin x
(b) Use the Taylor series to expand e2x as It
a series of ascending powers of (x - 7) at x= - .
4
up to the term containing (x - 7)5.
(c) Hence, evaluate e1402 correct to seven
significant figures.
 LI Pure Mathematics for CAPE

20. (a) Using the Taylor series and expanding in ascending powers of (x - a), show that

(x - a)2 (x - a) 3 (x - a) 4 (x - a) 5
2xlnx=2alna+2(x–a)(lna+1)+
a - 3 a 2 + 6a3 - 10a4
(b) Hence, find an expression for 2x in x at x = 2.

Maclaurin series
A Maclaurin series is a Taylor series expansion of a function for the special case a = 0.
Thus f(x)= ° x

________ 2 + f ... (0) 3 • +

= f(0) + f'(0)x + f"(0) f +••
2! 3! n!

-Example 32
(a) Use the Maclaurin series to find the series expansion of 1 2' giving all terms up to
and including that in x6 . ( 1 + x)

(b) Hence find _L correct to five decimal places.

1 .12
- Solution
(a) Let f(x)= = (1+ x) 2 f(0)1
(1+x)2
Then f'(x) = –2! (1 + x) 3 = f'(0) = –2!
f "(x) = 3! (1 + x) -4 =
=> f"(0)=-4!
f 4 (x)=5!(1+x) =
= –6!(1+x)7 => f(0) = –6!
and = 7!(1+x)8 =>
f f 6 (0)= 7!
1
The Maclaurin series expansion of is:
(1+ x)2

1 3! 2 4! 5! 6! 7! 6
=1-2!x+—x --x +—x --x +—x
(1+x)2 2! 3! 4! 5! 6!
= 1-2x+3x2-4x3-t-5x4-6x5-t-7x6
 Series Em
(b) Since i 1-

(1+x)2 1 . 12
1
= (1+0 . 1)2

Then x=0.1
And _- = 1-2(0.1)+ 3(0. 1)2 - 4(0.1)+5(0.1) - 6(0.1 ) + 7(0.1)6_...
'

=1- 0.2 + 0.03-0.004 + 0.0005-0.00006 + 0.000 007

=0.826447
=0.82645 correct to 5 d.p.

-Example 33
(a) Use the Maclaurin series to obtain the first three non-zero terms of tan -1 x.
(b) Given that the fourth non-zero term in the Maclaurin expansion of arctan x is - -
x7, find
tan' correct to two significant figures.

-Solution
(a) Let f(x) = tan-' x => f(0) =0

Then f'(x) f'(0) =1

= 1+X,

f"(0)=-2

f(4)(x)=_24x(1X2)4 = f(0)=0

24 5x4-10x2+1
and f 5 (x) = f(0) = 24

The Maclaurin series expansion of tan -' x is:

2
tan x=(1)x--x +—x -

3! 5!
1 3 1 5
=x--x +-x
3 5
This is the first three non-zero terms of tan x.
The series for tan -1 x converges when -1 :~ x < 1.
0 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

(b) Since tan -1 x=x – –x 3+ –x 5 – –x7 +••

3 5 7
1 1 1(1\ 1(1\ 1(1\
Than tan — = --- i - I +—I - I --I -
2 2 32} 5 \ 2) 72
11 1 1
=---+------
2 24 160 896
= 0.46 correct to 2 s.f.
-Example 34
e+e
Find the Maclaurin series expansion for the function as a series of ascending powers
e2x
of x up to and including the term in x5.
- Solution
e3 x +e_x e 3 e_x -
=_+_ = ex+e 3x

e
2x e 2 e2

Let f(x) = e x + e3x => f(0) =1+1 = 2

Then f'(x) = e' - 3e -3x => f'(0) =1-3= –2
f"(x) = e'+ 9e 3' => f"(0) = 1+ 9 = 10

f ... (x) = e x_ 27e3x => f ... (0) =1-27= –26

f (4) (X) = ex+81e_3x =>
f(0) =1+81=82
and f(S) (x) = e x - 243e -3x = f(5) (0) =1– 243 = –242

The Maclaurin series expansion of e+e is:

e2
e3x+e_x 10 2 26 82 242
=2-2x+—x ---x +—x ---x +•
e2 x 2! 3! 4! 5!
2 13 41 121
=2-2x+5x --x +—x –x 5 +••
3 12 60
Example 35 r 1+2x
Obtain the Maclaurin series expansion for the function in as a series of ascending
powers of x up to and including the term in x4. (1 2x) j

Solution
In 1+2x ]=ln(1+2x)–ln(1-2x) 2
l I
[(1– 2x)2 j = ln(1 + 2x) - 2(ln 1– 2x)
Let f(x) = ln(1 + 2x) => f(0) =0
2
Then f(x)= = f(0)=2
1+2x
 Series Ea

f"(x) f"(0) = —4
= - (1+2X)2
f ... (x) = f"(0) =16
= (1 +2x)3
and f 4 (x) = = f (4) (0) = —96
- (1 ?x)4
Let g(x) = ln(1 - 2x) g(0) =0
Then g'(x) = g'(0) = —2
=

g"(x) = - (1-2X)2 => g"(0) = —4

g ... (x) = - (1 —2x)3 = g"(0) = —16

and g 4 (x) = => g 4 (0) = —96 c'J

- (1-2X)4
The Maclaurin series expansion of in 1_1+
2x_1 is: =
L(1 - 2x) 2 J 0

J[(1-2x)2
_1+2x l=[2_2(_2)]x+[_42)]x2+[16—2(-16)]
j 2! 3!
x3+
[-96 —2(_96)]
4!
4

(-4+8) 2 (16+32) (-96+192)

X + x+ x +..•
2 6 24
4 48 96
=6x+ —x2 +—x +—x 4 +•••
2 6 24
= 6x + 2x2 + 8x3 +4X 4

Exercise 5e

1. (a) Use the Maclaurin series to find the 2. (a) Use the Maclaurin series to show that
series expansion of x3 x 5
1 .. 1 ... sin x=x--+-- +
(1) (ii) (iii) 6 120 5 040 362 800
1+x (1+x)3 (1+x)4 i -i\r X2r+1
giving all terms up to and (b) Show that sin = for all
including that in x 6 .
r=O (2r+1)!
values of x.
(b) Hence, find each of the stated values (c) Hence, find sin correct to three
correct to fine decimal places.
(i) __L 1 1 decimal places.
1.013
1.02 1.03k
I'iI Pure Mathematics for CAPE

3. (a) Use the Maclaurin series to show that 2 14 10 61

-4x+4x --x +—x --x 5 +•
x2 x4 x6 x8 3 3 30
COS x=1--+-------+
2 24 720 40 320 9. Obtain the Maclaurin series expansion
(—l) r 2r 1- 3x
I
(b) Show that cos x =
r=O (2r)!
for all for the function ln
1(1
+3x)2 ]
as a series
of ascending powers of x up to and
values of x.
including the term in x6 .
(c) Hence, find cos correct to three
10. Use the Maclaurin series to show that
decimal places. 1 2 3 4 1 5
ln(1+sin x)=x-----x + 1-x - 1—x + —x
4. Use the Maclaurin series to show that 2 6 12 24
6
x3 2x5 17x7 62x9 -----+•
1x
tanx=x+—+--+ + 45
3 15 315 2835
11. Use the Maclaurin series to show that
5. (a) Use the Maclaurin series to show
1 4
that ln(1+ cos x)=1n2- 1X2_ —x - 1 x 6
4 96 1440
x3 3x5 5x7 35x9
sirr1 x=X+—+--+-----+ 12. Show that the first four terms in the
6 40 112 1152
Maclaurin series expansion of in (tan x) is
(b) Hence, find sin -1 - correct to four 1 62 6
lnx+-x 2+—x 4+ x.
significant figures. 3 90 2835
13. Show that the first four terms in the
6. (a) Use the Maclaurin series to show Maclaurin series expansion of in (sec x) is
that 1 2 1 4 1 6 17
it x3 3x 5x7 35x9 -x+—x+—x+ x.8
cos x=--x----------- 2 12 45 2520
2 6 40 112 1152
14. Use the Maclaurin series to show that
(b) Hence, find cos correct to four 1 5 2 10 3 5 4
In (e 2x +5)=ln6+-x+--x +—x +—x
significant figures. 3 18 81 324
---x 5
7. Find the Maclaurin series expansion for 243
e 2+
the function eix as a series of 15. Show that the first four terms in the
Maclaurin series expansion of In (cot x) is
ascending powers of x up to and
1 62 6
including the term in x5 . —]nx- - x2 --x - x.
3 90 2835
8. Show that the Maclaurin series expansion
for the function as a series of
ascending powers of x up to the term
inx5 is
 Series

Applications of mathematical So Pk +l: (k+1)!>2' 1

induction to series and We need to prove that the statement
factorials is true when n = k + 1.
Proof: Since k! > 2k 2
Here we shall apply the method of mathematical Then k•k!>k•2' 2
induction to series and factorials. (k+1)!>k.2 2
So
-Example 36 i.e. (k+1)!>2.2 2 k>.2
Use mathematical induction to prove that (k+1)!>2 21
n!>2 2 fornE i,n>2. = (k+1)!>2'
The statement is true when n = k + 1.
- Solution Conclusion: The statement is true when
Let P: n!>2 2 for nEi,n>2 n = 2 and assuming that the
Then P2: 2!> 2 2 - 2 statement is true when n =
21>2° then it is true when n = k +1.
2>1 Hence, by the principle of
The Statement is true when n = 2. mathematical induction (PMI)
And Pk: k! > 2k -2 for k E N. n! > 2 2 forn E NJ such that cJ
Assume that the statement is true n~!2.
when n = k. =
0
- Example 37
+ 1 1 1
Use mathematical induction to prove that 1x2
2x33x4n(n+1) 1 n+1
- Solution
1 1 1 1 _1
Let S—+ + ++ 1 Vne N.
1x2 2x3 3x4 n(n+1) n+1

Then S 1 :---1-- 1--

1x2 1+1

2 2
1_i
22
The Statement is true when n = 1.
And Sk:l+1 + 1 1 =1--1-Vk€NJ.
1x2 2x3 3x4 k(k±1) k±1
Assume that the statement is true when n = k.
1 1 1 1 1
So Sk+l: + + +...+ -1
1x2 2x3 3x4 (k+1)(k+2) k+2
We need to prove that the statement is true when n = k + 1.
EEiI Pure Mathematics for CAPE

1
Proof: Sk+
(k+1)(k+2) k+1 (k+1)(k+2)
=1+ —1(k+2)+1
(k+1)(k+2)
—k-2+1
= 1+
(k+i)(k+2)
=1+ -k-i
(k+1)(k+2)

=1- k+1
(k+1)(k+2)
1
Sk+l=l—
k+2
- Conclusion: Hence, by the principle of mathematical induction the statement S is true.
-Example 38
Use the principle of mathematical induction to prove that

1 1 1 11 1
+ + +••+ =-- VnE.
1.2.3 2.3.4 3.4.5 n(n+1)(n+2) 4 2(n+i)(n+2)

- Solution
Let S(n): 1 + 1 + 1 +.•.+ 1 1 1
=-- VnENi.
1.2.3 2.3.4 3.4.5 n(n+1)(n+2) 4 2(n+1)(n+2)

Then 5(1):
1.2.3 4 2(1+1)(1+2)
i_i
6 - 4 2(2)(3)
—
1 i—

4 12
ii
66
The statement is true when n = 1.
And
JIJLU
c/1\. 1 1 1 1 1 1
+ +
1.2.3 2.3.4 3.4.5 k(k+i)(k+2) 4 2(k+1)(k+2)
Assume that the statement is true when n = k.
+1 +1 + 1 + 1
So S(k+i):
1.2.3 2.3.4 3.4.5 k(k+1)(k+2) (k+1)(k+2)(k+3)
_1 1
42(k+2)(k-i-3)
We need to prove that the statement is true when n = k + 1.
 Series

Proof: 1
S(k)+
(k + 1)(k + 2)(k + 3)

42(k+1)(k+2)(k+1)(k+2)(k+3)
—-+ 1(2)-1(k+3)
4 2(k+1)(k+2)(k+3)
1 2—k-3
= —+
4 2(k+1)(k+2)(k+3)
1 —(k+1)
=— +
4 2(k+1)(k+2)(k+3)
_1 1
42(k+2)(k+3)
- Conclusion: Hence, the statement S(n) is true by the principle of mathematical induction.
-Example 39
a)
Use the principle of mathematical induction to prove that
1 1 1 1 n(n+2)
+ + -f-••+ = VnE. C
1.3.5 3.5.7 5.7.9 (2n - 1)(2n + 1)(2n + 3) 3(2n + 1)(2n + 3)
- Solution
Let . n1. 1 1 1 1 n(n+2)
+ + +. .. + = Vn E N.
1.3.5 3.5.7 5.7.9 (2n — 1)(2n + 1)(2n + 3) 3(2n + 1)(2n + 3)

Then P(1): 1= 1(1+2)

1.3.5 3(2x1+1)(2x1+3)
1 — 1(3)
15 — 3(3)(5)
1_i
15 - 15
The statement is true when n = 1.

And P(k): 1 + 1 + 1 1 = k(k+2)

Vki
1.3.5 3.5.7 5.7.9 (2k — 1)(2k + 1)(2k + 3) 3(2k + 1)(2k + 3)
Assume that the statement is true when n = k.
C flu 1\. 1 1 1 1
i v +i ) .- +—+—+...+ +
1.3.5 3.5.7 5.7.9 (2k — 1)(2k + 1)(2k + 3) (2k + 1)(2k + 3)(2k + 5)
— (k+1)(k+3)
— 3(2k + 3)(2k + 5)
We need to prove that the statement is true when n = k + 1.
EM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

+ 1
Proof: P(k)
(2k + 1)(2k + 3)(2k + 5)
- k(k+2) +
- 3(2k + 1)(2k + 3) (2k +1)(2k + 3)(2k + 5)
- k(k+2)(2k+5)+1(3)
- 3(2k + 1)(2k + 3)(2k + 5)
- 2k3 +9k2 +10k+3
- 3(2k + 1)(2k + 3)(2k + 5)
- (2k + 1)(k + 3)(k + 1)
— 3(2k + 1)(2k + 3)(2k + 5)
- (k+1)(k+3)
- 3(2k + 3)(2k + 5)
- Conclusion: Hence, by the principle of mathematical induction (PIVH) the statement P(n) is true.
-Example 40
Prove by the principle of mathematical induction that V n € N
7 12 17 5n+2 1 2
—+—+—+•••+
5 3 53 53 53 =—(5n +9n).
250

7 12 17 5n+21
Let S(n): —+—+—+•••
53 53 53 + 53 (5n 2 +9n) VnEN.
250
-

Then S(1): Z
53 = J_(5X12 +9Xl)
250
_? = _L (5+9)
125 250
=---(14)
250
7 - 7
125 125 -

The Statement is true when n = 1.

7 12 17 5k+2 I _(5k2 + 9k) VkEN.
And S(k): 53 53 53 53
— +—+—+...+ 250
Assume that the statement is true when n = k.
7 12 17 1
5k+2 + 5k+7 =__[5(k
So S(k+1): —+—+—+...+ ~ 1 )2+9(k+1)]
53 53 53 53 53 250
We need to prove that the statement is true when n = k + 1.
 Series EM
5k+7 =_(5k2+9k)+5k+7
Proof: 53 53
250
1 5k+7
=—(5k 2 +9k)+
250 125
= [5k2 + 9k + 2(5k + 7)]
250
= (5k2+ 9k + 10k + 14)
250
= 10k +5+ 9k + 9)
250
= + 2k + 1) + 9(k + 1)]

= [s( +1)2+ 9(k +1)1

250
L Conclusion: Hence, S(n) is true V n E N.
U

Exercise 51
:
1. Prove by mathematical induction that n! > 3fl for n , n 7.
2. Use the principle of mathematical induction to prove that 5fl > n! V n E N.
3. Prove using the principle of mathematical induction that:
(2n)!<5(n!)2 VnE N.
4. Use mathematical induction to prove that:
Y (r2+1)r! = n(n+1)!
5. Prove by mathematical induction that:
(2r)r! = 2[(n + 1)! i]

6. Use the principle of mathematical induction to prove that:

1 1 1 1 n
+ + +•+ = VnE.
2x3 3x4 4x5 (n+1)(n+2) 2(n+2)

7. Prove using the principle of mathematical induction that:

1 1 1 1 n(5n--17
-+-+-+...+ = Vn&I.
2x4 3x5 4x6 (n+1)(n+3) 12(n+2)(n+3)
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

8. Use mathematical induction to prove that:

1 1 1 1 n(7n+25)
+ + +•••+ = Vn1.
3x5 4x6 5x7 (n+2)(n±4) 24(n+3)(n+4)

9. Prove by mathematical induction that

1 1 1 1 n
+ + +•+ = VnE.
3x4 4x5 5x6 (n+2)(n+3) 3(n+3)

10. Use the principle of mathematical induction to prove that:

1 1 1 1 n(4n+5)
+ +
1x5 3x7 5x9 (2n-1)(2n+3) 3(2n+1)(2n+3)
Prove using the principle of mathematical induction that V n E

11. 1 1 1 1 n(n+5)
+ + +...+ =
2x3x4 3x4x5 4x5x6 (n+1)(n+2)(n+3) 12(n+2)(n+3)

12. 1 1 1 1 n(5n2 + 30n + 37)

+ + +.••+ =
1x3x4 2x4x5 3x5x6 n(n+2)(n+3) 36(n+1)(n+2)(n+3)

13. 1 1 1 1 n(n+7)
+ + +•..+ =
3x4x5 4x5x6 5x6x7 (n+2)(n+3)(n+4) 24(n+3)(n+4)

14. 1 1 1 1 n(n2+9n+17)
+ + +•••± =
2x4x5 3x5x6 4x6x7 (n+1)(n+3)(n+4) 18(n+2)(n+3)(n+4)

15, 1 1 1 1 n(n+9)
+ + +•.•+ =
4x5x6 5x6x7 6x7x8 (n+3)(n+4)(n+5) 40(n+4)(n+5)
Use mathematical induction to prove that V n E N.
6. 1 1 1 1 n(n+4)
+ + +••.+ =
3x5x7 5x7x9 7x9x11 (2n+1)(2n+3)(2n+5) 15(2n + 3)(2n + 5)

17. 1 1 1 1 n(14n2 +63n+58)

+ + +..•+ =
1x5x7 3x7x9 5x9x11 (2n — 1)(2n + 3)(2n + 5) 45(2n + 1) (2n + 3) (2n + 5)

7 7 7 7 7n(n+2)
10.
+ + +...+ =
1x3x5 3x5x7 5x7x9 (2n-1)(2n+1)(2n+3) 3(4n2 +8n+3)
3 7 11
19. —+- 4n-1 1
2+— +••+ =–n(2n+1)
2 2 2 8
9 16 23 7n+2 1
20. —
3 4 +--
34
+---
3 4 +••.+ 34 =—n(7n+11).
162
 Series E3

1. State the nth term of the series —1 + 4 - 9 + 16

(a) a n= (-2) (b) a n= —n 2 (c) (—I) (n)2 (d) a= _()

2. Calculate the sum of the arithmetic series 2 + 7+12 + + 132.

(a) 670 (b) 1 340 (c) 1 742 (d) 1 809
3. Find the common ratio of the geometric series 8 + 4 + 2 +.1 +•••
(a) . (b) F2 (c) 2 (d) 4
2
4. State the nth term of the geometric series 2 — 6 + 18 - 54 +

(a) a n =2(_) (b) a=2(-3)'' (c) a n. (d) a n = —2(3)

5. The sum of the first 10 terms of the geometric series 1 + 3 + 9 + 27 +• is

(a) S10 = (_3)10_1 (b) S10 = (3)10_1 (c) SIO= (_3)10 —1 (d) S10 = 1 (310 1)

6. The sum of the infinite series ( 3)'

=
k0

21 35 35
(a) 0 (b) (c) . (d)
5 2 5
7. Find the one-hundredth term, a 100 , of the series —1 + 2 + 5 + 8
(a) 297 (b) 296 (c) 295 (d)• 294
8. Find the 100th partial sum, S 100, of the series 5 + 8 + 11 + 14 +
(a) 15 450 (b) 15 400 (c) 15 350 (d) 14 994
9. The general term, a, of the series 1 + 4 + 27+ 256 + is
(a) n" (b) 11 2n 1 (c) n3 (d) n2
10. Three consecutive terms of a geometric series are 2x 2 + ( 6x - 2) + 8.
The value of x is
(a) 1 (b) (c) - or 1 (d) - or 1
5: 5 5
11. The general term of an arithmetic series is a 8 - 3n. The sum of the first 11 terms of
the series is
.:
(a) —115.5 —110 (c) —104.5 (d) —100
12. The sum of the integers between 501 and 600 inclusive that are multiples of 5 is
(a) 9 945 (b) 11 050 (c) 20 995 (d) 22 100
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

13. How many terms of the arithmetic series + + + +... will give a sum of _ 51 ?
82 84
(a) 15 (b) 16 (c) 17 (d) 18
14. The sum of the first 8 terms of the geometric series 0.35 + 1.05 + 3.15 + is
(a) 3 280 (b) 1 640 (c) 1 530 (d) 1 148
15. The sum to infinity of a geometric series is 80. If the first term of the geometric series
is 50, then its common ratio is
(a) (b) (c) (d)
8 8 4 8
16. Which of the following series is divergent?
2 (_l)n 1 )n
(a) S=(-1) (b) (c) (d)

17. Which of the following series is convergent?

(a) S=(-1)e (b) S,, 5n (c) Sn nn (d)

18. Which of the following series does not converge to zero?

(a) n=j (b) Sn= (c) 2 (d)
n s=t
2 )k
19. The infinite series( converges to
k=o

(a) (b)1 (c) (d) 3

3 3 2

20. The infinite series j 5 converges to

k=O 8
(a) 8 (b) (c) (d)
5 8 8
21. (a) Use the Taylor series expansion at x =3 to show that:
x 3 - 27 - 27(x —3) 9(e'- 5e - 2)(x - 3)2
e x —1 - e3 —1 (e3 - 1)2 2(e -1)3 +
= x2
(b) Use the Maclaurin series expansion to show that:
e —1 1+—X+—X2±...
2 6
 Series I!:I

22 (i) Expand f(x) = about x = 1, using the Taylor series to show that
NJX = 1+ (x_1)_ 1 (x_1)2 +(x_ 1)3
128 1) +
(b) Use the Maclaurin series expansion to show that:
2 3
/ r X X
+
21 40..j5 400.j5

23 (a) Use the Taylor show that :

ser1es;xPans1onatx.to 3
1 (X '3 IC
sinx = I 2~__ ( _ — ~

2 2 3) — 4 3 12 3
(b) Use the Maclaurin series expansionto show that:
5lflX 1 1 1
=1--x 2+—x— x 6 +•••
X 6 120 5040
24 Use the Taylor sees
series :xsion atx=!to show that: :

T3
COSX=— 1fx—7c)—_--,,F3— (x_)
7E + X
2 2 6 4 6 12 6)
(b). Use the Maclaurin series expansion to , show that;
COSX 11 11
=---x+—x ---x +•••
X x 2 24720
25. (a) Use the Taylor series expansion at x = 2 to show that:
mi i=lni -

'3x-1) k5) 35
(b) Use the Maclaurin series expansion to show that:,
x+
(3f\ 7 2 37 175
mi ix+x x +x
4x+1) 2 3
26. Prove by mathematical induction that

27.(a) Use the fact that 22 2 to show that 2 2n

s =j_
r r+1 r(r + 1) = r(r + 1) n +1
(b) Hence, deduce that as n > ---
oo, S n - 2
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

28. Letf(r) = for r

r+1
(a) Expressf(r) —f(r + 1) in terms of r
(b) Hence, or otherwise, find S,. =

(c) Deduce the sum to infinity of S.

29. Use the Maclaurin series to find the first four non-zero terms in the power series
expansion of sin2x.
• 30. Use the Maclaurin series to find the first five non-zero terms in the power series
expansion of cos 2x.
31 Use the Maclaurin series to find the first four non-zero terms in the power series
expansion of tan2x.
32. The series 32 +33 + 34 k . . . + 3TF3_3

Use mathematical induction to prove that 32 +3 3 + . . + 3fl + 1

for ne N ,n>2.
33 Theseriesl+2+4+8+ +2 1= 2 1 2n_1

Prove using the principle of mathematical mduction that

1+2+4+8+•••+2<n! VnE.

34 Use the principle of mathematical induction to prove that I r(2r) = 2(2n n - 2'+ 1)
35. Use mathematical induction to prove that I (r3 - 1)r! = (n2 - 2)(n + 1)! +2.

)' Series and summation notation (E)

+ A series is the sum of the terms of a sequence.
• Finite sequence: {U n } = U]/ 11 21 U3/ / U 2' - U

+ Finite series: 5 n = i + U2 + U3 + +u 2+U1+U

= 1 Ur

where S is the sum of the n terms of the series

+ Infinite sequence: {uj = u1, u2, u3,.. ., Un,...
 Series EM

+ Infinite series: S r U 1 + U2 + U3 + + U,

=Ur

where S is the sum to infinity of the series.

+ Partialsum:Sm=ui+u2+u3+ .

where Sm is the mth partial sum of a series /sequence which is the first m terms of
the series/sequence .
Arithmetic sequence and arithmetic series
+ Arithmetic sequence: a,a+d,a+2d,...,a+(n-3)d,a+(n-2)d,a+(n-1)d (nterms)
•:• Arithmetic series: a + (a + d) + (a + 2d) +. . . + [a + (n - 3)d] + [a + (n - 2)d]
+ [a + (n - 1)d] (n terms)
•' Common difference: d= u - u_ 1 Ord = - ti ll
+ nth term: u = a + (n - 1)d; / =a + (n - 1)d
+ Finite sum: S0 =n(a—d)+dn(n+1)

S,,=[2à(n—.1)d] .......

S=(a±l) .

Divergence of an arithmetic series

.:.sn A .

U)

Co

Cz

0 Number of terms
+ An arithmetic series is divergent.
' Geometric sequence and geometric series
•' Geometric sequence: a, ar, ar2,. . ., ar ar 2, ar° T' (n terms)....
• Geometric series: a + ar + aT2 + + ar° + ar11 - 2+ ar° 1 (n terms)
+ Common ratio: .r=.——or r=! . .. .. ... . -..
Un_i Un
+ nth term: u n = ar1z - 1
EIiI Pure Mathematics for CAPE

a(r 1
+ Finite sum: • S = / if r > 1
r-1
S = a(lT)if r< l
1—r -
a(r-1)a(1—r
and

Convergence and divergence of a geometric series

+Sn Sn

Cd
Ca

I )p n
U - Number at terms
0 Number of terms
Divergent geometric series Convergent geometric series
+ A geometric series is divergent if I r > 1, that is, r < —1 or r> 1
+ A geometric series is convergent if I r I <1, thatis, —1 <r- <1.
> Sum to infinity of a convergent series
+ A divergent series has no limit.
+ A convergent series has a limit.
+ Infinite sum: For a geometric series S = _f_ where I r l <1.
1—r
- The method of differences
4• Given a series u for which we can find a sequencef(r) such that
u=f(r+1)—f(r) VrE N.
Then Sn = Ur

= f(n + 1) - f(1)
+ Given a series u for which we can find a sequencef(r) such that
Ur=f(T)f(T1) VTEN.
 Series EM

Then
S =

= [f(r) - f(r —1)]

=f(n)—f(0)
This is called the fundamental theorem of summation.
Taylor's theorem and Taylor series
+ Taylor's theorem: Any function that satisfies certain conditions may be represented
by a Taylor series.
• Conditions: • It must be possible to find all the required derivatives of f(x)
• Each derivative must be defined when x = 0
• The series obtained must be convergent.
+ Taylor series:
f(n)
f(x) = 'V Sf2_ (x -
nto n!

f "(
f(n)
f"(a)
(x—a)2+ " ( xa) +•.•+-— (x — a)+ ...
2! 3! n!
A Taylor series is a power series expansion of a functionf at a (about a; centred at a).
> Maclaurin series
+ Maclaurin series: A Taylor series expansion of a function at a = 0.
(ii)
f(x)= —-x
(n)
= f(0) + f'(0)x + / x2 + x3 +. +
2! 3!
Applications of mathematical induction to series and factorials
•• Factorials: • n! = n(n - 1)(n - 2) . . . (3)(2)(1).
(n + 1)n! = (n + 1)!
+i)!
=n+1
ii!
•' Method of mathematical induction:
• Set the statement to be proved be represented by P(n); S(n), etc.
• Show that P(1) is true, that is, the statement is true when n = 1.
• Assume that P(k) is true, that is, the statement is true when n = k.
• Write the statement for P(k + 1), that is, the statement for n = k + 1.
• Prove that P(k + 1) is true, that is, the statement is true when n = k + 1.
Meaning and properties of n!

n! is read as 'n factorial' or 'factorial n'.

Mathematically: n! = n(n - 1)(n - 2). (3)(2)(1).

where n E

n! is the product of the first n positive integers.

Thus 7! = 7 x 6 x 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1
=765•432•1
where 7! is read as 7 factorial'.
How many ways can 5 cadets sit for a photoshoot on five chairs labelled A, B, C, D and E
which are in a row?

'\A/ T N_S/ ,\R/ NA/

Either one of the 5 cadets can sit on chair A.
The number of ways a cadet can sit on chair A =5 ways
Either one of the remaining 4 cadets can sit on chair B.
The number of ways a cadet can sit on chair B =4 ways

Altogether there are 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 ways for the 5 cadets to sit for a photoshoot on the five
labelled chairs.

Label
Number of ways

And 5! =5 x4x3 x2xl= 120.

n! is the number of ways of arranging n distinct objects in a row.

Definitions: 0! = 1 and 1! = 1.
01 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

-Example 1 - Example 3
Evaluate each of the following factorial Express in factorials in terms of n.
expressions. (a)n(n - 1)(n - 2)(n - 3)
(b) (n + 1)(n)(n - 1)
(a) 6! (b) 9! (c) 10! (d) (c) n(n-1)(n-2)(n-3)...(n-r+1)
5! 2!7! 8!
(d)n(n + 1)(n + 2)(n + 3)(n + 4) ... (n + r)
- Solution
(a) 6!=6x5x4x3x2x1 - Solution
= 720 (a)n(n-1)(n-2)(n-3)= n!
9!9x8x7x6x5x4x3x2x1 (n -4)!
(b)
5! 5x4x3x2x1 (b)(n + 1)(n)(n -1) = (n+1)!
=9x8x7x6 (n -2)!
=3 024 (c)n(n - 1)(n - 2)(n - 3) ... (n - r + 1) =
(n - r)!
Alternative method (d)n(n + 1)(n + 2)(n + 3)(n + 4) ... (n + r)
(b) 9!9x8x7x6x-54 =(n+r) ... (n+4)(n+3)(n+2)n
= (n+r)!
5! 5
=9x8x7x6 (n-i)!
=3024 -Example 4
10! 10x9x8x7x6x5x4x3x2xi Simplify
(c) =
2! 7! -2-x1x7x6x5x4x3x2xi (a) (n + 2)! + (n - 1)! (b) (n+3)!-(n+1)!
=109x4 - Solution
= 360 (a)(n+2)!+(n-1)!
Alternative method
10! 10x9x8x4 = (n - i)![n(n + 2)(n + 1) + 1] Factorising
(c) = = (n - 1)!(n3 + 3n2 + 2n + 1)
2!7! 2L74 (b) (n+3)!-(n+i)!
- 10x9x-8-4
x1 =(n+i)![(n+3)(n+2)-i]
= 360 - =(n+i)!(n2 +5n+5)
(d) = =1 Mathematically: =1 Example 5
- 8!1 n!
Perform the stated operation.
-Example 2 2n n 4n n+2
(a) + (b)
Express in factorials. (n+i)! (n+2)! (3n-2)! (3n-1)!
(a) 12x11x10 (b) 15x14x13x12
Solution
Solution
2n
(a) 12xi1x10=-- (a) + n (n+2)!=(n+2)(n+i)!
9! (n+1)! (n+2)! =LCM=(n+2)!
- 2n(n + 2) + n(i) (n+2)!
(b) 15x14x13x12= 15!
— =n+2
11! - (n+2)! (n + 1)!
 The binomial theorem Ea

- 2n2 +4n+n The factorial key or on a

calculator can be used to calculate
- (n+2)! the factorial of a number very quickly
2n2 +5n and accurately.
(n+2)! -

4n n+2 (3n 1)! = (3n 1)(3n

-
- - - 2)!
(b) = LCM = (3n 1)! -

(3n-2)! (3n-1)!
4n(3n-1)—(n+2)(1) I3n_ 1
(3n-1)!
= 12n2 -4n—n-2
(3n-1)!
12n2 -5n-2
(3n-1)! -

-Example 6
Meaning and properties of = nCr
Evaluate
In how many ways can 2 members be chosen from a p10"
committee of 5 members?
(a) 10 C4 (b) 1006 (c)
( 10 )
(d)
J
n - Solution
) is read as 'n chOose r'.
(
r 10!
n (a) '°C =
4!(10-4)!
)" which can also be written as C is the ,

(
r 10!
number of ways in which r objects may be 4!6! 3 H
chosen (selected) from n distinct (unlike) objects. 10x-9-x-8-x7x&!
14x3x2x1x64
Mathematically:
n ) = Cr = where n, r E
=210 1 1
10!
r (b) '°c=
6
(

and 0 :~ r :~ n. 6!(10-6)!
'
10!
The answer to the question is (
= 5 C2
6!4!
)
31
5! 10x-9-x-8-x7x-6 H
= 2!(5-2)! 64 x*x-3-x-27x1
5! =210
2! 3!
Note: 10C4 = 1006 and 4 + 6 = 10.
5x4
2x1
=10
EM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

(io 10! n! The number

(c) I 1= of ways of
(c) . 3)3!(10-3)! 'ni n!(n-n)!
/ choosing n
10! = objects from
3!7!3 4 0! n distinct
10x9-x8x 1 objects is 1.
= ,&x-2- x lx 7 1
1 =1
= 120 (n)= (
Mathematically: C0 = C1= =1
10!
(d) 110'):::: l,0
1 7) 7! (10-7)! since 0 + n = n.
10! -Examples
7!3!3 4
Prove that
- 10x4x8-x7-! (n) n—r
- .x3-x-2-x1 - Solution
11 ( n)
= 120 n!
Now
(io r r!(n-r)!
Note: (107) and 3+7=10.
3) And
(n-r (n-r)![n-(n-r)]!
Mathematically: - nC
r
n-r'[rJ(nrJ
since r + n - r = n. - (n-r)!(n-n+r)!
n!
-Example 7 - (n-r)!r!
Find n!

(a) 1')0) (b)

(n)
(c)
(n)
fl
- r!(n-r)!
(n)
-Solution

The number (n) n

n! Hence 1
(a) of ways of r =(n-r)'
choosing 0 (n) (
objects from Mathematically: I
- 1(n!) r n-r
n distinct
=1 objects is 1. since r+(n-r)=n.

Example 9
(1) n! The number (n+1) (n) I n
(b) of ways of Prove that
1!(n_1)! +(r-
+
choosing 1
- n(n-1)! Solution
object from
(n+1 (n+1)!
- 1(n-1)! n distinct Now
fl objects is n.
 The binomial theorem

- (n+1)! (n+f' (5n)

Hence
- r!(n-r+1)! 5 J4!(n_4)!
(n) (n n! n!
And +1 + Alternative method
r r-1) r!(n-r)! (r-1)![n-(r-1)]! (n+1
SinceI (n+1)!
n! n! 5 )-5!(n+1-5)!
= +
r!(n-r)! (r-1)!(n-r+1)!
- (n+1)!
- n!(n-r+1)+n!(r) - 5!(n-4)!
- r!(n-r+1)! n!
nn!- rn! + n! + rn! And 1')=
5) 5!(n-5)!
- r!(n-r+1)! (n+f' (n (n+1)!
- (n+1)n! Then
- r!(n-r+1)!
- (n+1)!(1)-n!(n-4)
= (n+1)!
- 5!(n-4)!
r !(n - r + 1)! cs.J
- (n + 1)n!- n! (n - 4)
(n+1 - 5!(n-4)! =
- n!(n+1-n+4) C
(n+1 n n (
- 5!(n-4)!
Hence I
)+ -
(r-i
)=(r n!(5)
(n+f\ (n'\ ( n - 5!(n-4)!
Mathematically:
1\
r J = r,jt\r-1 5n!
( n ()
n . - 5.4!(n-4)!
=1 1+
r-1) r
4(n-4)!
-Example 10 - Example 11
n+f\ ().
fl
Find n, given that = 14 C2n + V
Simplify 14C4 + 1
( 5 J-5
• Solution
- Solution Given 14r' - 14r
4n + 1 - 2n + 1
n+1'\ = (\ (
n Then4n+1=2n+lor 4n+1=14-(2n+1)
Since
So 4n-2n=1-1 or4n+2n=14-1-1
i.e. 2n=0 or 6n=12
n+f\ (n\ (n"
Then n=O or n=2
J=5J+4J => 14 C1 - 14 C 1 0 r - 5•
('\ 1 n+i\ In'\ Mathematically: If nC = Ck, then
So either r=korr=n-k.
4JH J - 5J
And n! The selection key FD or on a calculator
can be used to calculate a selection very quickly
and accurately.
EM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Exercise 6a

Evaluate each of the following factorial expressions.

4!
1. (a) 2! (b) (c) 3!6! (d) -

3! 4!
71 8 7!
2. (a) 3! (b) (c) 2!5! (d) -

2! 7!
12! 10!
3. (a) 4! (b) (c) 4!8! (d)
7! 10!
16!
4. (a) 8! (b) (c) 9!4! (d) -

10! 16!
18! 19!
5. (a) 9! (b) (c) 12!7! (d) -

15! 19!
Express in factorials
6, (a) 7x6 (b) 15 x 14
7. (a) 9 x 8 x 7 (b) 25x24x23
8. (a) 10x9x8x7 (b) 20x19x18x17
9. (a) 13xl2xllxlOx9 (b) 32x31x30x29x28
10. (a) 41x40x39x38x37x36 (b) 57x56x55x54x53x52
Express in factorials in terms of n.
11. (a) n(n-1)(n-2) (b) (n + 1)(n)
12. (a) n(n - 1)(n - 2) ... (n - r) (b) n(n + 1)(n + 2) ... (n + r)
13. (a) (n+2)(n+1) (b) (n + 5)(n + 4)(n + 3)
14. (a) (n + 3)(n + 2)(n + 1) ... (n - r) (b) (n + 5)(n + 6)(n + 7). . . (n + r)
15. (a) (n - 5)(n - 6)(n -7)... (n - r+ 1) (b)(n-8)(n-7)(n-6) ... (n-r+1)
Simplify
16. (a) (n + 3)! + (n + 1)! (b) (n+2)!-(n-1)!
17. (a) (n + 5)! + (n + 3)! (b) (n+4)!-(n+2)!
18. (a) (n + 1)! + (n - 2)! (b) (n+5)!-(n+3)!
19. (a) (n + 2)! + (n + 4)! (b) (n-3)!-(n-4)!
20. (a) (n - 5)! + (n - 7)! (b) (n-1)!-(n-2)!
 The binomial theorem IM

Perform the stated operation.

3n n 5n 2n
21. (a) + (b) -______
(n+1)! (n+2)! (n+3)! (n+2)!
2n-1 5n 3n 4n
22.(a) + (b)
(n+3)! (n+2)! (n-5)! (n-6)!
4n n 4n-1 n
23. (a) + (b) -_______
(2n-1)! (2n-3)! (2n+1)! (2n-1)!
n 7n 2n 5n+1
24. (a) + (b) --
(3n-4)! (3n-2)! (3n-5)! (3n-4)!
2n 3n+1 3n-1 7n
25. (a) + (b)
(4n-3)! (4n-1)! (4n+1)! (4n-1)!
Evaluate
26. (a) 5 C3 (b) 5 C4 (c) 5C 2 (d) 5C1
27. (a) 7c4 (b) 7c 5 (c) 7c 3 (d) 7c2
(12 12'\ 12 (12)
28. (a) j 9) (b) 7) (c) 3) (d)

29. (a) (b) (c) L9) (d)

(9)
30. (a) 15c0 (b) '5 C1 (c) 15c15 (d) 15C12
Prove that:
(n)r+i(n+1
= (n) n—r+1( n
31. (a) rn+1r+1 (b) r= r r-1
n
(n+1'\ n+1(r-1) (n-1' 1 ( n
32. (a) r (b) r )n(r+1) r+1
r
(nr)=(n+1" ( n (n) (n+1 ( n
33 (a) r (b) rr+iflr+i
Find
(8'\ (8" (10" (9" (14'(13
34. (a) (b) (c) (11)—(10'\
6) (d) 9)( 9
7
Find n, given that
(1818 21(21
35. (a) 15 C (b) 13c2 13c (c)
2n 2 4n-1) =( 3n-2)+
(3n i) = 2n
LliI!1 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Pascal's triangle

L A binomial is a polynomial with two terms. 1

Consider the expansion of the expression (a + b), where n E 7/, n ~! 0.
(a + =1
(a + b) 1 = a + b
(a + = a2 + 2ab + b2
(a + b)3 = a3 + 3a2b + 3ab2 + b3
(a + b)4 = a4 + 4a 3 b + 6a2b2 + 4ab3 + 0
(a + b)5 = a5 + 5a4b + 10a3b2 + 10a2b3 + 5ab4 + b5

The terms on the RHS of the equal sign were obtained by multiplication.
The coefficients of the terms on the RHS form a triangular pattern of numbers known as
Pascal's triangle.

n=0 1 row
n=1 1 1 row
' 1v
n=2 1 2 1 row
V sV
n=3 1 3 3 1 row
\V V-/ ',V ,V
n=4 1 4 6 4 1 row
'1V ,V V \V L/
n=5 1 5 10 10 5 1 row
's,/ \ V V/ / ',V \ V V-/
n=6 1 6 15 20 15 6 1 row
'V ,V \11 Z V V V
n7 1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1 row

In Pascal's triangle it can be observed that:

• the numbers in the left and right boundaries are all 1.
• the sum of any two consecutive numbers in a row is equal to the number in the next row
with the two numbers as centre.
• the triangular pattern of numbers continues indefinitely, however, it can become tedious
and cumbersome.
 The binomial theorem

(n
Pascal's triangle can also be stated using the notation as shown below.

(0
n=0 10
(i (1
n=1 o)
(2 ) (2 (2 )
n2 1) 2
3) (3" (3" (3 )
o iJ 2J

CV c:
(

( 4) (4)
\C)
(5) (5) (5) (5) (5) (5)
n 5 0 1 2 C3 4 5
( 6) ( 6)~ (6)
=6
(
(7) (7) (7) (7) (7) 7 (7)/ ( 7)
n 7 )
(8)
6 /
Observe that:
(4) + ( 4)= () and
(7)
;C:J=CJ•
In general: +
r) y+l) y+l
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Let us rewrite the coefficients of the terms in the expansion of (a + by as originally stated.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

(0
o

(1 (1
Io)
1:I
(2 ) (2 (2
2
O lJ
(3 ) 3) (3'\ (3
0 (1 2) (3

(4 ) (4\ (4 (4 (4
o iJ J 3)

(5i (1 ) ( (5" (5 (5
OJ l \L)
( 6) (6 (6 (36 ) (6 (6 ) (6
6
0 (\i) 2) 1\ 4) 5

(7) (1 7 (7 ('i (7 (7 (7
0 i) 2) 3) 4) \i) 6)

A number in Pascal's triangle is denoted by 8!

(n The 7th number in row 8 is
r
) where 6J (8_6)!6!
8!
n is the row,
2!6!
r is the column,
o
!~ r :~ n and r, n, 8x7
n! - 2x1
Also =28
 The binomial theorem ED
Binomial theorem
Here we shall investigate the binomial expansion of (a + b), where n is a non-negative integer.
ri"—
(a+b)° 1 0
(a + b)1 1 1 1
Notice that the
(a + b)2 1 2 1 2
coefficients are
(a + b)3 1 3 3 1 symmetrical
(a + 1 4 6 4 1 4 about a centre.
(a + 1 5 10 10 5 1 5

(n)_
We can now state the binomial expansion of (a + by in terms of

(a+b)°
( 0)
(a+b)1 (1) b

(2) 2 (2)
(a+ b)' = a + ab+(2 ) b 2

+(3
(,a+ b)3

(a+ b)' = Ja4 +Ja3b+Ja2b2 +(4 ) ab3 + 4Jb4

(a+ b)' = Ja5 +()a4b+(Ja3b2 +[ 5 Ja2 (

b 3 +(5 ) ab4 + 5)b5 .

(n) (n) fl (n) n-r r

(a+b) = Q an+ 1afhb+2Jan
3)
2b2+(n_3b3+Jn_4b4+•••+
'\
+
I: n—i Jabn-1+
Ib
fl)

= C 0 a+C1 a 1b+C2 a' 2b2 +C3 a 3b3 +C4 a 4 b4 +•••+Cr an_rbr +...
+C_1 ab 1 +C b
=Cr an_rbr
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Here, (a + b)1 was expanded in descending powers of a or ascending powers of b.

The general term is Cr a" - r
In the general term, the sum of the powers of a and b = (n - r) + r = n.
In general, the sum of the powers of a and b = n
The binomial theorem states that:

(n)(n) a2b2+()a3b3 +Ja4b4

+•••+I
an_rbr+...+(n—l)ab +1 )b-
r
(n)
(n) a n -
'br VnE.

If b = x, then the binomial theorem can be stated as:

(n) (n) n-1 X + ( n) (n) a n-3

(a + all+ a a2x2+ X 3+ (n) an-4 X 4 + + (n) an-r X' +- - -

n\ (n'\
ax 1+ f
+
—
(

=:JanrxT Vne N.

Further, if a = 1 and b = x, then the binomial theorem can be stated as:

(n) (n) (n) (n) n

X X r +...+ x1+1xn
+...+(n)
r [n—i)

VnE1.
r0[r)

This form of the expansion is called the binomial series and it is valid for all positive integers
+ (natural numbers RI). Each of the expansions, (a + b), (a + and (1 + is a finite series
consisting of (n + 1) terms each and is valid for all x.
(
Hence, ur+i= n) a rbr, Ur+i=(n) a?l-rxrand Ur+i= (nr)X for the three series respectively.
 The binomial theorem E3
The binomial theorem can also be proved using the principle of mathematical induction.
Prove using mathematical induction, that V n E

(a+b)n=(Jan+
(fl\

0
( n)
1
an_ 1b+
(n)
2
ah1_2b2+...+
(n)
r
a n -r br+.. .1 Jbn .

(n' (n
LetP(n): (a+b)n= 0 Jan+ ab+) b2 + •+Ian_rbr+...I Ib
1) r)
[nI

So P(1): (a+ b)1= [Ja1+]a0b

a+b = a+b
P(1) is true. The statement is true when n = 1.
(k (k) (k) (k) (k)
AndP(k):

Assume that P(k) is true for k E

.. P(k+1):
+(k1
(a+b)k+1=1)a1+ +1)a +
(k
+1)a k1 b2+
2
•.+(k+
(k+1
r
J
a k_T+ 1br+...+Jb 1

We need to prove that P(k + 1) is true.

Proof:
(a+b)'= (a+b)k(a+b)

= [(k
)ak +
( Ja k1b + () a 2b2 + ... + ( k ) a kTbT + ... + [)bk](a+ b)

(k ) k) k (k ) k (k ) a k-2 b
= a + () akb + ( a b +Jak1b2 a -1b 2+ 3

+ ... +
(k ) a k_T+1bT + (k ) a k_rbr+i
+ ... + Ja bk + Jb 1

= Ja(k
k +
[( k )
+J]akb+ftJ+J]a1 b2 +
[I
+1
k '\ + 1k )]a k-r +lbr+...+(k b k+I
r-1)1 1
(k±l)kl (k+f)
1
I k+1
2
J k12 ( J 1br++
k+ 1
L
1bk+
(k+1)

.. P(k + 1) is true. The statement is true when n = k + 1.

Since P(1) is true and P(k + 1) is true if P(k) is true, then by the principle of mathematical
induction, P(n) is true V n E .
LLI Pure Mathematics for CAPE

)(k+f'
Note: =11=1.
0
(1 0)
(k (k+1
tkJIk+1J 1 •
I k ) + (k) = (k+l)for1
~r~ k,rkE7Z..
r-1 T r
The theorem stated above was proved in Example 9.

Example 12
Expand in ascending powers of x.
(a) (3 + 2x) (b) (3 - 2x)
Solution
1 4 '\ ( 4) (4' In (a + b),
(a) (3 + 2x)= 0J(3)4+ (3)(2x) (3)2(2X)2+ (3)' ( 2x )' + (2x) take a = 3,
1J + 2 b = 2x
4
= 1(81) + 4(27)(2x) + 6(9)(4x 2 ) + 4(3)(8X 3 ) + 1(16X ) and n =4.
=81 + 216x + 216x2 + 96X 3 + 16x4
(in ascending powers of x)
In (a + b),
(4) (3)4 +
(b) (3- 2x) (3 (-2x) (3 (_2x)2 + (3)1 (-2x)
(3) (-2x (-2x) take a =3,
= + + = -2x
= 1(81) + 4(27)(-2x) + 6(9)(4x2 ) + 4(3)(-8X 3 ) + 1(16X 4 ) and n = 4.
= 81- 216x + 216x2 96X 3 + 16x4
-

(in ascending powers of x)

Alternative method
In (1 +
take n = 4
(a) (3+2x) 4 =[3(1+x)]
and replace
2
7
2 x with X.
=I3I1+x 3
3
,. X )4
=3I
"3
34[(4) (4 ) 2 " 4\2 ' 2 (4)(2 X ) 3 + (4)(2 '1
= + II x I + x
13 x +I 2 )L 3 33 4 3J]
1 (2 ( ( 8 3 "\ (16
=8111+41 -x 1+61 -x 2"
1+41 —x 1+11 —x
[ 3 ) 9 ) 27 ) 81 )]
 The binomial theorem C3
8 2 32 16
81[8
1+—x+—x
[ 3 3 27 81 ]
81+216x+216x 2 +96x3 +16x4

(in ascending powers of x)

(b) (3_2x) 4 =[3(1_x)] In (1 + x)',

take n = 4
and replace
=[3 4 (1x)]
x with — —x.
2
,.
3
I'

=34 (1_±x
I' 3
2 )4
4 4 4V 2
[() + ()
(4( 2 (4V 2 ( 4V 2
=3 i -- x 1+1 it -- x I+1 Ii -- x I+1 II —x
°1 3 )
2) 3 3))
3 k4) 3
)

(4 2

8
[

[
'9
8 2 32
H (8 3 '\
=8111+4x 1+61 —x 1+41 ---x i+li
L
16
27
}
(16
81
x
) )

=81i 1--x+—x -- x + — x
3 [
3 27 81
= 81-216x+216x 2 -96x3 +16x4
(in ascending powers of x)

Example 13
Expand in descending powers of x:
(a) (3x + 2) (b) (3x - 2)

Solution
(5)
(a) (3x + 2)5 = (3x) + (3x) (2) + (3x) (2)2+ (3x)2 (2) 3 + (3x)(2) 4 + ( 2)

= 1(243x5 ) + 5(81x4 )(2)+10(27X 3 )(4) + 10(9x2 )(8) +5(3x)(16)+1(32)

= 243x5 - 810x4 + 1 080x 3 + 720x 2 + 240x + 32
(in descending powers of x)

(5) 4+
(b) (3x - 2) 5 = (3x) + (3x) (-2) + (3x)3(-2)2+ (5) (3X) 2 (-2) 3 + (3x)(_2) (- 2)

= 1(243x5 ) + 5(81x 4 )(-2) + 1O(27x 3 )(4) + 1O(9x 2 )(-8) + 5(3x)(16) + 1(-32)

= 243x 5 +810x4 +1 080x3 -720x2 -i-240x-32
(in descending powers of x)
IM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Example 14
Expand
(a) (5x + (b) (5x —
Solution

(a) (5x + 2y)'= (5x)'+ (5X)2 (2y) + (5x)(2y)2 + (2y)3

= 1(125x3 ) + 3(25x2 )(2y) + 3(5x)(4 Y2) +1(8 Y3)

= 125x3 + 150x2y + 60xy2 +8 Y3

(b) (5x - 2y)3= (3) (5x) + (3)(5X)2 (-2y) + (3) (5x)(-2y)'+ (3) (-2y)3

= 1(125x3 ) + 3(25x2 )(-2y) + 3(5x)(4 Y2) +1(-8 Y3)

= 125x3 — 150X2 + 60xy 2 -8 Y3
Example 15
Expand
(a) (1 + 4)5 (b) (1 - 4x)
Solution
(5)+(5)
(4x) +(5) (4X)2+
(a) (1 + 4x)'= (4x) + (4x) + (4x)

=1 + 5(4x)+ 10(16x2 )+ 10(64x 3 )+ 5(256x 4 )+ 1(1 024x 5 )

= 1+20x+160x2 +640x3 +1 280x4 +1 024x5

(5'\ (5'\ (5'\ (5'\ ( 5)
(b) (1-4x)5=+(-4x)+ 2) (_4x) 2 +(-4x)3 +(-4x) + (-4x)5
5
=1 + 5(-4x) + 10(16x 2 ) +10(-64X 3 ) +5(256X 4 ) + 1(-1 024x 5 )
=1-20x+160x 2 -640x3 +1 280x4 -1 024x5
Example 16
Expand
( i I
(a) 12x+- (b) 12x--
'.' x '\ x
• Solution
(1)2+ (4)
(a) 2x+(4)(2x)4+(4)(2x)3(xj+(4 (2x)2
2) x 3
(2x) ( -4
1) jj
= 1(16x) +4(8X 3 ) +6(4X2) (4 + 4(2x)1- +
X) x) xj
1
=16x4 +32x2 +24+ +—
x2 x4
 The binomial theorem

2 4 ' ' (4 ) i
4 1
0+
(b) 2x- ' )' =(')(2x)
X +1 ]"
3 (2x)I - xj 1 44JxJ

= 1(16x) + 4(8x)(--) + 6(4x 2 )(4)+4(2x)(- 4) + i(4

X x) x)
=16x4-32x2+24---- -8+-1--

• Example 17 1

Expand
)5
1
(a) (2
3x+ (b)
XJ
Solution
- 3
(a) (3x + 41 = (5' (3x)5 + 15 ] (3x)4
X o) X2 )2J (3 (4 3J(312
) s x I
(5 1 i 5'i"
+)(3x)— )4+
5J-J
= 1(243x) +5(81X4) (4) + 10(27x ) ( 4) + 10(9x2) (4) + 5(3x) (4) + 1 ()
2 270 90 15 1
=243x5 +405x
X x
)5 = 1 )3
i
13x-4 [5J(3x)5+[](3x)44)+[J(3x)31115
X x)
i )4+ (5
+4J(3x)-
5](H
= 1(243x) + 5(81x ) (- 4) + 10(27x ) ( 4) +
10(9x2) (_ 4)+5(3x)( +
4)+l(- 10
-)
X
2 270 90 15 1
=243x5 -405x +---+---
X x4 X7 x1°
Example 18
(a) Expand (1 — x) 10 in ascending powers of x as far as the term in x 3 .
(b) Expand (1 — x) 10 in descending powers of x as far as the term in x 7 .
Solution
0 )(_X)+()(_x)2+ [10j(_x)3+... In (1 + x), take n = 10 and
(a) (1- x)10= 1 +1 replace x with (-x).
(1 2 3
=1 + 10(-x) + 45(x 2 ) +120(_X 3 ) +•••
= 1-10x+45x 2 -120x3 +
(in ascending powers of x).
 fliI Pure Mathematics for CAPE

110'
(b) (1-x)' ° = ...+ ( 10
7 )(_x) 7 + 8 (_x)8 + 9 J(_x)9 +(J(_x) b0

= + 120(-x7 ) + 45(x 8 ) + 10(-x9 ) ± 1(x1° )

=-•-120x7 ±45x8 -10x9 +x'°
= x1° - lOx9 + 45x8 - 120x7 +
(in descending powers of x).
Alternative method 1
(b) (1- x) 1° = (- x + 1)10 In (a + by replace a
(10 )(-X)g+ iO with -x b with 1 and
( 10
=0)(_X)+(1 2 ) (_ X)+ 3 )(_x)7 +... n with l0
(
= 1(x10 ) + 10(-x9 ) + 45(x8 ) - 120X 7 +•••
= x1° - lOx9 + 45x' - 120x7 +•••
(in descending powers of x).
Alternative method 2
(b) Given (1-x)'° (n)
then the general terms u1= an_rbr

10 ) (l) n—, (_X) r

( r
(10
rJ
\ (iO
So (1_x)10 = J(_x)b0± 9 J(_x) 9 + 8 J(_x)8 ± ( 10
10 7 )(_x) 7 ±...

= 1(x'° ) + 10(-x9 ) + 45(x 8 ) + 120(-x7 )

= x10 - 1Ox9 + 45x8 - 120x7 +•••
(in descending powers of x)

Finding a coefficient and the constant term

(n)
The general term, a" - 'br, of a binomial expansion is very useful in finding the coefficient of

a given term and the constant term (which is the term independent of x).
Example 19
(a) Find the coefficient of x 5 in the expansion of (1 + 4x) 10 .

(b) Find the constant term in the expansion of (3x2+ _).

 The binomial theorem M3
- Solution
(a) The general term of the binomial expansion of (1 + 4x) 1 ° is
(ii) - rr =(10) 110

r
= (10 )(4X)

(10"
=1 I4r xr
r)

= 45
.. the coefficient of x5
(10)
=
252(1024'
= 258 048
(b) The general term of the binomial expansion of
(n)
3x2 +.) = (9) (3x2)9-r 2j' In TbT, n = 9, a = 3x2 a)
r =
(3 9 _r)(X 2(9_r))2r X _r and b = 2 0
X

= 2 r (39 -r )X 18-2r
(9)

2 r (39 - r )X 18 - 3r
(9)
In the constant term, the power of x is 0.
So 18-3r=0
i.e. 3r = 18

Hence the constant term= ( 6 (396 )

6 )2

=( 6J26 33 )
=84 x 64 x 27
=145 152
Example 20
(a) Find the coefficient of x4 in the expansion of (2x - 5)8 .
(b) Find the term independent of x in the expansion of (2x3 -
1IFI Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Solution
(a) The general term of the binomial expansion of (2x - 5)8 is
(s\

( ") abr= J(2)87 (_5Y

r

= 18(x8
)28 T)(-5y
y
= (8)
r
For the term inx 4: 4=8-r
So r=8-4=4
.. The coefficient of x4= []284(_5)4

= (8) 2 4(-5)4

=70x16x625
700 000
(b) The general term of the binomial expansion of
(2x3_-)10= (10) (23)1O_r(4) (n)
X2
In a rb, n =10,
X2
r r

r (x3(lo - r) )(4)r X2 a = 2x3 and b = - 4.

=
=
[10] 2b0_ r ( -4)r x3°

(io
=1 12b0_r(_4)rx30_57
r )
In the term independent of x, the power of x is 0.
So 0=30-5r
i.e. 5r = 30

]6(_4)6
Hence the term independent of x = (210

= 24 (_4)6

=210x16x4 096
=13 762 560
 The binomial theorem

Expansion of a product
-Example 21

(a) Find the terms up to and including x 3 in the expansion of( 2+ (1- x)7
(b) Hence, find the coefficient of x3.
- Solution
X
(a) 2+ (') (2) (2) x) ( ' (2) x) (2)2 ( xJ +... There is
= + ( + ) ( + no need to
=1(32)+ 5(16)(2 ') + 10(8) 1k x2+ 10(4)1--- ')
+... consider
'3 ) 9 ) 27 ) powers of x
80 80 40 higher than 3.
=32+—x+—x2 +—x +•••
3 9 27
(7" (7) (7
(1-x)= )
0J +i(_x)
=1+7(-x)+21(x2)+35(-x3 )+...
=1-7x+21x 2 -35x' +...
i'v 80 80 40
So t. 2 _x) (1-x)7=(32+—x+--x2+x3+...Jx(1_7x+21x2_35x3+...)
+

=32(1_7 x+ 21x2 _35x3 ~ ...) +x(1_7x+ 21x2_...)

80 40
+—x 2(1-7x)+ —x (1+...)
9 27
=32-224x + 672x2 1120x3 +•. -

80 560
—x 2 + 560x 3 +•••
-

3 3
80 560
+-x 2 —x +••• -

9 9
+-x 3 +...
27
592 4448 2 16760
=32----x+ x x 3 +••
-

3 9 27
16
(b) The coefficient of X 3 = -

27

r Example 22
Find the coefficient of x 2 in the expansion of (1+ x) 5 (3_ x).
IM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Solution
(')(5'\ There is no need to consider
+x)5=0+1Jx
2) powers of x higher than 2.
= 1+5x+1Ox2 +••
1 (6) +(6) 12
3— x (3)6 (3)5 (_)
x+J(3)4 I--xI+...
2
= l(729) + 6(243)(_. x) + l5(81)(- x2 )

=729-729x+ 1_2152
4
729 729x+ 1215 x2 +• )
So(1+x)5(3_x)=(1+5x+1Ox2+•..)x(- 4
The terms in x 2 are 1 215x21+ 5x(-729x)+ 1Ox2 (729
( 4 )
(1 215
=-3 645+7 290)x2

15 795
=
4
is 15 795
Hence, the coefficient of x 2
4
Trinomial expansion
A trinomial expansion can be solved by performing repeated binomial expansions
Example 23
(a) Expand (1 + x - x2 )5 in ascending powers of x as far as the term in x 3 .
(b) Hence, find the coefficient of x3 .

Solution
(a) (1+x-x2 )5 (1 + x - x2 )5 is
-'5 expanded as the
= i l+x(1-x)i-
L binomial expansion
= 1+5x(1-x)+10[x(1-x)] 2 +10{x(1-x)]3 +5[x(1-x)]4 +1[x(1-x)] 5 [1 + x(1 - x)]5
using the binomial
=1+5x-5x2+1Ox2(1-2x+.••)+ lox 3(1+•)
expansion of (1 +
=1+5x -x25 + lOx2 — 20x3 + lOx3 +.. where x replaces
=1+5x+5x2-1Ox3+•• x(1—x).
(b) The coefficient of x3 = —10.
Alternative method Put y = x - x2 , then expand
(a) (1 + x - x2 )5 (1 + y)5 using the binomial
= (1 + y)5 expansion of (1 + y)fl.
 The binomial theorem LiI.I

=1+5y+lOy2 +10y3 +5y4 +y5

= 1 + 5(x - x2) + 10(x - x2 )2 + 10(x - x2 )3 + 5(x -x2 )4 + 1(x - x2 )5
=1+5x-5x2 +10(x2 -2x3 +..)+10(x3 +...)
=1+5x-5x2 + lox2 -20x3 +10x3 +...
=1+5x+5x2 -10x3 +...
(b) The term in x3 is -lOx3 .
.. the coefficient of x3 = - 10.

Binomial expansion of a complex number

A complex number raised to a power can be expanded using the binomial theorem and the fact
that i2 =-1.
- Example 24 J
(a) Expand (1 - 21)6.
(b) Hence, find
(i) the real part of (1 - 2i) 6
(ii) the imaginary part of (1 - 21)6. C.J
- Solution C)
=
(6)+(6)
(a) (1- 21)6 = (-2i) 2 +
(-2i) +(6) (- 2i) 3 (-2i)4+ (6) (-2i)5+ (6)(_2i)6 0
+ 5
1+ 6(-2i) + 15(4i 2 ) + 20(-8i 3 ) + 15(16i4 ) +6(-32i 5 ) +1(64i 6 )
= 1- 12i + 60(-1) - 160(-i) + 240(1) -192(1) + 64(-1)
1-121-60+ 160i + 240 - 192i -64
= (1-60+240-64) + (-12+160 - 192)i
=117-44i
(b) (i) The real part of (1 - 2i) 6, Re (1 - 2i) 6 = 117
(ii) The imaginary part of (1 - 2i) 6, '.(1 - 2i)6 = 44

Exercise 6b

Use Pascal's triangle to expand the following Use the binomial theorem to expand each
expressions. of the following expressions in ascending
powers of x.
1. (a) (x+5)4 (b) (x-4) 5
6. (a) (2 + x)6 (b) (2 - x)6
2. (a) (2x+1) 6 (b) (3x-1) 7
7. (a) (3 + 2x)5 (b) (3 - 2x)5
3. (a) (1 + 4x) 5 (b) (1 - 2x) 6
8. (a) (4 + 3x)4 (b) (4 - 3x)4
4. (a) (4x + 3)5 (b) (3x-4)
/ 9. (a) (2 + 5x)4 (b) (2 - 5x)4
5. (a) I x+1 (b)I-x-3
"4 10. (a) (7 + 2x)5 (b) (7 - 2x)5
M. Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Use the binomial theorem to expand each Expand

of the following expressions in descending / -i\ 7

powers of x. 31. (a) (2x+_-J (b) ( 2x

11. (a) (2x+1)7 (b) (2x-1) 7

32. (a) (3x+J (b) (3x_)6
12. (a) (3x + 4)5 (b) (3x - 4)5
)4
13. (a) (4x+1)6 (b) (4x-1)6 33. (a) I5x+-) (b) (5x---
x
14. (a) (5x + 2) (b) (5x - 2) 3 \4 3\4
I I
34. (a) I 4x+-
X 2- )I (b) I 4x- ---
15. (a) (7x + 3)5 (b) (7x - 3)5 x
)5
Expand each of the following expressions. 1 I 2
35. (a) I 8x+- I (b) I
16. (a) (2x + 3y) 5 (b) (2x - 3y) 5 " x

17. (a) (4x + y) 5 (b) (4x - y)5 (1) Expand each of the following expressions in
ascending powers of x as far as the term in x3.
18. (a) (3x + 2y)4 (b) (3x - 2y)4 (ii) Expand each of the following expressions
in descending powers of x as far as the
19. (a) (5x + y)6 (b) (5x - y)6
stated term in x.
20. (a) (6x + 5y)4 (b) (6x -
36. (a) (1 - x) 12 (x9) (b) (1 - x) 15 (x12)
Expand
37. (a) (1 + x) 10 (x7) (b) (1 + x) 13 (x10)
21, (a) (1 + 2x)7 (b) (1 - 2x)7 38. (a) (1 - 2x)'1 (x8) (b) (1 - 2x) 14 (x11)
22. (a) (1 + 3x)6 (b) (1 - 3x)6 39. (a) (1 + 3x)9 (x6) (b) (1 + 3x) 12 (x9)
23. (a) (1 + 5x)4 (b) (1 - 5x)4
40. (a) (1 - 6x)7 (x4) (b) (1 - 6x) 10 (x7)
24. (a) (1 + 8x)5 (b) (1 - 8x)5
(i) Find the coefficient of the stated term in
25. (a) (1 + lOx)4 (b) (1 - lOx) the expansion of each expression.
(ii) Find the constant term in the expansion of
Expand each of the following expressions. each expression.
( -i\ 8 ,- i\ 8
/
26. (a) f x+L 1
X)
(b) x_:Ix 41. (a) (1 + 5x) 10 (x5) (b) (2x2+ 1 (x18)
X)
/ /
(3x2_J:
I
27. (a) 3x+
x}
I (b) (3x-
\. x
42. (a) (1- 6x)8 (x5) (b) (x)

5
28. (a) I 4x+ x)1 (b) ( 4x - -
x
43. (a) (1+ 7x) (x) (b) (2x+- (x20)
X)
/ ,.\4
"
29. (a) I 5x + 2 I (b) ( 5x - 44. (a) (1- 9x) 8 (x5) (b) (4x5 +-) (X8)
x) x
/ )' \4 / )4
3
30. (a) I 7x+ 1 (b) I'•\ 7x- 45. (a) (1+ 1Ox)7 (x4) (b) 5x6_) (x - 18)
'\ x) x X
 The binomial theorem H

(i) Find the coefficient of the stated term in

the expansion of each expression. 54 (a) (1+X) 4 (2_.-X) (b) (1+x) 5 (3_.x)
(ii) Find the term independent of x in the
expansion of each expression.
55. (a) (1 + x)6 (4_ - x) (b) (1 + x) 5- - X)
46. (a) (2x - 3)10 (X 7) (b) (2X4_4) (x18)

+ 3)8 (x3 ) (b) (3x 5 +-) 56. (a) (1+x)4 (2_x) (b)(1+X) 3 (6_ ; X)
47. (a) (4x (x 24 )
X
(i) Expand each of the following expressions
48, (a) (5x - 2) (x4 ) (b) 4x3+-) 18 in ascending powers of x as far as the
term in x3. H
+ 5)8 (x5 ) (b) (ii) Hence, find the coefficient of x 3 .
49. (a) (6x ( x6)
x)
57. (a) (1 + x - x2 )7 (b) (1 + x - x2)5
50. (a) (7x - 4)6 (X3) X4+
(8x4+4) (x6 ) 58. (a) (1 + 2x - 2x2 )4 (b) (1 + 2x - 2x 2 )6
59. (a) (1 + 3x + 6x2 )5 (b) (1 - 3x - 6x2 )4
(i) Find the terms up to and including x3 in
the expansion of each of the following 60. (a) (1 - 8x - 4x2)6 (b) (1 + 9x - 3x2) 5
expressions.
(ii) Hence, find the coefficient of x 3 . (i) Expand each of the following expressions.
Hence, find
51. (a) 2+x)(1_x)8 (b) 3_x)(1_x)6 (ii) the real part of the expression
(iii) the imaginary part of the expression.
52. (a) (5_x)(1_x)
4 5 (b) 3+x)(1_x)6 61. (a) (1 - 2i)7 (b) (1 + 2i)6
62. (a) (1 + 3i)6 (b) (1 - 3i)5
53. (a) (4+X)(1_X) 5 (b) 5+X)(1_X) 4
63. (a) (1 - 4i)5 (b) (1 + 4i)4
In the expansion of each of the following 64. (a) (1 + 5i) 6 (b) (1 - 5i) 5
expressions, find the coefficient of
(i) x2 (ii) x (iii) 65. (a) (1 + 7i) 4 (b) (1 - 8i)5

Expanding (a + b) when n E 0
What is the expansion of (1+ x) when n E
nEG means that n can be fractional or negative.
We can expand (1+ using the Maclaurin series.
Proof: Let f(x) = (1 + = f(0)=1
Then f'(x) = n(1 + 1 = f'(0)=n
f"(x) = n(n -1)(1 + => f"(0)=n(n-l)
f"(x) = n(n - 1)(n - 2)(1 + x)3 => f ... (0)=n(n-1)(n-2)
and f(4)(x) = n(n - 1)(n - 2)(n - 3)(1+ => f(4)(0)=n(n-1)(n-2)(n-3)
tIE:i Pure Mathematics for CAPE

The Maclaurin series expansion of (1 + x)" is:

n(n -1) 2 n(n 1)(n -2) n(n -1)(n 2)(n -3)
- -

(l +x) =1+nx+ x x+ x+...

2! 3! 4!
2) x3 +...+
n(n-1)(n-2) ... (n-r+1)
So (l +x)n = l +nx+n x2+n x+...
2! 3! r!
which is an infinite series.
This form of the expansion is also called the binomial series and it is valid for all rational
numbers Q.
The term in x4 is the 5th term.
The term in Xr is the (r + 1) th term.
Let as look at some graphs of f(x) = (1 + xy versus x.
y

-i (_) 1 x
Domain: -1 :~, x < 1 Domain: -2 !~ x !~ 2

VA

x
x

f
Domain: -2 :~ x < 0 Domain: -2 :~ x !~ 0

The binomial expansion of (1 +Xy V n E 0 converges provided I x I <1, that is, the series is
valid for-1<x<1.
(1 +Xy is valid when I x I <1, that is, -1 <x < 1.
What is the expansion of (1 + ax)" when n E
n(n-1) n(n-1)(n-2) n(n-1)(n-2)...(n-r+1)
(1 + ax) =1 + n(ax) + (ax) 2 + (ax) 3 +. .. + (ax) +•••
2! 3! r!
n(n-1) n(n-1)(n-2) n(n-1)(n-2)...(n--r+1)
So (1 + ax) =1 + nax + a2x2 + a3x3 +.. - + a T x' +•-
2! 3! r!
which is an infinite series.
 The binomial theorem M
The binomial expansion of (1 + aX)n V n E Q converges provided I ax I <1, that is, the series
is valid for -1 <ax < 1 which is - < X< , that is, x <

(1 + aX)n is valid when I x I <, that is, - < x <

• What is the expansion of (a + X)n when ii

(a + x)'= [a(l
+ -J]
a

=an(i+?)

x + n(n_1)(xi2 n(n-1)(n-2)x -1-1+

=a [1+n I—I +
a 2! a 3!
•••
+ n(n - 1)(n -2)... (n - r + 1)
r! a)
n-i
So (a+x) =a +na x+
n(n-1) n-2 2 n(n-1)(n-2) j3 3
ax+ a x +...
=
2! 3! 0

which is an infinite series.

The binomial expansion of (a + Vn E 0 converges provided <1, that is, the series is
valid for -1< <1 which is -a <x <a,that is, IxI <a.
(a+x)is valid when Ix I < a, that is, -a < x < a.

Validity of a binomial expansion and approximations

Here we shall investigate the domain for which a binomial expansion is valid and find its
approximate value.
Example 25 1
(a) Find a cubic expression that approximates to (1- x) 3 for small values of x.
(b) State the interval of values of x for which the series is valid.
(c) Use the expansion to find JO correct to 6 significant figures.
Solution
111
1y_J
2
' 1
(a) (1-x) 3 =1+-(-x)+
3(3 ,) 2 33
(-x) +
1
3 2! 31
expanding up to the term in x 3.
RMI Pure Mathematics for CAPE

1( 2" l( 2( 5
1 3)x2
=1--x+ + 3. 3A 3) (— X 3 )+...
3 2 6
=l--x— —x 2 — —x 3 +•••
3 9 81
This is the cubic expression that approximates to (1— x) 3 for small values of x.
(b) The series is valid when:
I-X <1
i.e. —1<—x<1
1>x>-1
=> —1<x<1 => x<1.
The interval of values of x for which the series is valid is:
—1<x<lwhichis IxI <1.

(c) Since (1— x) 3 =

= 0.96
Then 1—x=0.96
So x=1-0.96
x=0.04
Substitute x = 0.04 into the series,
then Iö =1— (0.04) - (0.04)2_ (0.04)+...
= 1-0.013333-0.000 178-0.000 004+...
= 0.986 485 (correct to 6 s.f.)
Example 26
(a) Find the first four terms in the expansion of (1 + 2x) 5 .
(b) State the interval of values of x for which the expansion converges.
(c) Use the expansion of estimate correct to 4 significant figures.
1.02
Solution
+ (-5)(-5-1)(-5-2) (2x)+...
(a) (1+2x)= 1+(-5)(2x)+ (-5)(-5-1) (2)2

=1-10X+ (_5)(_6)(4x2) + (-5)(-6)(-7) (8x)+...

2 6
= 1—lOx+60x 2 -280x3 +..•
(b) The expansion converges when:
1
12x1 <1 => IxI<
i.e. —1<2x<1
1 1 1
= Ix<-.
2 2 2
 The binomial theorem IM
The interval of values of x for which the expansion converges is:
1 1 . . 1
--<x<– which is Ix< - .
2 2 2
(c) Since (1+2x)' = _______
1.02
= 1.02-s
= (1 + 0.02)-s
Then 2x= 0.02
x=0.01
Substitute x = 0.01 into the series,
then =1-10(0.01)+60(0 .01)2 -280(0.01)3+...
1.02 5
= 1-0.1+0.006-0.00028+•••
=0.905 72+•
= 0.905 7 (correct to 4 s.f.)
- Example 27
1
(a) Find a quadratic expression that approximates to (4+x) 2 for small values of x.
(b) State the interval of values of x for which the series is valid.
(c) Use the expansion to find an approximation of correct to 7 significant figures.
-Solution
1
F( 1 "1
(a) (4+x) 21 =[41+_x)j

1 '\
42 (1+ x

1(1
_1) (
1(1
=2 1+–i -x 1+ i -x I2
2'4 ) 2!

1
=2 1+–x+
8
4-1) ' 2 '\
—x
2 (16

Ii 12
=21 1+–x–x +••• H
L 8 128 H
=2+–x--x2 +. H
4 64 H

This is the quadratic expansion that approximates to (4 + x) 2 for small values of x.

FM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

(b) The series is valid when:

x<1
4
i.e. —1<x<1
4
—4<x<4 =
The interval of values of x for which the series is valid is:
—4<x<z4whichis Ixl< 4
(c) Since (4 + x) 2 =
Then (4 + x) 2 = ( 4-0.03) 2
x=—O.03
Substitute x = —0.03 into the series,
then 'ji7 = 2 + (_0 .03)_(_0 .03)2
4 64
= 2 - 0.0075 - 0.000 014 062
= 1.992 486 (correct to 7 s.f.)
Example 28 1
(a) Expand (9— 5x) 4 up to and including the term in x 2 .
(b) State the values of x for which the expansion is valid.
Solution
5
(a) (9_5x) 4 =[9 (1--x
)I4 1

1
1
)
9
=94 ( 1--x
ui
2
ii 5 44)
=94
1+_I --x+
49) 2! 9 )
[ ]

11
5
=(32 )I1--x+
1 3"
4(\ 4
x2) J(1 25
.( 5
36
L
25 2
2 81

=321 1--x----x +•.•

36 864
r- ( 5 25 2
=i3i 1--x-----x +•.•
36 864
I— 5J 25J 2
=j3----x— x+••
36 864
 The binomial theorem go
(b) The expansion is valid when:
5
--x<1
9
5
i.e. —x<1
9
5
... —1<—x<1
9
9 9
= --<x<-
5 5
9
= IxI< -5
9 9 9
The values of x for which the expansion is valid is -- < x < which is 1XI <
- -.

5 5 5
-Example 29
1

(a) Expand (32 - 4X)5 up to and including the term in x3.

(b) State the values of x for which the expansion is valid. c'J
C,
- Solution
4
~ 1
] 5
C
(a) (32-4x) 5 = [32 1 -- X

25 1 -

5x!I 1
=2 1--x

=2(1x) 5

E_,(_2)
= ()

2 [1+(_1x)+
H)+ X)

1( 4' 1( 5 )( 9)
=2
40 2 ) 6 - 512 )

[ 1 12 3
=21 1--x---x - x3
L 40 800 32 000
1 12 3
=2--x--x - x 2 +•
20 400 16 000
IMi Pure Mathematics for CAPE

(b) The expansion is valid when:

1
--x <1
8
1
i .e. –x<1
8
–1<x<1
8
= –8<x<8
=
The values of x for which the expansion is valid is –8 <x < 8 which is lxi <8.
-Example 30
(a) Expand as a series of ascending powers of x up to and including the term in x4 .

5-2x
(b) State the interval of x for which the series is valid.
- Solution
(a) 1 = (5– 2x)'
5-2x
[5(1* x )] 1

=5-1
('5
(1—x)1
\2
=
2 (_1)(_1_1)( 2 ( 2
( 5xJ ___________ (_ x)
5-1E1+(_l) ) 5 2! + 3!
1)(-1 — 2)(–l– 3) 1 2
+ \
4!

=5 -1 1+
1
5
X+
(-1)(-2) Cx2)+ (-1)(-2)(-3)
2 ('25
+ (-1)(-2)(-3)(-4) --_
6
----x
('125)

24 (625 x') +.•.]

ii 2 4 2 8 16
=—i 1+–x+—x +x +x +••
5[ 5 25 125 625
12 4 8 16 4
=-+-x+---x2 +-x + x +•
5 25 125 625 3 125
(b) The series is valid when:
– <1
5
2
i.e. –x<1
5
 The binomial theorem IM
2
... —1<—x<1
5
5 5
= -- <x< -
2 2
5
ixl<-2

The interval of x for which the series is valid is - <x< which is lxi <
2 2 2
-Example 31
1
(a) Find the first five terms in the expansion of
V5+4x
(b) State the range of values of x for which the expansion converges.
(c) Use the expansion to estimate correct to four places of decimals.

- Solution
1 1
(a) = 1
J5+4x (5+4x)

=
5
( )]

-V4
=5 2 1+—x

()(L) — 1)( ! 2)
—

(x)2+
= 5[i+()(x) ~

2) 3) 4
2)' 2 )
2 2 4
+...
4! (5)

3 ( — 3( 5
1
=-- 1— 2 X+
( 12) ( 2 )M X2 +
- - 2 2 64 3
X
52 5 2 '25 )
6 125

(_ l)( _ 3)( _ 5)( _ 7)

2 2 2 2564') ~
24 2(625 )
En Pure Mathematics for CAPE

1 2 6 2 14 1
=—I 1--x+x --x3 +x +••I
JL 5 25 25 125 j
1 2 6 4 X3 14
=----- x+X2- x
5,r5- 25,r5- ' 25,F5 125.jg
(b) The expansion converges when:
4I
I—xI<1
IS I
i.e. —1<x<<1
5
5 5
--<x<-
4 4
5

The range of values of x for which the expansion converges is -- < x < - which is
4 4
I xI <4-
1 1 1
(c) Since _____ = = ______
j5+4x sjO.04
Then 4x= 0.04
So x=0.01
Substitute x = 0.01 into the expansion,
1 1 6
then = 2 (0.01)+_ (0 .01)2 + ...
25
= 0.447 214— 0.001 789 + 0.000 011+...
= 0.445 436
= 0.445 4 (correct to 4 d.p.)
• Example 32 '
Expand 2+x in ascending powers of x as far as the term in x5 .

(1— x)2
• Solution
2+x =(2+x)(1—x)2
(1_x)2

= (2+x)
1 1+(-2)(—x)+ (-2)(-2 1) 2 +(-2)(-2-1)(-2-2) ()3

(-2)(-2 - 1)(-2 - 2)(-2 —3) (_X)4 + (-2)(-2 - 1)(-2 - 2)(-2 - 3)(-2-4) ( _X)5+...
+
4! 5!
=(2+x) 1+ 2x
1 + (-2)(-3) x2+(- 2)(-3)(-4)(—x)+(-2)(-3)(-4)(-5) 4
2
+ (_2)(_3)(_4)(_5)(_6)(5)+]
6 24

120
 The binomial theorem VWX

=(2+x)(1+2x+3x 2 +4x3 +5x4 +6x5 +...)

= 2+4x+6x2 +8x3 +10x4 +12x5 +x+2x2 +3x3 +4x4 +5x5 +•••
=2+5x+8x2 +11x3 +14x4 +17x5 +•••
This series converges when I XI <1.

-Example 33
(1+x)4
Expand in ascending powers of x as far as the term in x 5 .

2–
- Solution

(1+x)4 =(l+x)4(2–x)1
2–x
(4) X + (') X2+ (4) (4" X4
Now

=1+ 4x + 6x2 + 4x3 + x4 which is valid for all x.

And (2_x) 1 =[2(1_)]

= 2' (1-- X)
X)3
= 2' 11 + (_l)(_ (1J2
+ (1

+ (-1)(-1 - 1)(-1 - 2)(-1 + (-1)(-1 - 1)(-1 - 2)(-1 - 3)(-1

4!
)1-1 2)
i
5!
)1-12)Y+...
= 1+ I x + (–l)(-2) II '1 + (- 1)(-2)(-3) 1-1 x + (-1)(-2)(-3)(-4) (161
x2
2L 2 2 4 ) 6 k8 ) 24
+ (-1)(-2)(-3)(-4)(-5) (
120 - 32 )
ii 1 1 1 1 1
=–i1+–x+–x 2 +–x +—x +—x +...
2[ 2 4 8 16 32
=–+–x+–x +—x 23
+—x +—x4 5
+••• which is valid for I x I <2.
2 4 8 16 32 64
(1 + x)4
So =(1+x4 )(2–x)'
2–x
1 1 12 1 15
=(1+4x+6x2 +4x3 +x4+••.)I –+–x+--x 4
+—x +—x+--x +•••
k24 8 16 32 64
LI Pure Mathematics for CAPE

11 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5
=—+—x + -x +—x +—x +—x +•.•
2 4 8 16 32 64

+2x +x 2 + -x 3 + —x 4 ± -x 5 +•••
2 4 8
3 3
2 +-x 3 4 3 5
+3x +-x +-x +•••
2 4 8

+2x3
x4 +-x5 +••.
+
2
1 4 1 5
+-x + -x +•••
2 4
1 9 33 2 65 81 81
+—x +—x +—x +...
2 4 8 16 32 64
This series converges when <2.IxI
Example34 ____

X
(a) Obtain the expansion of 1— in ascending powers of x up to the fourth term.
' 1+ 2x
(b) For what interval of values of x is the expansion valid?
Solution

x (1-x
(a) =1
W+ 2x 1+2x
1 1
= (1- x) 2 (1 +2x) 2

2) ]
1+_ ) + (_ X)2 + ( )(_

[)—')2X2± (-)(+1)(2) ]
x1±(J2x± (

(1 1 2 1 3 '\( 3253
=1 1--x--x --x +•• ii 1-x+-x --x +
2 8 16 2 2
3 2 5 3
=1-x+ -x - -x +
2 2
1 1233
--x+-x ----x +•
22 4
1213
X+ -x +••.
8 8
 The binomial theorem

1 3
--- x +•••
16
3 15 2 51 3
X+ ---x +•••

(b) +2x= (1 -x)(1 ±2x)

=
1
The expansion is valid for I-xI<ln(2x1 <1
Which is IxI <1n12x<11
i.e. (-1 < x < 1) n (-1 < 2x < 1)
1
(-1<x<1)nI--<x<---
2
1 1
--<x<-
2 2
-1 <x<1
1 1
-2<X<2 • The expansion is valid
where the two regions a)
-1. 0 1 intersect (common region). =
Hence, the expansion is valid for - <x < 0
2 2
Approximate value of an irrational number
Here we shall find an approximate value for an irrational number using the binomial series.
-Example 353
1

(a) Expand (1 + x) 5 as far as the term in x 3 .

(b) Hence, estimate correct to four decimal places
(i) (ii) i
- Solution
1(1
(a)
1
1
(1+x) 5 =1+-x+
55 )255
x+
As )3
x
5 2!
\14'\(9\ 3!

=1+-x+
5
1(-i
2
Jx2+ 515J15J x 3 +•
6
1 2 2 6 3
=1+-x-x +—x
5 25 125
This series is valid when I xl < 1.
(b) (1) Now = 0-
2+ 1
1

=(32+1)
U3 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

F ( 32'\1
=13211+ i —

[
!( 1 )5
=32I 1+-
32

5x( )5
=2 I1+-
32
1
I 1'\
=21 1+—
32

I 1
If 11+—i =(1+x) 5
k 32)
then x= and <1.
32 32
2 1
1(1 2 1 + 6 (
Thus
[ 5 3) 25(32) 125 32
= 2(1 + 0.006 25-0.000 078 + 0.000 001+...)
= 2(1.006 173)
= 2.012 346
= 2.012 3 (correct to 4 d.p.)
(ii) Now fi=J32-1

= (32— 1)
1
F ' \1
=1321 1— i —

L ' 32
( 1'\
=32I1--
t 32
1
5x I 1 )5
=2 I1--
32

I ii
=211--
32

1 2:
If (i_) =(1-i-x)5

1
then X= -- and -- <1.
32 32
 The binomial theorem IM
12+6_ 1
1(_ 1 _ 2 (_
Thus =
[
5 32) 25 32) 125k 32)
= 2(1 - 0.006 25— 0.000 078— 0.000 001+...)
= 2(0.993 671)
= 1.987 342
= 1.987 3 (correct to 4 d.p.)
Example 36
(a) Expand (1— x) 2 as far as the term in x3 .

(b) Substitute 0.25 for x in (1— x) 2 and its expansion.

(c) Hence, find an approximate value for sJ.
- Solution
—2)
(a) (1— x) =1 + (_X)+2(

1)( 3)
(_X)3+___
=1--x+ x 2+
2 2 6
1 1213
--x +••
2 8 16
(b) Substitute x = 0.25, then

(1-0.25) 2 =1— (0.25)— (0.25) 2- —(0.25) 3 +•

= 1-0.125-0.007 812 5-0.000 976 562+••

= 0.866 210 938+...
= 0.866 (correct to 3 d.p.)
The expansion is valid since x = 0.25 lies within the interval —1 <x < 1.
(c) Since (1— 0.25)2 = 0.866
:1

Then 0.752 = 0.866

So I11
100 = 0.866
\l

i.e. I11= 0.866

12 .i=0.866
= 5=2(0.866)
=1.732 (correct to 3 d.p.)
FM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Example 37
(a) Expand
r
i— l+ Xx
in ascending powers of x up to and including the term in x 2 .

1
(b) Use the substitution x = - to show that ',Jf
8 128
Solution

(a) ( l-x
-X
F 1+x)
1 1
= (1- x) 2 (1 + x) 2
1(1 (
i( 1
= 1+ ( X) + 22 ) _______
2 2! 2) 2!

1( 1' 1( 3'
1 \ 2) 2 +••• 1
= 1--x+ x 1--x— x 2 +•••
2 2 2 2

( 1 1 2
=1 1-- x--x +••• ii 1--x+--x
2 +•••
2 8 )' 2 8
1 3 2 +•••
=1--x+ -x
28
1 1
--x+ —x +••.
2
24

--x
12
8

=1 - x+ —x 2 +•••
2

F ,+—
is valid for -x <1 n x <1)

which is IxI<lnIx< 1 1
i.e. 1XI <1.
-1<x<1.

(b) Substitute x = 1 then

1 111
___8 8 28 I 2 -
r8
 The binomial theorem so

So I_7 1
98 128

• 17 8 113
i.e. J—x---=--
8 9 128
1 113
3 128
,- 3x113
j7=
128
= r 339
128
Validity of a binomial expansion when the domain is non-linear
- Example 38 1

(a) Expand 13 - x2 in ascending powers of x up to and including x4 C)

(b) State the interval of values of x for which the expansion is valid. =
- Solution 0

(a) 3_X2 =(3_x2 )2

=[3(1çJ]

X 22
=32[1._J
1

11
i( x2 1)( X22
=32 1+—i --1+ i -- i +.•.
2k 3) 21 3)

= 1_x2 _x4 +...)

6 72

=j3--x --x +•••

6 72
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

(b) The expansion is valid when:

x2
- 3 <1
2
which is

i.e.

0<—<1 since >O

3 3
= x2 <3
=> –'j<x<'j
This series is valid when - ,F3 < x <
-Example 39
(a) Expand -i - x3 in ascending powers of x up to and including x 6 .
(b) State the interval of values of x for which the expansion is valid.
- Solution
X 3 )]2
(a) -v4–x

1 3)2
X
4 2 11_

1
I
=21 1–--
x1
I" 4

X3 X3
)+ 2 (2 )(__J + ...]
21 4

1( i
-i 3 L\
-I LX 6
=2 1–x +
8 2 (16)

1--X3_ 1 X6
=2i
8 128
1 3 16
=2--x --x +•
4 64
 The binomial theorem

(b) The expansion is valid when:

x3
- <1
4

which is - <1
4
x3
i.e. —1< —<1
4
—4<x3 <4
=
_J;<x<J:i;
Binomial expansion and partial fractions
For some rational functions it may be best to first use partial fractions to decompose (separate)
the rational function into the sum/ difference of simplier functions. The binomial series can then
be applied.
Example 40 ]
1 0,
(a) Expand up to and including the term in x3 .
(1 + x)(1 - 2x) =
(b) Find the interval of values of x for which the expansion is valid. 0
Solution
(a) Let
1 = A B
(1+x)(1-2x) 1+x 1-2x
= A(1 - 2x) + B(1 + x)
(1+x)(1-2x)
Thus 1A(1-2x)+B(1+x)
Let x = —1: 1 = A(1-2[-1]) = 3A
A= 1
3
Let x=: 1=BI1+fl=B
2 2)2
B=
In partial fractions:
1 2
1
(1+x)(1-2x) 1+x 1-2x

= (1 + x) 1 + ( 1— 2x) 1

_1)1 - 1)(-1 —2) x

= [i + (-1)x +-1) x2+
3+•

+ [i + (-1)(-2x) + (2x)2 (-2x)

 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

[1—x+ (-1)(-2) x2+ (-1)(-2)(-3)

= x+•
3[ 2 6

=
+
11+2x+ (-1)(--2) (4X2) +(—l)(-2)(-3) (-8x)

(1_ x+x2 _ x3 + ...) + (1 + 2x+ 4x2 + 8 x3 + ...)

1 1 1 1 2 4 8 16
=---x+—x 2 ---x +•"—+--x+—x2 +—x +...
—

33 3 3 33 3 3
(1 2 ( 1 4\ (1 8"\ 2 +1
=1 —+— 1+1 --+-- Ix+l —+— Ix
( --+—
1 16
I x +...
k3 3) 3 3) k3 3) 3 3)
= 1+x+3x2 +5x3 +•

(b) -(1+x' is valid for 1XI <1

i.e. —1<x<1
(1_2x)1 is valid for —2x1 <1
3
which is 12x 1 <1
i.e. —1<2x<1
1 1
2 2
1
Thus is valid for the intersection of the two regions which is — < X<
(1+x)(1-2x) 2 2

(i.e. 1XI < — as shown below.

2)
12<X <21
. Ix!<
I I I

2
-1 <x<1

Alternative method
1
(a) =(1+x) 1(1-2x) 1

(1 + x)(1 — 2x)

=
E - 1x+
2!
2 —1-1-1-1-2
x+
3!
1
x+...]

1-1)(-2X)2 + (-1)(-1 — 1)(-1 —2) (-2x)3+

x 11 + (- 1)(-2x) + (1) (
2! 3!
 The binomial theorem

(-1)(-2) x2+ 1)2)(3)

= 1 -X+ x3+...]

[1+2x+ (-1)(-2) (4x2) +(—l) (-2)(- 3)

X (-8X3I

=(1-x+x2 -x3 +•••)(1+2x+4x2 +8x3 +••.)

= 1+2x+4x2 +8x3 +•••
- x-2x2 -4x3 +•••

+ x2 +2x3 +•••
-x 3 +...
=1 + x+3x2 +5x3 +•••
-Example 41
X
(a) Obtain the expansion of up to and including the term in x 3 .
(1+x)(3-x)
(b) State the interval of values of x for which the expansion is valid. CIM

- Solution
x A B
=
(a) Let 0
(1+x)(3-x) 1+x 3-x
5
= A(3 - x) + B(1 + x)
- (1+x)(3-x)
Thus xA(3-x)+B(1+x)
Let x=-1: _1=Aç3_[_1])=4A

4
Let x=3: 3=B(1+3)=4B
B=
4
In partial fractions:
1 3
X 4 __
(1+x)(3-x) 1+x 3-x
_(1+x) -1 +(3_x) -1

Now (3_x)1=[31_..)]

3 1 (1
3)
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

(-1)(-1-1)(--1-2) x\
= 34 [1+(_1)_J+ (_1)1_1)(
2! 3 + 3! 3 +•••j
F 1 (1 + (1)(2)(3)
=3-1 l+_
3 L 2 9
x)
6 ( - 27 J +.
= (1+ x +x2 +Ix3 +...)
3 3 9 27
1 21
1 +—x+ 1 x
=—
3 9 27 81
-1)( -1 - 1) ___________________ 3
And (1+x) 1 = 1+(—l)x+ ( x2+ x +•••
2! 3!
=1—x+ (-1)(-2) x2+ (-1)(-2)(-3)
x +•••

=1— x + -
3 _1 _3(11 1 2 1 3 "1I 23
So -(3--x) --(1+x) =-I -+-x+--x +—x +••• i--1-x+x -x +•••
4 4 4I3 9 27 81 ) 4"
11 12 1 3 11 1 2 1 3
=-+—x+—x +—x +...---+-x--x +-x +••.
4 12 36 108 44 4 4
(1 i( 1 i (1 1'\ 2 1 1'\
1+1 +— Ix+I --- Ix +—+— Ix +
4 4) '\ 12 4) 6 4) (108 4)
1 2 2 7 3
=-x--x +—x +•••

(b) (3 - x)1=
3

1 (1-0-1 1 i valid for

which is
3

i.e. —1<<1
3
-3<x<3
1
--(1 + x) is valid for x <1

i.e. -1<x<1
X
Thus is valid for the intersection of the two regions which is —1 <x < i
(1+x)(3 — x)
(i.e. Ix I <1) as shown below.
-1 <x <1
S

I I I

-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
-3<x<3
 The binomial theorem

Alternative method
X
(a) =x(1+x)'(3—x)1
(1+x)(3—x)

= x(1 + x)' [3 (i -

=x (1 +x ) 1 [3 1 (1J]

1( x_
=—x(1+x) ii--
3 \ 3
(-1)(-1-1) (-1)(-1-1)(-1-2)
= xF1+(-1)x+ x2+ x3+••
3 L 2! 3!
\2 + (_X)3 ]

1)1 —1) (_ 1)1 - 1)(-1 —2)

[1 + (- 1)1— +
3) 2! 3) 3! 3
(-1)(-2) 2 (-1)(-2)(-3) ••• C.)
X X3
3 2 6
x2 + (- 1)(-2)(-3) ( C
xli + X+ x
29 6 - 27 )
( 1 1213
=—x1—x+x 23—x +•)I 1+—x+—x +—x +•••
3 " 3 9 27
1(1 12 12 2
=—xI 1+—x+—x +•••—x—
—x +•••+x +•••
3 3 9 3
1(2 7
=—xI 1--x+—x+•
3 9
1 2 2 7 3
=—x--x +—x +...
3 9 27

Example 42
2x+3
(a) Expressf(x) = in partial fractions.
(2—x)(1+x 2 )
(b) Hence, find the first four terms in the expansion off(x) as a series of ascending powers of x.
(c) State the interval of values of x for which the expansion of valid.
Solution
2x+3 A Bx+C .
(a) Let f(x) = + since 2 - x s linear and 1 + x is quadratic.
(2—x)(1+x 2 ) 2—x 1+x 2
Thus 2x +3 A(1 + x2 ) + Bx + C)(2 - x)
(
Alternatively:
Equating the coefficients of x2: A - B =0 Let x = 2: 7= 5A
Equating the coefficients of x: 2B - C = ©
A-
Equating the constant terms: A + 2C = 3 © -5
!Tt Pure Mathematics for CAPE

B+2C=3 T Letx=0: 3=A+2C

©x2: 4B-2C=4 © 7
So 3=-+2C
5B=7 5
B= i.e. 2C=-
r7 5
Substitute B = into (i): A - - =0 4
5 5 ... C=-
7 5
A=- Let x=1: 5=2A+B+C
So 5= +B+
Substitute B = into ©: -C=2
5
14 i.e. B=5-
--C=2 5
i.e. C=--2 :. B= 7 -

5 5
c=
5
7 74
- -x+-
2x+3 5.in partial fractions.
Thus f(x) = = 5 +5
(2-x)(1+x 2 ) 2-x 1+x2

(b) Now = (2_ x ) -1 +(x+)(1+x 2 ) -1

f
= (2-x)(1+x2)

And (2_x)-1=[41_)]

1- X
-2
2)
(-1)(-1-1) (xJ2
= [i+_(_)+

(-1)(-2) (_X2+ (-1)(-2)(-3)

=
21 2 2 k4 ) 6 (- 8 )
i( 1 1 1
1+ -x+-x 2 +-x
2 4 8
11 1 2 13
=-+-x+-x +—x +••
2 4 8 16
Also (1 + x2 ) 1 = 1 + (-1)x2 +. .
= 1 - x2 +...
7(11 1213 (7 4
Thus f(x)=+x+x +—x +..j+x+)(l_x 2 +...)
77 7 73442
=—+--x+—x 23
+—x +•..+-x--x +---x +••
10 20 40 80 55 55
 The binomial theorem IM
(7 4 (7 7 (7 4 2 +( 7 3
—+— 1+1+---—+— IX+I IX +1 IX +
iO 5) 20 5) 40 5) t\ 80 5)
37 5 2 21 3
= — + — x -- x --- x +•••
2 4 8 16
(c) 7 (2_x)1= xI1— is valid for
5 5 2 2

2
X
which is - <1
2
i.e. -1<-<1
2
-2<x<2
(x+')(1+x2yhis valid for
5 5)
x2 <1
which is -1<x2 <1
i.e. 0<x2 <1
-1<x<1
2x+3
Thus is valid for the intersection of the two regions which is -1 <x < 1 (i.e.
(2-x)(1+x 2)
I I
x <1) as indicated below.
-1<x<1

I I

-2
- -2<x<2
-Example 43
(a) Express f(x) in
partial fractions.
= 2X2-X_1
(b) Hence, expandf(x) in ascending powers of x up to and including the term in x 3 .
(c) Find the coefficient of
(d) State the interval of x for which the expansion of f(x) is valid.
- Solution
x+1
(a) f(x) =
2x2 - x -1
x+1
- (x-1)(2x+1) (factorising the denominator)
A B
= +
x-1 2x+1
A(2x + 1) +B(x -1)
(x-1)(2x+1)
am Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Thus x+1A(2x+1)+B(x-1)
Let x=1: 2=3A = A=-
3
1 =
Let x=-1. B=-
2 2 3
2 _
Thus +
/ x-1 2x+1
2 1 in partial fractions
= 3(x — 1) 3(2x + 1)

(b) Now f(x) = 2(X-1)-l— (2x + 1)- 1

3 3
2 = [- 1(1 — x)] 1
And — (x _1) 1
3
= xy1

= _(1_xy1
(-1)(-2)(-3)
= _[1+(_1)(_x)+ (1)(2) (_x)2+

=—.(1+x+x +x +...)

Also _(2 x+ 1)-1 = _( 1 + 2x )-1

(-1)(-2)(--3) (2x)3 +...
= 11+(_1)2x+ (-1)(-2) (2X)2+
3[ 2! 3!
= _(1_2X+4X2 _8X3 +...)

Thus f(x) = _(1 +x+x2 +x3 + ...)

_(1_2x+ 4x2 _8x3 + ...)

22 2 2 2 3
=----x--x --x +•••
333 3
12 4283
--+-x--x +-x +•••
33 3 3
(21"\(2 2"\ (2 42(2 8' 3
=1 ---- 1+1 --+— Ix+I ---- IX +1 --+— Ix +
3 3) 3 3) 3 3) 3 3)
=-1-2x2+2x3+•••
 The binomial theorem

(c) The general term of —-(1+x+x2 +x3 +...) is ---x 1

This isthe(n + 1)th term.
2 2
the nth term is — —x x li

The general term of _(1_2x+4x2_8x3+...) is

This is the (n + 1)th term.
the nth term is _[(_1)11(2x)n+11]

= _[(_1)n(2x)]
Then the nth term forf(x) is
- x - [—i (2x)]

= - [2+ (-1) 2] f

=--[2+(_2)n]f
x+1
and
2x2 —x-13
=Y, -- [2+(_2)] f.
Hence the coefficient of xn is - - [2 + (-2)].

(d) .- (1— x' is valid for

HxI <1
which is 1xI<1
i.e. —1<x<1
_(1+2x)-1is valid for
12x1 <1
i.e. —1<2x<1
1 1
--<x<-

Thusf(x) is valid for the intersection of the two regions which is - <x <- Ii.e. x
as indicated below.
1 1
-2<X<2 .IxI<
I I I
-i 1 0 1 1
2
-1 <x< 1
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Exercise 6c
1. (a) Find a cubic expression that 6. (a) Find the first four terms in the
expansion of (1 + 3x) 5
approximates to (1— X)2 for small
(b) State the interval of values of x for
values of x. which the expansion converges.
(b) State the interval of values of x for (c) Use the expansion to estimate 1
which the series is valid. 1.09
(c) Use the expansion to find JO correct to 2 significant figures.
correct to 5 significant figures. 7. (a) Find the first four terms in the
2. (a) Find a cubic expression that expansion of (1 - 4x) 2 .
(b) State the interval of values of x for
approximates to (1— x) 5 for small which the expansion converges.
values of x.
(c) Use the expansion to estimate 1
(b) State the interval of values of x for 0 .962
which the series is valid. correct to 5 significant figures.
(c) Use the expansion to find /öi
8. (a) Find the first four terms in the
correct to 5 significant figures.
expansion of (1 - 5x) 3 .
3. (a) Find a cubic expression that (b) State the interval of values of x for
which the expansion converges.
approximates to (1 + x) 3 for small
values of x. (c) Use the expansion to estimate
0.95
(b) State the interval of values of x for correct to 5 significant figures.
which the series is valid.
(c) Use the expansion to find i9I0 9. (a) Find a quadratic expression that
correct to 6 significant figures. approximates to (8+ x) 3 for small
values of x.
4. (a) Find a cubic expression that
(b) State the interval of values of x for
approximates to (1+ x) 4 for small which the series is valid.
values of x. (c) Use the expansion to find an
(b) State the interval of values of x for approximation of correct to 5
which the series is valid. significant figures.
(c) Use the expansion to find IE[5
10. (a) Find a quadratic expression that
correct to 7 significant figures.
approximates to (9+ x) 2 for small
5. (a) Find the first four terms in the values of x.
expansion of (1 + 2x) 4 . (b) State the interval of values of x for
(b) State the interval of values of x for which the series is valid.
which the expansion converges. (c) Use the expansion to find an
(c) Use the expansion to estimate approximation of 'JiOi correct to 7
(1.06) 4 significant figures.
correct to 3 significant figures.
 The binomial theorem CO
11. (a) Find a quadratic expression that
18. (a) Expand (9+ 2x) 4 up to and including
approximates to (16 x) 4 for small
-
the term in x2.
values of x. (I,) State the values of x for which the
(b) State the interval of values of x for expansion is valid.
which the series is valid.
(c) Use the expansion to find an (1) Expand each of the following expressions
approximation of 46.05 correct to 7 as a series of ascending powers of x up to
significant figures. and including the term in x 4.
(ii) State the interval of x for which the series
12. (a) Find a quadratic expression that is valid.
approximates to (32 x) 5 for small
- 1 1
19, (a) (b)
values of x. 3+2x 4-3x
(b) State the interval of values of x for
1
which the series is valid. 20. (a) (b)
(c) Use the expansion to find an 5-2x 6+5x
approximation of 01.94 correct to 8 21. (a) Find the first four terms in the
significant figures. expansion of 1
1 —+ 3x
13. (a) Expand (8— 3x) 3 up to and including (b) State the range of values of x for
the term in x2. which the expansion converges.
(b) State the values of x for which the
expansion is valid. (c) Use the expansion to estimate
72 O9
~

correct to three places of decimals.

14. (a) Expand (9— 4x) 2 up to and including
the term in x 3. 22. (a) Find the first four terms in the
(b) State the values of x for which the expansion of 1
expansion is valid. J4-5x
(b) State the range of values of x for
15. (a) Expand (16 3x) 4 up to and including
-
which the expansion converges.
the term in x2 .
(c) Use the expansion to estimate 1
(b) State the values of x for which the
expansion is valid. correct to three places of decimals.
Expand each of the following expressions in
16. (a) Expand (32 2x) 5 up to and including
-
ascending powers of x as far as the term in x 5 .
the term in x3.
(b) State the values of x for which the 3+x 4—x
23. (a)
expansion is valid. (1— x)2 (b) (1— x)2

17. (a) Expand (7+ 3x) 2 up to and including 24. (a) x-1 (b) x-5 2
(1+x)2 1 (1+x)
the term in x3.
(b) State the values of x for which the x-2 x+7
25. (a) (b) (1
expansion is valid. (1— x)3 + x)3
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

+ x)3 + x)4 (b) Use the substitution x = to show that

26. (a) (1 (b) (1 -

1-x 2+x 594. 7

(b) (1- x) 5
27, (a) (1- x)4
3-x 2-x
(i) Obtain the expansion of each of the
following expressions in ascending
F
35. (a) Expandn+ascending
i
1
powers of
x up to and including the term in x 3 .
powers of x up to the fourth term.
(ii) For what interval of values of x is the (b) Use the substitution x = to show that
9
expansion valid?

28. (a) r (b)

1-+ Xx 'I1-2x
1~ - -
J_1+x 729

36. (a) Expand Al

Ii+x m ascending powers of
\f1-x
(b) /1+x x up to and including the term in x 3.
29.(a) F
1+ \l1+2x
(b) Use the substitution x = to show that
30. (a) Expand (1 + x) 4 as far as the term in x 3.
5
(b) Hence, estimate correct to two decimal
places
(ii)
31. (a) Expand (1 + x) 3 as far as the term in x 3.
37. (a) Expand
r I-
X in ascending powers of

x up to and including the term in x 2.

(b) Hence, estimate correct to six decimal (b) Use the substitution x = to show
places 25

(i) (ii) that /i

1 875
32. (a) Expand (1-x) 2 as far as the term in x 3 . 7
38. (a) Expand V4 - in ascending powers
(b) Substitute 0.5 for x in (1- x) 2 and its of x up to and including x4.
expansion. (b) State the interval of values of x for
(c) Hence, find an approximate value for which the expansion is valid.

-
39. (a) Expand 18 x2 in ascending powers
of x up to and including x4.
33. (a) Expand (1- x) 3 as far as the term in x 3. (b) State the interval of values of x for
(b) Substitute 0.3 for x in (1-x) 3 and its which the expansion is valid.
expansion.
40. (a) Expand V5 - x3 in ascending powers
(c) Hence, find an approximate value
of x up to and including x 6.
fiöi5. (b) State the interval of values of x for
which the expansion is valid.
34. (a) Expand in ascending powers of
F1+
x up to and including the term in x 3. 7
41. (a) Expand 18 - in ascending powers
of x up to and including x6.
 The binomial theorem am
(b) State the interval of values of x for (i) Expressf(x) in partial fractions.
which the expansion is valid. (ii) Hence, find the first four terms in the
(1) Expand each of the following expressions expansion of f(x) as a series of ascending
up to and including the term in x3 . powers of x.
(ii) Find the interval of values of x for which (iii) State the interval of values of x for which
the expansion is valid. the expansion in valid.
2x+1 2x-3
1 50. (a) (b)
42. (a) (b) (3—x)(1+x2) (4—x)(1+x2)
(1+x)(1-3x) (1+x)(1-4x)
1 1 3x+2 4x-1
43. (a) (b) 51. (a) 2
(1—x)(1+5x) (1—x)(1+6x) (5—x)(1+x ) (b) (3+x)(1-i-x2)
1 1
44. (a) (b)
(1-2x)(1-3x) (1-4x)(1-7x) 52. (a) (b)
(2+x)(1+x2) (4+x)(1+x2)
1 1
45. (a) (b) (i) Expressf(x) in partial fractions.
(1+2x)(1+5x) (1+3x)(1+8x)
(ii) Hence, expandf(x) in ascending powers C.J
(i) Obtain the expansion of each of the of x up to and including the term in x3 . CD
following expressions up to and including
the term in x3 .
(iii) Find the coefficient of
(iv) State the interval of x for which the
=
(ii) State the values of x for which the 0
expansion of f(x) is valid.
expansion is valid.
x+1 x+2
X X 53. (a) 2x2-3x-2
46. (a) (b) (b) 2X2 +5x-3
(1+x)(4—x) (1+x)(5—x)
x-3 x+4
________
X X 54. (a)
47. (a) (b) (b) 3x25x2
(1—x)(3+x) (1—x)(6+x) 2x2+x-1O
X x x+5 x-4
48. (a) (b) 55. (a) (b) 4x
(1+x)(7+x) (1+x)(8+x) 3x2+4x.-4 2 —11x-3
X x
49. (a) (b)
(1+x)(2+x) (1+x)(4+x)
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

5i
1. Evaluate the factorial expression -. -

2 5
(a) 5 (b) 2' (c) (d) 60

2.
499'
(a) 1 (b) 499 (c) 500 (d) 249500
3. Find the value of the combination 7 C5 .
(a)2 (b)5 (c) 7
4. 1000 =
(a) 1 (b) 10 (c) 362 880 (d) 3 628 800

5
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) 11 (d) 121
6 12 C5 =
(a) 7 C5 (b) 12C6 (c) '2 C7 (d) 17 C5

(9_"
(9)

(9 (io (10
(a) 6 (b)--
b) 7) (c)
(9) 6)
8 The first term in each row of Pascal's triangle is
(a) 0 - (b) 1 (c) 2 (d) 3
9. In Pascal's triangle, the sum of the nth row of numbers: is given by the expression
(a) 2 (b) 2 (c) 2 +1 (d) (a+ by
10. The sum of the entries in row 10 of Pascal's triangle is
(a) 512 (b) 1 024 (c) 2 048 (d) (a+ WO
11. In Pascal's triangle, the numbers in the n th row are in the form
(a) 1 (n) ... (n) 1 (b) 1 (n — i) ... (n — i) 1
(n+1
(c) 1 (n+i)...(n+1)1 (d) 1
() ••. 2 )

12. The entries in row 8 of Pascal's triangle are

(a)182856705681 (b)172135352171
(c) 19 36 84 126 126 84 36 91 (d) 14641
 The binomial theorem

13. In which row of Pascal's triangle is the sum of .the numbers equal to 512?
(a) 8 (b) 9 (c) 10 (d) 11
14. (1 + x) 5 -
(a) x5 - 5x4 + 1Ox3 - lOx2 + 5x - 1 (b) x5 +5+10x3 +1Ox2 +5x+1
(c) -x5 ± 5x4 - lOx3 ± 1Ox2 - 5x + 1 (ci) x5 + 5x4 - lOx3 - 1Ox2 + 5x ± 1
15. (1-x)5 =
(a) x5 + 5x4 + 1Ox3 + 1Ox2 '+ 5x + 1 (b) -x5 - 5x4 - 10,t3- 10x 2 + 5x - 1
(c) x5 -5x4 +10x3 -10x2 +5x-1 (ci) -x5 +5x4 -10x3 ±10x2 --5x+1
16. (x + 2y) 3 =
(a) x-•6x2y+12xy2 -8y3 (b) -x 3 + 6x2y - 12xy2 +
(c) x3 +6x2y+12xy2 +8y3 (d) x3 +6x2y-12xy2 -8y3
17. (x - 2y)3
(a) -x3 - 6x2y - 12xy2 - (b) -x3 - 6x2y + 12xy2 +8?
'(c) -x3 +6x2y-12xy2 +8y3 (d) _6x2y +12xy 2_8y3

18 (2x+3y)4 =
(a) 16x4'+ 96x3y± 216x2y2 + 216xy3 + 81y4
(b) -16x4 -96x3y-216x2y2 -216xy3 -81y4
(c) 16x4 + 96x3y - 216x2y2 - 216xy3 + 81y4
(d) -16x4 + 96x3y - 216x2y2 + 216xy3 - 81?
19. (2x. - 3y)4
(a) -16x4 -96x3y-216x2y2 -216xy3 -81
(b) 16x4 -96x3y-216x2y2 -216x.+81
(c) 16x4 -96x3y+216x2y2 -216x+81y4
(d) 16x4 + 96x3y + 216x2y2 + 216xy3 + 81?
.
20 (1 01 ) 3-
(a) 1 + 3(0.01) + 3(0.01)2 + (001) (b) 1 - 3(0.01)+3( . 0.01) 2 - (0. 01)
(c) 1 + 3(0.01) - 3(0.01)2 + (0.01) (d) 1 - 3(0.01) - 3(0.01)2 + (0.01)
21. (0.99) =
(a) 1 + 3(0.01) - 3(0.01)2 + (0.01) (b) 1 - 3(0.01) - 3(0.01)2 - (0.01)
(c) 1 + 3(0.01) -3(0.01)2 - (001) (d) 1 - 3(0.01) + 3(0.01)2 - (0.01)
22. The coefficient of the fifth term of the binomial expansion of (2x. - y)8 is
(a) -1024 (b) 1 792 (c) 1 120 (d) -448
23 The coefficient of the fourth term of the binomial expansion of (2x + y) 6 is
(a) 240 (b) 160 (c) 60 (d) 12
L}1!I Pure Mathematics for CAPE

24. The coefficient of x4 in the binomial -expansion of (x + y)7- is -

(a) 7 (b) 21 (c) 28 (d) 35
25. The coefficient of x4 in the binomial expansion of (x - y) 8 is
(a) 28 (b) —56 (c) 70 (d). —8
26. (i) Obtain the binomial expansion of Ii + x + V1 - x up to the term containing x2 .

(ii) Hence, put x =and compute an approximation of Ii + to four decimal

places.
I 5\8
27. Find the coefficient of x4 in I x 2 - -
X
1 2'\
28. Find the coefficient Of x3 in I x 3 --
X

29. (a) is defined as the number of ways of selecting r distinct objects from a given set

of n distinct objects. From the definition, show that ( I = I -I

T.) r ) r1
(b) Hence find
(12 ( 11 (ii) (15
()
6)) 5
30. (a) By expressing Cr and n + ' Cr in terms of factorials, prove that nCr -1 + 1C -
(b) Hence, find
(14 ( 13 (15
(i) (ii) 112
7 J1\7j

31. (a) Use the binomial theorem to expand (1- 2x) 2 as far as the term in x 3, stating the
values of x for which the expansion is valid.
X 1
(b) Prove that _____ = - (1+X + sf1— 2x) for x <
1+x—V1-2x x 2
32. (a) Find n E N such that 3(C3) + 20 fl +
(b) The coefficient of x 2 m the expansion of (1 - 2x) 5 (1 - px) 4 is 614 Find the possible
values of the real number p.
(713
-
33 Fd the term dependent of x the binomial expansion of -
Find
[Leave your answer in the form of factorials and powers.]
(b) Use the binomial theorem to find the difference between 310 and (3.002) 10 correct to
4 decimal places.
 The binomial theorem

34. (a) Use the binomial theorem to expand (1+ x) 3 in ascending powers of x as far as
the term in x3, stating the values of x for which the expansion is valid.
(b) Obtain a similar expansion for (1— x)i.
(c) Prove that if x is so small that x3 and higher powers of x can be neglected, then
Il—x 2 2 2
3j
3 9
(d) Hence, by taking x = show, without using calculators or tables, that
--, . . 2965
26 ( 0 .1014
8
35. (a) Find the term independent of x in the expansion of I 2x2 —i-
..
..
x
(b) G) Expand (1 + ux)(3 x)5 in ascending powers of x up to the term in x 2, u
- E R.
(ii) Given that the coefficient of the term in x 2 is —2 565, find the value of u

CJ
C)

- Meaning and properties of n!

• + ii! is read as 'n factorial' or 'factorial n'.
+ n! = n(n 1)(n 2) - (3)(2)(1) where n E Z
- ... t.•

•• n! is the number of ways of arranging ii distinct objects in a row.

+O!=i,1! =land =1 •
•

ii! •

Meaning and properties of (n) =

+ is read as 'n choose r'.

(n)
+ is the number of ways in which r objects may be chosen (selected) from n

distinct (multiple) objects. •

( 11 ) 11
+ = where n, r E 1 and 0 ~ r ~ n.
r r!(n—r)!
(n)=(,n
+ nC r = nC since r + (n - r) = n
r r)

•:•c0 =c 1 =1; J=[J=i since 0 + n = ii.

 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

• (n+- I) (n (n (n
• =11+11=1
r r)&r1) kr—i)[+1r.
• If nC = nck, then
either r=korr=n—k.
) Pascal's triangle
1
n=1 1 1

(n) (n (n+1
+ 11
r r+1) (\ r+1
> Binomial theorem
n(n) n (n) n (n n-2 2+ (n) a n-3
+ (a+b) a + a lb+ a b b 3+

+ (n)
a TbT ++ l )ab'+In) n
r fl1
n fl
Y, r )a'-'b
V n 71+.

and ur+i =( fi )an - rbr

(n)
+ The general term is an-W.

This is the (r + 1)th term.

+ In the general term, the sum of the powers of a and b = (n - r) + r = n.
+ If b = x, then the binomial theorem is

(a + = (]an+Ja1x+():2x2+()an;x3

+1 r) an_TxT+.. +1 n-1)•ax'+• .(- Xn

fl)
(n
)an_Txr
70 r VnE N.

and ur+i=(fi)anrxr
 The binomial theorem

+ If b = 1 and b = x, then the binomial series is

(1+x)= []+(Jx+(]x2+(]x3+ +(Jxn+ +(fliJx1+(nU)xn

( n) x ,,
=o

and ur+i =(fl )xr

> Finding a coefficient and the constant term

+ The general term of (a + x)1 . which is C7 a T X' is used to find the coefficient of a
given term.
+ The constant term is the term independent of x. It is the term in x 0 .
)-.Trinomial expansion --
•• A trinomial expansion.can be solved by performing repeated binomial expansions.
•. (1±x—x 2 )5 =(1+y)5
=1 5ij + 10y2 +iOit 3 5y+ y5 =
= 1+5(x—x 2 )+10(x— x2 ) 2 +10(x —x 2 )3 +5(x - x2 )4 +(x— x 2 )5 C
Binomial expansion of a complex number
• A complex number raised to a power can be expanded using the binomial theorem
and the fact that i2 = — 1.
> Expanding (a + by when n E U
n(n-1) 2 n(n-1)(n-2) 3
s (1±x) =1+nx+ x+ x
2! 3!
n(n — 1)(n — 2) ... (n — r + 1)
+...+ x+••• VnEC.
where the term in XT is the (r + 1)th term
+ (1 + X)n is valid, that is, converges when IxI <, that 15, —1 <x < 1
n(n-1) 2 2 n(n-1)(n--2) 3 3
+(1+ax)=1+nax+ ax+ ax
2! 3!
n(n-1)(n-2) ... (n—r+1)
+...+ ax+•• VnEQ.
r!
+ (1 + aX)n converges provided I ax I <1, that is, the series is valid for —1 <ax < 1 which
1 1
is --<x<—.
a a
X'.: Pure Mathematics for CAPE

•:• (a+x)=a±na'x± n(n-1)22n(n-1)(fl-2)33

r!
)n

+ (a+ x) = na (i+converges provided <1, that is, the series is valid for

X which is —a < x < a, which is lxi <a.

a
Approximate value of an irrational number
+ An approximate value for an irrational number can be found using the binomial
series
> Binomial expansion and partial fractions
•• For some rational functions, especially when the denominator is a product of linear
factors or a quadratic functions, it is necessary to write it in partial fractions so as to
get the sum/difference of simpler functions. The binomial series can then be applied.
 ROOtS of equations

Intermediate value theorem

Y

f(b)

C=f(c)

f(a)

LM
Intermediate value theorem:
If a functionf(x) is continuous on a closed interval of x, [a, b], and C is any value
betweenf(a) andf(b) inclusive, then there exists at least one value c in the interval
[a, b] such thatf(c) = C.

Suppose f is a continuous function on [a, b]. Let C be a real number betweenf(a) andf(b).
Sincefis continuous, then it takes on each number fromf(a) tof(b) ( every intermediate value)
C is a value of f, which means that there exists c between a and b such thatf(c) = C.
The intermediate value theorem can also be stated as follows.

If f(x) is continuous from x = a to x = b inclusive and C lies betweenf(a) andf(b),

then there exists a value c between a and b such thatf(c) = C.

If the function is continuous, then there may exist more than one such similar value between
a and b.
If the function is not continuous, then there may not exist any such value between a and b.

Locating a root of an equation

The intermediate value theorem (IVT) can be used to locate a root of an equation within a
given interval. This method is especially important when the exact value of the root cannot
be found.
 . Pure Mathematics for CAPE

The intermediate value theorem (IVT) can be used to locate a root of an equation atf(x) = 0.
If f(x) is a continuous function, then moving from left to right through a graph of f(x),
in this case, through the closed interval [a, h],
then f(a) > 0,f(x) = 0 andf(b) <0
That is f(a) .f(b) <0.
Therefore, the root of f(x) = 0 lies in the interval [a, b].
This is a root x = a.
or
in this case, through the closed interval [c, d],
then f(c) <0,f(x) = 0 andf(d) > 0
That is f(c).f(d)<0.
Therefore, the root of f(x) = 0 lies in the interval [c, d].
This is a root x = ft
Since there is a sign change off(x) throughf(x) =0, then the graph of the function intersects the
x-axis and the test indicates the existence of a root atf(x) = 0 within the closed interval.
This means that the equation of the function has a solution atf(x) = 0.
If there is no sign change of f(x) through the interval, then there exists no root within the
interval atf(x) = 0, since the graph does not intersect the x-axis. For a quadratic equation, this is
the case when b2 - 4ac < 0 and the quadratic equation has no real roots.

Example 1
And (1)(1)(1)
Show that the quadratic equation
—3x2 + 4x - 1 = 0 has a root in the interval
[3, = _3(1) +2-1
(a) [o] (b) 1

Solution
11 3
=- -_+1
4
(a) Let f(x) = —3x 2 + 4x — 1 1
Then f(0) = —1
So f(0)<0 4
 Roots of equations

So So
f (') ( 2)
The quadratic functionf(x) = –3x2 + 4x –1 A sketch of the graph is shown below.
is a polynomial and therefore it is
continuous or the interval
[o -i].
Alsof(0) <0 and 0, that isf(0).
x

f()<O.

Hence, by the intermediate value

theorem (IVT) there exists a root in the 1

interval L0, j . The quadratic functionf(x) = – 3x2 + 4x –1

is a polynomial and therefore it is
(3)(3)(3)
(b) Now f continuous on the interval I -,1-
[4 2

=-3(----)+3-1 Also f(..)>0 and f(1!)<0, that is

16)
27
=--+2 f(1)<O<f().
16
11
= –1-- +2 Hence, by the intermediate value
16
theorem ([VT) there exists a root in the
5
13 1
16 interval. I -, 1–
[4 2
So f1'-')>0 Example 2
k4)
Prove that the cubic equation x 3 + x2 –5 = 0
And f(1)=_3(.)+4J)_1 has a solution in the interval [1, 21.
Solution
= _3()+2(3)_1 Let f(x)=x 3 +x2 -5
Then f(1)=1 3 ±12 -5
=–.—+6--1 =1+1-5
4 = –3
So f(1)<zO.
=-6 5 And f(2)=23 +22 -5
4
=8+4-5
=7
4
So f(2)>0
C!f I Pure Mathematics for CAPE

A sketch of the graph is shown below. And f(-2) = (-2) 3- 7(-2) + 1

= -8 + 14 +1
=7
The cubic functionf(x) = x 3 - 7x + 1 is a
polynomial and therefore it is continuous on
the interval [-4, 3].
Sincef(-3) = -5 andf(-2) = 7, then
f(-3) <0 <f(-2).
Hence, by the IVT there exists a solution
(root) in the interval [-3, —2].
And f(-1) = (-1) - 7(-1) + 1
The cubic functionf(x) = x 3 + x2 - 5 is a
= -1 +7+ 1
polynomial and therefore it is continuous an
the interval [1, 2]. =7
Also f(1) <0 andf(2) > 0 so there is a sign Since fl-2) = 7 and fl-1) = 7, then there is no
change in the interval [1,2] sign change in the interval [-2, —1].
Hence, by the intermediate value theorem Hence, there exists no root in the interval
(IVT) there exists a solution (root) in the [-2, — 1].
interval [1, 21. And f(1)=1 3 -7(1)+1
Example 3 =1-7+1
Prove that the functionf defined by = —5
f(x) = x3 - 7x + 1 has at least three zeros in Sincef(-1) = 7 andf(1) = —5, then
the closed interval [-4, 3]. f(1) <0 <f(-1).
• Solution Hence, by the IVT there exists a solution
in the interval [-1, 1].
Given f(x) = x3 - 7x + 1
And f(2) = 2 3 -7(2)+l
Then f(-4) = (_4)3 - 7(-4) + 1
= 8 - 14+ 1
= -64 + 28 + 1
= —5
= -35
Sincef(1) = —5 andf(2) = —5, then there is no
And f(-3) = (_3)3 - 7(-3) + 1
sign change in the interval [1, 21.
= -27+21 + 1
And f(3)=33 -7(3)+1
= —5
= 27— 21 + 1
Sincef(-4) = —35 andf(-3) = —5, then
=7
there is no sign change in the interval
[-4, —3]. Sincef(2) = —5 andf(3) =7, thenf(2) <0 <f(3).
Hence, there exists no root in the interval Hence, by the IVT there exists a solution
[-4, —3]. in the interval [2, 31.
 Roots of equations Im
A sketch of the graph is shown below.

Clearly, the functionf(x) = x 3 - 7x + I has at least three zeros in the interval [-4, 3].
That is x3 - 7x + 1 = 0 has at least three solutions in the interval [-4,3].
- Example 4
(a) Show by sketching graphs that the equation e 2x ± 5x - 6 = 0 has only are real root.
(b) Hence, find the interval where the root lies.
- Solution
(a) Given the equation e 2' + 5x - 6 = 0.
Then rearrange the equation as:
e2x=6_5x
Sketch the graph of y = e 2x and y = 6 - 5x on the same axes as shown below.
y=e

The graph of y = e2x intersects the graph of y = 6 7 5x at only one point, hence, the
equation e2' + 5x - 6 = 0 has only one real root.
(b) From the graphs, the root lies in the internal [0.4, 0.61.
Algebraic Method
(b) Let f(x) = e 2x + 5x - 6
Then f(0.4) = e20 -4 + 5(0.4) - 6
= e0 -8 + 2.0 - 6
IM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

= e08 - 4
=-1.77
And f(O.6) = e206 + 5(0.6) - 6
= e12 +3.0 - 6
= e12 - 3
= 0.32
The graph of y = e 2 + 5x - 6 is continuous.
Sincef(0.4) = —1.77 andf(0.6) = 0.32, thenf(0.4) <0 <f(0.6)
Hence, by the IVT there exists a root in the interval [0.4, 0.61.
A sketch of the graph of y = e 2 + 5x - 6 is shown below.

Example 5
(a) Show by sketching graphs that the equation 2 sin x = in x has only one real root.
(b) Hence, find the interval where the root lies.
Solution
(a) Given the equation 2 sin x = In x.
Then letf(x) =2 sin x and g(x) = in x.
Sketch the graph of y = 2 sin x and y = In x on the same axes as shown below.
 Roots of equations

The graph of y = 2 sin x intersects the graph of y = In x at only one point, hence, the
equation 2 sin x = in x has only one real root.
(b) From the graphs, the root lies in the interval [2, 31.
Algebraic Method
(b) Given 2 sin x=lnx
Then 2sinx-lnx=0
Let h(x)=2 sin x-lnx
Then h(2)=2sin2-1n2
= 1.125
And h(3)=2 sin 3-1n3
= -0.816
The graph of y =2 sin x - in x is continuous for x> 0.
Since h(2) = 1.125 and h(3) = -0.816, then h(3) <0 <h(2)
Hence ,by the PIT there exists a root in the interval [2, 3].
A sketch of the graph of y = 2 sin x - In x is shown below.

Exercise 7a

1. Show that the quadratic equation 4. Show that the quadratic equation
X2 + 5x - 1 = 0 has a root in the interval -3x2 - 4x + 5 = 0 has a root in the interval
(a) [-6,-5] (b) [0,1] (a) [-4, -11 (b) [0, 3]

2. Show that the quadratic equation 5. Show that the quadratic equation
x2 - 3x - 5 = 0 has a root in the interval -2x2 + 5x - 1 = 0 has a root in the interval
(a) [-2,-i] (b) [4,5] (a) [-3, 1] (b) [2, 51

3. Show that the quadratic equation 6. Prove that the cubic equation x3 + x2 -2=0
4x2 + 9x + 3 = 0 has a root in the interval has a solution in the interval [0, 3].
(a) [-3.5, -1.51 (b) [-1, 2] 7. Prove that the cubic equation x3 - x2 +4=0
has a root in the interval [-2, 1].
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

8. Prove that the cubic equation (l) Hence, find the interval where the
-x3 + 5x2 +3 =0 has a solution root lies.
in the interval [2.5, 5.5].
19. (a) Show by sketching graphs that the
9. Prove that the cubic equation equation in x + 2x -3=0 has only one
-x3 + 6x2 + 4 = 0 has a solution real root.
in the interval [4, 81. (b) Hence, find the interval where the
root lies.
10. Prove that the cubic equation
20. (a) Show by sketching graphs that the
-2x3 - 5x2 + 7= 0 has a solution equation 5 in x + 3x +2 =0 has only
in the interval [-3, 3]. one real root.
11. Prove that the functionf defined by (b) Hence, find the interval where the
f(x) = x3 + 4x2 - 6 has three zeros root lies.
in the closed interval [-5, 2]. 21. (a) Show by sketching graphs that the
equation 3 ln(2x) - 5x + 9 = 0 has two
12. Prove that the functionf defined by real roots.
f(x) = x 3 - 5x2 + 7 has three zeros (b) Hence, find the intervals where the
in the closed interval [-5, 7]. roots lie.
13. Prove that the function g defined by 22. (a) Show by sketching graphs that the
g(x) = -x3 + 3x2 -4 has two zeros equation 3 sin x - 2x + 7=0 has only
in the open interval (-3,4). one real root.
(b) Hence, find the interval where the
14. Prove that the function g defined by root lies.
g(X) = -x3 + 2x2 - 1 has three zeros
in the open interval (-4,4). 23. (a) Show by sketching graphs that the
equation 2 cos x - 3x + 5 = 0 has only
15. Prove that the function h defined by one real root.
h(x) = -2x3 + 8x2 - 6 = 0 has three zeros in (b) Hence, find the interval where the
the open interval (-3, 7). root lies.

16. (a) Show by sketching graphs that the 24. (a) Show by sketching graphs that the
equation e 2 + 4x -5 = 0 has only one equation sin 2x + 7x -2 = 0 has only
real root. one real root.
(b) Hence, find the interval where the (b) Hence, find the interval where the
root lies. root lies.
25. (a) Show by sketching graphs that the
17. (a) Show by sketching graphs that the equation cos 2x + 6x - 1 = 0 has only
equation e - 2x -7=0 has two real one real root.
roots. (b) Hence, find the interval where the
(b) Hence, find the intervals where the root lies.
roots lie.
26. (a) Show by sketching graphs that the
18. (a) Show by sketching graphs that the equation e2 ' =4 - x2 has two real roots.
equation e 3x + 2x - 6 = 0 has only one (b) Hence, find the intervals where the
real root. roots lie.
 Roots of equations

27. (a) Show by sketching graphs that the 29. (a) Show by sketching graphs that the
equation 3 sin x = 1 - 2x2 has two real equation sin x + 3 = 2 In x has only one
roots. real root.
(b) Hence, find the interval where the (b) Hence, find the interval where the
roots lie. root lies.

28. (a) Show by sketching graphs that the 30. (a) Show by sketching graphs that the
equation 2cos x = 3 - x2 has two real equation cos x —2 = 3 In x has only
roots. one real root.
(b) Hence, find the interval where the (b) Hence, find the interval where the
roots lie. root lies.

Interval bisection
Interval bisection is a procedure where successive iterations converge on a root
(solution) that is known to lie within a given interval [a, b]. It is based on the
principles of the intermediate value theorem (IVT) and the midinterval of an
interval. An iteration is a set of instructions that are to be repeated several times.

Suppose that a functionf is continuous and it is known that the equationf(x) = 0 has a real root
within the interval [a, b]. a+b
The midvalue of the initial interval is x =
2
This is the average value of the lower and upper bounds.
The root will now lie within one of the subintervals IL2 b I or [a,
2
j
By successive bisection of each new interval, we get closer and closer to an approximation of
the root. The interval gets narrower and narrower, until it converges to the root.
When the desired degree of accuracy is reached, then the bisection of the interval is terminated.
This is the case when 'a' and 'b' approximate to the same value for a given degree of accuracy.
From the bounds of the last interval we get an approximation for the root in the interval [a, b]
Interval bisection is a two-point method.
Example 6
(a) Show that the cubic equationf(x) = x 3— 5x + 2= 0 has a real root in the closed interval
[-3,-2].
(b) Hence, use interval bisection to find the value of the root correct to
(1) 1 decimal place (ii) 2 decimal places
Solution
(a) The cubic equationf(x) = x 3— 5x + 2 is a polynomial and therefore it is continuous on the
closed interval [-3, —21.
Since f(-3) = (_3)3 - 5(-3) + 2
= -27 + 15 + 2
= —10
MI Pure Mathematics for CAPE

= f(-3)<0
And f(-2) = (-2)- 5(-2) + 2
= -8 + 10 +2
=4
= 0<f(-2)
Thenf(-3) <0 <f(-2), so by the PIT the equationf(x) = 5x +2 has a real root in the
closed interval [-3, -2]. The root is real since it belongs to the set of real numbers R.
. -3+(-2)
(b) (i) The midvalue of the initial
i interval bounds = = -2.5
And f(-2.5) = (-2.5) - 5(-2.5) +2 = -1.125 0
f(-2.5) <0
Then f(-2.5) <0 <f(-2) =[-2.5, -2]
• . -2.5+(-2)
The midvalue of the interval bounds = = -2.25
2
And f(-2.25) = (-2.25) - 5(-2.25) + 2 = 1.8594
= f(-2.25) > 0
Then f(-2.5) <0 <f(-2.25) =[-2.5, -2.251
-2.25+(-2.5)
The nudvalue of the interval bounds = = -2.375
2
And f(-2.375) = (-2.375) - 5(-2.375) + 2 = 0.4785
=> f(-2.375)>0
Then f(-2.5) <0 <f(-2.375) =[-2.5, -2.3751
-2.375+(-2.5)
The midvalue of the interval bounds = = -2.4375
2
And f(-2.437 5) = (-2.437 5)3 -5(-2.437 5) +2 = -0.294 7
= f(-2.437 5) <0
Thenf(-2.437 5) <0 <f(-2.375) = [-2.4375, -2.375]
The lower bound, -2.4375, correct to 1 d.p. = -2.4
The upper bound, -2.375, correct to 1 d.p. = -2.4
Hence, the value of the root correct to 1 decimal place is -2.4.
(ii) The midvalue of the interval bounds = -2.4375+(-2.375)
-2.406
And f(-2.406) = (-2.406) - 5(-2.406) + 2 = 0.102 1
=> f(-2.406) > 0
Thenf(-2.437 5) <0 <f(-2.406) = [-2.4375, -2.4061
The midvalue of the interval bounds = -2.4375+ (-2.406)
2
=-2.422
And f(-2.422) = (-2.422) - 5(-2.422) +2 = -0.0977
f(-2.422)<0
Then f(-2.422) <0 <f(-2.406) = [-2.422, -2.406]
 Roots of equations E3
-2.422+(-2.406)
The midvalue of the interval bounds =
2
= -2.414
And f(-2.414) = (-2.414) - 5(-2.414) + 2= 0.0027
= f(-2.414) > 0
Then f(-2.422) <0 <f(-2.414) =[-2.422, -2.4141
-2.422 + (-2.414)
The midvalue of the interval bounds =
= -2.418
And f(-2.418) = (-2.418) - 5(-2.418) + 2 = -0.0474
= f(-2.418) <0
Then f(-2.418) <0 <f(-2.414) =[- 2.4 18, -2.414]
-2.418 + (-2.414)
The midvalue of the interval bounds
= 2
= -2.416
And f(-2.416) = (-2.416) - 5(-2.416) + 2 = -0.022 3
f(-2.416) <0
Then f(-2.416) <0 <f(-2.414) =[-2.416, -2.4141
-2.416 + (-2.414)
The midvalue of the interval bounds
= 2
= -2.415
And f(-2.415) <0
Then f(-2.415) <0 <f(-2.414) = [-2.415, -2.4141
-2.415+(-2.414)
The midvalue of the interval bounds
= 2
= -2.4145
And f(-2.415) = (-2.415) - 5(-2.415) + 2 = -0.009 8
Then f(-2.415) <0 <f(-2.414) =[-2.415, -2.414]
-2.415+(-2.414)
The midvalue of the interval bounds =
= -2.414 5
And f(-2.414 5) <0
Then f(-2.414 5) <0 <f(-2.414) => [-2.414 5, -2.4141
-2.4145+ (-2.414)
The midvalue of the interval bounds
= 2
= -2.41425
And f(-2.414 25) <0
Then f(-2.414 25) <0 <f(-2.414) =[-2.414 25, -2.4141
The lower bound, -2.4145, correct to 2 d.p. = -2.41
The upper bound, -2.414, correct to 2 d.p. = -2.41
Hence, the value of the root correct to 2 decimal places is -2.41.
Use the interval bisection method to show that the value of this root correct to 3 decimal
places is -2.414.
E[I Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Example 7
(a) Sketch two curves to show that the equation 5e' - 3x2 = 0 has one real root.
(b) Show that the root lies within the interval (-2, 1).
(c) Use the interval bisection method to find this root correct to
(i) 1 decimal place (ii) 2 decimal places
Solution
(a)

From the sketch; the curves have only one point of intersection and therefore only one
real root.
(b) From the sketch; the root lies within the interval (-2, 1).
Algebraic Method
Let f(x) = 5ex - 3x2
Then f(-2) = 5e2 - 3(2)2 = —11.32 = f(-2) <0
And f(1) = 5e1 - 3(1)2 = 10.59 =t> f(1) > 0
Sincef(-2) <0 <f(1) and the curvef(x) = 5ex - 3x 2 is continuous, then the root is real and
lies within (-2, 1).
- I:.x

(c) Let f(x) = 5ex - 3x2

-2+1
The midvalue of the initial interval bounds = 2 = —0.5
And f(-0.5) = 5e05 - 3(_0.5) 2 = 2.282 7
f(-0.5)>0
Then f(-2) <0 <f(-0.5) = [-2, —0.51
The midvalue of the interval bounds = 2 + (_0.5) = —1.25
 Roots of equations CH
And f(-1.25) = 5e' - 3(_1.25)2 = -3.255
f(-1.25)<0
Then f(-1.25) <0 <f(-0.5) = [-1.25, -0.5]
The midvalue of the interval bounds = -1.25+(-0.5) = -0.875
And f(-0.875) = 5e0875 - 3(_0.875)2 = -0.212 6
= f(-0.875) <0
Then f(-0.875) <0 <f(-0.5) = [-0.875,-0.51
The midvalue of the interval bounds = -0.875+(-0.5) =-0.687 5
And f(-0.687 5) = 5e° 6875 - 3(-0.687 5)2 = 1.0962
f(-0.687 5) > 0
Then f(-0.875) <0 <f(-0.687 5) = [-0.875, -0.6875]
The midvalue of the interval bounds = -0.875+(-0.687 5)
= -0.7813
And f(-0.781 3) = 5e 07813 - 3(-0.7813) 2 = 0.4578
f(-0.781 3) > 0
Then f(-0.875) <0 <f(-0.781 3) = [-0.875, -0.78131
-0.875+(-0.7813)
The midvalue of the interval bounds =
= -0.828 2
And f(-0.828 2) = 5e° 8282 - 3(-0.828 2)2 = 0.1264
= f(-0.8282)>0
Then f(-0.875) <0 <f(-0.828 2) = [-0.875, -0.828 2]
-0.875+(-0.828 2)
The midvalue of the interval bounds = = -0.8516
And f(-0.851 6) = 5e 08516 - 3(-0.8516) 2 = -0.0420
= f(-0.851 6) <0
Then f(-0.851 6) <0 <f(-0.828 2) = [-0.8516, -0.828 ]
The midvalue of the interval bounds = -0.851 6±(-0.828 2) = -0.8399
2
And f(-0.839 9) = 5e 08399 -3(-0.839 9)2 = 0.0425
= f(-0.839 9) > 0
Then f(-0.851 61 ) <0 <f(-0.839 9) = [-0.8516, -0.839 9]
The midvalue of the interval bounds = -0.8516+(-0.839 ---0.8458
9)
2
And f(-0.845 8) = 5e 08458 - 3(-0.845 8)2 = -0.000 06
= f(-0.845 8) <0
• Then f(-0.845 8) <0 <f(-0.839 9) = [-0.845 8, -0.839 9]
-0.8458+(-0.839 9)
The midvalue of the bounds = =-0.842 9
2
And f(-0.842 9) = 5e -0-842 9 - 3(-0.842 9)2 = 0.020 9
f(-0.842 9) > 0
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Then f(-0.845 8) <0 <f(-0.842 9) = [-0.845 8, -0.842 9]

The midvalue of the bounds = -0.8458 ±(-0.842 9) -0.8444
And f(-0.844 4) = 5e 084 - 3(-0.844 4)2 = 0.010 0
= f(-0.844 4) > 0
Then f(-0.845 8) <0 <f(-0.844 4) = [-0.845 8, -0.8444]
-0.8458+(-0.844 4)
The midvalue of the bounds = = -0.845 1
2
And f(-0.845 1) = 5e° 8451 - 3(-0.845 1)2 = 0.005 0
f(-0.8451)>0
• Then f(-0.845 8) <0 <f(-0.845 1) = [-0.845 8, -0.845 1]
(i) Since f(-0.845 8) < 0 <f(-0.839 9)
The lower bound, -0.845 8, correct to 1 d.p. = -0.8
The upper bound, -0.839 9, correct to 1 d.p. = -0.8
Hence, the value of the root correct to 1 decimal place is -0.8.
(ii) Since [-0.845 8, -0.845 1].
The lower bound, -0.845 8, correct to 2 d.p. = -0.85
The upper bound, -0.845 1, correct to 2 d.p. = -0.85
Hence, the value of the root correct to 2 decimal places is -0.85.
Show that the value of this root correct to 3 decimal places is -0.846.

Exercise 7b

1. (a) Show that the quadratic equation 3x 2- 6x + 2 = 0 has a real root in the closed interval
(1) [0, 0.5] (ii) [1.5, 2]
(b) Hence, use interval bisection to find the value of each root correct to
(i) 1 decimal place (ii) 2 decimal places.
2. (a) Show that the cubic equationf(x) = 4x 3 - 8x2 - 3x has a real root in the interval
(i) [-1, -0.51 (ii) [0, 0.5] (iii) [2, 2.5]
(b) Hence, use interval bisection to find the value of each root correct to
(1) 1 decimal place (ii) 2 decimal places

3. (a) Show that the exponential equation 5e2x - 4x - 8 = 0 has a real root in the interval
(i) [-2, -1.51 (ii) [0, 1]
(b) Hence, use interval bisection to find the value of each root correct to
(i) 1 decimal point (ii) 2 decimal points

4. (a) Show that the logarithmic equation 5 in x - 3x + 7 =0 has a real root in the interval
(i) [0, 0.51 (ii) [5, 5.51
 Roots of equations

(b) Hence, use interval bisection to find the value of the root correct to
(i) 1 decimal place (ii) 2 decimal places

5. (a) Show that the trigonometric equation 3 sin x - 4x + 5 = 0 has a real root in the interval
[1.5, 2.5].
(b) Hence, use interval bisection to find the value of the root correct to
(i) 1 decimal place (ii) 2 decimal place

6. (a) Sketch two curves to show that the equation 4ex + 2x 2 - 5 = 0 has two real roots
(b) Show that the roots lie within the intervals (-2, —1) and (0, 1)
(c) Use the interval bisection method to find each root correct to
(1) 1 decimal place (ii) 2 decimal places

7. (a) Sketch two curves to show that the equation 3 in 2x + 2x 2 - 1 = 0 has one real root.
(b) Show that the root lies within the interval (0, 1).
(c) Use the interval bisection method to find this root correct to
(i) 1 decimal place (ii) 2 decimal places

8. (a) Sketch two curves to show that the equation 4 sin 2x + 2x 3 - 7= 0 has one real root.
(b) Show that the root lies within the interval (1, 2).
(c) Use the interval bisection method to find this root correct to
(i) 1 decimal place (ii) 2 decimal places

9. (a) Sketch two curves to show that the equation 5 cos 2x - 2x 3 + 6 = 0 has one real root.
(b) Show that the root lies within the interval (1.5, 2).
(c) Use the interval bisection method to find this root correct to
(i) 1 decimal place (ii) 2 decimal places

10. (a) Sketch two curves to show that the equation 2 e x + 3 In x = 0 has one real root.
(b) Show that the root lies within the interval (0, 1).
(c) Use the interval bisection method to find this root correct to
(i) 1 decimal place (ii) 2 decimal places.

Linear interpolation
Linear interpolation is an iterative process that is used to find the value of
a function that lies between two known values with the assumption that
three points lie on a straight line.

Consider a function f which is represented by a continuous curve y = f(x). It is given that the
equationf(x) = 0 has a root a that lies between x = a and x = b.
 I Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Since the curve is continuous and f(a) <0 while f(b) > 0, then f(a) < 0 <f(b), so a root a lies
between [a, b] according to the IVT.
The lower bound a defines a point (a, f(a)) and the upper bound b defines a point (b, f(b)) on
the curve y =f(x).
Assuming that the points (a,f(a)), a and (b,f(b)) lie on a straight line, then two triangles which
are similar are formed as shown in the diagram.
The lengths of the vertical sides of the triangles at points a and b are If(a)I and If(b)
respectively.
From the similar triangles:
f(a)j If(b)l
-

a'— a - b - a'
So If(a)I(b — a)= If(b)l(a— a)
i.e. b f(a)I -alf(a)I =a Iflb)l - a f(b)I
af(b) +blf(a)I =alf(a)I +aIf(b)
=> a f(b)I + b If(a)I = a( If(a)I + Jf(b)J)
a=alf(b)I +bf(a)l
+ If(b)
Where a = x1 is the first approximation for the root a. This formula is known as the linear
interpolation formula.
The process can be repeated several times (a number of iterations calculated) until the desired
accuracy for the root is obtained.
This method is a convergence method and it is similar to the interval bisection method,
however it will most likely converge quicker than the interval bisection method.
Example 8
(a) Show that the cubic equation x3 - 5x + 2 = 0 has a real root in the interval [-3, —2]
(b) Hence, use linear interpolation to find the value of the root correct to
(i) 1 decimal place (ii) 2 decimal places
Solution
(a) Given f(x) = x 3 - 5x + 2
Then f(-3) = (_3)3 - 5(-3) + 2
 Roots of equations IM
= -27+ 15 +2
=-10
So f(-3)<0
And If(-3)1 = 10
Also f(-2) = (-2) - 5(-2)+2
= -8 + 10+2
=4
So
And If( -2 )I= 4
Sincef(x) is a continuous function and fl-3) <0 <f(-2), then by the IVT there exists a
root in the interval [-3, -2]
(b) (1) Using the linear interpolating formula:
alf(b)I+bIf(a)
- f(a)l+If(b)l
where [a, b] = [-3, -21, If(a)I = If(-3)1 =10 and If(b)I = f( - 2)1 =4
=
Then x 1 —3If(-2)H(-2)f(-3)l
f(-3)l + lf( -2)
= -3(4)-2(10)
10±4
-12-20
14
-32
14
.. the first approximation, x 1 = -2.285 7
And f(-2.285 7) = (-2.285 7)3 - 5(-2.285 7) + 2
-1.4870
f( - 2.285 7)1 = 1.4870
So f(-2.2857) > 0
f(-3) <0 <f(-2.285 7) = [-3,-2.285 71

Then
-3 f(-2.285 )I + (-2.2857) f(-)I
f(—)l + f(-2.285 )I
X2

- -3(1.487 0)- 2.285 7(10)

10+1.4870
- -27.318
- 11.487
the second approximation, x 2 = - 2.3782
And f(-2.378 2) = (-2.378 2) - 5(-2.378 2) + 2
=0.4403
lf( -2 .378 2)1 = 0.4403
So f(-2.378 2) > 0
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

f(-3) <0 <f(-2.378 2) = [-3, —2.3782]

Then x3
-
-3 If (-2.378 2 )I + (-2.378 2 )If(-3 )I
-
If (-3)1 + f(-2.378 2)1
- —3(0.440 3)— 2.378 2(10)
- 10+0.4403
.. the third approximation, x 3 = —2.4044
The second approximation, x2 = — 2.3782, correct to 1 decimal place is —2.4.
The third approximation, x3 = —2.4044, correct to 1 decimal place is —2.4.
Thus —2.4044 < a < —2.3782
And the value of the root correct to 1 decimal place is a = 2.4.
(ii) And f(-2.404 4) = (-2.404 4)3 - 5(-2.404 4) + 2
= 0.1218
=> If(-2.404 4)1 = 0.1218
So f(-2.404 4) > 0
f(-3) <0 <f(-2.404 4) = [-3, —2.4044]
If (-2.404 4)1+ (-2.4044) If (- 3 )1
Then X4 =
If (-3 )1 + If (-2.404 )I
- —3(0.1218) — 2.404 4(10)
- 10+0.1218
the fourth approximation, x4 = — 2.4116
And f(-2.411 6) = (-2.4116) 3 - 5(-2.4116) + 2
= 0.032 6
If(-2.411 6)1 = 0.032 6
So f(-2.411 6) > 0
f(-3) <0 <f(-2.411 6) = [-3, —2.4116]
- -3 If (-2.4116)1+ (-2.4116) If-SI
Then x5
- If (-)IIf (-2.4116)1
—3(0.032 6)— 2.411 6(10)
10+0.0326
the fifth approximation, x 5 = — 2.4135
The fourth approximation, x 4 = — 2.4116, correct to 2 decimal places is —2.41.
The fifth approximation, x5 = — 2.413 5, correct to 2 decimal places is —2.41.
Thus —2.4135 < a < —2.4116.
And the value of the root correct to 2 decimal places is a = —2.41.
Use linear interpolation to show that the value of this root correct to 3 decimal places
is —2.414.
Example 9
(a) Show that the equation 5ex - 3x 2 = 0 has a root in the interval (-2, 1).
(b) Use linear interpolation to find this root correct to
(i) 1 decimal place (ii) 2 decimal places
 Roots of equations go
Solution
(a) Given f(x) = 5e' - 3x2
Then f(-2) = 5e2 - 3(_2)2 = -11.3233
So f(-2) <0
And If(-2)1 = 11.3233
Also f(1) = 5e1 - 3(1)2 = 10.5914
So f(1)>0
And f(1)I = 10.5914
Sincef(x) is a continuous function andf(-2) <0 <f(1), then by the PIT there exists a root
in the interval [-2, 1].
(b) (1) Using the linear interpolation formula.
a lf(b)l + b If(a)l
- lf(a)l + lf(b)l
where [a, b] = [-2 1 1], lf(a)l = f(-2)1 = 11.323 3 and f(b)l = If(1)l = 10.5914.
Then
1
x = —2 1f(1 )I+ If(-2)1
If (-2)1 + If( 1 )I
- -2(10.5914) + 1(11.323 3)
- 11.3233+10.5914
.. the first approximation, x 1 = -0.4410
And f(-0.441 0) = 5e 010 -3(-0.4410) 2 = 2.633 5
= f(-0.441 0)1 = 2.633 5
So f(-0.441 0) > 0
f(-2) <0 <f(-0.441 0) =* [-2, -0.4410]
-2 If (-0.4410)1+ (-0.4410) lf(-2)I
Then x2
If (-2)1 + If (-0.441 0)1
- -2(2.633 5)- 0.4410(11.323 3)
- 11.3233+2.6335
the second approximation, x 2 = -0.7352
And f(-0.735 2) = 5e °7352 -3(-0.735 2)2 = 0.7755
= f(- 0.735 2)1 = 0.7755
So f(-0.735 2) > 0
f(-2) <0 <f(-0.735 2) = [-2, -0.735 2]
Then x = —2 1f(-0.735 2 )l+(-0.735 2 )If( -2 )1
If (-2)1 + lf(-°• 2)1
- -2(0.775 5)-0.735 2(11.3233)
- 11.3233+0.7755
.. the third approximation, x 3 = -0.816 3
And f(-0.816 3) = 5e °8163 -3(-0.816 3)2 = 0.2113
= If(-0.816 3)1 = 0.2113
So f(-0.816 3) > 0
IM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

f(-2) <0 <f(-0.816 3) = [-2, -0.816 3]

- -2 If(-0 .816 3 )I +(-0.816 )If( -
Then x4
- + If (-0.816 )I
- -2(0.2113) - 0.816 3(11.323 3)
- 11.3233+0.2113
.. the fourth approximation, x4 = -0.838 0
The third approximation, x 3 = -0.816 3, correct to 1 decimal place is -0.8.
The fourth approximation, x 4 = -0.838 0, correct to 1 decimal place is -0.8.
Thus -0.838 0 < a < -0.8163
And the value of the root correct to 1 decimal place is a = -0.8.
(ii) And f(-0.838 0) = 5e 18381 - 3(-0.838 0)2 = 0.0561
f(-0.838 O)j = 0.056 1
So f(-0.838 0) = > 0
f(-2) <0 <f(-0.838 0) = [-2, -0.838 0]
2 If(-0.838 0)1+ (-0.8380) If(-2)I
Then X5 = -
f(-2)I + If (-0.838 0)1
- -2(0.056 1)-0.838 0(11.3233)
- 11.3233+0.0561
the fifth approximation, x 5 = -0.843 7
The fourth approximation, x 4 = -0.838 0, correct to 2 decimal places is -0.84.
The fifth approximation, x5 = -0.843 7, correct to 2 decimal places is -0.84.
Thus -0.843 7< a < -0.838 0.
And the value of the root correct to 2 decimal places is a = -0.84.
Let us consider two more iterations.
And f(-0.843 7) = 5e° 8437 -3(-0.843 7)2 = 0.015 1
f(-0.843 7)1 = 0.015 1
So f(-0.843 7) > 0
f(-2) <0 <f(-0.843 7) = [-2, -0.843 7]
- 2(-0.015 1)- (-0.843 7)(11.323 3)
Thenen X6
11.3233+0.0151
the sixth approximation, x 6 = - 0.845 2
And f(-0.845 2) = 5e 08452 -3(-0.845 2)2 = 0.0043
==> f(-0.845 2)1 = 0.0043
So f(-0.845 2) > 0
f(-2) <0 <f(-0.845 2) = [-2, -0.8452]
2(-0.004 3) - 0.845 2(11.323 3)
Then X7 = -
11.3233+0.0043
the seventh approximation, x 7 = -0.845 6
The sixth approximation, x 6 = -0.8452, correct to 2 decimal places is -0.85.
The seventh approximation, x 7 = -0.845 6, correct to 2 decimal places is -0.85.
Thus -0.845 6 < a < -0.845 2
And the value of the root correct to 2 decimal places is a = -0.85.
 Roots of equations IM

This is a more accurate value of a to 2 decimal places.

Use linear interpolation to show that the value of this root correct to decimal places
is —0.846.
Note: It can be noted that the interval bisection method which is based on the
bisection of an interval and linear interpolation which is based on direct proportion both
generate sequences which converge to the roots of an equationf(x) = 0, but they involve
a lot of repetetive work to obtain a given degree of accuracy.

Exercise 7c

1. (a) Show that the quadratic equationf(x) = 4x 2 - 7x + 1 = 0 has a real root in the interval
(i) [-0.5, 0.5] (ii) [1.5, 2]
(b) Hence, use linear interpolation to find the value of each root correct to
(1) 1 decimal place (ii) 2 decimal places
2. (a) Show that the quadratic equationf(x) = —3x 2 2x +5 = 0 has a real root in the interval
-

[-2.5, —1.51
(b) Hence, use linear interpolation to find the value of the root correct to
(i) 1 decimal place (ii) 2 decimal places
3. (a) Show that the exponential equation e' + 2x + 5 = 0 has a real root in the interval
[-3, —2].
(b) Hence, use linear interpolation to find the value of the root correct to
(i) 1 decimal place (ii) 2 decimal places
4. (a) Show that the logarithmic equation 2 In x + 3x 4 = 0 has a real root in the interval
[1,1.51.
(b) Hence, use linear interpolation to find the value of the root correct to
(i) 1 decimal place (ii) 2 decimal places
5. (a) Show that the trigonometric equation 2sin x —3x + 7=0 has a real root in the interval
[2,3].
(b) Hence, use linear interpolation to find the value of the root correct to
(i) 1 decimal place (ii) 2 decimal places

6. (a) Show that the equation 2ex + x2 —3 = 0 has a root in the interval
(i) (-2, —1) (ii) (-0.5, 0.5)
(b) Hence, use linear interpolation to find the value of the root correct to
(1) 1 decimal place (ii) 2 decimal places

7. (a) Show that the equation 2 in x + x2 —5 = 0 has a root in the interval (1, 3).
(b) Hence, use linear interpolation to find the value of the root correct to
(i) 1 decimal place (ii) 2 decimal places
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

8. (a) Show that the equation 3 sin x - x 3 + 4= 0 has a root in the interval (1.5, 2).
(b) Hence, use linear interpolation to find the value of the root correct to
(i) 1 decimal place (ii) 2 decimal places

9. (a) Show that the equation 4 cos x - x 3 + 2 = 0 has a root in the interval (1, 1.5).
(b) Hence, use linear interpolation to find the value of the root correct to
(i) 1 decimal place (ii) 2 decimal places

10. (a) Show that the equation 3e" + 2 in x - 1 = 0 has a root in the interval (0, 1).
(b) Hence, use linear interpolation to find the value of the root correct to
(i) 1 decimal place (ii) 2 decimal places

Newton-Raphson method
The Newton-Raphson method is an iterative method based on tangents
which are used to find an approximation to the root of a function.

The Newton-Raphson method (iteration) is based on the idea of drawing tangents to a curve
y = f(x) in such a way that each new tangent gets closer to an approximation of the root of the
equationf(x) = 0.
-

Consider a continuous curve y =f(x) where the functionf is differentiable.

Let a root of the equationf(x) = 0 be a.
If x1 is a first approximation to a, then draw a tangent to the curve at the point (x 1,f(x 1)) to cut
the x - axis at x 2 .
In this construct, x2 is a better approximation to a than x 1
Choose two points on the tangent, P(x1,f(x 1)) and L(x 2, 0)
Then the gradient of the tangent LP in = Y2 -
X 2 - x1
= f(x 1 )-0
X 1 -- x2
 Roots of equations go
= So f'(x1)= f(x1)
X1 -X2
i.e.f'(x1)(x1 - x2 ) = f(x 1 )
f(x)
1 2
f'(x1)
f(x t )
x=x-
2 1
f'(x1)
f(x 2 )
= x=x-
3 2
f'(x2)
This gives us the general iteration formula
f(x)
xfl+ =xfl - where nE N.
f'(x1)
This is known as the Newton-Raphson formula.
This iteration formula can be used several times until the desired accuracy for the root a is
obtained.
Each iteration gives a better approximation to the root a.
The second approximation x 2 is more accurate to the root a, than x1
The third approximation x3 is more accurate to the root a, than x 2
The fourth approximation x4 is more accurate to the root a, than x 3 .
Y y=f(x)

/ Tangent 1

P(xi , fix1 ))
Tangent 2
Tangent 3
Q(x1,
P(x3, f(x3 ))
f(x)=O
o X4 x3 x2 x1

• The Newton-Raphson iteration formula can be used to find successive approximations to

the roots of a continuous functionf(x) wheref(x) = 0 andf is differentiable.
• For each continuous functionf(x) the iteration will always converge for any initial
approximation x 1 , providedf'(x 1) # 0.
• For a function with more than one root, it may not be possible to predict which root will be
found. The iteration may converge towards any of the roots.
• For a function with turning points and one root a large number of iterations may have to
be performed before the iteration converges towards the root.
Newton-Raphson iteration is a one-point method.
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

-Example 1Oii
A function is given byf(x) = x 3 + 7x -3.
(a) Show that the equationf(x) = 0 has one root in the interval [0, 1].
(b) Use the Newton-Raphson formula to find the root of f(x) = 0 using the initial
approximation as
(i) 0 (ii) 1 (iii) -1
- Solution
(a) Given f(x) = x3 + 7x - 3
Then f(0) = o + 7(0) - 3 = -3 = f(0) <0
And f(1)=13 +7(1)-3=5 = f(1)>0
Sof(0) <0 <f(1) and the functionf(x) is continuous, therefore a root exists in the interval
[0, 1] according to the PIT.
(b) (i) Given f(x) = x3 + 7x - 3 = f(x) = x + 7x - 3
Then f'(x) = 3x2 +7 = f'(x) = 3x + 7
By the Newton-Raphson formula:
f(x)
= - f'(x)
x+7x-3
Then Xfl1 X
- 3x +7
f(x1)
And X2_X 1 f()

X +7x1 -3
=1
3x+7
Given x1 = 0
Then x2 = --_=-= 0.428 571

And
f'(x2 )
x+7x-3
= 2
3x+7
When x2 = 0.428 571
0.428 571 - 0.428 571 +7(0.428 571) -3
Then x3
3(0.428571) 2 + 7
=0.418 147
f(x3)
And
f'(x 4 )
x+7x3 -3
= 3
3x32 +7
When x3 =0.418 147
 Roots of equations IM
- 0.418 147 3 +7(0.418147)-3
Then x4 = 0.418 147
3(0.418 147)+7
= 0.418 128
Since x3 = 0.418 147 = 0.418 1 correct to 4 decimal places.
And x4 = 0.418 128 = 0.418 1 correct to 4 decimal places.
Then the root of f(x) = 0 is a = 0.4181 correct to 4 decimal places.
(ii) Given x1 = 1
13 +7(l)-3
Then x2 = 1
- 3(1)2 +7
_1
2
=0.5
When x2 =0.5
0.53 -i-7(0.5)-3
Then x3=0.5—
3(0.5)2+7
=0.419 355
When x3 = 0.419 355
0.419 3553 +7(0.419 355)— 3
Then x4 = 0.419 355
- 3(0.419 355)2+ 7
= 0.418 129
Here we can state the root a = 0.42 correct to 2 decimal places.
When x4 =0.418129
- 0.418 129 +7(0.418 129)— 3
Then x5 = 0.418 129
3(0.418 129)2+ 7
= 0.418 128
Since x4 = 0.418 129 = 0.418 13 correct to 5 decimal places.
And x5 = 0.418 128 = 0.418 13 correct to 5 decimal places.
Then the root of f(x) = 0 is a = 0.418 13 correct to 5 decimal places.
(iii) Given x1 = —1
(_1) 3 +7(—l)-3
Then x2 = —1 -
3(_1)2 +7
_1
_10
=0.1
When x2 =0.1
0.1+7(0.1)— 3
Then x3=0.1— 3(0.1)2+7
= 0.427027
When x3 = 0.427 027
tIiI Pure Mathematics for CAPE

x4=0.427027 - (0.427 027) 3 +7(0.427 027)-3

Then
3(0.427 02 7)2 +7
= 0.418 142
When x4 =0.418 142
=0.418 142 - (0.418 142) +7(0.418142)-3
Then x5
3(0.418 142)+7
= 0.418 128
Since x4 = 0.418 142 = 0.418 1 correct to 4 decimal places.
And x4 = 0.418 128 = 0.418 1 correct to 4 decimal places.
Then the root of f(x) = 0 is a = 0.418 1 correct to 4 decimal places.
Alternative Method
(b) (i) Given f(x) = x3 + 7x - 3
Then f(x) = x + 7x - 3
And f(X) = 3x2 +7
So f(x) = 3x 2 +7
By the Newton-Raphson formula:
f(x )
X "+ ,=
Xfl

- f'(x)
- x+7x-3
X fl
3X2 +7
- x(3x+7)—(x+7x-3)
- 3X2 +7
- 3x+7x—x-7x+3
- 3X2 +7
2x+3
= 3X2 +7

2X3 +3
Then
3X2 +7
Given x1 = 0
Then x2 = = 0.428 571
2X 3 +3
And
3X2 +7
- 2(0.428 571) +3
- 3(0 .428571)2 + 7
= 0.418 147
 Roots of equations IM
2(0.418 147) 3 +3
So X4
3(0.418147)2+7
= 0.418 128
It follows that a = 0.418 1 correct to 4 decimal places.
(ii) Given x1 = 1
2(1) 3 +3
Then X2 = 32

_1
2
=0.5
2(0.5)+ 3
And X33(0)27

= 0.419 355
2(0.419 355)3 +3
So -4- 3(0.419355)2+7

= 0.418 129
Here we can state the root a = 0.42 correct to 2 decimal places.
2(0.418 129) + 3
i.e. X5
3(0.418 129) 3 +7
= 0.418 128
It follows that a = 0.418 1 correct to 4 decimal places.
(iii) Given x1 = —1
2(-1) + 3
Then
-2-3(_1)2+7
_1
10
= 0.1
2(0.1) + 3
And X3 = 2

= 0.427 027
2(0.427 027) + 3
So -4-
3(0.427 027)2+ 7
= 0.418 142
2(0.418 142) + 5
i.e. x5=
3(0.418142)2+7
= 0.418 128
It follows that a = 0.418 1 correct to 4 decimal places.
IM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

- Example 11
A function is given byf(x) = 2x + cos x - 5. Use the Newton-Raphson iteration to find the root
of f(x) = 0 correct to 5 decimal places using an initial approximation of x = 2.5
- Solution
Given f(x)=2x+ COS x-5 = f(x) = 2x + cos x - 5
Then f'(x) =2- sin x f'(x) = 2 - sin x
By the Newton-Raphson iteration:
- f(x)
X fl1 Xfl

f'(x)
2x + COS x -5
Then x11 =x-
2- sin x
And

2x1+cosx1-5
= Xi-
2- sin x1
Given x1 = 2.5
X2=2.5- 2(2.5) + cos(2.5) -5
Then
2- sin 2.5
= 3.07162

And
f'(x 2 )
= 2 2x2+cosx2-5
2- sin x2
When x2 = 3.07162
X3=3.07162- 2(3.071 62) + cos(3.071 62)- 5
Then
2 - sin 3.07162
= 2.996 14
X3— f(x3)
And X4 = f()

2x3 +cosx3 -5
X3
2—sin;
When x3 = 2.99614
2(2.996 14) + cos(2.996 14)- 5
Then X 4 =2.99614-
2- sin(2.996 14)
= 2.994 61
When x4 = 2.994 61
 Roots of equations Im
Then x5=2.99461— 2(2.994 61) + cos(2.994 61)-5
2— sin(2.994 61)
=2.99461
Hence, the root of f(x) = 0 is a = 2.994 61 correct to 5 decimal places.
Alternative Method
Given f(x) = 2x + cos x —5
Then f(x) = 2 x + cos x - 5
And f'(x)=2— sin x
So f'(x) = 2 - sin x
By the Newton-Raphson iteration:
f(x)
Xfl1Xfl

f'(x)
2; + cos x —5
--
2—sin;
= x(2—sinx)—(2x+cosx-5)
2—sin x
= 2x—xsinx-2x—cosx+5
2—sin;
—xsinx—cosx-i-5
2—sin;
—xi sin x1 — COS x1 +5
Then X2 =
2—sin x1
Given x1 = 2.5
—2.5 sin(2.5) - cos(2.5) + 5
Then x2 =
2— sm(2.5)
=3.071 62
x = —x2 sin x2 - cos x2 +5
And
2— sin x2
- —3.07162 sin(3.071 62)— cos(3.071 62) + 5
- 2 — sin(3.071 62)
=2.996 14
—2.99614 sin(2.996 14)— cos(2.996 14) + 5
So X4=
2— sin(2.996 14)
= 2.994 61
Also x5= —2.99461 sin(2.994 61) - cos(2.994 61) + 5
2— sm(2.994 61)
= 2.994 61
- Hence, the root of f(x) = 0 is a = 2.994 61 correct to 5 decimal places.
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Example 12
(a) Use a sketch to show that the equation & = 4x + 6 has two real roots.
(b) Use the Newton-Raphson iteration formula three times to find an approximate value of
each root.
(c) State with reasons, the accuracy of each approximation.
Solution
(a)

Given the equation ex = 4x + 6

Then ex_4x_6=0
Let f(x )__ ex_4x_6
A sketch of f(x) = e' - 4x - 6 is shown above.
Clearly, from the sketch, the equation e' = 4x + 6 has two real roots.
The smaller root lies within the interval [-2, -1].
The larger root lies within the interval [2, 3].
-2 1)
(b) set the first approximation for the smaller root, x1= = -1.5
Given f(x) = e' - 4x - 6
Then f(x) = e' - 4x - 6
And f'(x)= ex_4
So f'(x) = e - 4
Using the Newton-Raphson iteration formula:
—x f(x)
n+1 n ,
f(x)
Then X2= x1 -

15 - 4(-1.5)-6
--1.5 e
- e15-4
=-1.44092
1°92 -4(-1.440 92)-6
X3 = - 1.44092 - e e-1.44092 -4
= -1.440 82
 Roots of equations f Nil

e-1.44082 - 4(-1.440 82) —6

And x4 = — 1.440 82—
e1°82-4
= —1.440 82
= 2 +3
Let the first approximation for the larger root, x1 = 2.5
Using the Newton-Raphson iteration formula:
xn+1—x
fl f(x)
f'(x)
e' —4x-6
=x -________
e x4
e25 -4(2 5'-6
Then X 2 =2.5— •/
e25 -4
=2.96655
e296655 - 4(2.966 55)-6
X =2.96655 -
e296655 —4
= 2.865 51
e286551 - 4(2.865 51)-6
And x4 =2.86551-
e28655' - 4
= 2.858 43
(c) Since x3 = — 1.440 82 and x4 = — 1.440 82, then the smaller root is —1.440 82 correct to 5
decimal places.
Since x3 = 2.86551 z 2.9 and x4 = 2.85843 2.9, then the larger root is 2.9 correct to 1
decimal place.
Alternative Method
(b) Using the Newton-Raphson iteration formula:
- f(x)
Xfl1Xfl
f'(x)
e'"-4x —6
Then x 1 =x-
ex" 4
x (ex_4)_(ex_4x _6)
-

xex —4;—e X +4; +6

ex 4
- xe x_ er ± 6
- ex_4
LNI Pure Mathematics for CAPE

x e - e+6
So 2
ex, _4
- —1.5e5—e5+6 when x1 = — 1.5
- e 5 -4
= —1.44092
—1.440 92e 44092 - &l44092 +6
-

e -144092 —4
= —1.440 82
—1.440 82e 44082 — e' 44082 + 6
And x4 = &144082 _4
= —1.440 82
Hence, the smaller root is —1.440 82 correct to 5 decimal places.
- xe—e+6
Since Xfl•f1
e-4
2.5e25 - e25 +6
Then X2 when x=2.5
e25-4
= 2.966 55
2.966 55e296655 — e296655 + 6
e296655 — 4
= 2.865 51
2.865 51e286551 - e286551 +6
And x4 =
e28655' —4
= 2.858 43
Hence, the larger root is 2.9 correct to 2 decimal places.
Example 13'&F3
The equation ln(x + 3) = 2x3 - 4 has a root in the unit interval [1,2]
Use Newton-Raphson iteration with a suitable initial approximation to find this root of the
equation correct to 5 significant figures.
Solution
Given ln(x + 3) = 2x3 - 4
Then ln(x + 3) — 2x 3 + 4 = 0
Let f(x)=ln(x+3)-2x3 ±4
So f(x)=1n(x+3)-2x+4
And f'(x) = 1 - 6x2
x+3
 Roots of equations Im
So f'(x)= -6x
x+3
By the Newton-Raphson iteration:
f(x)
X 1 = X1
- f'(x)
1n(x+3)-2x+4
Then x1=x—
1 -6x2
x+3
Let the initial approximation, x1 = = 1.5
2
ln(1 .5 + 3) - 2(1.5)3 +4
So x2=1.5-
1 - 6(1 .5)2
1.5+3
- 2(1.5) 3 +4
= 1.5- In 4.5
4.5 - 6(1.5)
= 1.406 16
ln(1.406 16+3)-2(1.406 16)3 +4
x3=1.40616-
1
- 6(1.406 16)2
1.40616+3
ln(4.406 16)-2(1.406 16) 3 +4
= 1.406 16-
1
---6(1.406 16)22
6(l.40616)
4.40616
= 1.399 48
X4=1.39948 ln(1.399 48 + 3)-2(1.399 48)+ 4
-6(1.399 48)2
1.39948+3
= 1.399 48- ln(4.399 48)-2(1.399 48)+4
- 6(1.399 48)2
4.399 48
=1.39945
Hence, the root in the unit interval [1, 2] is 1.399 5 correct to 5 significant figures.
Alternative Method
Given ln(x + 3) = 2x3 -4
Then lri(x+3)-2x3 +4=0
Let f(x) = ln(x + 3) - 2x3 + 4
So f(x)=1n(x+3)-2x+4
IM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

And f'(x) = 1 - 6x2

x+3
1 62
So f'(x) =
x+3
—1-6 X n (X n + 3 )

xn + 5
= 1-6x-18x
x +3
By the NewtonRaphson iteration:
f(x)
Xfl1Xfl
f'(x)
- 1n(x+3)-2x+4
Xfl
1-6x-18x
x +3
x+3
=x _[in(x +3)_2x+4]I
n
1-6x-18x
- x(1-6x —18x)—[1n(x+3)-2x+4][x+3]
- 1-6X 3 -18x
- x-6x-18x_[x +12]
- 1-6X 3 -18x
- —6x —18x +x —x1n(x+3)-31n(x+3)+2x+6x-4x-12
- 1-18x-6x
-

- 1-18x--6x
Let the initial approximation x1 =2 = 1.5
x —(1.5 + 3)]n(1.5 + 3)— 4(1.5) 4 _ 12(1.5)— 3(1.5)— 12
So 2- 1_18(1.5)2_6(1.5)3
= 1.406 16
- —(1.406_16 + 3)ln(1.40616 + 3)— 4(1.40616)— 12(1.40616) 3- 3(l.40616)-12
X3=
1-18(l.40616) 2 —6(1.406 16)
= 1.399 48
- —(1.399 48+3)ln(1.399 48+3)-4(1.399 48)-12(1.399 48) 3 —3(1.399 48)-12
And X4=
1-18(1.399 48)2_6(1.399 48)
= 1.399 45
- Hence, the root is 1.399 5 correct to 5 significant figures.
 Roots of equations LNI

CDo Working of the Newton-Raphson method

In Sir Isaac Newton's study of astronomy he needed to solve trigonometric functions of the form
f(x) =0. Newton developed an algebraic algorithm which was difficult to understand and use.
Joseph Raphson became familiar with Newton's work and he developed the general method
and geometric approach with tangents. However, he only found the real roots of polynomial
equations.
The Newton-Raphson method shows the relationship between algebra, in solving equations
of the formf(x) = 0 and geometry, finding tangents to the graph of y =f(x).
Only an approximate value is found for a root, but we can calculate this value to a high degree
of accuracy.
In general, the method will solve an equation of the formf(x) = 0, for the solution nearest to
an initial approximation of the root.
f(x)
We know the iteration formula x +1
=x -
f'(x)
f(x)
and we can write g(x) = x -
f'(x)
That is g(x) = x
The method that we use is called iteration and the function g(x) which computers the iterations
is called the iterator.
Each iteration generates a root with a greater degree of accuracy. When two consecutive
iterations are equal, then the iterative process is terminated.
The Newton-Raphson method may be derived from Taylor's series.
The Newton-Raphson method may terminate due to a number of reasons
• If the first derivative is not well behaved in the neighbourhood of a root, then divergence
may occur.
• At a stationary pointf'(x) = o so due to division by zero the method will terminate.
• The interval bisection method is called a bracketing method because of the necessary
bisecting of an interval. This method will always converge.
Newton-Raphson method is an open method. The convergence of an open method is not
guaranteed, but if it is, then it will converge faster than a bracketing method.
• If the initial approximation is close to an inflexion point, then the value of the root may
diverge from the actual root and later converge to the actual root.
• In some cases where the functionf(x) is oscillating and more than one root exists, then the
initial approximation may jump and converge to another root instead.
Exercise 7d

1. A function is given byf(x) = x3 + 5x - 4..

(a) Show that the equationf(x) = 0 has (i) (iii) 0
2
one root in the interval [0.5, 1].
2. A function is given byf(x) = x3 - 2x +5.
(b) Use the Newton-Raphson formula to Use the Newton-Raphson iteration to find
find the root of f(x) = 0 using the initial the root of f(x) = 0 correct to 5 decimal
approximation as places using an initial approximation of
x = —2.
 • I Pure Mathematics for CAPE

3. (a) Use a sketch to show that the equation Use Newton-Raphson iteration with a
X3 + 2x2 - 6 = 0 has one real root. suitable approximation to find the root
(b) Use the Newton-Raphson iteration of the equation correct to 6 significant
formula four times to find an figures.
approximate value for the root.
(c) State with reasons, the accuracy of the 10. A function is defined by
approximation. f(x) = 2 sin x — cos x + 5x — 2.
(a) Sketch the graph of y =f(x).
4. The equation x3 = 4x2 + 7 has a root in the (b) Using a suitable approximation,
unit interval [4, 5]. find the root of f(x) = 0, correct to six
Use Newton-Raphson iteration with a significant figures.
suitable approximation to find this root
of the equation correct to 5 significant 11. A function is given byf(x) = 7 x2 - e'.
figures. (a) Show that the equationf(x) = 0 has
one root each in the intervals [-3, —2]
5. A functionf is defined byf(x) = —x3 + 3x2 —9. and [1, 2].
(a) Sketch the graph of y =f(x). (b) Use the Newton-Raphson formula to
(b) Using a suitable initial approximation, find the root of f(x) = 0 using the initial
find the root of f(x) = 0, correct to five approximations as
significant figures. (i) —2.5 (ii) 1.5
6. A function is given byf(x) = 3x + cos x - 2. 12. A function is given byf(x) = xex - x - 2.
(a) Show that the equationf(x) = 0 has Use the Newton-Raphson iteration to find
one root in the interval [-1, 11. the root of = 0 correct to 5 decimal
(b) Use the Newton-Raphson formula to places using the initial approximations of
find the root of f(x) = 0 using the initial x as —2 and 1.
approximation as
(i) —1 (ii) 1 (iii) 0 13. (a) Use a sketch to show that the equation
ex=x2 _ x +2 has one real root.
7. A function is given byf(x) = 2x + sin x —3. (b) Use the Newton-Raphson iterative
Use the Newton-Raphson iteration to find formula three times to find an
the root of f(x) = 0 correct to 5 decimal approximate value for the root.
places using the initial approximation of (c) State with reasons, the accuracy of the
x=1. approximation.
8. (a) Use a sketch to show that the equation 14. The equation + 7= 0 has a root in the
4x - sin x + 5 = 0 has one real root. ex
(b) Use the Newton-Raphson iteration unit interval [-2, —1].
formula two times to find an Use Newton-Raphson iteration with a
approximate value for the root. suitable approximation to find this root
(c) State with reason, the accuracy of the of the equation correct to 6 significant
approximation. figures.

9. The equation 5x - cos x - 3 = 0 has a root 15. A functionf is defined byf(x) = xex - 3.
in the unit interval [0, 1]. (a) Sketch the graph of y =f(x).
 Roots of equations

(b) Using a suitable approximation, (b) Use the Newton-Raphson iteration

find the root of f(x) = 0, correct to six formula three times to find an
significant figures. approximate value for the root.
(c) State with reasons, the accuracy of the
16. A function is given by approximation.
f(x)=1n(1+)+x_2.
19. The equation 5 In x = x - 2 has two roots,
(a) Show that the equationf(x) = 0 has one root each in the unit intervals [0, 1]
one root each in the intervals [0, 0.5] and [15, 1 6].
and [1, 1 .5]. Use Newton-Raphson iteration with a
(b) Use the Newton-Raphson formula suitable approximation in each interval to
to find the root of f(x) = 0 using the find the roots of the equation correct to 6
initial approximations as 0.25 and 1.5 significant figures.
respectively.
20. A functionf is defined by
17. A function is given byf(x) = x In x - x 2 +4. f(x)=x]nx—x-3=0.
Use the Newton-Raphson iteration to find (a) Sketch the graph of y =f(x).
the root off(x) =0 correct to 5 decimal places (b) Using a suitable initial approximation,
using an initial approximation of x =3. find the root of f(x) = 0, correct to six
significant figures.
18. (a) Use a sketch to show that the equation
ln(lOx) = - has one real root.
X

Fixed point iteration

A fixed point iteration (basic iteration method) is based on rearranging an equation of the form
f(x) = 0
and rewriting it in the form
x=g(x).
Then the iteration formula is
+ 1 = g(x)
where g(x) is the iterator.
• An initial approximation of the root a is then chosen from an interval where the root lies.
• Algebraically, the intermediate value theorem can be used to locate the interval and show
the existence of the root.
• Graphically, the point of intersection of the sketches of two graphs, representing the
equation will show the existence of the root and hence locate the interval where the root
lies.
• Finally, the iteration formula can be used successively until the root is found to a specified
degree of accuracy.
• The iterative sequence x1 +1 = g(x 1 ) will converge on a root provided I g'(a) <1.
• I g'(x)l is measure of the rate of convergence.
tEl Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Example 14IJ
(a) Show that the equation x 3 + 5x - 4 = 0 has a root between 0.5 and 1.5.
(b) Derive the iteration formula x +1 =
(c) Use the initial approximation of the root as 1 and ten iterations to find the value of the
root correct to five significant figures.
=
(d) Show that the iterative sequence x +1 converges on the root.

Solution
(a) Let f(x)=x 3 +5x-4
Then f(0.5) = O.S + 5(0.5) - 4 = —1.375 =f(0.5) <0
And f(1.5) = 1.5 + 5(1.5) - 4 = 6.875 =f(1.5) > 0
So f(0.5) <0 <f(1.5) => [0.5, 1.5}
Also the graph of f(x) = + 5x —4 is continuous sincef(x) is a polynomial function.
Hence, by the IVT the equation x3 + 5x - 4 = 0 has a root between 0.5 and 1.5.
(b) Given the equation x 3 + 5x - 4 = 0
Then 5x=4—x3
4 x3
So
5
4— x
the iteration formula is x +1
4 _ X3
(c) Since x1
=
and x1 =1
4-1 3
then x = = —=0.6
5 5
x3 =0.7568
x4 =0.713309
X5 = 0.727 412
x6 =0.723021
x7 =0.724407
X 8 = 0.723 971
x9 = 0.724 108
X10 = 0.724 065
x11 = 0.724 079
x12 =0.724074
x13 =0.724076
x14 =0.724074
and x15 = 0.724 076
The tenth iteration, x 11 = 0.724 079
the root, a= 0.72408 correct to 5 s. f.
Note: Notice that x12 = x14 = 0.724 074
 Roots of equations

and x13 = X15:- 0.724 076

After x11 the value of the root oscillates between 0.724 074 and 0.724 076.
A scientific calculator can be used to perform this repetetive substitution, but first you
will need to enter the formula for g(x11). Read your calculator's manual to find out more,
then use the calculator to help you do the calculations for x +.

(d) since g(x)= 4-x3

= -3x2
then g'(x)

so g(tz)= —3d
2
i.e. g'(0.724 08) = —3(0.724 08)
5
= -0.314 575
I g(0.724 08)1 = 1-0.314 551 <1.
=
Hence the iterative sequence x + 1 converges on the root.

-Example 15
(a) Show that the equation sin x - 2x + 3 = 0 has a root in the interval [1, 3].
sin x,,+3
(b) Derive the iteration formula ;+1=
2
(c) Take 2 as a first approximation to this root and use the given iteration seven times to
find an approximation to this root.
sin x
(d) Show that the iterative sequence x 1= ,, +3 converges on the root.

- Solution
(a) Let f(x)= sin x-2x+3
Then f(1)= sin l-2(1)+3=18415
And f(3) = sin 3 - 2(3) + 3 = —2.858 9
So f(1)>O and f(3)<0
f(3)<0<f(1) and f(1).f(3)<0
Also, the functionf(x) = sin x - 2x + 3 is continuous.
Hence, by the WT the equation sin x - 2x + 3 = 0 has a root in the interval [1, 31.
(b) Given the equation sin x - 2x + 3 = 0
Then 2x = sin x + 3
x= sin x +3
So

the iteration formula is = sinx +3

2
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

sin x +3
,, sin x +3
(c) Since x,, + , (d) Since
= 2 2
and x1 =2 cosx
sin(2)+3195465 then
then x2 2
2 Cosa
so
x3 =1.96361 2
x4 =1.96192 cos(1.962 19)
x5 =1.96224 i.e. g'(1.962 19) =
2
X 6 = 1.962 18
x7 =1.96219 = -0.190 739
X8 = 1.962 19 Ig'(1.962 19)1 = 1-0.1907391 <1,
Then x7 = x8 = 1.962 19 Hence the iterative sequence
..the root, a= 1.962 19 correct to 6 s.f. sin x,, +3
x = ~ 1 converges on the root.
2

-Example 16
(a) Show that the equation e + 2x -7=0 has a root in each of the intervals 1-3, -2] and [3, 41.
-X

(b) Derive the iteration formula x1= 7

(c) Take -2.5 and 3.5 as a first approximation of a root in each interval respectively, find an
approximation for the root where possible.
(d) Show that the iterative sequence x + I= converges on only one root.
Explain why the iterative sequence will not converge on the other root.
- Solution
(a) Let f(x) = e _x + 2x 7-

Then f(-3) = e±3) + 2(-3) 7= 7.085 537

-

And f(-2) = e±2) + 2(-2) 7= -3.610 944

-

So f(-2) <0 <f(-3) and f(-3) .f(-2) <0

Also f(3) = e 3 + 2(3) 7= -0.950 213
-

And f(4) = e 4 + 2(4) 7= 1.018 316

-

So f(3) <0 <f(4) and f(3) .f(4) <0

Also the functionf(x) = el + 2x 7 is continuous.-

Hence, by the IVT the equation e _x + 2x 7= 0 has a root in the interval [-3, -2] and the
-

interval [3,4].
(b) Given the equation e + 2x 7 = 0 -

Then 2x =7_ e_c

X
7
So x=
2
.. the iteration formula X "
+, =
 Roots of equations i$I

7_
7 e_x
(c) Since x 1=
1= y,
y=e-x+2x_7
and x1 = -2.5

then X2= =-2.59125

-10
X3 = -

x5 =-2 315.71
3.173 22
2 ~~
-

It is obvious that the sequence is diverging. The iteration method cannot find the root is
the interval [-3, - 2].
7-e
Since X=
2
and x1 =3.5
7-e -3.5
then x2 = =3.4849
2
X3 = 3.48467
x4 = 3.48467
So x3 = x4 = 3.484 67
the root, a = 3.484 67 correct to 6 s.f.
=
(d) Since g(x)

Then

So g'()=e

i.e. g'(3.484 67) = e_348467= 0.015 332

I g'(3.484 67)1 =1 0.015 3321 <1

Hence the iterative sequence x1= 7 e converges on the root in the interval [3, 4].

If we take the root in the interval [-3, -2] as a = -2.5,

then g'(-2.5) = e±25)= 6.091 247

I g'(-2.5) =1 6.091 2471 > 1

Hence the iterative sequence ;+= will not converge on the root in the interval
[-3, -2].

Example 17
(a) Show that the equation ln(x + 5) - 3x + 8 =0 has a root in the interval [2, 4].
ln(x +5)+8
(b) Derive the iteration formula x,1=
fIi Pure Mathematics for CAPE

(c) Take 3 as a first approximation to this root and use the iteration five times to find an
approximation to this root.
(d) Show that the iterative sequence x = ln(x ' + 5) + 8 converges in the root.
+1

- Solution
(a) Let f(x)=ln(x+5)-3x+8
Then f(2) = ln(2 + 5) - 3(2) + 8 = 3.945 910
And f(4) = ]n(4 + 5) - 3(4) + 8 = -1.802 775
So f(4) <0 <f(2) and f(2) .f(4) <0
Also the functionf(x) = ln(x +5) - 3x + 8 is continuous.
Hence, by the IVT the equation ln(x + 5) - 3x + 8 = 0 has a root in the interval [2, 4].
(b) Given the equation ln(x +5) - 3x + 8 =0
Then 3x=ln(x+5)+8
x= ln(x+5)+8
So

the iteration formula is = ln(x n +5)+8

+
ln(x+5)+8
(c) Since x, 1 =
3
and x1 =3
In(3+5)+8
then x2= 3.35981
3
x3 =3.374 48
x4 = 3.375 06
x5 =3.37509
x6 =3.37509
So x5 =x6 =3.37509
.. the root, a = 3.375 09 correct to 6 s.f.
ln(x+5)+8
(d) Since
3
1
Then g'(x) =
3(x +5)
1
So g'( a')=
3(a+5)
1
i.e. g'(3.375 09) = = 0.039 801
3(3.37509 +5)
.. g'(3.375 09)1 = 0.039 8011 <1
1n(x-i-5)±8
Hence, the iterative sequence x + 1 converges on the root.
=
 Roots of equations EM

LExercise 7e
I. (a) Show that the equation x 3 = 6x 1 has a root between —1 and 1.
-

x3 +1
(b) Derive the iteration formula x +1 =
(c) Use the initial approximation of the root as 0 and four iterations to find the value of the
root correct to six significant figures.
X±
(d) Show that the iterative sequence x +1 1 converges on the root.

2. (a) Show that the equation x 3 + 5x - 4 = 0 has a root between 0 and 1.

(b) Derive the iteration formula x 1+1 —
(c) Use the initial approximation of the root as 0.5 and nine iterations to find the value of
the root correct to five significant figures.
=
(d) Show that the iterative sequence x +1 converges on the root.

3. (a) Show that the equation x 3 - 7x —2 =Ohas a root a in the unit interval —1 :~ x ~ 1
(b) Derive the iteration formula x, =
+I

(c) With an initial approximation of x1 = 0 find the value of a correct to five decimal places.
3 -2
(d) Show that the iterative sequence x = X converges on the root.
+1

4. (a) Sketch the graph of y = 9 3x 2x3 .

- -

(b) Show, by differentiation, that the gradient function is never positive

(c) Use the iteration formula x + 1 = J4.5 —1.5; to find the only real root of the equation,
correct to five significant figures.
5. (a) On the same axes, sketch the curves y = x3 andy =x2 + 25. Hence, show that the equation
x3 x2 =25 has one positive real root.
-

(1) Derive the iteration formula x +I

(c) Hence, use the iterative formula with x 1 = 3 to find this positive root correct to one
decimal place.

6. (a) Show that the equation sin x - 3x + 2 =0 has a root between 0.5 and 1.5.
(b) Derive the iteration formula x+1= sinx +2
(c) Use the initial approximation of the root as 1 and four iterations to find the value of the
root correct to three significant figures.
sin x ,+2
(d) Show that the iterative sequence x + 1 = converges on the root.
7. (a) Show that the equation cos x - 5x +2 = 0 has a root between 0 and 1.
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

COS x +2
(b) Derive the iteration formula X+1=

(c) Use the initial approximation of the root as 0.5 and seven iterations to find the value of
the root correct to six significant figures.
cos x +2 ,

(d) Show that the iterative sequence x1= converges on the root.
2
8. (a) Show that the equation sin 2x + 5x -1 = 0 has a root a in the unit interval — 0.5 !~ x :~ 0.5
1— sin 2x
(b) Derive the iteration formula ; +, =

(c) With an initial approximation of x 1 = 0 find the value of a correct to four decimal
places.

9. (a) Sketch the graph of y = cos 2x + 3x 2 -

(b) Show, by differentiation, that the gradient function is always positive.

2—cos2xto
(c) Use the iteration formula x1= find the only real root of the equation,
correct to four significant figures.

10. (a) On the same axes sketch the curves y = 3 cos 2x and y = 2 - 5x. Hence, show that the
equation 3 cos 2x + 5x = 2 has one negative root.
2-3cos2x
(b) Derive the iteration formula x + 1
=
(c) Hence, use the iteration formula with x 1 = —0.25 to find this negative root correct to
three decimal places.

11. (a) Show that the equation ex = 4x + 3 has a root between —1 and 1.
(b) Derive the iteration formula x 1=
(c) Use the initial approximation of the root as —0.5 and eight iterations to find the value of
the root correct to six significant figures.
e 3
(d) Show that the iterative sequence x1 1 = converges to the root.

12. (a) Show that the equation 3e = 1 - 7x has a root between —1 and 1.
1 - 3e 2x
(b) Derive the iteration formula x, 1 =
(c) Use the initial approximation of the root as —0.2 and nine iterations to find the value of
the root correct to three significant figures.
=
1 - 3e 2 x.
(d) Show that the iterative sequence x + I converges on the root.

13. (a) Show that the equation e' + 8x - 4 = 0 has a root a in the unit interval 0 !~ x :~ 1.
Xn
4—e
(b) Derive the iteration formula ±1=
 Roots of equations

(c) With an initial approximation of x 1 = 0.5, find the value of a correct to find decimal places.
_ex
(d) Show that the iterative sequence x , , , = converges on the root

14. (a) Sketch the graph of y = e 9x +4. -

(b) Show, by differentiation, that the gradient function is always negative.

=
(c) Use the iteration formula x + 1 e+ to find the only real root of the equation, correct
to six significant figures.

15. (a) On the same axes, sketch the curves y = e and y = 7x - 2. Hence, show that the
equation e_2x 7x + 2 = 0 has one positive real root
-

e+ 2
(b) Derive the iteration formula x + I =
(c) Hence, use the iteration formula with x 1 = 0.5 to find this positive root correct to three
decimal places.

16. (a) Show that the equation x in x = 5 - 3x has a root between 1 and 2.
5-xlnx
(b) Derive the iteration formula x +1=
(c) Use the initial approximation of the root as 1.5 and eight iterations to find the value of
the root correct to four significant figures.
=
(d) Show that the iterative sequence x ,, , 1 x1n x converges on the root.

17. (a) Show that the equation x ln(10 x) = 0 has a root between 1 and 3.
- -

(b) Derive the iteration formula x +1 = ln(10 x). -

(c) Use the initial approximation of the root as 2 and six iterations to find the value of the
root correct to six significant figures.
(d) Show that the sequence x +1 = ln(10 x) converges on the root.
-

18. (a) Show that the equation ln(4 x) = 8 3x has a root a in the unit interval 2 ! ~ x 3.
+ -

8-ln(4+x)
(b) Derive the iteration formula- n + 1
-
(c) With an initial approximation of x 1 = 1.5 find the value of a correct to five decimal places

19. (a) Sketch the graph ofy=lnx+x 2 -10=0

(b) Show by differentiation, that the gradient function is always positive.
(c) Use the iteration formula x , + V1
-lnx to find the only real root of the equation,
correct to six significant figures.

20. (a) On the same axes, sketch the curves y = x in x and y = x2 - 5 Hence, show that the
equation x In x x2 + 5 = 0 has one positive real root
-

(b) Derive the iteration formula x + 1 = jx In x +5

(c) Hence, use the iteration formula with x 1 = 2.5 to find this positive root correct to four
decimal places.
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

1. If a functionf(x) is continuous at x = a, which of the following conditions is not

necessary.
(a) limf(x) = f(a) (b) urn f(x) = f(a)
X-4q

(c) urn f(x) = f(a) (d) urn f(x) = f(a)

x—a

2. If a functionf(x) is continuous on the interval [a, b], which of the following conditions is
not necessary. Assumef(a) =4 and f(b) = B.
(a) f(x) is continuous at each point in the interval.
(b) An unbroken line can be drawn from A to B.
(c) A hole exists in the line joining A to B.
.(d) Each value in the interval [a, b] has an. imágef(x).

3. Which of the following conditions is not stated in the intermediate value theorem?
(a) f(x) is a continuous function on the interval [a, b].
(b)C is a value betweenf(a) andf(b) such thatf(a) <C <f(b).
(c) There exists a value c in the interval [a, b] such thatf(c) = C.
(d) There exists a jump in the graph of f(x).
4. Which of the following conditions is not used by the intermediate value theorem to
show the existence of a root a of the functionf(x) = 0 in the interval [a, b]?
(a) f(x) is continuous in the interval [a, b]
(b)f(a)•f(b)<0
(c) f(a) .f(b) 0
(d) a!~ a<_b.
5. Which of the following statements is false?
(a) The intermediate value theorem is used to prove the existence of at least one root in
an interval;
(b) A polynomial function is normally represented by a, continuous graph.
(c) The intermediate value theorem can tell us that C does not exist in the interval [a, b].
(d) The intermediate value theorem can be used to find the solutions of functions of the
formf(x)=0.
6. Which of the following statements is false?
(a) The intermediate value theorem verifies that a function has at least one solution in
an interval. . . .

(b) The intermediate value theorem will tell us how many times a function takes on a
given value. . .

(c) The points of intersection of two graphs tell us how many solutions exist in the
equality of their equations. .. .
 Roots of equations EM
(d) If f(x) > 0, thenf(x) is a strictly increasing function. A strictly increasing function has
only one real solution.
7. Which of the following statements is false?
(a) The interval bisection method states that a root is contained in an initial interval [a, b].
(b) The interval bisection method is a successive approximation method that narrows
down the interval that contains a root of the functionf(x).
I

(c) The root is then situated in the regionf(x) > 0.

(d) The root is approximately equal to a value in the very small final interval.
8. Which of the following statements is false?
(a) The interval bisection method will divide the interval into two halves and check
which of the half intervals contains a root of the function.
(b) The interval bisection method will cut the interval repeatedly into halves until the
resulting interval is extremely small.
(c) The root is then located in the regionf(x) <0.
(d) The root is then an approximation equal to a value in the extremely small final
interval.
1
9. State which step in the interval bisection method algorithm is incorrect.
(a) Input c to a level of accuracy into the interval [a, b].
(b) Compute the midinterval
• If (midinterval) = 0, then midinterval = root.
• 1ff (midinterval) <0, then replace midinterval with end value where the
function was negative.
• 1ff (midinterval) > 0, then replace midinterval with end value where the
function was positive.
(c) (a + b) > c, then the root is not found and the level of desired accuracy is not
If
reached, so repeat the previous steps.
(d) If (b - a) > c, then the root is not found and the level of desired accuracy is not
reached, so repeat the previous steps.
10. Consider the cubic equationf(x) = x3 + 3x —6 with a root in the interval [1, 21.
The table below shows the first four iterations in finding the root of f(x).
Which of the steps has an incorrect calculation?
In
(a) 1 1.5 2 -2 1.875 8
(b) 1 1.25-. 1.5 -2 -0.296 875 1.875
(c) 1.25 1.375 1.5 .-0.296875 -0-724609 1.875
(d) 1.25 1.3125 1.375 -0.296875 0.198 486 0724 609

Items 11-12 refer to the diagram following. Linear interpolation is an iterative method
that is used to find an approximate value for the root of an equation.
[M Pure Mathematics for CAPE

b x y=f(x)

The diagram above shows the graph of the functionf(x) with two points (a,f(a)) and
(b,f(b)) shown.
11. From the graph, by linear inteipo1átiOn:
a a- a'- a - a'+ a If(a) a'+ a - f(b)
a (b) c) d
b- a- If b - a - f(a) b + a - If (b) +a-

12 From the graph, by linear: interpolation

a+a b+a a-a b-a a-a b-a a'+a b+a
(a) (b) (c) (d)
f(a)J = f(b) = f(a) f(a) Jf(b) f(b) f(a)
13. The linear interpolation fOrmula is
- af(a)J+:bIf(b)t - af(b)±bf(a)
Jf(a)I + If(b)I Jf(a)J +

a- af(b)I—blf(a)l
a- af(a)l — bf(b)
C (d)
- (f(a)I—(f(b)( - [f(a—If(b)l
Items 14-15 refer to the problem stated below.
Given that x 3 + 4x -3 = 0 has a root between 0 and 1 We can find an approximation to
the root, using linear interpolation.

14. A diagram representing the first interpolationis

(a) (1,2) (b) Y (0, -3)

x
0

(1,-3)
 Roots of equations IM
15. The first iteration is given by
1—a' 2 1 — a' 3
(a) (b)
a' 3 a 2
(d) 1—a'2
(c)
a' 2 a- 3
16 Given the functionf(x) = x2 7, then the Newton-Raphson iteration formula can be
-

used to find the root of the equationf(x) = 0

The specific Newton-Raphson iteration formülä that can be used to find the square
root of7is 1:

x2 -7 x2 -7
(a) x 1 =x- , (b) X +1 X+

x2 -7 x2 ±7
(c) x 1 =x— (d) x ~ 1 =x±
2; 2;

17 The first approximation and first three iterations in finding the ±fi are given below .

State the value of ±fi correct to 6 significant figures

= ±250000 x3 = ±2.645 75
X2 = ±2650 00 x4 = ±2.645 75
(a) ±2500 00 (b) ±2.650 00 (c) ±2645 80 (d) ±2-645 75
Items 18-20 refer to the diagram below.
v=x

The graphs of the equations y = cos x and y = x are shown in the diagram above
18 The graph indicates that the only zero of the functionf(x) = cos x - x lies within the
interval
(a) _i] (b) [-1, 01 (c)
[-f,
19. In order to use the Newton-Raphson method to find a root, the best first approximation
to use is
(a) —1 (b) - (c) 1 (d)
IM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

20.The iterative sequence for this function can be generated by one of the following
formulae.
cos x x - cos ; H;
x 1 =x— . (b) x 1 =x-
s1nx-1 -sin;-1
x-cosx coSX- x
(c) x +1 = x— .(d) x =x+ ~ 1

-sinx-1 smx-1
Items 21-25 refer to the following problem
The equation x1 =cosxhasoneroot.
A possible iteration formula that can be used to find this root is
21. (a) x 1 = j&sx (b) x +1 = Jcos x
-

(c) x 1 =(cosx) (d)

cos3 x cos2 x
22. (a) x= (b) X1
X - X2
cosx cosx
(c) x 1= (d) x +1 = .1
x n2 xn
23 (a) x +1 = (cos-1 x)3 (b) x +1 = cos 1 x
(c) x7 + 1 = (cos x)2 (d) x 1 = cos 1 x
x + cos x x + cos x
24. (a) x~ 1=x- 2 (b) x1x- 2
3x+cosx 3x-smx
x+cos; x - cosx
(c) X1=X— 2 (d) n+l=n 2
3x- COS x -- 3x+sinx

(a) x= cosx+x+x (b)cosxxx

25.
xn +xn +1 xn -x n -1
= cos X fl + X fl - Xfl = cos x x +;
(c) x (d)
x+x-i. X—X:+i -

26. (a) The functionfi R --> R is given byf(x) = x 3 + 2x -4

Show that
(i) f isi a -strictly increasing function
(ii) the equationf(x) = 0 has a root a in the interval [1,2]
(iii) the equationf(x) = 0 has no other root in the interval [1, 2].
(b) By starting with x = 1.1 as a.first approximation to the root a, use the Newton-
Raphson method to find a second approximation, x2, to the root a correct to 3
significant figures.
 Roots of equations LiIl'l

27. The function, f, is given byf(x) =5 4x x 3.

-

(a) Show that

(1) f ig everywhere strictly decreasing
(ii) the equationf(x) = 0 has a real root, a, in the closed interval [0.5, 1 .5].
'

(iii) ais the only real root in the equationf(x) = 0.

(b) If x is the nth approximation to a, use the Newton-Raphson method to show that
x 3 +5
the (n + 1)st approximation x + 1 is given by X~ 1=
,,

3x+4
28. (a) Sketch the functions y = cos x and y = x2 on the same axes.
(b) Deduce that the functionf(x) = cos x x2 has exactly two real roots.
-

(c) Find the unit interval in which the positive root a of f(x) lies.
(d) Starting with a first approximation of a at; = 0.8, use one iteration of the Newton-
Raphson method to obtain a better approximation of ato3dedmal places.
29. The fimctionf is given byf. x - x4 - 3x + 1.
Show that
(a) f(x) = 0 has a root ain the interval [0, 0 .5].
(b) If x1 is a first approximation to a of f(x) = 0 in [0, 0.5], then the Newton-Raphson

method gives a second approximation x 2 in [0, 0.51 satisfying x 2 =

30. (a) Show that the functionf(x) = x3 4x + 1 has a root a in the closed interval [0, 11.
-

(b) Use the Newton-Raphson method to show that if x 1 is a first approximation to a in

the interval [0, 1], then a second approximation to a is the interval [0, lii is given by
2x31 -1.
2 3x-4
31. (a) Show that the equation x 4 + 3x2 + 5x 1. = 0 has a root cebetween 0 and 0.5.
-

(b) Prove that a is the only real root between 0 and 0.5.
(c) Use two iterations of the Newton-Raphson method, to find a correct to 2 decimal
places..
32. (a) Show that the functionf(x) = x3 5x + 3 has a root. a in the closed interval [0, 1].
-

(b) Take 0 6 as a first approximation, x 1, in the interval [0, 1], and use the Newton-
Raphson method to obtain a second approximation, x21 in the interval [0, 1] correct
to 3 significant figures.

33. Letf(x) = 2x3 + 3x2 5x + 1.

- . ..... .
..• :•.

(a) Use the intermediate value theorem. to determine whether the equationf(x).= 0 has
any root in the interval [0.5, 11.
(b) Use x = 0.7 as a first approximation of a root a of f(x), execute four iterations of the
Newton-Raphson method to obtain a better approximation of a
I1iIi Pure Mathematics for CAPE

34. (a) Use the intermediate value theorem to prove that x 3 = 24 has at least one root in the
interval [2, 3].
(b) The table shows the results of the first four iterations in the estimation of the root of
f(x) = x 3 - 24 = 0 using, interval bisection.
The procedure used a = 2 and b = 3 as the starting values and p as the estimate
of the root for the nth iteration

1 2 3 2.5 -8.3750
2 2.5 3 2.75 -3.2031
3 2.75" 3 2.875 -02363
4 2875 3 29375 13474
Complete the table to obtam an approximation of the root of the equation
x3 = 24 correct to .2 decimal places.

35. yX y

Al

The diagram above (not drawn to scale) shows the graphs of y = e_x and y = x
(a) State the equation m x that is satisfied at P(a, /3), the point of intersection of the two
graphs.
(b) Show that a lies in the mterval [0, 1]

Roots of equations
> Intermediate value theorem
+ Letf(x) be a continuous function on the closed interval [a, b]
+ If C (E [f(a),f(b)}, then E a c E [a, b] such thatf(c) = : C .
> Interval bisection
+ Letf(x) be a continuous function on the closed interval [a, b]
 Roots of equations

•. If f(a) <0<f(b), that isf(a) •f(b) <0 which means thatf(a) andf(b) have opposite
signs, thenf(x) = 0 for some x in the interval [a, b].
+ Let the midinterval value c =
2 r i i r a+b].
•. The root will lie within one of the subintervals I b I or I a,
[2 j L 2
+ Repeat until the interval containing a root of the equation is narrow enough to give
the desired accuracy.
> Linear interpolation
+ Consider a continuous curve y =f(x).
+ (b, If(b)I)

+ Let a root alie within the interval [a, b].

• Assume that the three points (a, f(a)I), a and (b, If(b)I) lie on a straight line.
+ Then we can use the linear interpolation formula c= a If(b)I + b f(a)I
+
•. Several iterations can be calculated until the desired accuracy for the root is reached.
Newton-Raphson method
+ Consider a continuous functionf(x) which is differentiable.
+ To solve the equationf(x) =0, findf'(x) and use the iteration:

+ Provided the initial approximation x 1 is close to a, then the iterations will generate a
convergent sequence towards a root a.
Fixed point iteration
+ Consider a functionf(x).
+ Rearrange the function into the form x = g(x).
+ The iteration is then:
x 1 _—g(x) where n E N.
+ Provided I g'(a) I <1, then the iterations will generate a convergent sequence
towards a root a.
 Module 3
Counting, Matrices and Differential Equations
 Counting

Principles of counting
CDo Addition principle
Consider two mutually exclusive events A and B. Event A can be performed in in ways and
event B can be performed in n ways.
Then event A or B (event A u B) can be performed in (in + n) ways.
This fact is represented in the Venn diagram below.
S

O imnway-9".1'

Since A and B are mutually exclusive events, then A n B

B

The events (tasks) are disjoint.

The two events (tasks) cannot happen together.
For example: If a die is thrown once, then '5' and '6' cannot occur at the same time.
The addition principle is stated below:

If event A can occur in in possible ways, event B can occur in n possible

ways, and the events A and B are mutually exclusive, then the number of
ways that either event A or event B can occur is (in + n) ways.

Consider two events which are not mutually exclusive (non-mutually exclusive) events A and
B. Event A can be performed trim ways, event B can be performed in n ways, and event A and B
(event (A n B)) can be performed together in p ways.
Then event A or B (event (A u B)) can be performed in (m + n - p) ways.
This fact is represented in the Venn diagram below.

p ways
On Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Since A and B are non-mutually exclusive events, then A n B

The events (tasks) are not disjoint.
The two events (tasks) can happen together.
For example: A card is pulled from a standard pack of playing cards, then 'Queen' and 'heart'
can occur at the same time, since a 'queen of hearts' exists.

If event A can occur in m possible ways, event B can occur in n possible

ways, and event A and B together can be performed in p ways, then the
number of ways that either event A or B can occur is (m + n - p) ways.

Example 1 '
Samsung and Apple computers are sold at Amazona. Samsung has 15 models and Apple has
12 models on sale. How many ways can Ramona choose a computer at Amazona?
Solution
Ramona can choose a Samsung computer in 15 ways. Ramona can choose an Apple computer
in 12 ways.
the number of ways Ramona can choose a computer = 15 + 12
=27
Example 2
In a random experiment, a fair die is tossed once and the number of dots that is seen facing
upwards is recorded.
Events X and Y are defined as follows:
X = (at least five dots is seen} = 15, 61.
Y = (an odd number of dots is seen) = ( 1,3,5).
In how many ways can either X or Y occur?
Solution
Method 1
Given n(X)=2
and n(Y)=3.
Events X and Y are not mutually exclusive events.
XmY=(5}
... n(XnY)=1.
The number of ways either X or Y can occur, n(X u Y) = n(X) + n(Y) - n(X n Y)
=2+3-1
=4
Method 2
Since X = 15,61 and Y = 11, 3,51
then XuY={1,3,5,6}
... n(XuY)=4
Hence, the number of ways X or Y can occur is 4.
 Counting

Extended addition principle

The addition principle can be extended to deal with more than two mutually exclusive events.

If A, B and C are three mutually exclusive events that can occur in m, w and
p possible ways respectively, then the number of ways that either A or B or
t ccur is (m + ii + p) ways.
The addition principle can be extended to any number of mutually exclusive events (tasks).

-Example 3 Solution
At a restaurant the following dishes are Cheryl can choose a Chinese dish in 5 wa ys.
offered. Cheryl can choose an Indian dish in 4 ways.
Chinese 5 Cheryl can choose an African dish in 3 ways.
Indian 4 .. the number of ways Cheryl can choose a
African 3 dish =5+4 + 3
Cheryl visited the restaurant to have dinner. = 12
How many ways can Cheryl choose a dish?

Multiplication principle
The multiplication principle is stated below.

If an operation (task) can be performed in m ways, a second operation (task)

can be performed in n ways, and the two operations (tasks) are independent,
then together the two operations (tasks) can be performed in mn ways.

or

1 If an operation (task) can be performed in m ways and if after performing

this operation (task) a second operation (task) can be performed in n ways,
then together the two operations (tasks) can be performed in mn ways.

The multiplication principle is known as the fundamental counting principle.

Example 4
There are three roads joining Port-of-Spain to Couva and four roads joining Couva to San
Fernando. How many different routes are there from Port-of-Spain to San Fernando using
these roads?
Solution
Method 1

Ps
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

The diagram above represents all possible routes from Port-of-Spain(P) to San Fernando(S)
via Couva (C).
The sample space is
S = {( a, 1), (a, 2), (a, 3), (a, 4), (b, 1), (b, 2), (b, 3), (b, 4), (c, 1), (c, 2), (c, 3), (c, 4)}.
.. n(S)=12
Hence there are 12 different routes from Port-of-Spain to San Fernando via Couva.
Method 2
The number of roads from Port-of-Spain to Couva, m = 3
The number of roads from Couva to San Fernando, n = 4
the number of routes from Port-of-Spain to San Fernando via Couva is mn = 3 x 4 = 12
Method 3
A tree diagram can also be used to solve the problem.
S

1 S
2 4 routes

P C __________ 4routes

C 2
4 routes

Hence, the number of routes from Port-of-Spain to San Fernando via Couva = 4+4+4= 12

Extended multiplication principle

The multiplication principle can be extended to deal with more than two independent operations
(tasks).

If an operation (task) can be performed in m ways, a second operation (task)

can be performed in n ways, a third operation (task) can be performed
in p ways and so on, and the operations (tasks) are all independent, then
together the operations (tasks) can be performed in rnnp. . . ways.

The multiplication principle can be extended to any number of mutually independent

operations (tasks) performed in succession.
 Counting 11 11

-Example 5
In how many ways can a 3-digit number be formed from the set 12, 3, 5, 7, 9
(a) If repetitions are not allowed
(b) If repetitions are allowed?
-Solution
5 ways 4 ways 3 ways
1st digit 2nd digit 3rd digit (without repetition)

The first digit can be chosen in 5 ways.

The second digit can be chosen in 4 ways.
The third digit can be chosen in 3 ways.
the number of ways in which a 3-digit number can be formed = mnp
=5x4x3
=60
5 ways 5 ways 5 ways
1st digit 2nd digit 3rd digit (with repetition)
The first digit can be chosen in 5 ways.
The second digit can be chosen in 5 ways.
The third digit can be chosen in 5 ways.
the number of ways in which on 3-digit number can be formed = 5 x 5 x 5
= 53
=125

Exercise Ba

1. Computer World sells 25 models of computers and computer Planet sells 32 models of
computers. How many ways can Rebecca choose a computer from either of the two stores?
2. A restaurant serves 12 chicken dishes, 9 beef dishes and 7 pork dishes. How many ways
does a customer have in choosing a dish from this restaurant?
3. A university offers 15 science courses in the morning and 10 science courses in the
afternoon. How many ways can a student choose a science course at this university?
4. Given a standard pack of 52 playing cards, Robert draws a card from the pack of cards.
How many ways can Robert choose
(a) a king or a queen?
(b) a king or a heart card?
(c) a queen or a black card?
(d) a heart, a diamond or a spade?
5. At a university there are 27 mathematics majors and 157 science majors. How may ways
are there to choose a mathematics major or a science major?
NO Pure Mathematics for CAPE

6. A manufacturer of computers makes computers with seven different CPU speeds, five
different sizes of RAMs and six different capacities of hard disks. The other parts used to
make the computer are standard. Debbie has to buy a computer from this manufacturer.
How many ways can Debbie configure her computer?
7. There are seven airplane routes from New York to Port-of-Spain and four airplane routes
from Port-of-Spain to Timehri. How many airplane routes exists from New York to Timehri
via Port-of-Spain?
8. Raman has 5 styles of pants, 4 different coloured shirts and 2 types of shoes. How many
ways can Raman dress?
9. (a) A car manufacturer makes sedans and SUVs in 6 colours which are black, red, blue,
green, white and silver with 3 sizes of engines which are 1600 cc, 1800 cc and 2000 cc.
How many choices has Anna in purchasing a vehicle from this manufacturer?
(b) The silver SUV is no longer available. How many choices has Anna now in purchasing
a vehicle from this manufacturer?

10. At a university there are 35 physics majors and 28 mathematics majors. How many ways
are there to choose a physics major and a mathematics major?

Permutations All the possible arrangements are stated in

the box diagram below.
A permutation is an ordered arrangement PQR I PRQ I QPR I QRP RPQ RQP
of all or part of a set of objects.
There are six ways of arranging the letters P,
In permutation the relative position of the Q and R, taking all 3 letters at a time.
objects is important. Each arrangement is a permutation of the
Example 6 letters P. Q and R.
The number of permutations of the three
How many arrangements can be made letters P, Q and R is 6.
using the three letters P, Q and R?
Method 2
Solution
The principle of counting can also be used to
Method 1 solve the problem.
If the first letter is P. then the possible The number of ways of choosing the first
arrangements are: letter, m = 3.
PQR I PRQ The number of ways of choosing the second
letter, n = 2.
If the first letter is Q, then the possible The number of ways of choosing the third
arrangements are: letter, p = 1.
QPR I QRP the total number of arrangements,
mnp = 3 x 2 x 1 = 6.
If the first letter is R, then the possible
Hence, the number of permutations = 6.
arrangements are:
RPQ I RQP
 Counting

Method 3
The box method can also be used to solve the problem.
3 ways 2 ways 1 ways (without reptition)
First letter Second letter Third letter

Any of the three letters can be placed in the first box.

Either of the remaining 2 letters can be placed in the second box.
Finally, the remaining letter is placed in the third box.
the number of ways of arranging the 3 letters = 3 x 2 x 1 = 3! = 6
Method 4
A tree diagram can also be used to solve the problem.
First Second Third Arrangement
letter letter letter
PQR
P Q—R
R—Q PRQ
P—R QPR
QRP
RFQ
Rz:TJ
Q—P RQP
- From the tree diagram, the number of arrangements = 6
- Example 7
Given the three letters P, Q and R.
How many different arrangements can be made taking only two of the three letters at a time?
-Solution
Method 1
If the first letter is P. then the possible arrangements are:
PQ I PR
If the first letter is Q, then the possible arrangements are:
QP I QR
If the first letter is R, then the possible arrangements are:
RP I RQ
All the possible arrangements are stated in the box diagram below.
PQ I PR I QP I QR I RP I RQ
There are six ways of arranging the letters P, Q and R, taking 2 letters at a time.
The number of permutations of the three letters P, Q and R, taking two letters at a time is 6.
Method 2 (Principle of counting)
The number of ways of choosig the first letter, m =3.
The number of ways of choosing the second letter, n =2.
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

.. the total number of arrangements, Method 4 (Tree diagram)

mn = 3 x 2 = 6 First Second Arrangement
Hence, the number of permutations = 6. letter letter
Q PQ
Method 3 (Box method)
R PR
3 ways 1 2 ways (without reptition)
First letter Second letter Qzz

Any of the 3 letters can be placed in the first R

P RP
box. Q RQ
Either of the remaining letters can be placed From the tree diagram, the number of
in the second box. arrangements = 6.
the number of ways of arranging the 2
letters = 3 x 2 = 6.

Permutations of n distinct objects taken n at a time

What is the number of permutations of n different objects taken n at a time?

n n-1 n -2 I n -3 ... ... ... 4 3 12 1 (without repetition)

1st 2nd 3rd 4th last

The number of ways of filling the first and last four places are shown in the box diagram.
the number of ways of arranging the n distinct objects in a row is:
n(n - 1)(n - 2)(n -3) . . . 4.3.2.1 =

The number of permutations of n distinct objects all in a row is n!

The number of permutations of distinct objects taken n atatime is np =

Mathematically:
= (n -
n!
0!

1
=n!
Thus, the number of permutations of the three letters P, Q and R is 3P3 3 1
=3x2x1
=6

The number of permutations of n distinct (different) objects is = n!

 Counting

Example 8
A student has five different mathematicsbooks on a bookshelf. In how many ways could the
books he arranged?
Solution
The number of ways the 5 different mathematics books can be arranged on the self (in a row)
is 5P5 =5!
=5x4x3x2x 1
= 120

Permutations of n distinct objects taken r at a time with no

repetitions allowed
What is the number of permutations of n different objects taken r at a time with no repetitions
allowed?

In n - i n-2 I n-3 ... ... ... n-r+1 (no repetition)

1st 2nd 3rd 4th rth
The number of ways of filling the first four places and the last place are shown in the box
diagram.
The number of ways of arranging n distinct objects taken ,r at a time when repetitions are not
allowed is:
n(n 1)(n 2)(n--3) . . (n - r+ 1 )=Pr
- - . where l!! ~ r<n.

The number of permutations (arrangements) of n distinct (different) objects

taken r at a time when no repetitions are allowed is np

n! npr
Mathematically:
(n-r)!
=n(n-1)(n-2)(n-3) ... (n---r+1)
Thus, the number of permutations of the three letters P, Q and R, taken 2 at a time is

3 P-
2
(3 - 2)!
3!
1!
=3x2
=6
Example 9
Given the digits 1,2,3,5, 7.
In how many ways can a number of
(a) 3 digits be formed without repetition?
(b) 5 digits be formed without repetition?
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Solution
Method 1
(a) The number of ways in which 3-digit numbers can be formed without repetition is the
number of permutations of 5 distinct objects taken 3 at a time =
5!
(5-3)!
5!
2!
=5x4x3
=60
(b) The number of ways in which 5-digit numbers can be formed without repetition is the
number of permutations of 5 distinct objects =
=5!
=5x4x3x2x1
= 120
Method 2
(a) 5 ways 4 ways 3 way (without repetition)
1st digit 2nd digit 3rd digit
The number of ways of forming 3-digit numbers without repetition = 5 x 4 x 3
=60
(b) 5 ways 4 ways 3 ways 2 ways 1 ways (without repetition)
1st digit 2nd digit 3rd digit 4th digit 5th digit
The number of ways of forming 5-digit numbers without repetition = 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1
= 120
Example 10
A physician's waiting room contains a row of eight chairs. In how many different ways can
three of these chairs be occupied by three patients?
Solution
Method 1
8 ways 7 ways 6 ways ... (without repetition)
1st patient 2nd patient 3rd patient
The first patient to sit can occupy a chair in 8 ways.
The second patient to sit can occupy a chair in 7 ways.
The third patient to sit can occupy a chair in 6 ways.
.. the number of ways the 3 patients can be seated = 8 x 7 x 6 = 336
Method 2
The number of permutations of 8 objects taken 3 at a time is 8P3 = 8 x 7 x 6 = 336
the number of ways the 3 patients can be seated = 336
 Counting

- Example 11
How many different four-letter words can be formed using the letters in the word
EQUATIONS, if no letter is to be repeated in a word?
Solution
Method 1
The number of different letters in the word EQUATIONS =9
The number of permutations of 9 different letters taken 4 at a time is 9P4 = 9 x 8 x 7 x 6 =3 024
Hence, 3 024 different four-letter words can be formed.
Method 2
9 ways 8 ways 7 ways 6 ways I (no repetition)
1st letter 2nd letter 3rd letter 4th letter
The first letter can be chosen in 9 ways.
The second letter can be chosen in 8 ways.
The third letter can be chosen in 7 ways.
The fourth letter can be chosen in 6 ways.
.. the number of four-letter words that can be formed = 9 x 8 x 7 x 6
= 3 024
- Example 12
In how many ways can the first three prizes for Christmas hampers be awarded to a class of
35 students? Assume that each student can be awarded only one prize.
- Solution
Method 1
35 ways 34 ways 33 ways (no repetition)
1st prize 2nd prize 3rd prize
The first prize can be awarded to any of the 35 students. This can be done is 35 ways.
The second prize can then be awarded to any of 34 students. This can be done in 34 ways.
Finally, the third prize can be awarded to any of 33 students. This can be done in 33 ways.
the number of ways of awarding the three prizes = 35 x 34 x 33
=39 270
Method 2
35!
The number of permutations of taking three objects from thirty-five is P3
= ( 353)!
35!
32!
=35x34x33
= 39 270
Ea Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Example 13 1i

(a) How many three-digit and four-digit numbers can be formed using the digits 4,5,6, 7
and 8 without repetition?
(b) How many of three numbers will be
(i) greater than 600? (ii) less than 600?
Solution
Method 1
(a) 5 ways j 4 ways 3 ways (no repetition)
1st digit 2nd digit 3rd digit
The number of ways of forming a three-digit number = 5 x 4 x 3 = 60
5 ways 4 ways 3 ways 2 ways (no repetition)
1st digit 2nd digit 3rd digit 4th digit

The number of ways of forming a four-digit number = 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 = 120

By the addition principle, the number of three-and four-digit numbers that can be
formed = 60 + 120 = 180
Method 2
(a) The permutation of 5 different objects taken 3 at a time is
5! =-=5x4x3=60

The permutation of 5 different objects taken 4 at a time is

' 5! ==5x4x3x2=120
(5-4)! 1!
By the addition principle, the number of three-and four-digit numbers that can be
formed = 60 + 120 = 180
(b) (i) For a three-digit number to be greater than 600, the first digit must be 6, 7 or 8.
3 ways j 4 ways 3 ways (no repetition)
1st digit 2nd digit 3rd digit
The number of three-digit numbers greater than 600 that can be formed =3 x 4 x 3 =36
All four-digit numbers are greater than 600.
.. the number of three- and four digit numbers greater than 600 = 36 + 120 = 156
(ii) There is no three-digit number = 600
the numbers of three- and four-digit numbers less than 600 = 180-156 = 24

Permutations of n distinct objects taken r at a time with

repetitions allowed
What is the number of permutations of n different objects taken r at a time with no repetitions
allowed?
I I nn (with repetition)
1st 2nd 3rd 4th rth
 Counting

The number of ways of filling the first four places and the last place are shown in the box
diagram.
the number of ways of arranging n distinct objects taken r at a time when repetitions are
allowed is:
n(n)(n)(n) . . (n) = n r
.

(r terms) where 1 :~ r<n.

The number of permutations (arrangements) of n distinct (different) objects

taken r at a time when repetitions are allowed is

- Example 14 password can be repeated is

A computer's password consists of 8 digits = 108
Find the number of ways this password can = 100 000 000
be formed (b) The number of ways the password can
(a) if all 8 digits of the password can be be formed if no digit of the password
repeated can be repeated is
(b) if no digit of the password can be = 10!
8
repeated. (10-8)!
- Solution 10!
(a) The number of digits from 0 to 9 = 10 2!
the number of ways the password =10x9x8x7x6x5x4x3
can be formed if all 8 digits of the =1814 400

Permutations with identical objects

The number of (distinct) permutations of n objects with n1 identical objects,

n2 identical objects,.. n identical objects is
•'

1!2! flk!

Example 15 'O
Find the number of permutations that can be formed using the letters from the word
STATISTICAL.
Solution Some letters are identical. There are 2 '5', 3
S T A I C L 'T', 2 'A' and 2 'I'.
5 T A 1 The number of permutations that can be
T = 11!
formed
Total 2 3 2 2 1 1 11 2!3!2!2!
= 831 600
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Example 16 Example 17
Find the number of arrangements using the A storekeeper wishes to arrange 4 identical
digits of the number 712 746 434. DVD players, 5 identical Blue ray players
and 3 identical AVI players on a shelf. How
Solution
many arrangements are possible?
Some numbers are repeated. There are 2 7
and 3 '4'. Solution
7 1 2 4 6 3 The total number of players = 4 + 5 + 3 = 12
7 4 The number of arrangements
4 = 12!
that are possible
4!5!3!
Total __ ±_ 1111111 9
=27720
The number of arrangements = 9!
2!3!
= 30 240

Permutations with restrictions

Some permutation problems gives a restriction which is a constraint that must be adhered to.
In solving such permutation problems, the restriction is first assigned, then the other stated
conditions taken care of.
Example 18 O
How many ways can 7 members of a school board be seated in 7 chairs arranged in a row
(a) if there are no restrictions?
(b) If the first chair is reserved for the chairman of the board?
Solution
(a) The number of ways the 7 members can be seated in a row is 7P7 = 7! = 5 040
Method 1
(b) 1 6 ways 1 5 ways 1 4 ways 1 3 ways 1 2 ways 1 1 way
1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th
The number of ways the 7 members can be seated using this
arrangement= lx 6 x5 x4x3 x2 x
= 720
Method 2
(b) The chairman sits on the first chair.
This can be done in only one way.
The number of ways in which the remaining 6 members can sit on the 6 chairs in a
row is 6P6 .

.. the number of ways the 7 members can be seated using this arrangement
is lx 6P6 = lx 6! = 720
 Counting

Example 19 '
How many three-digit even numbers can be formed using the digits 1,2,3,. . ., 8 without
repetitions?
Solution
Method 1
The even numbers are 2, 4, 6, 8.
7 ways 6 ways I
4 ways I - 2, 4, 6 or 8 (no repetition)
1st digit 2nd digit 3rd digit
The third box will contain a 2,4,6 or 8.
There are 4 ways of filling the 3rd box.
The first box can then be filled in 7 ways.
And the second box can be filled in 6 ways.
the number of three-digit even numbers that can be formed = 7 x 6 x 4 = 168
Method 2
The number of three-digit even numbers that can be formed from the eight different digits,
without repetition = x4
=7x6x4
= 168
Example 20
In how many ways can 6 boys and 5 girls be seated in a row if
(a) the boys and girls can sit anywhere?
(b) the girls must sit together?
(c) the girls must not sit together?
(d) the boys and girls are seated alternately?
Solution
(a) The total number of boys and girls = 6 + 5 = 11.
If the boys and girls can sit anywhere in the row, then the number of ways they can be
seated is:
HP11 = 11!
= 39 916 800
Method 1
(b) the girls must sit together, so we treat then as one group.
7 ways 1 6 ways I 5 ways 1 4 ways 1 3 ways 2 ways 1 1 way (no repetition)
6 boys plus 1 group of 5 girls
The number of ways of arranging 7 children in a row = 7!
5 ways 1 4 ways 1 3 ways 1 2 ways 1 1 way (no repetition)
1 group of 5 girls
Array themselves, the 5 girls can be arranged in 5! ways
the number of ways of arranging the children in a row so that the girls sit together
(fundamental principle of counting) = 7! x 5! = 604 800
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

When two tasks are independent, then the execution of one task has
no effect on the execution of the other task, so the number of ways of
performing both tasks is the product of the number of ways of performing
each task separately.

(c) The number of ways of arranging the = The total number of ways that the
children in a row so that the girls do not children can sit in a row -
sit together The number of ways of arranging the
children so that the girls sit together
=39916800-604800
= 39 312 000
(d) 5 4 3 2
jB IGIB IGIB IGIB IGIB GIB I
6 5 4 3 2
The boys and girls must be seated alternately in a row as shown in the diagram above.
The number of ways the boys and girls can be seated in a row alternately is
6! x5!=86400
Example 21 II
Given the digits 2, 3, 5, 8, 9.
If no repetition is allowed, find the number of
(a) Odd numbers that can be formed
(b) 5-digit odd numbers greater than 50000 that can be formed.
Solution
Method 1
(a) 3 ways - 3, 5 or 9
1-digit odd numbers

The number of 1-digit odd numbers = 3

4 ways 3 ways I <- 3, 5 or 9

27 digit odd numbers

The number of 2-digit odd numbers =4 x 3 = 12

4 ways 3 ways 3 ways f- 3, 5 or 9
3-digit odd numbers

The number of 3-digit odd numbers =4 x 3 x 3 =, 36

4 ways 3 ways 2 ways 3 ways - 3, 5 or 9
4-digit odd numbers

The number of 4-digit odd numbers =4 x 3 x 2 x 3 = 72

 Counting IM
L ways 3 ways J 2 ways 1 way3 ways - 3,5 or 9
5-digit odd numbers

The number of 5-digit odd numbers =4 x 3 x 2 x 1 x 3 = 72

the total number of odd numbers that can be formed =3+ 12+36+ 72+ 72
=195
(b) 5 - L i way J 3waysl 2w 1 way 2 ways 1 - 3 or 9

The number of 5-digit odd numbers that begin with the digit 5 = 1 x 3 x 2 x 1 x 2
=12
8 -* way 3 ways 2 ways 1 way 3 ways 1 - 3,5 or 9

The number of 5-digit odd numbers that begin with the digit 8 = 1 x 3 x 2 x 1 x 3
=18
9- 1 way 3 ways 2 ways 1 way
J 2 ways - 3 or 5

The number of 5-digit odd numbers that begin with the digit 9 = 1 x 3 x2 x1x2
= 12
the number of 5-digit odd numbers greater than 50000
that can beformed =12+18+12
=42
Method 2
(a) The number of 1-digit odd numbers =3 =
The number of 2-digit odd numbers x =
=4x3
=12
The number of 3-digit odd numbers = x
=4x3 x3
=36
The number of 4-digit odd numbers =x
=4x3x2x3
=72
The number of 5-digit odd numbers = x
=4x3 x2 xl x3
=72
the total number of odd numbers that can be formed =3+12+36+72+72
= 195
(b) The number of 5-digit odd numbers that begin with the digit 5 = x 3P3 x
=lx3x2xlx2
=12
The number of 5-digit odd numbers that begin with the digit 8 = x 3P3 x
=lx3x2xlx3
=18
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

The number of 5-digit odd .. the number of 3-letter

numbers that begin with the words containing the
digit 9 = 1 P1 x 3P3 x 2p 1 letter H = 42 + 42 + 42
=lx3x2xlx2 = 126
= 12 (ii) Since the vowels A, E and U are not
.. the number of 5-digit odd numbers used, then the 5 consonants P. R, C,
greater than 50 000 that can be H and S remains.
formed = 12 + 18 + 12 5 ways I 4 ways 1
=42 I 3 ways
3-letter words with only consonants
Example 22 The number of 3-letter words that
(a) How many 3-letter words can be can be formed containing no
formed from the letters of the word vowels =5 x 4 x 3
PURCHASE? =60
(b) How many of these 3-letter words
(1) contain the letter H? Method 2
(ii) do not contain a vowel? (a) The number of 3-letter words
that can be formed from the
• Solution 8 letters =
Method 1 8!
(a) The number of different letters in the - (8-3)!
word PURCHASE =8
8!
1
8 ways 7 ways 6 ways 5!
3-letter words =8x7x6
The number of 3-letter words that can =336
be formed from the 8 letters = 8 x 7 x 6 (b) (i) The H can be the first, second or
= 336 third letter in the 3-letter words.
(b) (1) I H 7 ways 1 6 ways The other two letters can be
His the first letter arranged in 7P2 ways.
The number of 3-letter words the number of 3-letter
where H is the first words containing the
letter = 1 x 7 x 6 letter H = 3 x
=42 7!
=3x
7ways H 6wayj (7-2)!
The number of 3-letter words 7!
where H is the second 5!
letter = 7 x 1 x 6 =3x7x6
=42
=126
1
7ways 6ways H (ii) If the vowels A, E and U are not
The number of 3-letter words used, then the 5 consonants P, R, C,
where H is the third H and S remains.
letter = 7 x 6 x 1
=42
 Counting

The number of 34etter words .. the number of ways of choosing the

that can be formed containing no first digit = 8 (choose from the digits 2, 3,
vowels = 4,5,6, 7,8,9)
5! The restriction on the second digit of the
area code is that it must be 6, 7 or 8
(5-3)!
the number of ways of choosing the second
5! digit =3 (choose from the digits 6, 7,8)
2! The restriction on the third digit of the area
=5x4x3 code is that it cannot be 0 or 1.
=60 the number of ways of choosing the third
digit =8
Example 23 '
Hence, the number of three-digit telephone
How many three-digit telephone area codes area codes that can be formed = 8 x 3 x 8
can be formed using the digits 0 to 9, given =192.
that the area code cannot begin or end with Method 2
a zero or one and the second digit must be
6, 7 or 8? The first and last digits are chosen from the
digits 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.
Solution The second digit is chosen from the
Method 1 digits 6, 7, 8
.% the number of three-digit telephone area
I 8 ways 3 ways I 8 ways
codes that can be formed = 8p .3p . 8p
Digits 2 to 9 Digits 6, 7 or 8 Digits 2 to 9
8! 3! 8'
The restriction on the first digit of the area =—X—X-
code is that it cannot be 0 or 1. 7! 2! 7!
=8x3x8
= 192.

Permutations with identical objects and restrictions

4= Objects kept together
-Example 24
In how many ways can the letters in the word MARACAS be arranged so that the As are
always together?
- Solution
Different M A R C S 5
A
A -

Total 1 3 1 1 1 7

AAA RCS
1 2 3 4 5
Group the As together. All the As are the same.
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

The number of arrangements of 5 district objects = 5!

120
Hence, there are 120 ways to arrange the letters in the word MARACAS so that the As are
always together.
Example 25
How many ways can 4 women and 5 men sit in a row if the women always sit together?
W1W2W3W4 M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 Group the 4 women together.
1 2 3 4 5 6 The 4 women are different.
The number of ways of arranging 6 distinct objects = 6!
The number of ways of arranging 4 distinct objects =4!
the number of ways of arranging the 4 women and 5 men in a row so that the women sit
together = 6! x 4!
= 720 x 24
= 17 280
Example 26
In how many ways can the letters in the word MANAHAMBRE be arranged if the
(a) B and E are together?
(b) B, R and E are kept together?
(a)I I
BE M M A A A N I I HI R I I I
Group the letters B and E together.I
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 The 2 letters are different.
There are 2M' and 3 'A'.
The number of arrangements of 9 different objects = 9!
The number of arrangements of 2 different objects = 2!
.. the number of arrangements of the word MANAHAMBRE, keeping the B and E
9!x2!
together =
2!x3!
S

I
S. AS

(b)I BRE I M I M I A I A I A I N I H I Group the letters B, R and E together.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 The 3 letters are different.
There are 2M' and 3 'A'.
The number of arrangements of 8 different letters = 8!
The number of arrangements of 3 different letters = 3!
the number of arrangements of the word MANAHAMBRE, keeping the B, R and E
together = 8!x3!
2!x3!
8!
2!
= 20 160
 Counting

Objects kept apart

Example 27
In how many ways can the letters in the word DOLLAR be arranged if no two Ls are next to
one another?
Solution
Method 1

1 2 3 4 5
The 4 letters inserted indicates that there are 5 places available for the 2 Ls.
The number of arrangements of the 4 letters D, 0, A and R is =4!
The first L alone can be arranged in 5 ways.
The second L alone can be arranged in 4 ways.
5x4
.. the two Ls can be arranged in ways.
2!
So the number of arrangements of the letters in the word DOLLAR if no two Ls are next to
one another =4! x 5x4
2!
= 240
Method 2
D 1 0 1 LL I A I R Group the two Ls together.
1 2 3 4 5 The two letters are the same.

The number of arrangements with the 2 Ls together = 5!

Different D 0 L A R
L
Total 1 1 2

The number of arrangements with no ictions = 61

-

2!

.. the number of arrangements with no oLs together =-5!

2!
- 6!-5!x2!

5!(6-2)
2
120 x 4
2
240
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

-Example 28 c;II
In how many ways can the letters in the word MANATEE be arranged if no two As are next
to each other?
Solution
Method 1

1 2 3 4 5 6
The 5 letters inserted indicates that there are 6 places available for the 2 As.
The number of arrangements of the 5 letters M, N, T, E and E (where the two Es are identical)
• s = 5!
i -
2!
The first A alone can be arranged in 6 ways.
The second A alone can be arranged in 5 ways.
6x5
the two As can be arranged in ways.
2!
So the number of arrangements of the letters in the word MANATEE if no two As are next to
6x5
each other = 5!
—x
2! 2!
= 900
Method 2
M I AA I N I T E E I Group the two As together.
1 2 3 4 5 6 The two letters are the same. There are two 'E'.

The number of arrangements with the 2 As together =

2!
Different M A N T E
A E

The number of arrangements with no restrictions =

2!2!
the number of arrangements with no two As together = 7! - 6!
-
2!2! 2!
- 7!-6!x2!

6! (7-2)
4
6!x5
4
 Counting

- 6 x 120 x 5
4
=6 x 30 x 5
= 900

-Example 29 J

(a) In how many ways can the letters in the word MANAHAMBRE be arranged if no two
Ms are next to one another?
(b) How many arrangements are possible if no two As are next to each other?
- Solution
Method 1
(a)I I A. N
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
The 8 letters inserted indicates that there are 9 places available for the two Ms.
The number of arrangements of the 8 letters A, N, A, H, A, B, R and E (where the 3 As are
identical) is
2=
The two M's can be arranged in 9P 9x8 ways.
the number of arrangements of the letters in the word MANAHAMBRE if no two Ms
are next to one another = 8!
- x 9x8
3! 2!
= 241 920

(b)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

The 7 letters inserted indicates that there are 8 places available for the 3 As.
The number of arrangements of the 7 letters M, N, H, M, B, R and E (where the two Ms
are identical) is -
2!
3 = 8x7x6
The three As can be arranged in 8P --- 3! ways

the number of arrangements of the letters in the word MANAHAMBRE if no two As

- x 8x7x6
are next to each other = 7!
2! 3!
= 141 120
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Method 2

(a) MANHBRE
MA
A
2311111
0
= 10!
The total number of arrangements
2!3!
= 302 400

JIJANAHABRE
The number of arrangements with the 2 Ms together =
3!
= 60480
.. the number of arrangements with no two Ms together =302400-60480
241 920
Note: This method is only valid for keeping two items apart. It cannot be used if you need to
keep three or more items apart.

Example 30
(a) In how many ways can 6 men and 3 women be arranged in a row of seats in a cinema if
no two women sit next to each other?
(b) If Marilyn and Francine join the group at the cinema, how many arrangements are there
given the same restriction?
Solution

(a) I I M M2 I I M3 M4 M5 M6
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
The number of arrangements of the 6 men = 6!
6 men indicates that there are 7 seats available to the 3 women.
The first woman can sit in 7 ways.
The second woman can sit in 6 ways.
The third woman can sit in 5 ways.
.. the number of arrangements of the 6 men and 3 women if no two women sit next to
each other =6! x7x6x5
= 151 200
 Counting

(b) MI M2 M3 M4 M5 M6
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

The fourth woman can sit in 4 ways.

The fifth woman can sit in 3 ways.
.. the number of arrangements of the 6 men and 5 women if no two women sit next to
each other =6! x 7x 6 x5 x4 x3
= 1 814 400

Objects restricted to the ends

- Example 31 I
In how many ways can 2 men and 5 women sit in a line of 7 chairs if the men must sit at the
ends?
- Solution
Method 1
M1 W1 W2 W3 W4 W5 M2
2 ways 5 ways 4 ways 3 ways 2 ways 1 way 1 way
The first man, M1, can sit at an end in 2 ways.
The second man, M2, can sit at an end in 1 way.
The 5 women can sit in the middle in 5! ways.
The number of arrangements if the men must sit at the ends = 2 x 5! x 1
=240
Method 2
The 2 men can sit at the ends in 2P2 ways = 2!
The 5 women can sit in the middle in 5P5 ways =5!
the number of arrangements if the men must sit at the ends = 2! x 5!
• =240
Example 32
In how many ways can 5 blue books and 4 green books be arranged on a shelf in a library if
a green book must be at each of the ends? Assume that each book can be identified as being
different except for colour.
Solution
Method 1
G1 G2
4 ways 7 ways 6 ways 5 ways 4 ways 3 ways 2 ways 1 way 3 ways
EM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

The first green book can be placed at an end in 4 ways.

The second green book can then be placed at an end in 3 ways.
The 5 blue books and the remaining 2 green books can then be arranged in the middle in
7! ways.
the number of arrangements if a green book must be at each of the ends = 4 x 7! x 3
= 60480
Method 2
The 2 green books can be placed at the ends in 4P2 ways =4 x 3
The 5 blue books and the remaining 2 green books can then be arranged in the middle in 7P 7
ways =7!
the number of arrangements if a green book must be at each of the ends =4 x 3 x 7!
= 60480
- Example 33 J
(a) In how many ways can the letters of the word PHOTOCHROIvL4TIC be arranged in a
row?
(b) How many of the words formed has a letter T at the ends?
(c) How many of the words formed begin with the letter H and end with the letter I?
- Solution
(a) P H 0 T C R M A I
H 0 T C
0

177 Total 1 2 3 2 2 1 1 1 1 14

The number of arrangements = 14!

2!3!2!2!
= 1816 214 400

(b) T 12 letters T
2 ways lway

The two Ts can be arranged in 2! ways.

The remaining 12 letters can be arranged in ways.
2!3!2!
12!
the number of words formed with a letter T at the ends =2! x

12!
2!3!
= 39 916 800

(c) H 12 letters I
lway iway
 Counting EM
The number of ways of arranging the H = 1
The number of ways of arranging the I = 1
The remaining 12 letters can be arranged in 12!
3!2!2!
12.
the number of words formed with the letter H and T at the ends =1 x x1
3!2!2!
OR

Circular permutations
A circle has no fixed point of reference.
In how many ways can 4 friends be seated at a round table?
If one person sits down first, then the others can sit in a position that is relative to that person.
The first person acts as a fixed point of reference.
The 3 remaining friends can then sit in 3! ways.
1 way 3 ways 2 ways 1 way
1st person 2nd person 3rd person 4th person

Hence, the number of ways that the 4 friends can be seated at a round table = (4 - 1)!
=3!
=6
Fixed Fixed Fixed Fixed Fixed Fixed

DcEE3oED
ABCD ABDC ACBD ACDB ADBC ADCB
Note: The clockwise arrangement ABCD is different from the anti-clockwise arrangement
ADCB.

The number of ways of arranging n different objects in a circle is (n7 1)T

The number, of circular permutations of n different objects taken n at a
time is , (n - 1)!

Example 34
(a) In how many ways can 8 people sit at a round table?
(b) How many ways are there if a couple must sit next to each other?
(c) How many ways are there if two people will not sit next to each other?
Solution
(a) The number of ways the 8 people can sit at a round table (8 - 1)!
=7!
= 5 040
(b) The number of arrangements when the two people sit next to each other = 2! x 6!
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

(c) The number of arrangements when the A ring is circular.

two people do not sit next to each There are 6 keys on a key ring. How many
other =7!-2!x6! different arrangements of the keys are
=6!(7-2) possible?
=6!(5) If one key is first placed on the right, then
- 3600
- the other keys can be placed in a position
that is relative to that key. The first key acts
Example 35
as a fixed point of reference.
In how many ways can 4 boys and 4 girls sit The 5 remaining keys can then be placed on
alternately at a round table? the ring in 5! ways.
Solution However, a key ring can be flipped.
The number of ways the 4 boys can sit at a /6 2\ 72 6\
round table = (4 1)! -

~ 2
=3! ( 5 3 ) ( 3 5)

Hence, the number of ways that the 6 keys

B4 B2 => 4! = (6-1)!
can be placed on the ring
3\3 B 3 G 2
5!
For each seating arrangement of the boys, 2
the girls can sit in 4! ways =60
..the number of ways that the 4 boys and
the 4 girls can sit alternatively at a round The number of ways of arranging n
table (by the multiplication principle)
different objects on a ring is (1 1)!
-

=4!3!
2
=144
-Example 36 'EA
-Example 37
Nine chairs are arranged around a circular
table. There are 5 black chairs, 3 white chairs A bracelet has seven charms. How many
and 1 brown chair. How many arrangements ways can the charms be arranged
are possible for the chairs? (a) if the bracelet cannot be opened?
(b) If the bracelet has a clasp?
Solution
Solution
The number of possible arrangements for
the chairs around the circular table (a) The number of ways the 7 charms can
(9-1)! be arranged on the bracelet without an
5!3! (7-1)
opening =
8! 2
6!
5!3!
2
8x7x6 = 360
-

-3x2x1
=56
 Counting

(b) The number of ways the 7 charms can be arranged on the bracelet that has a clasp = 7!
=5040
7 ways 6 ways 5 ways 4 ways 3 ways 2 ways j 1 way
1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th

Exercise 8b

1. In how many ways can the letters A, B, C, 8. Two people are to sit in a room containing
D and E he arranged without repetition 8 chairs. In how many ways can five
when people be seated?
(a) all 5 letters are taken at a time?
9. How many code words of 5 letters can be
(b) 4 of the letters are taken at a time?
formed from the 26 letters of the alphabet,
(c) 3 of the letters are taken at a time?
if no letter can be repeated in a code
(d) 2 of the letters are taken at a time? word?
2. Find the number of arrangements of the 10. How many three-letter words can be
letters in each of the following words. formed using the letters in the word
(a) HEAT (b) PREYSAL PANTHERS, if no letter is to be repeated in
(c) MONKEY (d) SPEARMINT a word?
3. In how many ways can eight different 11 In how many ways can a first, second
books he arranged on the self of a school's and third prize be awarded to different
library? students in a form of 40?
4. A mini bus can hold 12 passengers. How 12. In how many ways can 3 students choose
many ways can 12 passengers be arranged a different book from a shelf containing
in the minibus? 25 volumes?
5. Given the digits 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9. 13 (a) How many three-digit and four-
In how many ways can a number of digit numbers can be formed using
(a) 4 digits be formed without repetition? the digits 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, and 9 without
(b) 5 digits be formed without repetition? repetition?
(c) 6 digits be formed without repetition? (b) How many of these numbers will be
(i) greater than 500?
6 Given the digits 1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9 (ii) less than 500?
In how many ways can a number of
(a) 3 digits be formed without repetition? 14. (a) How many four-digit numbers can be
(b) 5 digits be formed without repetition? formed using the digits 1, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9
(c) 7 digits be formed without repetition? without repetition?
How many of the four-digit numbers
7. In how many ways can 7 different formed are
portraits be arranged in a row on a wall if (b) (1) less than 5 000?
4 are placed at a time? (ii) odd?
(iii) even?
EM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

15. A computer's password consists of 9 digits. 24. Eight married couples are to sit on a
Find the number of ways this password bench. In how many ways can they be
can be formed arranged if
(a) if all 9 digits of the password can be (a) there is no restriction?
repeated (b) each wife must sit beside her
(b) if no digit of the password can be husband?
repeated
25. How many four-digit even numbers can
16. How many 5-digit numbers can be be formed using the digit 1, 2,3,. . ., 9
formed by using the digits 0 to 9 if without repetitions?
(a) repetition is not allowed?
26. How many four-digit odd numbers can
(b) repetition is allowed?
be formed using the digits 1, 2, 3,. . ., 9
17. Find the number of permutations that can without repetitions?
be formed using the letters from the word 27. In how many ways can 7 girls and 6 boys
MISSISSIPPI. be seated in a row if
18. Find the number of permutations that can (a) the boys and girls can sit anywhere?
be formed using the letters in the name (b) the boys must sit together?
CONSTANTINE THE GREAT. (c) the boys must not sit together?
(d) the girls and boys are seated
19. Find the number of arrangements using
alternately?
the digits of the number 814 741147.
20. How many arrangements can be formed 28. In how many ways can 5 boys and 4 girls
using the digits of the number 723 342 132 be seated in a row if
471? (a) the girls and boys can sit anywhere?
(b) the girls must sit together?
21. A storekeeper wishes to arrange 5 (c) the girls must not sit together?
identical computers, 7 identical tablets (d) the boys and girls are seated
and 4 identical smart phones on a shelf. alternately?
How many arrangements are possible?
29. Given the digits 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8.
22. In how many ways can a jeweller arrange If no repetition is allowed, find the
on a shelf, 6 pairs of earnings with each number of
pair in an identical box, 8 necklaces and
(a) even numbers that can be formed
9 pairs of bracelets with each pair in an
(b) 6-digit even numbers greater than
identical box? Assume that the two sets of
60 000 that can be formed.
identical boxes are of two different sizes
and colours. 30. Given the digits 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8.
23. In how many ways can 11 members If no repetition is allowed, find the
of a cricket team be seated in 11 chairs number of
arranged in a row (a) odd numbers that can be formed
(b) 6-digit odd numbers less than 50 000
(a) if there are no restrictions?
that can be formed.
(b) if the first chair is reserved for the
captain of the team?
 Counting Mi
31. (a) How many 4-letter words can be 39. In how many ways can the letters in the
formed from the letters of the word word BELIZE be arranged if no two Es are
FORMULATE? next to one another?
(b) How many of these 4-letter words
(i) contain the letter L? 40. In how many ways can the letters in the
word JAMAICA be arranged if no two As
(ii) do not contain a vowel?
are next to one another?
32. (a) How many 5-letter words can be
41. In how many ways can the letters in the
formed from the letters of the words word MONTSERRAT be arranged if no
RIPE MANGO?
two Ts are next to each other?
(b) How many of these 5-letter words
(i) contain the letter G? 42. In how many ways can the letters in the
(ii) do not contain a vowel? words SAINT VINCENT be arranged if no
two Ns are next to each other?
33. How many four-digit telephone numbers
can be formed using the digits 0 to 9, 43. (a) In how many ways can the letters
given that the area code cannot begin or in the words CUSTARD APPLE be
end with a zero or one and the second arranged if no two As are next to one
digit must be 7, 8 or 9? another?
(b) How many arrangements are possible
34. The number plate on a car contains three if no two Ps are next to each other?
letters from the alphabet and a 4-digit
number chosen from the digits 0 to 9. If 44. (a) In how many ways can the letters
no letter or digit can be repeated, calculate in the word ENLARGEMENT be
the quantity of number plates possible arranged if no two Es are next to one
with this arrangement. another?
(b) How many arrangements are possible
35. How many ways can the letters in the if no two Ns are next to each other?
word GRENADA be arranged so that the
As are always together? 45. (a) In how many ways can 7 men and 4
women be arranged, in a row of seats
36. How many ways can the letters in the at a Parang show if no two women
word POLYGONS be arranged so that the can sit next to each other?
Os are always together? (b) If Paula and Pamela joint the group
• 37. How many ways can the letters in the word at the Parang show, how many
PARALLELOGRAMS be arranged if the arrangements are there given the same
restriction?
(a) P and M are together?
(b) PGM are kept together? 46. (a) In how many ways can 8 women and
38. How many ways can the letters in the 3 men be arranged in a row of seats at
words GEOMETRIC SERIES be arranged a Chutney show if no two men sit next
if the to each other?
(a) G and C are together? (b) If Mark, Josh and Bryan join the group
at the Chutney show, how many
(b) G, T and C are kept together?
arrangements are there, given the
same restriction?
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

47. In how many ways can 2 women and 54. (a) In how many ways can 9 students
4 men sit in a line of 6 chairs if the women visiting a zoo sit at a round table?
must sit at the ends? (b) How many ways are there if a boy and
girl will only sit next to each other?
48. In how many ways can 2 men and
(c) How many ways are there if a boy and
6 women sit in a line of 10 chairs if the girl will not sit next to each other?
men must sit at the ends?
55. In how many ways can 5 husbands and
49. In how many ways can 6 different
5 wives sit alternately on a carousel with
mathematics books and 3 different 10 horses?
English books be arranged on a shelf in a
school's library if an English book must 56. In how many ways can 7 couples sit
be at each of the ends? alternately at a round table playing a
game of luck and chance?
50. In how many ways can 7 different physics
books and 5 chemistry books be arranged 57. Eight chairs are arranged around a
on a shelf in a public library if a physics circular table. There are 4 blue chairs,
book must be at each of the ends? 3 green chairs and 1 red chair. How many
arrangements are possible for the chairs?
51. (a) In how many ways can the letters
of the word CHLOROPHYLL be 58. Ten stools are arranged around a circular
arranged in a row? sun shade table. These are 5 brown
(b) How many of the words have a letter wooden stools, 3 steel stools and 2 bronze
H at the ends? stools. How many arrangements are
(c) How many of the words formed begin possible for the stools?
with the letter 0 and end with the
letter Y? 59. (a) A circular bangle has 8 rings placed
around it. How many arrangements of
52. (a) In how many ways can the letters the rings are possible?
of the word TRIGONOMETRY be (b) A bangle with a heart has 8 rings
arranged in a row? placed around it. How many
(b) How many of the words formed have arrangements of the rings are
a letter T at the ends? possible?
(c) How many of the words formed begin
with the letter R and end with the 60. (a) A plain necklace with a screw lock
letter E? has 9 different pendants. How many
permutations of the pendants are
53. (a) In how many ways can 7 people possible?
visiting a restaurant for dinner sit at a (b) A plain necklace with a hook lock
round table? has 9 different pendants. How many
(b) How many ways are there if a permutations of the pendants are
husband and wife must sit next to possible?
each other?
(c) How many ways are there if two
people will not sit next to each other?
 Counting

Combinations

A combination is a s: election of one or more objects from a set of objects without

regard for order.

In a permutation the order of the objects is important

In a combination the order of the objects is not important.
The letters P, Q and R has 6 permutations but only 1 combination, since the order of a letter
is immaterial now.
k4iflHifl*E,)i
PQR, PRQ, QPR, QRP, RPQ, PQR
RQP
PQ, QP, QR, RQ, RP, PR PQ, QP, RP

In permutation: In combination:
PQR * QPR # RPQ etc. PQR = QPR = RPQ etc.
In permutation: In combination:
PQQP PQ=QP
The number of combinations of the three letters P, Q and R, taken 3 at a time is
3!
(3-3)!3!
1
0!
=1
The number of combinations of the three letters P. Q and R, taken 2 at a time is
3!
2
(3-2)!2!
3•2!
1!2!

We defined np 'r!
=
=3

=
n
pr

where l:! ~ r<n.

(n r)! r!
-

The number of combinations of n different objects taken (selected) r at a time is

(n)
'Cr where nC r =• 1 < r ~ n.
y (n—r)!r!
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Example 38 (c) The number of ways of selecting 7 men

A committee is to be selected from 8 men from 8men = 8 C7 =8
and 5 women. The number of ways of selecting 6 men
Find the number of ways this committee can from 8 men and 1 woman from
be selected containing 5women = 8 C6 x 5 C1
(a) 7 members = 28 x 5
(b) 5 men and 2 women = 140
(c) 7 members consisting of more men The number of ways of selecting 5 men
than women. from 8 men and 2 women from
• Solution 5women = 8 C5 x 5 C2
=56x10
(a) The total number of members =8+5=13 = 560
The member of ways of selecting
7 members from 13 members The number of ways of selecting
13(-. 4 men from 8 men and 3 women from
- L-7
5women = 8 C4 x 5 C3
13! =70 x 10
(13-7)!7! = 700
13! the number of ways of selecting
6!7! a committee of 7 with more men
than women =8+140+560+700
=1716
= 1 408
(b) The member of ways of selecting Example 39
5 men from 8 men
A committee of five is chosen from six
= 8c5
teachers and five sixth-formers. In how
8! many ways can this be done so that the
= (8-5)!5! committee contains:
8! (a) at least one teacher?
(b) at least one teacher and one sixth-former?
3!5!
=56 • Solution
The member of ways of selecting (a) The number of ways of choosing
2 women from 5 women 5 teachers from 6 teachers = 6 C5 = 6
= 5c 2 The number of ways of choosing
5! 4 teachers from 6 teachers and 1 student
from 5 students = 6 C4x 5C
= (5-2)!2! 1
= 15 x 5
5! = 75
3!2! The number of ways of choosing
=10 3 teachers from 6 teachers and
.. the number of ways of selecting the 2 students from 5 students = 6 C x 5C 2
committee = x 5C 2 =20x10
= 56 x 10 =200
= 560
 Counting IM
The number of ways of choosing (7'\ (7)
2 teachers from 6 teachers and from 7boys
3 students from 5 students = 6 C2 x
=15x10 = 735
= 150 (ii) The number of ways of selecting
The number of ways of choosing 3 girls from 7 girls and 2 boys
1 teacher from 6 teachers and 4 students (7'• (7)
from 5 students = x 5C4 from 7boys = 3 Jx 2
=6x5
=30 =735
the number of committees that (iii) The number of selections
can be formed containing at least
one teacher = 6 + 75 + containing 5 boys = (7)
200+150
+30 =21
=461 The number of selections containing
(b) The number of committees that can be
formed containing at least one teacher 4 boys and lgirl =()x()
and one sixth-former = 6C x
+C3 xC2 =35x7
• 6C2 x = 245
+ 6 C1 x 5 C4 The number of selections
= 75 + 200 containing 3 boys and
+150+30 (7) (7
=455 2girls = xi
3 2
Example 40I1
=35x21
Find the number of ways of selecting
=735
(a) 5 students from a group of 14 students
(b) If the group contains an equal number the number of selections
of boys and girls, find the number of containing at least three boys
selections which contain =21 + 245 + 735
(i) 2 girls and 3 boys = 1 001
(ii) 3 girls and 2 boys (iv) The number of selections
(iii) at least three boys
containing 5 girls = (7)
(iv) at least two girls,
Solution =21
(a) The number of ways of selecting The number of selections
(14 containing 4 girls and 1 boy
5 students from 14 students = ( 7) (7)
x
4 1
=2002
(b) (i) The number of ways of selecting =35 x 7
2 girls from 7 girls and 3 boys =245
 . Pure Mathematics for CAPE

The number of selections Example 42

containing 3 girls and A vase contains 14 coloured balls, of which 6
are red, 5 blue, 2 green and 1 yellow.
2boys Find the number of different selections of
17" (' ) 3 balls.
=35 x 21
= 735 Solution
The number of selections Method 1
containing 2 girls and If all three balls are of the same colour
= (7) X (7) => 3R or 3B
3boys => 2 selections
If two balls are of the same colour
=21x35 => 2R + lB or 1G or 1Y
= 735 = 3 selections
.. the number of selections = 2B + 1R or 1G or 1Y
containing at least = 3 selections
two girls = 21 + 245 = 2 green + 1R or lB or 1Y
+735+735 = 3 selections
= 1 736 = 2G+1Ror1Bor1Y
= 3 selections
Example 41 If the 3 balls are of
In how many ways can 10 different books be different colours = 1R + lB + 1G
separated into = 1R+1G+1Y
(a) two groups of 5 books and 5 books? =* 1R+1B+1Y
(b) two groups of 7 books and 3 books? = 1B+1G+1Y
= 4 selections
Solution
the number of different selections
(a) The number of ways of separating of 3 balls (these are mutually exclusive
into two groups of 5 books and combinations) = 2 + 3 + 3 + 3 +4
= 1(10 =15
Sbooks
Method 2
If all three balls are of the same colour
= - x 252
2 (2)
=126
(b) The number of ways of separating If two balls are of the same colour
into two groups of 7 books and (3) (3 (3
(io ( io
3books = —I
1
2I7)!3
II Wi
=3+3+3
=—x120x120 =9
2 If the three balls are of different colours
=7200 (4"
(10) .
This is so since
 Counting

.. the number of different selections The number of ways of forming a

of 3 balls (these are mutually exclusive group of 5 students from 5 students
combinations) =2+9+4 (15-10 = (5)
=15 5
Example 436A .. the number of ways of forming
In how many ways can 3 red balls, 4 blue
the two groups x
balls and 5 green balls be chpsen from = 10 5
a bag containing 5 red balls, 7 blue balls
=3003 x 1
and 6 green balls?
=3003
- Solution
(b) The number of ways of forming a
3 red balls can be chosen from group of 6 students from 15 students
5 red balls in (5) ways =10 (15 )

4 blue balls can be chosen from The number of ways of forming

(74) a group of 5 students from
7 blue balls in ways = 35
(15-6 (9
9students =1 1=1
5 green balls can be chosen from L )
(6 The number of ways of forming
6 green balls in ways =6
5) a group of 4 students from
The number of ways of choosing 9-5 )=(4)

the required balls

= (5
x
(7
x
(6)
4students
1
=( 4
3) 4) .. the number of ways of forming the
=10x35x6 = (15)x (95)x (1)
three groups
=2 100
=5 005 x 126 xl
- Example 44 '
= 630 630
Find the number of ways in which
(c) The number of ways of forming
15 students can be divided into
a group of 4 students from
(a) two groups consisting of 10 and
=(15-6 (9
5 students 9students 1=1
(b) three groups consisting of 6,5 and 4 )
4 students The number of ways of forming
(c) three groups consisting of 4, 3 and a group of 3 students from
2 students with 6 students excluded. =(9-4)=(5) .

5students
Solution 3
(a) The number of ways of forming a The number of ways of forming
group of 10 students from a group of 2 students from
s-3 1 (2
(15) 2students =1 ( =1
15 students 2) 2
io
an Pure Mathematics for CAPE

.. the number of ways of forming the the number of quadrilaterals

three groups with 6 students
(9 than can be drawn is = 126
excluded 1lx
4) ('3) X 2
Example 47 W3
=126x10x1
Five letters are to be selected from the letters
=1260 in the word GREENBECKS. How many
Example 45 AJ different combinations are possible?
Twelve plant shops are finalists for three Solution
$10 000 prizes. In how many different ways Method 1
can the prizes be awarded?
G R EN B C KS
Solution
E
Since the prizes to be awarded are equal, F
then the order does not matter. Total
The number of different ways to award
1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 101
the prizes = 12C 3
= 220 EEE I G I R IN I B I C I K S

Example 46
The number of selections
with no Es, that is, selecting
Nine points are marked on a piece of paper 5 letters from the 7 letters
with no 4 points forming a straight line. G, R, N, B, C, K and S
7x6x5x4x3
Find
(a) the number of straight lines that can -7x6x5x4x3
be drawn - 5x4x3x2x1
(b) the number of triangles that can =21
be drawn The number of selections
(c) the number of quadrilaterals that can =lx 7x6x5x4
be drawn. with iE
4!
Solution =
7x6x5x4
(a) Two points are needed to draw a 4x3x2x1
straight line. =35
the number of straight lines The number of selections
with 2Es =lx 7x6x5
that can be drawn is =36 3!
7x6x5
EE7ways6waysl5waysk3! =
(b) Three points are needed to draw 3x2x1
a triangle. =35
.. the number of triangles The number of selections 7x6
with 3Es =lx
that can be drawn is =84 2!
7x6
(c) Four points are needed to draw EIE}EI7 ways 6ways 2! =
~
2x1
a quadrilateral. =21
 Counting

.. the total number of selections The number of selections

= 21 + 35 + 35 + 21 containing 2 Is plus
= 112 1 letter from 7 letters =1 x 7C1
=1x7
Method 2 =7
The number of selection with no Es, The number of selections
this is, selecting 5 letters from the containing 2 Ns plus
7 letters G, R, N, B, C, K and S is 7C5 = 21 1 letter from 7 letters = 1 x 7C1
The number of selection with 1 E, =1x7
that is, selecting 4 letters from =7
7 letters is 7C4 = 35 The number of selections
The number of selections with 2 Es, containing 2 As plus
that is, selecting 3 letters from 1 letter from 7 letters = 1 x 7C1
7 letters is 7C3 = 35 1 letter from 7 letters = 1x7
The number of selections with 3 Es, =7
that is, selecting 2 letters from The number of selections
7 letters is 7C2 = 21 containing 3 letters from
.. the number of. different 8 different letters = 8 C3
combmations possible = 21 + 35 + 35 + 21 =56
=112 .. the total number
of different selections
Example 48 IJ
of3letters =1+7+7+7+7
(a) Find the number of different selections +7+56
of 3 letters that can be made from =92
the letters of the words WINDWARD (b) WNDR S L
ISLAND.
WND
(b) How many of these selections contain
D
at least one vowel?
Tota12231 1 1 1O
(a) WINDARSL
WI NDA The number of selections
____
containing 3 Ds =1
D
The number of selections
Tota122232 1 11
containing 2 Ws plus
The number of selections 1 letter from 5 letters =1 x 5 C.I
containing 3 Ds = 1 =1x5
The number of selections =5
containing 2 Ds plus The number of selections
1 letter from 7 letters (not D) = 1 x 7C1 containing 2 Ns plus
=1x7 1 letter from 5 letters = 1 x 5 C1
=7 =1x5
The number of selections =5
containing 2 Ws plus The number of selections
1 letter from 7 letters = 1 x 7C1 containing 3 letters from
=1x7 6 letters - 6C3
3
=7 =20
 I Pure Mathematics for CAPE

the number of selections Hence the number of selections

without any vowels = 1 +5 + 5 at least ivowel =92-31
+20 L =61
=31

Exercise Sc
1. A debating team is to be selected from captain, and another as vice-captain. In how
9 boys and 6 girls at the Carra East many ways can this be done?
Secondary School.
Find the number of ways this debating 6. A group of players consists of 5 boys and
team can be selected containing 7 girls, In how many ways can a team of
five be chosen if it is to contain
(a) 8 members (b) no boys?
(a) no girls?
(b) 5 boys and 3 girls (c) at least two boys? (d) at least three girls?
(c) 8 members consisting of more boys
than girls 7. In how many ways can 12 different books
(d) 8 members consisting of more girls be separated into
than boys. (a) two groups of 6 books each?
(b) two groups of 7 books and 5 books?
2. A woman has 7 shrubs and 8 fruit trees to
plant. In how many ways can she make 8. Find the number of ways in which 14
her selection if she decides to plant different coloured balls can be divided
(a) 10 plants? into 2 groups of
(b) 3 shrubs and 7 fruit trees? (a) 7 balls each
(c) 10 plants consisting of more shrubs (b) 5 balls and 9 balls each.
than fruit trees?
9. An urn contains 18 coloured tiles, of
(d) 10 plants consisting of more fruit trees
than shrubs? which 7 are white, 6 grey, 3 blue and
2 orange. Find the number of different
3. At Fatima college, the librarian has to selections of 3 tiles.
make a selection of 7 newspapers and
10 magazines from the 9 newspapers and 10. A vase contains 20 coloured marbles,
14 magazines available in the school's library. of which 8 are blue, 7 purple, 3 green
In how many ways can the selection be and 2 red. Find the number of different
done? selections of 4 marbles.

4. A group of seven singers is chosen from 11. In how many ways can 4 red balls, 5 green
five teachers and eight students of the balls and 6 blue balls he chosen from a
Holy Faith Convent. In how many ways trunk containing 6 red balls, 7 green balls
can this he done so that the group contains. and 8 blue balls?
(a) at least two teachers?
12. In how many ways can 5 black pens,
(b) at least two teachers and two students? 4 blue pens, 2 green pens and 1 red pen
5. A Preysal cricket team of 11 players is to be be chosen from a pen container containing
selected from a group of 16 players with one 7 black pens, 5 blue pens, 4 green pens
of the 11 cricketers then being nominated as and 3 red pens?
 Counting

13. Find the number of ways in which 18 (b) the number of pentagons that can be
Presentation college footballers can be drawn
divided into (c) the number of hexagons that can be
(a) two groups consisting of 10 and drawn.
8 footballers
(b) three groups consisting of 8, 7 and 19. Two letters are to be selected from the
3 footballers letters in the word AKEE which is a
(c) three groups consisting of 6,5 and Jamaica delicacy. How many different
4 footballers with 3 footballers combinations are possible?
excluded. 20. Three letters are to be selected from the
letters in the word DOUBLES which
14. Find the number of ways in which 21 is a delicacy enjoyed by most people
Waterloo High School cricketers can be in the Caribbean. How many different
divided into combinations are possible?
(a) two groups consisting of 12 and
9 cricketers 21. Three letters are to be selected from the
(b) three groups consisting of 10, 7 and letters in the word PHOLOURIE which
4 cricketers is an East Indian delicacy. How many
(c) three groups consisting of 6,5 and 4 different combinations are possible?
cricketers with 6 cricketers excluded. 22. Three letters are to be selected from the
letters in the word BAIGANI which is an
15. Fourteen horticulture shops are East Indian delicacy. How many different
finalists for five $15 000 prizes. In how combinations are possible?
many different ways can the prizes be
awarded? 23. (a) Three letters are to be selected from
the letters in the word EGGBALL
16. Seventeen artists are finalists for eight which is a delicacy. How many
$12 000 prizes. In how many different different selections are possible?
ways can the prizes be awarded? (b) How many of these selections contain
at least one vowel?
17. Ten points are marked on a piece of paper
with no 5 points forming a straight live. 24. (a) Find the number of different selections
Find of 3 letters that can be made from the
(a) the number of triangles that can be letters of the word IMAGINATION.
drawn (b) How many of these selections contain
(b) the number of quadrilaterals that can at least one vowel?
be drawn
25. Four letters are to be selected from the
(c) the number of pentagons that can be
letters of the word PONTIFF.
drawn.
Find the number of different 4-letter
18. Twelve points are marked on a piece of paper selections that can be made containing.
with no 6 points forming a straight live. (a) no
Find (b) one F
(a) the number of quadrilaterals that can (c) two F
be drawn
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Probability
Experiment, outcomes, sample space and event

An experiment is a process which for each trial results in a single observation of more
than one possible observations.
An outcome (sample point) of an experiment is the observation made for a single trial.
The sample space (possibility space), S. for an experiment is the set of all possible
outcomes.
An event is a collection of one or more outcomes of an experiment.

Example 49 WA (c) (i) The outcomes are:

Given the following experiments. 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9
(a) Flipping a fair coin once (ii) The sample space is:
(b) Rolling a fair die S = 10, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
(c) An integer is chosen at random from (iii) The number of possible
the integers 0 to 9 inclusive. outcomes in the sample space,
(d) Tossing three unbiased coins. n(S)= 10. There are 10 equally
For each experiment, state likely outcomes.
(i) the outcomes (d) (i) The outcomes are:
(ii) the sample space, S. HHH, HHT, HTH, THH, TTH,
(iii) the number of outcomes in the THT, HTT, TTT
sample space S. (ii) The sample space is
S = {HHH, HHT, HTH, THH,
Experiments like these are called TTH, THT, HTT, TTT}
- statistical (random) experiments. (iii) The number of possible
outcomes in the sample space,
Solution n(S) = 8 There are 8 equally
likely outcomes.
(a) (i) The outcomes are:
Head (11), Tail (T)
The word 'fair' ('unbiased') means
(ii) The sample space is:
that the outcomes are equally likely.
S = (H, TJ
(iii) The number of possible
outcomes in the sample space, Example 50 II
n(S) = 2. There are 2 equally A fair coin is tossed twice.
likely outcomes. State
(b) (i) The outcomes are: (a) the possible outcomes
1,2,3,4,5, 6 (b) the sample space, S
(ii) The sample space is: (c) the elements in the event that at least
S= 11, 2, 3, 4, 5, 61 (1) one head appears, E1
(iii) The number of possible outcomes (ii) two tails appear, E2
in the sample space, n(S) = 6. (d) Draw a tree diagram to represent
There are 6 equally likely the experiment of 'tossing a fair coin
outcomes. twice?
 Counting

Solution If P(A) represents the probability (chance) of an

(a) The possible outcomes are: event A occurring, n(A) represents the number
HH, HT, TH, TT of possible ways that event A can occur and n(S)
(b) The sample space is represents the number of possible outcomes in
S = {HH, HT, TH, TT} the sample space S.
The two-way table shows all possible n(A)
then P(A) = where n(S) # 0.
outcomes in the sample space S. n(S)
Example 51
HH HT A card is drawn from a standard deck of
TH_ TT 52 playing cards. What is the probability of
drawing a red king?
(c) (i) The event, E1 = {HH, HT, TH}
(ii) The event, E2 = {TT} Solution
The event A = {king of hearts, king of
diamonds)
A simple event contains one and
.. the number of outcomes in the event
only one outcome of an experiment.
A,n(A)=2.
The sample space S = (cards in the deck)
E2 is a simple event. ., the number of outcomes in the sample
space S, n(S) = 52.
A compound event contains two or
more outcomes of an experiment. So
n(S)
2
E1 is a compound event.
(d) First Second Outcomes 52
=-
toss toss P(red king)
HH 26
/H
T HT
The probability scale ranges from 0 for an
impossible event (an event that will never

~ < T TT
occur) to 1 for a certain event (an event that
must occur)
Thus 0:~ P(A):~ 1.
The possible outcomes for the
experiment of 'tossing a fair coin twice'
0 0.25 0.5 0.75
is represented by the tree diagram above.
Impossible 50-50 chance certain
- event of happening event
Probability of an event
-Example 52
The theoretical probability of an A fair coin is flipped and an unbiased six
event occurring is the number of sided die is tossed simultaneously and the
possible ways in which the event outcomes recorded.
can occur divided by the total (a) Determine all possible outcomes in the
number of possible outcomes in the sample space S.
sample space, when each outcome (b) State the total number of possible
is equally likely to occur. outcomes in the sample space S.
EM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

(c) Calculate the probability that both

(1) a head on the coin and a six on the die is recorded.
(ii) a tail on the coin and an odd number on the die is recorded.
Solution
(a) The sample space S can be represented by a table showing all possible outcomes.

HI H2 H3 H4 H5 1H61
© T2 T4 5 . T6
The sample space S can also be represented by a graph showing all possible outcomes as
sample points.
Side of coin

H .
TØ. 0 •Ø
I I I

1 2 3 4 5 6 Number of dots

(b) The total number of possible outcomes in the sample space 5, n(S) = 12.
(c) (i) The number of outcomes with both a head on the coin and a six on the die
recorded, n(A) = 1
.. P(both a head and a six recorded) = n(A)
n(S)
1
12
(ii) The number of outcomes with both a tail on the coin and an odd number on the
die recorded, n(B) = 3
.. P(both a tail and an odd number recorded)
n(S)
3
12
1
4

Example 53 '
Two cards are drawn at random from a standard deck of 52 playing cards without
replacement. Calculate the probability that both cards are black.
Solution
Method 1
The number of favorable outcomes is 26c2
= 26 X
25 =13 25
2x1
 Counting EM
The total number of outcomes is Total probability
52x512651
52c2 If S={1,3,5,7,9}
2x1 A = {drawing an even number
.. P(both cards are black) = n(A) from S)
n(S) and B = ( drawing an odd number
13 x 25 from S}
- 26x51 then n(S)=5
25 A={} =n(A)=0
and B={1,3,5,7,9}=n(B)=5
102
Method 2 So P(A)= "4
n(S)
P(both cards are black) = x
52 51 0
25
102 =0
Hence A is an impossible event.
Example 54
A pack of cards has some cards missing. And
n(S)
The cards that remain are 9 spades, 13 clubs,
8 hearts and 10 diamonds. Two cards are 5
drawn at random from the remaining cards. 5
Find the probability that both cards are =1
diamonds. Hence B is a certain event.
If C = (drawing a number no more
- Solution than 5 from S}
Method 1 and D = ( drawing a number greater
than 5 from S},
The number of favourable outcomes is
then C= Il l 3,5}=>n(C)=3
10x9 =5x9 and D=(7,9} =n(D)=2
2x1
So P(C) = n(C)
The total number of outcomes is
n(S)
40C 2 = 40 x
39 =20 x 39 3
2x1 10
5
P(both cards are diamonds) =
40-' =0.6
5x9 and P(D) = n(D)
20 x 39 n(S)
3 2
52 5
= 0.4
Method 2
P(both cards are diamonds) = x
40 39
3
52
MI Pure Mathematics for CAPE

The four probabilities are shown on the

The probability that event A occurs
number scale below.
is 1 minus the probability that event
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 A does not occur.
P(A) P(D) P(C) P(B)
Notice that: P(A) + P(B) = 0 + 1 = 1 Also P(A') = 1 - P(A)
P(C) + P(D) = 0.6 + 0.4 = 1
=_:
9
The total probability for all possible 5
outcomes in a sample space S. is 1. 9
L Thus P(S) = 1. Hence P(A') = 1 - P(A).

Probability that an event does The probability that event A does

not occur is 1 minus the probability
not happen that event A occurs.
Consider the Venn diagram below.
These two rules are known as the
complement rule.
OA Example 55 IJ
Four cards are drawn at random from a
standard deck of 52 playing cards without
Let S = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} replacement. Calculate the probability that
then A = (even number in the sample at least one card is an ace.
space S}
= 12, 4, 6, 8) Solution
and A' = {odd numbers in the sample The number of non-favourable outcomes
space S} (outcomes containing no aces) is 48C4
= (1,3,5,7,9) The total number of outcomes is 52C4
48c 4
So P(A)= n(A)4 So P(no ace) =
n(S) 9 52(-
'- 4

and P(A')= n(A')5 - 48 x 47 x 46 x 45

n(S) 9 - 52x51x50x49
P(A) + P(A') = + = 1 = 0.719 (3 s.f.)

Also P(A) = 1 - P(A') 48 C4

P(at least one ace) = 1-
52-
=1—p
9
4 =1-0.719
9 = 0.281
Hence P(A) = 1 - P(A').
 Counting EM
Non-mutually exclusive events Alternatively:
P(M u A) = P(M) + P(A) - P(M n A)
Two events are non-mutually exclusive if 40 28 20
they can occur simultaneously (together) So —=—+--P(MrA)
40 40 40
Example 56 i.e. 1 = 0.7 + 0.5 P(M u A)
1=1.2-P(MuA)
At a college, a class of 40 students entered for =' P(MuA)=1.2-1
CAPE Mathematics. 28 students entered for =0.2
Pure Mathematics, M. 20 students entered The probabilities are illustrated on
for Applied Mathematics, A. Calculate the Venn diagram below.
the probability that a student chosen at
random from this class entered for both Pure
-S
Mathematics and Applied Mathematics.
•

Solution
Given n(MuA)=40 = n(S)
n(M)=28 For two events A and B which are non-
and n(A)=20 mutually exclusive
Let n(MnA)=x +
P(A u B) = P(A) P(B) P(A n B) -

Then we have the following Venn diagram: +

that is P(A or B) = P(A) P(B) P(A and B).-

-S_ _ Shown on a Venn diagram.

L
28- x JJ
2-0 X =>
20L
M~G12

Thus 28—x+x+20—x=40
So 48—x=40
PS
AnB{
C[) }.

i.e. x=48-40 The two sets intersect.

x=8 P(A r B) t 0.
n(MA)=8
Hence 8 Students entered for both Pure Example 57 'IJ
Mathematics and Applied Mathematics. Given that A and B are two events such that
Now P(MnA)=n(M P(A)=.,P(B)=. and P(AnB)=,find
n(S)
= n(MnA) (a) P(AuB) (b) P(A'nB')
n(MuA) (c) P(A' u B')
8 Solution
40 Method 1
1 P(A n B)
(a) P(A u B) = P(A)+ P(B) -

5 311
Hence, the probability that a student chosen at
random from the class entered for both Pure
8 2 4
5
Mathematics and Applied Mathematics is 8
FO Pure Mathematics for CAPE

(b) P(A' r B') = P[(A u B)']

by De Morgan's law
844
= 1 - P(A u B)
5
8
8
3 (b) P(A' n B')= 1 -( + +
8 4 4
(c) P(A' u B') = P[(A n B)'] =1-
by De Morgan's law 8
= 1 - P(A - B) 3
8
4
3 (c) P(A'UB')
848
4
3
Method 2 4
(a) Given P(A) = This rule can be extended to include more
than two events.

P(B) =
Two or more events are non-mutually
exclusive if they can occur
and P(ArB)=.1L simultaneously (together).
4
Then P(A B') = P(A) - P(A r B)
31 For three events A, B and C which are non-
84 mutually exclusive
1 P(Au U C) = P(A) + P(B) + P(C)
-P(AnB)
8
-P(AnC)
and P(BnA')=P(B)—P(ArB) -P(BnC)
11 +P(AnBnC)
24 where P(A U U B C) = P(A or B or C)
1 and P(AnBnC)=P(A and B and C).
4 Example 58
The probabilities can be represented on At a car repair shop, 50% of the cars have
a Venn diagram. an engine problem, 43% of the cars have
a transmission problem, and 17% of the
cars have both an engine and transmission
problem. Find the probability that a car
chosen at random
(a) has an engine or transmission problem
(b) has no engine and no transmission
problem.
 Counting EM
- Solution and P(E
Method 1 =----= 0.17
(a) Let P(engine problem) = P(E) 100
P(engine problem
=50%
only) = P(E n T')
= -- = = 0.5 =0.5-0.17
100 2 = 0.33
P(transmission problem) = P(T) and P(transmission
= 43% problem only) = P(T n E')
= - -= 0.43 = 0.43-0.17
100 = 0.26
and P(EnT)=17% The probabilities are illustrated on
the Venn diagram below.
= 0.17 1
100
Using the formula:
P(EuI)=P(E)+P(T)-P(ET)
Then P(E u T) = 0.5 + 0.43 - 0.17
= 0.76
Hence, the probability that a car
chosen at random has an engine or
transmission problem is 0.76 P(E U I) = 0.33 + 0.17 + 0.26
(b) P(Car has no engine and no = 0.76
transmission problem) = P(E' n T') (b) Now P(E' n T') = P[(E U T)']
By De Morgan's law: by De Morgan's law.
P(E' n T') = P[(E u I)'] And P[(E U I)'] = 1- (0.33 + 0.17 + 0.26)
So P[(E u T)'] = 1 - P(E u I) = 1 - 0.76
=1- 0.76 = 0.24
=0.24
Hence, the probability that a car chosen
at random has no engine and no -Example 59
transmission problem is 0.24. In a high school, 100 students were entered
for the CSEC examinations. The Venn
Method 2 diagram shows the number of students who
The problem can also be solved using a were entered for Physics (P) Chemistry (C)
Venn diagram and Biology (B)
(a) Let P(engine problem) = P(E)
=50%
= ! = 1 = 0.5
1002
P(transmission problem) = P(T)
= 43%
= - --= 0.43
100
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

A student is chosen at random from the

100 students.
(a) Find the probability that the student
was entered for
(i) all three science subjects; Physics,
Chemistry and Biology
(ii) at least one of the three science
- n(PuCuB)
subjects; Physics, Chemistry or And P(Pu C u B)
Biology - n(S)
(iii) Chemistry, but not Physics or Biology 90
(iv) Biology and Chemistry, but not 100
Physics = 0.9
(b) What is the probability that the student Hence, the probability that the
was not entered for any of the three student was entered for at least
science subjects? one of the three science subjects,
Solution Physics, Chemistry or Biology is 0.9.
(iii) The number of students entered
(a) (i) The number of students entered
for Chemistry, but not Physics or
for all three science subjects,
Biology, n(C n P' n B') = 8
n(PrCrB)=20

'.0 n P' B'

The total number of students entered And P(CnP'nB')=
n(S)
for CSEC examinations, (S) = 100
8
And P(PnCnB)= 100
n(S)
= 0.08
20
Hence, the probability that the
100 student was entered for Chemistry,
= 0.2 but not Physics or Biology (only
Hence, the probability that the Chemistry) is 0.8.
student was entered for all (iv) The number of students entered
three science subjects, Physics for Biology and Chemistry, but not
Chemistry and Biology is 0.2. Physics, n(B n C n P') =16
(ii) The number of students
entered for at least one of the
three science subjects, Physics,
Chemistry or Biology,
n(P u Cu B) = 12 + 7+ 20 +9 +8
+16+18
=90
 Counting

- Example 60 l
And P(BnCnP')_ -"B n C n P'
n(S) Given n(A u B u C) = 100, n(A) = 48,
16 n(B) = 54, n(C) = 69, n(A ) B) = 27,
n(A n C) = 29, n(B C) =33 and
100 n(A u B u Q'= 0,
= 0.16 find P(AriBimC).
Hence, the probability that the
-Solution
student was entered for Biology
and Chemistry, but not Physics Method 1
(only Biology and Chemistry)
Since n (A u B u C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C)
is 0.16.
- n(A n B)
(b) The number of students who were not
-n(AnC)
entered for any of the three science
- n(B n C)
subjects, n(P u C u B)' = 10
+n(Ar)BnC)
Then 100=48+54+69-27
-29 - 33
+n(AnBC)
So 100=82+n(AnBnC)
i.e. n(AnBrC)=100-82
= 18
P(A B n C) = n(A n B n C)
And
n(S)
And P[(PuCuB)'] n(PuCuB)' n(ArBnC)
n(S)
- n(AuBuC)
10
18
100
100
=0.1
=0.18
Hence, the probability that the student
was not entered for any of the three Method 2
science subjects is 0.1. Since P(A u B u C) = P(A) +T(B) + P(C)
Note: P(PuCuB)=1-P[(PuCuB)'] -P(AnB)
= 1-0.1 -P(AnC)
=0.9 -P(BnC)
+P(AnBnC)
Then 1 = 0.48 + 0.54 + 0.69
- 0.27 - 0.29 - 0.33
-i-P(AnBnC)
So 1=0.82+P(Ar)BnC)
i.e. P(AnBnC)=1 -0.82
=0.18
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Mutually exclusive events Example 62

Given that A and B are two events such that
- Two events are mutually exclusive
if they cannot occur simultaneously (a) P(A) = , P(B)= - and P(A u B) =
(together).
(b) P(A) = , P(B)= and P(A u B) =
Example 61
In each case, determine if the events A and B
A card is picked at random from a standard
are mutually exclusive or not.
pack of 52 playing cards. What is the
probability that the card picked is either a Solution
heart or a black ace?
(a) Since P(A)+P(B)=+
Solution
7
P(a heart) =
52
P(a black ace) = 2— and P(AuB)=
52
.. P(a heart or a black ace) = P(a heart) then P(A u B) P(A) + P(B).
+ P(a black ace) Hence the events A and B are non-
13 2 mutually exclusive.
= —+-
52 52
(b) Since P(A)+P(B)=+.
15
7
No heart is a black ace. 52
No black ace is a heart.
So we have the following Venn diagram, and P(AuB)=
then P(A u B) = P(A) + P(B).

01
Hence the events A and B are mutually
exclusive.
Example 63iF3
The probability that James walks to school is
where H = {hearts}
and B = { black ace} and the probability that he cycles to school is
For two events A and B which are mutually 9
exclusive
Find the probability that
P(A u B) = P(A) + P(B)
(a) James either walks or cycles to school
that is P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B)
(b) James neither walks nor cycles to school.
since P(AnB)=O.
Shown on a Venn diagram. Solution
—s An B =1 }. Method 1
The two sets are
disjoint. (a) Let P(James walks to school) = P(W) =
P(A n B) =0.
and P(James cycles to school) = P(C) =
 Counting IM
Using the formula:
P(Wu C)=P(W) + P(C) (b) Now P(WuC)'=1_(+.)
24
=—+-
99 =1--
6 3
1
9
2 3
The rule can be extended to include more
3
than two events.
Hence, the probability that James either
walk or cycles to school is Two or more events are mutually
exclusive if they cannot occur
(b) P(James neither walk nor cycles to simultaneously (together).
school) = P(W u C)'
And P(WuC)'=l-P(WuC)
H For three events A, B and C which are
=_ mutually exclusive
3
1 P(AuBuC)=P(A)+P(B)+P(C).
This is called the addition rule for
3
probability. Recall the addition principle of
Hence, the probability that James 1 counting.
neither walk nor cycles to school is
-Example 64
Method 2
A bag contains thirty balls of four different
The problem can also be solved using a colours as shown in the table below.
Venn diagram.
(a) Let P(James walks to school) = P(W) =
Colour I Red(R) I Blue(B) I Green(G) White(W)
and P(James cycles to school) = P(C) =
A ball is drawn at random from the bag.
The probabilities are illustrated on the What is the probability of drawing
Venn diagram below. (a) a red or a blue ball?
(b) a red or a blue or a green ball?
- Solution
2
Method 1
(a) Since n(RuB)=7+8=15
and n(S)=7+8--5+1O=3O
P(WuC)=+ then P(R u B) n(R u B)
99 n(S)
6 15
9 30
2 1
3 2
EM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

(b) Since n(R u B u G) =7+8+5=20 So P(R u B) = P(R) + P(B)

= n(R U B U G) 8 since R
P(R u B U G) =-+—
n(S) 30 30 and B are
- 20 - 15 mutually
- exclusive
30 30
events.
_2 1
3 2
(b) Since n(G)=5
Method 2
then P(G) = n(G)
(a) Since n(R) = 7 n(S)
n(B) = 8 5
and n(S)=7+8+5+10=30
= n(R) 30
then P(R)
n(S) So P(R U B U G) = P(R) + P(B) + P(G)
7 7 8 5
=—+—+—
30 30 30 30
20 since R, B
and =
P(B) 30 and G are
n(S) mutually
2
- 8 =- exclusive
3 events.
- 30

Independent events
Two events are independent events if the occurrence on non-occurrence of one event
does not affect the occurrence or non-occurrence of the other event.

Two events A and B are independent if and only if P(A n B) = P(A) P(B)
that is P(A and B) = P(A) x P(B).
Example 65 '1
A fair coin is flipped, then a card is pulled from a standard deck of 52 playing cards.
Calculate the probability that the result is a head followed by a face card.
Solution
The sample space for the coin is:
S = { H, T}
So n(H)=1
and n(S) =2
p(H).J'(H)
n(S)
1
2
 Counting

The sample space for the playing cards is:

• • S • • • • . . •
• . . • . S • S • • • • .

'I
•
.
• . . . . S • • S •

LJ • . . . . . . ., • S

K Q J 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 A
So n(face card) = 12
and n(S)=52
P(face card) =
52
P(head and face card) = P(head) x P(face card)
1 12
=–X-
2 52
3
26
= 0.115 (3 s. f.)
The rule can be extended to include more than two events
- Example 66 W11
A fair coin is flipped, a card is pulled from a standard deck of 52 playing cards, then a fair
six-sided die is tossed. Calculate the probability that the three events that occur is a tail, then
a non-face card followed by a 6.
- Solution
The sample space for the six-sided die is:
S= 11, 2, 3, 4, 5, 61
So n(6)=1
and n(S) = 6
P(6)
n(S)
1
6
P(tail and non-face card and 6) = P(tail) x P(non-face card) x P(6)
1 40 1
=–x—x-
2 52 6
5
78
= 0.064 (3 s. f.)
I4I Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Example 67 c;jj
A Jigsaw puzzle is to be solved by three friends Amanda, Brian and Charlie. From past
experience, it is known that in solving Jigsaw puzzles, Amanda, Brian and Charlie have
probabilities 0.64, 0.6 and 0.52 respectively.
If the three friends attempt to solve the puzzle without consulting each other, find the
probability that
(a) the Jigsaw puzzle will be solved by all of them
(b) only one of them will solve the Jigsaw puzzle
Solution
(a) Let P(A) = 0.64 = P(A') = 1 - 0.64 = 0.36
P(B) =0.6 =P(B')=1-0.6=0.4
and P(C) = 0.52 = P(C') = 1 - 0.52 = 0.48
Then P(AnBnC)= P(A) x P(B) x P(C) Since A,B
= 0.64 x 0.6 x 0.52 and C are
= 0.19968 independent
= 0.200 (3 s. f.) events.
Hence, the probability that the Jigsaw puzzle will be solved by all of them is 0.2.
(b) P[(A n B' n C') u (A' B r C') u (A' n B' r C)] Since all the events
= P(A n B' r C') + P(A' r B n C') + P(A' n B' n C) are mutually
exclusive.
= P(A) . P(B') P(C') + P(A') . P(B) . P(C') + P(A') . P(B') P(C) Since all the events
= (0.64)(0.4)(0.48) + (0.36)(0.6)(0.48) + (0.36)(0.4)(0.52) are mutually
= 0.122 88 + 0.103 68 + 0.074 88 independent.
= 0.30144
= 0.301 (3 s. f.)
Hence, the probability that only one of them will solve the Jigsaw puzzle is 0.301.

Two or more events are mutually independent if the occurrence or non-occurrence of

one event does not affect the occurrence or non-occurrence of the other events.

Three events A, B and C are mutually independent

if and only if P(A n B n C) = P(A) . P(B) . P(C)
that is P(A and B and C) = P(A) x P(B) x P(C).
This is called the multiplication rule for probability.
Recall the multiplication principle of counting.

Conditional probability and dependent events

Two events are dependent events if the occurrence or non-occurrence of one-event

affects the occurrence or non-occurrence of the other event.
 Counting IM

Conditional probability is the probability that an event will Occur given that another
event has already occurred.
For two events A and B, the conditional probability that A occurs given that B has
already occurred is written as P(A/B).

S
A

For two events A and B, the conditional probability of event A, given that event B has occurred
is given by T)I A
.LIu1( )D)
P(A/B)= whereP(B)#O.
P(B)
If events A and B are independent events,
then P(A/B)=P(A)=P(AnB)=P(A)P(B)
or P(B/A) = P(B) => P(A n B) = P(A) P(B).
If events A and B are dependent events,
then P(A n B) = P(A) P(B/A)
or P(A n B) = P(B) P(A/B)
Example 68
In each of the following Venn diagrams:
A = { students doing Accounts}
and B = { students doing Business}
S -S
(a) (b)
(A:DB

o
A

—s
D 10

02 05
Calculate:
(1) P(A/B) (ii) P(B/A)
IM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Solution

U
T';'-
.I-,,-

The number of students doing

The number of students doing Accounts, n(A) = 6 + 9 = 15
Business, n(B) = 7+5 = 12 The number of Accounts students
The number of Business students doing doing Business, n(A n B) = 6
Accounts, n(A n B) = 7 P(B/A) = n(AnB)
P(A/B)= n(A)
n(B) 6
7 15
12 2
(ii) 5

40
The number of students doing
Accounts, n(A) = 8 + 7 = 15
The number of Accounts students
(c) (i)

The number of students doing

Business, n(B) = 15
doing Business, n(A n B) = 7 The number of Business students
P(B/A) n(AnB) doing Accounts, n(A n B) = 0
n(A) P(A/B)(A1)
7 n(B)
15 0
(b) (i) 15
=0
(ii)

The number of students doing

Business, n(B) = 6
The number of Business students
doing Accounts, n(A n B) =6
P(A/B) = nr
I&
The number of students doing
Accounts, n(A) = 12
n(B) The, number of Accounts students
doing Business, n(A n B) = 0
6
6
=1
 Counting EM
P(B/A) n(AnB) The number of students who liked
n(A) cherry, n(C) = 4 + 9 + 3+ 7 = 23
0 And P(B/C) = n(C)
n(C)
12
=0
Exainple 69Ej (b)
In a survey at a private school, the following
Venn diagram was obtained.

The number of students who liked all

three fruits, n(A n B n C) =4
The number of students who liked two
fruits, n(A n B n C') + n(B n C n A') +
n(A n C n B') + n(A nBn C)
=8+9+7+4
=28
And P(student liked all three fruits/
A = ( students who liked apple) student liked two fruits) =
28
B = ( students who liked banana)
C = (students who liked cherry) 1
7
A student is chosen at random from the (c)
private school.
Calculate the probability that
(a) the student liked banana given that the
student liked cherry
(b) the student liked all three fruits given
that the student liked two fruits
(c) the student liked apple and banana
given that the student does not like
cherry.
- Solution The number of students who liked
apple and banana and not cherry,
(a) n(A n B n C') = 8
The number of students who do not
like cherry, n(C') = 5 +,8 + 6 + 8 =27
So P(student liked apple and banana/
student does not like cherry)
- n(AnBnC')
n(C I )

The number of students who liked both P(AnB/C') =

banana and cherry, n(B n C) =4+9= 13
 I Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Example 70 Solution
A bag contains 7 black markers and 5 red Method 1
numbers. The sample space is
Find the probability of drawing randomly S = {HHH, HHT, HTH, HTT, THH, THT,
two black markers consecutively with two TTH, TTT}.
draws. n(S)=8
(a) if the ball is replaced after each draw Let A = {at least two heads recorded}
(b) if the ball is not replaced after each = {HHH, HHT, HTH, THH}
draw. and B = {first coin recorded is a head}
• Solution = {HHH, HHT, HTH, HTT}
n(B)=4.
(a)
So A n B = {at least two heads recorded and
7 5 12 first coin recorded is a head}
= {HHH, HHT, HTH}
Now P(B)=?
1
12 n(AnB)=3 B
..

Now P(AnB)= 11' AnB

And P(B)=Z-
2 n(S) n(S)
12
_3 _4
So P(B1 and B 2) = P(B1) P(B2)
Since the first -

.. P(BnB)
1 2 =Zx
12 12 ball drawn is So
replaced, then P(B)
49 the events are
-
3
144-
independent.
8
(b) 4
~
75 12
6 5 11
8
3
Since the first
Now P(B1) 4
ball drawn is
=12 Method 2
not replaced,
And P(B21B1) = 6 then the events The outcomes are represented on the Venn
11 are dependent. diagram below.
So P(B 1 and B 2) = P(B1) P(B21B 1)
P(B 1 nB 2 )=?-..x 6 A /N •

11
- 7 (THFI) ( (HHT)) (HfT)
- 22
Example 71
Three fair coins are tossed. What is the
probability of recording at least two heads, Since (A n B) =3
given that the first coin was recorded as and n(B)=4
heads?
 Counting MI
n B)
Then P(A/B) = n(A
n(B)
3
4

Tree diagram
A tree diagram (probability tree diagram) is a chart that can be used to list all possible outcomes
of a conditional probability.
• Initially, two or more branches (paths) spring from a root (single point).
• The outcome is stated at the end of each branch.
• The probability of an outcome is stated on each branch.
Further branches can spring from previous branches.
• The probability for an outcome is obtained by multiplying the probabilities along the branch.
• The sum of the probabilities for all outcomes is obtained by adding the column containing
the probabilities of all listed outcomes.

Example 72
A fair coin is tossed two times and the outcomes recorded.
(a) Draw a tree diagram to represent all the possible outcomes.
(b) Find the probability for each of the outcomes.
(c) Calculate the sum of the probabilities for all the outcomes.
Solution
(a) First Second Outcome Probability
toss toss

H HnH --
H 111
TH n T
H TnH 1 1 1
"(
) < 2
TnT 111
•; .. •1
Total probability 1
The tree diagram represents all the possible outcomes.
(b) The probability of two head, P(H r B) =
1
The probability of a head followed by a tail, P(H n I) = -
4

The probability of a tail followed by a head, P(T n H) =

The probability of two tails, P(T n T) = -
4 1111
(c) The sum of the probabilities for all the outcomes = - + - + - + - =1
4444
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

-Example 73 IJ

A coin is weighed so that a head is twice as likely to occur than a tail.

If a head is recorded, then a digit is selected at random from the digits 1 to 9.
If a tail is recorded, then a digit is selected at random from the digits 5 to 9.
(a) Draw a probability tree diagram to show all possible outcomes of
this experiment.
(b) Find the probability that
(i) an even even digit is selected
(ii) an odd odd digit is selected.
(c) Given that an even digit is selected, what is the probability that
(i) a head was recorded?
(ii) a tail was recorded?
(d) Calculate the probability that a head was recorded given that an odd digit
was selected.
Solution
(a) First trial Second trial Outcome Probability
(coin) (digits)

2 4 8
E HnE
T 77
H
2 5 10
P(o/ 0 H 0

2
S E TnE —312—5 2
—
15
1 3 1
P O TnO

Total probability 1
The probability tree diagram shows all possible outcomes.
(b) (i) P(an even digit is selected), P(E) = P(H n E) + P(T n E)
82
=—+—
27 15
— 58
- 135
(ii) P(an odd digit is selected), P(0) = P(H n 0) + P(T n 0)
10 1
= —+—
27 5
77
135
 Counting EO
P(HnE)
(c) (i) P(HIE) (ci) P(H/O)

110
27 27
58 77
135 ii
8 135 10 135
=—x--
27 58 27 77
_20 _50
- 29 -

(ii) P(T/E)= P(TnE)

P(E)

58
135
2 135
=—x---
15 58
9
29
-Example 74 iI
Robert travels to school by one of two routes, A or B. The probability of travelling along route
A is 40%. If he takes route A, then the probability of being late for school is 5%. If he takes
route B, then the probability of being late is 10%.
(a) Draw a tree diagram to represent all possible outcomes.
(b) Find the probability that Robert is late for school.
(c) Given that Robert is late for school, find the probability that he took route B.
(d) Find the probability that Robert is not late for school.
(e) Given that Robert is not late for school, find the probability that he took route A.
- Solution
(a) Route Late / Outcome Probability
Not late
o c5
• L AnL 0.4x0.05=0.02
ç A
ArL' 0.4x0.950.38

L BnL 0.6 X 0.1 = 0.06

0.6 B
L' B n L' 0.6 X 0.9 = 0.54
Pa
Total probability = 1.00
The tree diagram represents all possible outcomes.
im Pure Mathematics for CAPE

(b) P(L) = P(A n L) + P(B r' L)

=0.02+0.06
= 0.08
2
25
Hence, the probability that Robert is late for school is

(c) P(B/L)= P(BnL)

P(L)
0.06
0.08
3
4
3
Hence, the probability that Robert took route B, given that he is late is -.
(d) P(L') = P(A n L') + P(B n L') or P(L') =1- P(L)
=0.38+0.54 2
=0.92 =1---
23 25
=-

Hence, the probability that Robert is not late for school is

(e) P(A/L') = P(AnL')

0.38
0.92
19
46
Hence, the probability that Robert took route A, given that he is not late

for school is 19
46
Example 75
A container has 7 cartridges of magenta printer ink and 5 cartridges of cyan printer ink. Two
cartridges are picked at random, one after the other, from the container.
(a) Draw a tree diagram to illustrate all possible outcomes if
(i) the cartridge is replaced.
(ii) the cartridge is not replaced.
(b) Find the probability that the cartridges drawn will be
(i) magenta followed by cyan
(ii) of different colours
(iii) both the same colour.
 Counting

(a) (j) First Second Outcome Probability

pick pick

7 7 49
MnM
M 12 12 144

:< M Ph 7 5 35
Mr-)C
12 12 144

I c-____ M CnM
5
12
7
12
35
144

f
cnc i5 x i5 = 25

Total probability =1
The tree diagram illustrates all possible outcomes with replacement.
(ii) First Second Outcome Probability
pick pick

76 7
MnM
12 11 22

M
7 5 35
MC
11 132

M " = 5
CnM x
12 11 132

CnC

Total probability =
The tree diagram illustrates all possible outcomes without replacement.
(b) (1) With replacement:
P(magenta followed by cyan) = P(M n C) =
Without replacement:
P(magenta followed by cyan) = P(M n C)
=
EM Pure Mathematics for CAFE

(ii) With replacement:

P(of different colours) = P(M n C) + P(C n M)
35 35
=—+--
144 144
70
144
35
72
Without replacement:
P(of different colours) = P(M n C) + P(C n M)
35 35
=
132 132
70
132
35
66
(iii) With replacement:
P(both the same colour) = P(M n M) + P(C n C)
49 25
=—+--
144 144
74
144
37
72
Without replacement:
P(both the same colour) = P(M n M) + P(C n C)
75
= —+-
22 33
31
66
Example 76 1
Box A contains 7 red cricket balls and 3 white cricket balls.
Box B contains 4 red cricket balls and 5 white cricket balls.
A cricket ball is drawn at random from box A and placed in box B. Box B is thoroughly
shaken and then a cricket ball is drawn at random from it.
(a) Draw a probability tree diagram illustrating all possible outcomes of this experiment.
(b) Use the probability tree diagram to find the probability that:
(1) the cricket ball drawn from box A and the cricket ball drawn from box B are of the
same colour
 Counting im
(ii) a white cricket ball is drawn from box B.
- Solution
(a) Outcome Probability

4R
R
(,R)
5W m To- TO
Box

5R
5W 5R L
(RW\ L

4) Box
P(W/R)
10
4W ' ' / 10 10 20
Box

7R 3R 3 4 6
3W (W,R)
6W TO O
Box 0(T,j 4R Box
6W
BoxB 6 4R 3 6 9
5W
w TOTh To
Box B Total probability 1

7 3 10
4 5 9
The probability tree diagram illustrates all possible outcomes of the experiment.
(b) (i) P(cricket balls are of the same colour = P(R, R) + P(W, W)
79
20 50
53
100
(ii) P(a white cricket ball is drawn from box B) = P(R, TN) + P(W, TN)
79
=-+--
20 50
53
100
- Example 77 WiiI
A fair coin is flipped, a fair die is tossed and a card is pulled from a standard pack of playing
cards and the results recorded in that order.
(a) Draw a tree diagram to illustrate the outcomes
(b) Find the probability that a head followed by a 6 followed by an ace was recorded
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

(c) State the probability that a tail followed by a number other than a 6 followed by a card
other than an ace was recorded.
First trial Third trial
Second trial
(coin) (die) (cards)
Outcomes Probability
11 4 1
H,S,A
2 6 52 156
1 1 48 1
., s
H, S. A' 2 6 52 13
P(A')
52 15 4 5
H,S',A 2 6 52 156
1 5 48 5
H,S',A' 2 6 52 13

'07),<
11 4 1
T, 5, A
6 2 6 52 156
S 1 1 48 1
-~
A T,S,A' 2 6 52 13
524
P(A) 15 4 5
A T,S',A 2 6 52 156
1 5 48 5
T,S',A'

Total probability

The tree diagram illustrates the outcomes

(b)

(c) P(T, S', A') =

Exercise 8d

probability that it is a court card (king,

queen or jack)?
E \T/ E
4. A fair coin is flipped and a spinner with
Z/\L
5 equal sectors, each containing a letter
from the word HAITI is spin and the
The spinner shown above is equally likely outcomes recorded.
to land on each of the six sectors. (a) Determine all possible outcomes in
What is the probability that it lands on a the sample space S.
vowel? (b) State the total number of possible
outcomes in the sample space S.
2. A letter is chosen at random from the (c) Calculate the probability that both
word PARADISE. What is the probability
(i) a head on the coin and an A on the
that an A is chosen?
spinner is recorded.
3. A card is taken at random from a standard (ii) a tail on the coin and a vowel on
pack of 52 playing cards. What is the the spinner is recorded.
 Counting

5. A fair silver dollar is flipped and a 12. A bag contains 9 mandarins, 8 oranges, 5
spinner with 7 equal sectors, each sector tangerines and 4 portugals. Four fruits are
containing a digit from the set (1, 2, 3, drawn from the bag without replacement.
4, 5, 6, 7) is spun and the outcomes are Calculate the probability that at least one
recorded. fruit is a portugal.
(a) Determine all possible outcomes in
the sample space S. 13. A survey was conducted in a class of
40 students. It was found that the students
(b) State the total number of possible
liked either soca music or chutney
outcomes in the sample space S.
music.
(c) Calculate the probability that both 22, students liked soca music, S.
(i) a head on the silver dollar and 28 students liked chutney music, C.
an odd number on the spinner is
Calculate the probability that a student
recorded
chosen at random from this class liked
(ii) a tail on the silver dollar and a both soca music and chutney music.
prime number is recorded.
14. At a college, a class of 38 students liked
6. Sean draws two cards at random from a either pelau or oildown.
standard deck of 52 playing cards without 22 students liked pelau, L
replacement. Calculate the probability 24 students liked oildown, D.
that both cards are diamonds.
Calculate the probability that a student
7. Sanjay draws two cards at random from a chosen at random from this class liked
standard deck of 52 playing cards without both pelau and oildown.
replacement. Calculate the probability 15. Given that A and B are two events such
that both cards are court cards.
that P(A)=,P(B)=-?L and P(AnB)=,
8 A container has 12 bananas, 7 apples
and 5 mandarins. Two fruits are drawn find
at random from the container and not (a) P(A u B) (b) P(A' n B')
replaced. Find the probability that both (c) P(A' u B')
fruits are mandarins. 16. Given that Q and R are two events such
9. An urn contains 15 red beads, 12 green that P(Q)=,P(R)=. and
beads, 9 yellow beads and 4 blue beads.
Three beads are drawn at random from find
the urn and not replaced. Find the (a) P(Q n R) (b) P(Q' u R')
probability that all three beads are red. (c) P(Q' n R')

10. The probability that it will rain tomorrow 17. At a computer manufacturing plant, 15%
is 0.65. What is the probability that it will of the machines produce two types of
not rain tomorrow? computer memory chips, S DRAM and
DDR.
11. Amar draws three cards at random from a 39% of the machines produce
standard deck of 52 playing cards without SDRAM
replacement. Calculate the probability 54% of the machines produce DDR.
that at least one card is a Queen?
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Find the probability that a machine (iii) Mathematics, but not Geography
chosen at random or English
(a) manufactures either SDRAM or DDR (iv) Mathematics and English, but not
memory chips Geography.
(b) manufactures only (b) What is the probability that the
(i) SDRAJVI memory chips student was not entered for any of the
(ii) DDR memory chips three subjects?

18. In a survey at a high school, it was found 20. At a cooking competition 75 chefs
that 45% of the students owned a Mac participated. The chefs had to cook curry
computer, 56% of the students owned duck, curry goat or curry chicken. The
a Samsung computer, and 17% of the Venn diagram shows the number of chefs
students owned both a Mac computer who cooked the three different meats.
and a Samsung computer. Find the
probability that a student chosen at
random
(a) has a Mac or Samsung computer
(b) has no Mac computer and no
Samsung computer.
19. In a secondary school, 120 students were
entered for the CSEC examinations.
The Venn diagram shows the number
of students who were entered for
D = {chefs who cooked curry duck}
Geography, Mathematics and English.
G = {chefs who cooked curry goat}
C = {chefs who cooked curry chicken}
A chef is chosen at random from the
75 chefs.
(a) Find the probability that the chef
cooked
(i) all three different meats, duck,
goat and chicken
(ii) at least one of the three different
meats; duck, goat or chicken
A student is chosen at random from the (iii) duck, but not goat or chicken
120 students. (iv) goat and chicken, but not duck.
(a) Find the probability that the student (b) What is the probability that the chef
was entered for did not cook any of the three different
(i) all three subjects; Geography, meats.
Mathematics and English
21. Given n(AuBuC)=69,n(A)=37,
(ii) at least one of the three subjects,
n(B)=39,n(C)=41,n(AnB)=21,
Geography, Mathematics or
n(A n C) = 17, n(B n C) =22 and
English
n(AuBuC)'=O, find P(AnBnC).
 Counting EM
22. Given n(S) = 80, n(K u L u M) = 74, 27. In a factory that manufactures computer
n(K) = 40, n(L) = 43, n(M) = 47, disks, the probability that a machine
n(KnL)=22,n(KnM)=25 and
makes Blu-ray formatted disks is -'- and
n(L n M) = 24, find P(K n L n M). 12
the probability that a machine makes disk
23. Sajay picks a card at random from a
standard pack of 52 playing cards. formatted disks is -.
What is the probability that the card 4
Find the probability that if a machine is
picked is either a diamond or a black
chosen at random it makes
queen?
(a) Blu-ray or disc formatted disks
24. In a school of 50 students, 25 students (b) Neither Blu-ray nor disk formatted
travelled to school by bicycle and 15 disks
students travelled to school by bus on a
particular day. 28. A fair die is rolled once and the outcome
Find the probability that a student chosen recorded. Find the probability that
at random travelled to; school by bicycle (a) an even number or an odd number is
or bus. recorded
(b) neither an even number nor an odd
25. Given that A and B are two events such number is recorded.
that
29. A bakery showcase contains 5 different
and P(A u B)=.
(a) P(A)=.?,P(B)=L pies as indicated in the table below.
Pie Aloo sh Beef Chicken Smoke
(b)P(A)=.,P(B)=2. and P(AuB)=.
In each case, determine if the events A
Number
of pies 9 12 5 8
I 14

and B are mutually exclusive or not. Meenakshi takes a pie at random from the
showcase.
26. The Venn diagram shows how 45 people What is the probability that she took
travelled to work. (a) a shrimp or chicken pie?
(b) an aloo or beef or smoke herring pie?

(3D:0 30. A spinner has 7 equal sectors. Each sector

has a colour of the rainbow indicated by a
letter from ROYGBIV.
The spinner is spun and the colour
recorded. What is the probability that the
C={travelledbycar} colour recorded is
B = (travelled by bus} (a) RorB?
T = (travelled by train} (b)YorGorV?
(a) State two pairs of events that are
31. A fair coin is flipped, then a card is
mutually exclusive. Give a reason for
pulled from a standard deck of 52
each of your answers.
playing cards. Calculate the probability
(b) Find that the result is a tail followed by a
(i) P(C u I) (ii) P(B u I) non-court card.
Is1.YI Pure Mathematics for CAPE

32. A farmer has a group of 100 rabbits of have probabilities 0.58, 0.71 and 0.65
which 60 have white hair and 45 have respectively.
black eyes. Allana picks a rabbit at The three friends try to solve the sudoku
random from the group of rabbits. Find without checking each other, find the
the probability that the rabbit has probability that
(a) white hair and black eyes (a) all of them will solve the sudoku
(b) white hair and eyes which are not (b) only two of them will solve the
black sudoku.
(c) black eyes and hair which is not white
37. In each of the following Venn diagrams
(d) neither white hair nor black eyes. K = { students who learn Karate}
33. A fair coin is flipped, a card is pulled from and 1= {students who learn Judo}
a standard deck of 52 playing cards, then
a fair six-sided die is tossed. Calculate the
probability that the three events that occur
is a head, then a face card followed by an
(a)

Q i2 4

K
even number.
34. A survey in Trinidad and Tobago found (b)r— S
that 75% of the population likes East
Indian food. If 3 people are chosen at
random from the population, what is the
probability that
(a) all three like East Indian food
(b) none of them like East Indian food (c)—s__
D J 25

(c) two of them like East Indian food.

(d) one of them likes East Indian food. 07 D
O
35. A crossword puzzle is to be solved by
three friends Ashaana, Darren and Mitra. Calculate
From past experience, it is known that
(i) P(K/J) (ii) P(f/K)
in solving crossword puzzles, Ashaana,
Darren and Mitra have probabilities 0.75, 38. In each of the following Venn diagrams:
0.53 and 0.62 respectively. C = (students who eat cook-up rice}
If the three friends attempt to solve the M = {students who eat metagee}
puzzle individually, find the probability
that
(a) the crossword puzzle will be solved
by all of them
D
5 D
(
5M
(b) only one of them will solve the
crossword puzzle.
36. A sudoku is to be solved by three friends
Kavita, Nicolas and Savitri. From well- C
1237J1
0
kept records it is known that in solving
5 16
sudoku, Kavita, Nicholas and Savitri
 Counting EM
(c)
C
P = {chefs who make pepperpot}
m
(OD7 1
)131
M

C 5

Calculate
(i) P(C/M) (ii) P(M/C)
39. In a survey at a secondary school, the
following Venn diagram was obtained.
A chef is chosen at random from the chef
school. Calculate the probability that
(a) the chef makes pepperpot given that
the chef makes bake and shark
(b) the chef makes all three foods given
that the chef makes two foods.
(c) the chef makes bake and shark and
callaloo and crab given that
the chef does not make pepperpot.

A = {students who liked to eat akkra} 41. A vase contains 12 silver dollars and
P = {students who liked to eat pholourie) 8 fifty-cents pieces.
V = {students who liked to eat vermicelli Find the probability of randomly drawing
cake) two silver dollars consecutively with two
draws.
A student is chosen at random from the
secondary school. (a) if the silver dollar is replaced after
each draw
Calculate the probability that
(b) the silver dollar is not replaced after
if
(a) the student liked to eat akkra
each draw.
given that the student liked to eat
pholourie 42. A showcase contains 28 salaras,
(b) the student liked to eat all three foods 32 currants rolls and 20 pine tarts.
given that the student liked to eat two Find the probability of drawing randomly
of the foods. two currants rolls consecutively with two
(c) the student liked to eat pholourie and draws.
vermicelli cake given that the student (a) if the currants roll is replaced after
does not like to eat akkra. each draw
(b) the currants roll is not replaced after
if
40. In a survey at a chef school, the following each draw.
Venn diagram was obtained.
B = {chefs who make bake and shark) 43. A floral refrigerator contains 25 red
C = {chefs who make callaloo and crab) carnations and 35 white carnations.
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Find the probability of picking randomly (a) a driver involved in a motor vehicular
three white carnations consecutively with accident given that the person is
three draws. female
(a) if the white carnation is replaced after (b) a passenger involved in a motor
each pick vehicular accident given that the
(b) if the white carnation is not replaced person is male.
after each pick.
47. A bag contains 5 spearmints and
44. Three fair silver dollars are tossed. What 4 chocomints. Two sweets are drawn at
is the probability of recording at least two random with replacement.
tails, given that the first silver dollar was (a) Draw a tree diagram to represent all
recorded as tails. the possible outcomes.
(b) Find the probability for each of the
45. A survey was carried out among a group outcomes.
of 400 adults to determine whether they (c) Calculate the sum of the probabilities
favour or oppose the death penalty for all the outcomes.
for murder. The result of the survey is
recorded in the table below. 48. A bag contains 5 spearmints and 4
Favour I!4hJ I Total chocomints. Two sweets are drawn at
random without replacement.
Male 150 50 200
Female 175 25
(a) Draw a tree diagram to represent all
200
the possible outcomes.
Total 325 75 400
(b) Find the probability for each of the
Find the probability that a person outcomes
picked at random from this group of (c) Calculate the sum of the probabilities
adults is for all the outcomes.
(a) opposed to the death penalty for
murder given that the person is 48. A spinner is divided into two semi-circles.
male One semi-circle is coloured red and the
(b) in favour of the death penalty for other sector is colored blue. The spinner is
murder given that the person is spun twice and the outcomes recorded.
female (a) Draw a tree diagram to represent all
the possible outcomes.
46. A survey was carried out among a group (b) Find the probability for each of the
of 500 adults who were involved in outcomes.
vehicular accidents. (c) Calculate the sum of the probabilities
The result of the survey is recorded in the for all the outcomes.
table below.
50. A spinner is divided into five equal
nr 1n
sectors. Two sectors are painted yellow
Driver 178 95 273 and the other three sectors are painted
Passenger 42 185 227 green. The spinner is spun twice and the
Total 220 280 500 outcomes recorded.
Find the probability that a person picked (a) Draw a tree diagram to represent all
at random from this group of adults is the possible outcomes
 Counting

(b) Find the probability for each of the (i) the figurine is replaced
outcomes. (ii) the figurine is not replaced.
(c) Calculate the total probability for all (b) Find the probability that the figurine
the outcomes. drawn will be
(i) Christmas followed by Easter
51. Sera travels to work by one of two routes,
(ii) of different seasons
A or B. The probability of travelling
along route A is 65%. If she takes route (iii) both the same season.
A, then the probability of being late for
54. Room X contains 6 cancer patients and
work is 7%. If she takes route B, then the
4 heart patients
probability of being late is 9%.
Room Y contains 5 cancer patients and
(a) Draw a tree diagram to illustrate all
7 heart patients.
the probabilities.
A patient is sent at random from room
(b) Find the probability that Sera is late
X to room Y by a nurse. Another nurse
for work.
then sends at random a patient in room
(c) Given that Sera is late for work, find Y for screening.
the probability that she took route B.
(a) Draw a probability tree diagram
(d) Find the probability that Sera is not illustrating all possible outcomes of
late for work.
this experiment.
(e) Given that Sera is not late for work,
(b) Use the probability tree diagram to
find the probability that she took
find the probability that
route A.
(i) the patient sent from room X and
52. Kelley travels to school by one of three the patient sent for screening
routes. The probability of taking route from room Y have the same
A is 40% and route B is 35% medical problem.
The probabilities of being late for school if (ii) a heart patient is sent from room
she takes route A is 8%, route B is 6% and Y for screening.
route C is 4%.
(a) Draw a tree diagram to illustrate all 55. A fair coin is flipped, a spinner with
the probabilities. five equal sectors numbered 1 to 5
is spun, and a card is pulled from a
(b) Find the probability that Kelley in not
late for school. standard pack of 52 playing cards and
the result recorded.
(c) Given that Kelley is not late for school,
(a) Draw a tree diagram to illustrate all
find the probability that she took
the possible outcomes
route C.
(b) Find the probability that a head
53. A container has 8 Christmas figurines followed by an even number followed
and 6 Easter figurines. Two figurines are by a king was recorded.
picked at random, one after the other, (c) State the probability that a tail
from the container. followed by an odd number followed
(a) Draw a tree diagram to illustrate all by a card that is not a king was
possible outcomes if recorded.
 1II Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Probability and permutations (a) What is the probability that each digit
of the code is a multiple of 2?
Permutation = order matters (b) Find the probability that the first digit
is 9?
(c) Calculate the probability that the first
Example 78 ' digit is an even number and the last
digit is an odd number.
A computer password consists of 5 digits (d) What is the probability that the code
chosen from the ten digits 0 to 9, with is 768?
no digit repeated. A password is given
to Michael by the school's computer Solution
technician. What is the probability (a) The multiples of 2 are 2, 4, 6 and 8.
that Michael's password contains five There are four digits which are
consecutive digits? multiples of 2.
Solution 4 ways 3ways 2ways = 24 ways
The possible 5-digit passwords containing 3-digit code
consecutive digits is: The number of 3-digit codes where
A =101234,12345,23456,34567, each digit is a multiple of 2 is 4P3 =24
45678, 56789,43210,54321, The total number of possible
65432, 76543, 87654, 98765}
n(A)=12 permutations is 1Op3 = 10!
The total number of possible permutations (10-3)!
is = 10! 10!
1OP5
(10-5)! 7!
10! = 10 x 9 x 8
5! = 720
= 10 x 9 x 8 x 7 x 6 .. P(each digit of the code is a
4
n(S) = 30240 P3
multiple of 2) =
So
n(S)
12 720
- 30240 1
30
Hence, the probability that Michael's
password contains five consecutive digits (b)
. 1
is 1 way 9 ways8 ways = 72 ways
2520
3— digit code
r Example 79 'i The digits are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, ©
A combination lock uses a 3-digit code The total number of digits = 10
chosen from the ten digits 0 to 9, with no If 9 is removed, then 9 digits remain.
digit repeated. The number of 3-digit codes with
9 as the first digit is 'P1 x 9P2 = 72
 Counting

'p x 9 p2 (d) /\ _••\

7 6 8
P(first digit is 9) = 110 y y
iway lway iway =1

3- digit code
720 The number of ways of forming the
3-digit code 768 is 1P1 x 'P1 x 1P1 = 1
10 1
(c) The even numbers are 2, 4, 6, 8. .. P(code is 768) =
So these are four even numbers.
The odd numbers are 1,3,5,7,9. Example 80
So there are five odd numbers. What is the probability of rearranging
Even Odd
the letters of the word MATHS so that the
position of the vowel is fixed?
4 ways 8 ways 5 ways = 160
Solution
3-digit code
A
The number of 3-digit codes where the
first digit is a even number and the last
digit is an odd number is 4P1 x 8P1 x 1
4 ways 1 way 3 ways
(
2 ways
f f
1 ways =24

5- letter words
- 160
P(first digit is an even number The number of ways of rearranging the
an1asL1s
Lt digit . letter so that the position of the vowel 'A' is
X "
4 I_) 5 i-'
an odd number) = 1 1
X Li fixed is 1 D x 4 D
i.

lop The total number of possible permutations

is5P5=120
160 1Px4P4
= .. P(vowel is fixed) = 1
720
2 24
9 =
1
5
Example 81 ;ii
If the letter of the word PEGASUS are arranged at random, what is probability that
(a) the Ss are always together?
(ii) all the vowels are together?
Solution
(a) PEGASU
S
Total 1 1 1 1 2 111 7
7
The total number of possible permutations of the word PEGASUS is 2!
- = 2520

P I EIGIAIS SIU Group the Ss together.

Both Ss are the same.
1234 5 6
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

The number of arrangements of 6 distinct objects = 6!

= 720
720
.. P(the Ss are always together) =
2520
2
____________________ 7
(b) PI EAU IGISISI Group E,A and utogether.
1 2 3 4 5 E, A and U are different letters.
The two Ss are alike
The number of arrangements with all the vowels together = x3!
2!
360
.. P(all the vowels are together) =
720
1
2
Example 82
Four male students, Steffon, Sheldon, David and Aleem and three female students, Subrina,
Selene and Fatimah sit in a front row of chairs to view a show at Movie Towne.
(a) What is the probability that a male student sits at the ends and no two male students or
female students sit together?
(b) Find the probability if the male students sit together and the female students sit together.
Solution
(a)
4ways
f 3ways 2ways
f 2ways iway iway 3ways 144 ways

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
The two male students can sit at the ends in 4 x 3 ways
The remaining two male students can sit in their positions in 2 x 1 ways.
.. the four male students can sit in 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 ways
=24 ways
The three female students can sit in their positions in 3 x 2 x 1 ways
= 6 ways
The number of arrangements if a male student sits at the ends and no two male students
or female students sit together is 24 x 6
= 144
The total number of possible arrangements of the 7 students is 7P7 =5 040
.. P(a male student sits at the ends and no two male students or female students sit
together) = 144
5040
1
35
 Counting

(b)
4ways 3ways 2ways iway 3ways 2ways l wa y_I=1ways

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
The number of arrangements of the 4 male students is 4p4 = 24
The number of arrangements of the 3 female students is 3 P3 = 6
So the number of arrangements if the male students sit together and the female students
sit together = 24 x 6
= 144
.. P(the male students sit together and the female students sit together) =
5040
1
35

Exercise

1. The password to unlock a Samsung 4. A safety deposit box uses a 5-digit code
Galaxy tablet consists of 4 digits chosen chosen from the ten digits 0 to 9, with no
from the ten digits 0 t 9, with no digit digit repeated.
repeated. Chasen chooses a password for (a) What is the probability that the
his Galaxy tablet. What is the probability digits of the code is 0 or a multiple
that Chasen's password contains four of 2?
consecutive digits? (b) Find the probability that the first digit
is 8
2. The password to unlock a computer
consists of 6 digits chosen from the ten (c) Calculate the probability that the first
digits 0 to 9, with no digit repeated. A digit is an even number and the last
password is given to Danielle by the digit is an odd number.
computer owner. What is the probability (d) What is the probability that the code is
that the password does not contain six 23579?
consecutive digits?
5. What is the probability of rearranging the
3. A combination lock uses a 4-digit code letters of the word PLANES so that the
chosen from the ten digits 0 to 9, with no position of the vowels are fixed?
digit repeated
(a) What is the probability that the 6. What is the probability of rearranging
digits of the code is 0 or a multiple the letters of the word OBTUSE so
of 3? that the position of the vowels are
(b) Find the probability that the first digit fixed?
is 7.
(c) Calculate the probability that the first 7. If the letters of the word COROZAL
digit is an odd number and the last are arranged at random, what is the
digit is an even number. probability that
(d) What is the probability that the code is (a) the Os are always together?
0768? (b) the vowels are always together?
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

8. If the letters of the word POMEROON (b) Find the probability of the male
are arranged at random, what is the students sitting together and the
probability that female students sitting together.
(a) the Os are always together?
(b) all the vowels are together? 10. Six female students, Veena, Samira,
Maureela, Ashley, Jessica and Taruina, and
9. Five male students, De Varieause, five male students, Dalian, Sachin, Stephan,
Christopher, Anir, Joshua and Adam, Irwin and Dylan sit in a middle row of
and four female students, Vanessa, Krista chairs to view a soca/chutrey show.
Khelsea and Nikkita sit in a back row of (a) What is the probability that a female
chairs to view a school concert. sits at the ends and no two female
(a) What is the probability that a male students or male students sit together?
student sits at the ends and the others (b) Find the probability of the female
sit alternatingly so that no two male students sitting together and the male
students or female students sit together? students sitting together.

Probability and combinations Example 84

Urn A contains 9 black grapes and 1 green
Combmation = order does not matter .
grape. Urn B contains 8 black grapes and
no green grape. Five grapes are drawn at
Example 83 random from urn A and placed into urn B.
Find the probability that the green grape
Two cards are drawn from a shuffled
is in
standard deck of 52 playing cards without
(a) Urn (b) Urn
replacement. What is the probability that
both cards are black? Solution
Solution (a) B G B G
(a) The number of favourable 9 1 8 0
UrnA Urn
outcomes is( 26) = 325
If 5 black grapes are drawn from urn
The total number of favourable A, then the green grape will remain
in urn A.
outcomes( 52) = 1326 The number of ways of drawing
5 black grapes from 9 is 9C5 = 126
.. P(both cards are black) The number of ways of drawing 5
The number of favourable outcomes grapes from 10 grapes is 10 05 = 252
The total number of favourable outcomes P(5 black grapes is drawn from
9 '-,
325 urn A)=----
1326 bc5
25 126
102 252
1
2
 Counting

Hence, the probability that the green The total number of possible hands
containing 7 cards is 52C7 = 133 784 560
grape is in urn A is
2 P(hand contains all 4 kings)
(b) If 4 black grapes are drawn from urn A, - 17296
then the green grape will also be drawn 133784560
from urn A. 1
The number of ways of drawing 7735
4 black grapes and 1 green grape is
X 1 C1 = 126
(b) The number of hands containing
3 kings and 4 other cards is
P(4 black grapes and 1 green grape is 4 C3 x 48 C4 = 778 320
P(hand contains exactly 3 kings)
X 1C
drawn from urn A) = 10C 1 - 778 320
133784560
126
9
252
1547
1
(c) P(hand contains at least 3 kings) =
2
P(hand contains exactly 3 kings) +
Hence, the probability that the green P(hand contains all 4 kings)
grape is in urn B is 9 1
= +
1547 735
Alternative Method
46
(b) If the green grape is not in urn A, then 7735
it is in urn B.
P(green grape is in urn B) Example 86
=1-P(green grape isin urn A) The Mathematics Olympiad committee
comprises 7 teachers; 9 male students and
=1_
2 5 female students. If 5 persons are chosen
1 at random from the committee, find the
2 probability that no female students are
chosen.
Example 85
A hand of 7 cards is dealt from a shuffled Solution
deck of 52 playing cards. TMF
Calculate the probability that the hand 1 1 1
Total 7 9 5 21j
contains The number of ways of selecting no teachers
(a) all 4kings 7(9)
(b) exactly 3 kings
(c) at least 3 kings.
t
and 5 male students is (0J 5 = lx 126 = 126

The number of ways of selecting 1 teacher

Solution
(7V9\
(a) The number of hands containing and 4 male students is (1) (4J= 7x126 = 882
4 kings and 3 other cards is 4C4 x 48 C3 =
17296
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

The number of ways of selecting The number of ways of selecting 5 persons

2 teachers and 3 male students is Mathematics Olympiad from the students
(7 )(1 chosen committee with no female students
2 3) chosen =4368
The number of ways of choosing 5 persons
The number of ways of selecting
from the Mathematics Olympiad committee
3 teachers and 2 male students is
(7)( 1 of2lisi 1=20349
)=35x36=l26O (5)
.. P(5 persons chosen comprising of no
The number of ways of selecting 4 teachers
'\ female students) = 4368
and 1 male student is (7) (9J = 35 x 9 = 315 20349
41 208
The number of ways of selecting 5 teachers 969
(7 (9 )
and no male students is = 21 xl = 21
5) 0

Exercise 8f

1. Two cards are drawn from a shuffled Find the probability that the two green
standard deck of 52 playing cards without grapes are in
replacement. What is the probability that (a) urn X
both cards are hearts? (1) urn
2. Three cards are drawn from a shuffled
5. A hand of 7 cards in dealt from a
standard deck of 52 playing cards without
shuffled deck of 52 playing cards.
replacement. What is the probability that
Calculate the probability that the hand
all three cards are red?
contains
3. Urn A contains 10 green grapes and (a) all 4 aces
1 black grape. Urn B contains 7 green (b) 4 aces and 3 kings
grapes and no black grapes. Four grapes (c) 3 aces and 4 kings
are drawn at random from urn A and
placed into urn B. 6. A hand of 5 cards is dealt from a shuffled
Find the probability that the black grape deck of 52 playing cards.
is in Calculate the probability that the hand
(a) urn contains
(I,) urn B (a) a king and a queen
(b) an ace and 4 court cards
4. Urn X contains 9 black grapes and 2 green
grapes. Urn Y contains 6 black grapes and (c) 5 court cards
no green grapes.
7. A committee of 5 people is to be selected
Five grapes are drawn at random from
from a group of 6 men and 5 women.
urn X and placed into urn Y.
 Counting

What is the probability that the committee 9. A sports committee consists of

contains 8 teachers, 5 male students and
(a) 3 men and 2 women? 6 female students. If 4 persons are
(b) 2 men and 3 women? chosen at random from the committee,
find the probability that no female
8. A committee of 7 people is to be selected student was chosen.
from a group of 5 teachers, 4 male
students and 3 female students. What is 10. A religious committee consists of
the probability that the committee contains 5 teachers, 6 male students and
(a) 4 teachers, 2 male students and 8 female students. If 5 persons are
1 female student? chosen at random from the committee,
(b) 3 teachers, 2 male students and find the probability that no male
2 female students? student was chosen.

1. .\ cafei.Oia "ffers ahreakfai peLiL11. consit

Ihe c oices offered are:
Sandwi h: diihles, aIJ.00 pie, I' pie, chic]
an chicken. cam, three in one (4
Soup: wton.
Dessert: cheese cake , curra:
Drink: [vi, toffee. coke, SpI ivater (5 ifems
Flow niii different break -sécials are offered by the cafeteria?
Pure Mathematics for CAPE
 Counting EM

20 -:;
21. \\1àt is th probabi1ity ofea the letters of the otcDEB 4: 1
o*els a1wavs-atrneartogethei?
i
(c) .
3Q
n the probability that

(d)--.
12
probability that the Ts

S
(d)

. probability that a

25 A fruit label has a 3-digit code f fi c-digit. to Flie prohabilih that a

codecIth.den.
7 - 4
(a) (h) - ( c) - (d)
5 5 4
Pure Mathematics for CAPE
 Counting

Twanda:ha
Ek
Big Bang The
National

Det Le the
Pure Mathematics for CAPE
 Counting

• The addition p iciple can be extended

VN
MIN
to am number of Rltittizi lly
events.
•• Multiplication pr ip1çfuiiithirnta1 countmg prmclp k
• If an operation 11
he performed i 'ask) are idendeflij
together the tIA C ied in

• If an operation ta sk) can be performedii. a1kUfa1ter p€ fôrming this

)erformed in n ythen
16(12M
.
­ IIIIL WaVS. -
WIN
iynumberf mutuall\

Pcrnitations -- =-
+ Apermuttionis an ordered arrangemenóf -all or pai t ol a setof nbjeat&
+ In permutatiorithereiative positiveQf.theobjecfs is important.
+ A ho\ iuethdc beised to solve prohle dea1i-with permuta [ions
+ 46. j:d1am can be used to find the differentaffang-ements
> Pci 1thiions of ii distinct ohjets takein at a time.
• The number of permutations of ii dthict ohjectallJU ro\v is 0(/1 - I)(/i - 2)
W.
+ The number of permutations QLtdisbnct object take at a time is 'P 11!
ii! ii! ii!
+.+ /)
(n-n)! 0! 1
-- Permutations of 11 distinct objects taken r at a time vi [Ii no repetitions allowed
+ The numhei of permutations (an ngernents) of 11 distinct (different) objects taken i
at a Orne when no repetitions are al Ike is
1)(n -2)(n -) ft--- 1) i ii
uheie3
Permutations of ii disdi Nbcts taken ï time with repetitions allowed.
J •. The number of permutations (airangcments) ofii distinct (different) objects taken r
a time when iepetitionare alles ni..
ROM - -
C

11 n) uhere 1_i JqNM

> Perm uttiönith identical objects -
+ The rnthihr of (distinç9rnutations on bjée u ithjj identic ii objects //
identical objes, ..., 171'.111
- efical objects is
- IRE
Permutations with restrictions
+ In peunutatu)n pi oblems u ith iestuchons
• Pu st assign the restrictiops
• Then -take care=-----of the &ir --conditions.
.11 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Permutations with identical objects and restrictions

4. Apply the principles of permutations as for identical objects and restrictions
Circular permutations
+ The number of ways of arranging n different ob jects in a circle is (n 1)!
' - -

• The number of circular permutations of n different objects taken n at a time is

(n 1)
-

(n —1)
+ The number of ways of arranging n differentl objects on :a ring is
> Combinations
+ A combmation is a selection of one or more objects from a set of objects without
regard for order.

+ In a combination, the order of the object is not important

4 The number of combinations of n different objects taken (selected) r at a time is
n!
where l ~r~n
r) (nr) r
+nC
= r (rT)
> Probability
+ A (random statistical) experiment is a process which for each trial results in a single
observation of more than one possible observations
4. An outcome (sample point) of an experiment is the observation made for a
single trial
4. The sample space (possibility space), S, for an experiment is the set of all possible
outcomes
4. An event is a collection of one or more outcomes of an experiment
4. Fair (unbiased) means that the outcomes are equally likely
4• A simple event contains one and only one outcome of an experiment
4. A compound event contains two or more outcomes of an experiment
Probability of an event
4. The theoretical probability of an event occurring is the number of possible ways the
event can occur divided by the total number of possible outcomes in the sample
space when each outcome is equally likely to occur .

n(A)
+ P(A)= where n(S)*O
n(S)
4. 0 !~ P(A) 1
• P(impossible event) = 0
• P(certam event) = 1
Total probability
+ The total probability for all possible outcomes in a sample space, 5, is 1
• P(S) = 1
Counting
ED Pure Mathematics for CAPE
Counting
rL. __

A matrix is a rectangular array of elements (entries) enclosed by a pair of square or

curve brackets.
Each element (entry) is a number or algebraic expression.
A matrix can be denoted by a single capital letter or common letter.

b 11 b12 )
all a12 a13
Consider the matrix A = and the matrix B = b21 b22
21 a22 a23
b
b31 32
The matrix A has 2 rows and 3 columns.
Itisa2 x 3 matrix.
The matrix B has 3 rows and 2 columns.
It s a 3 x 2 matrix.

A row consists of all the elements in the same horizontal line of the array.
A column consists of all the elements in the same vertical line of the array.
The order (size) of a matrix is the number of rows (m) times the number of columns (n).
An m x n matrix has m rows and n columns.

- Example all a12 a13

87 87 a21 a22 a23 a
A= 2 0 = 2 0 and M= a31 a32 a33
—5 4 —5 4
F-i 3 —21 (-1 3 —2 a 11 a12 a3 ... amn
X=L 0 4 7] 0 4 7 The matrix M is an m x n matrix.
The matrix A has 3 rows and 2 columns. It has m rows and n columns.
It is a 3 x 2 matrix. all is the first element in the matrix M.
The matrix X has 2 rows and 3 columns. It is the element in the first row and the first
Itisa2 x 3 matrix. column of the matrix M.
Consider the matrix a21 is the element in the second row and the
first column of the matrix M.
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

a32 is the element in the third row and the Square matrix
second column of the matrix M. (c11 c12
C is a 2 x 2 matrix
aninis the last element in the matrix M. C21 C22 )
It is the element in the mth row and the nth
column of the matrix M. d11 d12 d13
and d= d21 d d23 is a 3 x 3 matrix.
Types of matrices d31 d32 d33
• Column matrix (vector)
Both c and d are square matrices.
all
a21 Example
a= a31 is a m x 1 matrix (-2 1'\
isa2x2matrix,
5)
ami so it is a square matrix
It has one column of elements and m rows 3 0 —4
of elements. d = —2 1 5 is a 3 x 3 matrix,
It is called a column matrix (column 7 —6 2
vector).
so it is a square matrix.
Example
8 A square matrix contains the same
a = 0 is a 3 x 1 matrix, number of rows as columns. It is a m x m
matrix (or a n x n matrix).
—5
so it is a column matrix. • Null (zero) matrix
10 0\
A column matrix (vector) contains a e= is the 2 x 2 zero matrix (null
single vertical line of elements. It is an
m x 1 matrix. matrix).
000
Row matrix (vector)
b = (b11 b12 b13 .. b1 ) is a 1 x n matrix.
.
f = 0 0 0 is the 3 x 3 zero matrix
It has one row of elements 000
It is called a row matrix (row vector). (null matrix).
Example The matrices e andf are the identity
matrices for the addition of 2 x 2 matrices
b = (- 3 2 0) is a 1 x 3 matrix, and 3 x 3 matrices respectively. They are
so it is a row matrix. both square matrices.
A row matrix (vector) contains a single A null matrix (zero matrix) contains
horizontal line of elements. It is a 1 x n
matrix. L elements which are all zero.
 Matrices and systems of linear equations im
• Diagonal matrix

g =(i g0

h11 0 0
J is a 2 x 2 diagonal matrix. If A is an m x n matrix and B is a p x q
matrix, then A = B iff
• the matrices A and B are of the same
h= 0 h22 0 is a 3 x 3 diagonal matrix. order, that is, m = p and n = q.
• the corresponding elements in the two
0 0 h33
matrices A and B are equal, that is,
The matrices g and h are square matrices Ni.
where all the elements in the leading
diagonal are non-zero and all the other
elements are zeroes. Example 1
2 x+3"i
-Example GiventhatA= land
(y -5 4)
(-2 0'\
g (p-5 8
o 5) is a 2 x 2 diagonal matrix 1
I, if A = B, find the values
q+2)
500 of x, y, p and q.
h = 0 -3 0 is a 3 x 3 diagonal matrix.
Solution
002
Given A=B
2 x+3')(p_5 8
A diagonal matrix is a square matrix - Then (y
-5 4) 1 q-i-2
where all the elements except the leading
diagonal elements are zeroes. It is an in x m Equating corresponding elements:
matrix (or a n x n matrix). p-5=2
p= 2 + 5 = 7
• Unit matrix x+3=8
x=8-3=5
0)is the 2 x 2 unit matrix.
y - S= 1
( 1

..., y=l+5=6
100 q+2=4
j = 0 1 0 is the 3 x 3 unit matrix. q=4-2=2
0 0 1 Hence, x = 5, y = 6, p =7 and q = 2.

The matrices i and] are the identity

matrices for the multiplication of 2 x 2 The basic operations of addition, subtraction
matrices and 3 x 3 matrices respectively. and multiplication can all be performed on
They are both square matrices and matrices.
diagonal matrices.

A unit matrix is a diagonal matrix with

each leading diagonal element equal to 1. Matrices of the same order are
The unit matrix has a magnitude of 1 conformable for addition.
and it is usually denoted by I. It is an
m x m matrix.
LIi1iI Pure Mathematics for CAPE

= all a12 a13 b12 b13 '\

Given that A ) and B -
a21 a22 a231 b22 b23 J

(all a a' (b b b
Then A+B= 1+1
a21 a a23 tb 21 b
) b23
(all +b11 a12 + b12 a13 +b13
a21 + b21 a22 + b22 a23+ b23
Since A is a 2 x 3 matrix and B is a 2 x 3 matrix, then they are conformable for addition and the
result, A + B, is also a 2 x 3 matrix.
Two or more matrices can be added:
• if the matrices are of the same size
• by adding the elements in corresponding positions in each matrix.

Example 2
Given that P = I _2'andQ=(_1 ',fidP+Q.
o) 3 —6)
Snintirni
(5 —2\
NowP+Q=4
oJ 3 —6
(5+[-1] —2+7
4+3 O+-6j
(5-1 5
—6
(4 5
—6
• Commutative law i or a( Idition of matrices

Given that A =
a11 a12 a13
and B Ibi: = b12 b13
(a2l a) bT b b23
b13 ) (a11 a12 a13
Then B+A=(u1
b22 b23 ) a21 a22 a23
(b11 +all b12 + a12b13 +a13
b21 + a21 b22+ a22 b 3 + a23
all
+b11
a12+ b12 a,3+ b13)
- a21 + b21
( a22+ b22 a23 + b23
Thus A+B=B-i-A.
The addition of matrices is commutative.
 Matrices and systems of linear equations F[!kI

- Example 3 7 \\
5 _2) and
Given that P=[4 0 Q (_1
= 3
6 Ji find Q+P.
-Solution
—1 '\ ( — 2
Now Q+P=[ —6)4
o)
(-1+5 7+[-21
3+4 —6+0 )
(4 7-2
—6
(4 5'
7 —6)
(4 5\
C1early,P+Q=Q+P=(7
6J•
Associative law for addition of matrices
all a12 (b11 b12 = (c11 c12 )
Given A = B and C
(a2l a22 ) = b21 b22) C21 c22 )
= (au 1l12 (b11 b12
Then A +B + )
a21 a) b21 b22 )
a12

So (A+B)+c=(a2
a21+b21

all +b11 a12 +b12

l 1 + b21 a + b22
(C11 C12 )
c21 c22 )
22
J
22)

all +bll+clla12+b12+c12
(
a21 +b21 +c21 a±b22 +c221

B+C=Ibhl
b12 ) c12 )
Also
b21 b22 ) c21 c)
(bil + Cil b12 +c12 )
b22 +c22 j

= a12 1b11 + c11 b12 + c12 )

So A + (B + C) +
a21 a221 b21 + c21 b22 + c)
au+ b11 + c11 a12 + b12 + c12
=
(a2,+ b21 + c21 a22 + b22 + c22 )
Thus (A + B) + C =A + (B + Q.
The addition of matrices is associative.
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

• Identity matrix for addition of matrices

An identity matrix for addition of matrices leaves a matrix unchanged when the two
matrices are added together.

a11 a12 00
Consider the matrix A = a21 a22 and I = 0 0 /
a31 a32 00
a11 a12 0 0
then A + I = a21 a22 + 0 0
A, a 32 0 0
a+0 a12 +0
= a21 +0 a+0
a31 +0 a32 +0
a11 a12
= a21 a
a31 a32
Thus A + I = A.
00
I = 0 0 is the identity matrix for the addition of 3 x 2 matrices.
00

The identity matrix for addition is a zero matrix with the same size. A matrix of each
different order has its own identity matrix.
• Inverse matrix for addition of matrices
The additive inverse of a matrix when added to the matrix results in the identity matrix.

Consider the matrix A =all

a12 and B = I_au —a 12
a22 ) t—a21 —a22
i +[_ a11] a12 +[_ a12]'
then A+B
=(a2l+[- a21 ] a 22 +[— a22])
a12—a12

a21 _a21 a _a22)

[ au_au

0 0"i
o o)
=1
 Matrices and systems of linear equations L1JI

where B = -A. _( 7-5 3-[-6]

Thus A+[-A]=I.
1-4-8 .1-0

The additive inverse of a matrix is a (_12 3+6

matrix with the same order and elements 1
with the same magnitudes but with (_129
opposite signs.
21
(5 ( 7 3
(b) Q-P=8
o)-4 1

Matrices of the same order are (5-7 -6-3

conformable for subtraction. 0-1
(-2 -9
a11 a12 11 b12 8+4 -1
Given that A = and B (b
(a2, a22 ) = b21 b22 J (-2 -9
-1
B = ( a12 a12 (b11 b12
Then A-
a21 a22 ) - b21 b22 ) Clearly,P - Q # Q - P.
The subtraction of matrices is non-
( a11 - b11 a12 - b12 ")
commutative.
= a21 _b21 a22 _b22 )

- Example 5
Since A is a 2x2 matrix and B is a 2 x 2 matrix, Given that A B
then they are conformable for subtraction and find = (=
8]' () and C
the result, A - B, is also a 2 x 2 matrix. (a) (A - B) - C (b) A - (B - C)
One matrix can be subtracted from another
matrix: -Solution
(3 ) ( 6
• If the matrices are of the same order (a) Now (A_B)=_ 2
• By subtracting the elements in the
subtractend matrix from the elements in (3-6
corresponding positions of the minuend
matrix.
(-3
Example 4 8+2
? 3] 6]
Given that P = ( and Q = ( (-3
find 1
10 ) ,

(a) P-Q (b) Q-P

( -5 )
-3
Solution So (A _ B )_ C =t10)_( 4
3(5
(a) Now P-Q=
( -4 lJ - 8 0J (-3-[-51
10-4
an Pure Mathematics for CAPE

(-3+5 (?a11 2a12 ?a13

- (a21 Xa 23
(2
-Example 6
(3 i (-2 5".'
(-5) Given that A = I 4 ) and B=I 0
(b) NowB - C find 6)'

_( 6-[-5] (a)2A (b) -3B

-2-4 (c) 5A - 2B (d)
2 4
(6+5
(e) 4A+4B (f) 4(A + B)
(g) 2A - 2B (h) 2(A - B)
(11 - Solution
6)
(3 1
)_(11) (a) 2A=2 2
soA- (B- C) =(38
6 (2x3 2x1
(3-11
(2x2 2x4
8-[-6J
(6 2
-8
(
I4 8
8+6
(-8 (-2 5
(b) -3B
14 06
Clearly, (A B) C A (B C).
- - -
(_3x[_2} -3x5
-

The subtraction of matrices is non- (-3x0 -3x6

associative. (6 -15
-18
Multiplication of a matrix
by a scalar (c) 5A - 2B
(3 1"\ (-2 5
If A is a matrix and 2 is a scalar, then A A
is obtained by multiplying each element t
4) 2 0 6
in the matrix A by A. (5x3 5x1) (2x[-2} 2x5
J5x2 5x4)t2x0 2x6
= ( a11 a12 a13 (15 5) (-4 10)
If A an d A,=-
0 21 a a) 10 20) 0 12
= 4a11 a12 a13 ) 15-[-4} 5-10
then
a21 a22 a23 10-0 20-12
 Matrices and systems of linear equations

(15+4 -5 [(3 1' (-2 5

(f) 4(A + B)
\ 10 8 = 4R 2 4) + ( 0 6
(19 -5 (3+[-2] 1+5
\ 10 8 4+6
(3-2 6
1 1 1(3 f\ i(-2
(d) -A+-B ---I 1 +-I 10
2 4 22 4) 4 0
(1 6
1 1 1 1
-x3 -xl -x[-2] -x5 10
_2 2 4
1 1 1 (4x1 4x6
-x2 -x4 -xO -x6
2 2 4 4 4x2 4x10
(4 24

=+ +
40

Clearly 4(A -f-B)=4A +4B.

3 [_ 1] 1 5
Scalar multiplication is distributive over
the addition of matrices.
1+0 2+-
2
Hence A. (A + B) = AA + AB

4
(3 1 '
(g) 2A-2B=2 2 4)2 k
(-2 5

(
06
1 (2x3 2x1 (_2x[_2] —2x5
2
(2x2 2x4 )_2x0 —2x6
3 1 "\ (-2 5
(6 2 (4 —10
(e) 4A+4B=4t 2 4)+4( 0 6
L.4 80
)i —12
(4x3 4xf\ (4x[-2] 4x5 (6+4 2+[-10]
=1 1 +1
4x2 4x4) 4x0 4x6 t4+0 8+[-12]
(12 4) + (-8 20 (10 2-10
8 16 0 24 8--12
(12+[_8} 4+20 (10 -8

- 8+0
(12-8
8
(4 24
40
16+24
24
40 (h) 2(A - B)
[(3 1 (-2 5
= 2R2 4) 0 6

=2O
2 (3
- [-2 1 1-5
4-6
____ Pure Mathematics for CAPE

3+2 -4 5 9 7
=
(b) 3A-2B+4C=3 8 -2 -2 +4 -4
2 ( 2 -2
-3 0 ill
=2(5 -4
3x5 —2x9 4x7
2 -2
= 3x8 + —2x[-2] + 4x[-4]
(2x5 2x[-4] 3x[-3] —2x0 4x1
2x2 2x[-2] 15 —18 28
(10 -8 =24+ 4+-16
-4 —9 0 4
Clearly 2(A - B) = 2A - 2B. 15-18+28

rL Scalar multiplication is distributive over

the subtraction of matrices.
= 24+ 4-16
-9+0 +4
25
Hence .a(A-B)=AA-AB. = 12
-5
Example 7
5 9 7
Given that A = 8 B= -2 and C = - 4 /
-3 0 1 Product of a row vector and a column vector
Consider the row vector A = ( a11 a12 a13 )
find
b11
(a) 2A+5B-3C (b) 3A-2B+4C
and the column vector B = b21
Solution
b31
5 9 7 The product of the matrices,
(a) 2A+5B-3C=2 8 +5 -2 -3 -4
(b11
-3 0 1
AB=(all a12 a13 ) b 21
2x5 5x9 —3x7
b3 )

= 2x8 + 5 x [-2] + —3 x [-4]

2x[-3] 5x0 —3x1 x b11 + a12 x b 21 + a13 x b 31 )

10 45 -21 = (a11 b11 + a12 b21 + a13 b31 )

= 16 + -10 + 12
A is a 1 x 3 matrix and B is a 3 x 1 matrix.
-6 0 -3
(1 x 3) x (3 x 1)
10+45-21
= 16-10+12
-6+0 -3 116
'Ces Conk
34
= 18
Or
—9 Of resulting
 Matrices and systems of linear equations LllI

The inner product 3 x 3 indicates 8CA 7

that the matrices are conformable for Given that P = (3 —2 4)andQ= 5 ,find
multiplication, since 3 = 3.
The outer product 1 x 1 indicates the —1
order of the resulting matrix. (a) PQ (b) QP
The product of the matrices, Solution
7
BA = b 21 (a1, a12 6 13 ) (a) PQ (3 —2 4) 5
b31 —1
x a ll b11 X a12 b11 x a13 =(3x7-2x5+4x[--1])
= x a12 b21 x a12 b21 x a12 =(21 —10-4)
= (7)
X a13 b31 x a13 b31 x a13
7
B is a 3 x 1 matrix and A is a 1 x 3 matrix. (b) QP= 5 (3 —2 4)
(3 x 1) x (1 x 3) —1
7x3 7x[-2] 7x4
= 5x3 5x[-2] 5x4
—1x3 —1x[-2] —1x4
21 —14 28
Of resulting '
= 15 —10 20
The inner product 1 x 1 indicates —3 2 —4
that the matrices are conformable for • Product of a matrix and a column vector
multiplication, since 1 = 1.
a11 a12 a13
The outer product 3 x 3 indicates the Consider the matrix A =
order of the resulting matrix. ( a2l a a23

Two matrices are conformable for and the column vector B = b21
multiplication if the number of columns b31
in the first matrix is equal to the number The product of the matrices,
of rows in the second matrix.
The order of the resulting matrix in the a aai
product of matrices is the number of rows AB=
(a2l a 23 I
in the first matrix times the number Of b31
columns in the second matrix.
- (a11 x + a12 x b21 + a13 x b31
- a21 x b il + a22 x b21 + a23 x b31
- (a11b11 + a12b21 + a13b31
- a21b11 + ab21 + a23b31
M Pure Mathematics for CAPE

A is a 2 x 3 matrix and B is a 3 x 1 matrix.

An identity matrix for multiplication of
(2 x 3) x (3 x 1) matrices leaves a matrix unchanged when
the two matrices are multiplied.

Consider the matrix A and

= (a2l a22 j
er of resulting ' 1=1101

The inner product 3 x 3 indicates

AI=(all a12 (1 0
that the matrices are conformable for then
multiplication, since 3 = 3. a21 a72)0
l)
The outer product 2 x 1 indicates the a11x1+a12x0 a11x0+a12x
order of the resulting matrix.
(a2 ,xl+a22 xO a21 x0+a22 x1J
The product of the matrices,
[ b11
BA = b21 (
a11 a12 a13
)
1a11 a12
ta21 a22 )
a,1 a22 a23 )
b31J =A
1 0)(aii a12 ')
The product BA does not exist. and IA-0
It is meaningless. 1 a21 a)
BA is not conformable for multiplication. (1xa11 +0xa21 1xa12 +0xa'\
B is a 3 x 1 matrix and A is a 2 x 3 matrix.
0xa11 +1xa21 0xa12 +1xa22 J
(3 x 1) x (2 x 3)
a,, a12
(
a21 a22 )
OS not CO =A
Hence AI=IA=A.
(1 o"
is the identity matrix for the
The inner product 1 x 2 indicates that = J
the matrices are non-conformable for
multiplication of 2 x 2 matrices.
multiplication, since 1 # 2.
In general, if A is a m x n matrix and B Only square matrices have an identity
is a n x p matrix, then the inner product matrix. The identity matrix for
ii x n indicates that the matrices are multiplication is a diagonal matrix with
conformable for multiplication, since the same size and each element in the
n = n; the matrix product AB is a m x p leading diagonal equal to one with all
matrix and the matrix product BA is a other elements being zero. A square
p x m matrix. matrix of each different order has its own
Identity matrix for multiplication of identity matrix.
matrices
 Matrices and systems of linear equations M
.
100 a11 a12 a13
I = 0 1 0 is the identity matrix for the Given that A = a21 a a23 / show that
001 a31 a32 a33
multiplication of 3 x 3 matrices. Al IA = A.

- Example 9

Given that P = I
( 1 4 =r - ,
7)
fd
21)
(a) PQ (b) QP
Solution
(5 0 —2'\ 6 7
(a) PQ=3
1 4) 0 —3
—42
(5x6+OxO-2x[-41 5x 7 +0x[- 3] -2 x2
3x6+1x0+4x[-4] 3x7+lx[-3]+4x2
( 30+0+8 35-0-4
(\18+0-16 21-3+8
(38 31
2 26
(2 x 3) matrix x (3 x 2) matrix = (2 x 2) matrix.
6
7 5 0 —2)
(b) QP =[o
](
6x5+7x3 6x0+7x1 6x[-2]+7x4
= 0x5-3x3 OxO-3x1 Ox[-2]-3x4
—4x5+2x3 —4x0+2x1 —4x[-2]+2x4
30+21 0+7 —12+28
= 0-9 0-3 0-12
—20+6 0+2 8+8
51 7 16
= —9 —3 —12
—14 2 16
(3 x 2) matrix x (2 x 3) matrix = (3 x 3) matrix.
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Commutativity
Here we shall consider the product of a pair of 2 x 2 matrices.
a a12 b11 b12
Consider the matrices A = Iand B = I
(a2l a22 ) b21 b22
a11 a12 '\(b11 b12
Then AB = II
(a2l a22 ) b2 b22
all x b il + a12 x b21 a ll x b 12 + a12 x b22
21 xb11 +axb21 a21 xb 12 +axb22

- (a11b11 + a12b21 a11b12 + a12b

- a21 b11 + ab21 a21b12 + a22b22
(b11 b12 (a11 a12
And BA =:I II
b2 b22 )a21 a ) ,

b11 xa11 +b12 xa21 b11 xa12 +b12 xa22

(b2lx a11 +b22 xa21 b21 xa12 +b22 xa
-
a11b11 + a21b12 a12b11 + ab12
(allb2,+ a21b22 a12b21 + ab22
Clearly AB # BA.
The multiplication of matrices is non-commutative.

-Example 10
rMatrix multiplication is not commutative.
I
Given P=12 f1Q14 3) and I = ( 1 0')fj fld
—8) 0 1)
(a) (i) PQ (ii) QP
(b) (i) P2 (ii) Q2
(c) (i) P1 (ii) IP
- Solution
(-2 1'\(4 3 ( 4 3V-2 1
(a) WPQ= 0 5J1 (ii) QP=l II
\ 7 —8 (7 —8) 0 5
- (-2 x 4+1 x 7 —2 x 3+1 x [-8] (4x[-21+3x0 4x1+3x5
0x4+5x7 0 x 3+5 x [-8] 7x[-2]-8x0 7x1-8x5
(-8+7 —6-8 —8+0 4±15
!t\ 0+35 0-40 —14-0 7-40
(-1 —14 (-8 19
35 —40 —14 —33
 Matrices and systems of linear equations LIII

p2 .... ( 2 1'-2 1" —2 1)(1 0

(1) (i) (c) (i) PI
0 0 5)0 1)
(-2x[-2]+lxO —2x1+1x5 -2 x 1 + 1 x 0 —2 x 0+1 x 1
( 0x[-2]+5x0 Oxl+5x5 (
Oxl+5x0 OxO+5x1
4+0 —2+5 (-2+0 0+1
+0
(0 0+25 - 0+0 0+5
_(4 3 (-2 1
25 to 5

Q2 (4 3)(4 3)
(it)
(1 0'"-2 1
(ii) iP=I II
(4x4+3x7 4x3+3x[-81 (° 1) 0 5
t7x4-8x7 7x3-8x[-8] - (1 x [-2] +0 x 0 lx 1+0 x5
(16+21 12-24 - 0 x [-2] + 1 x 0 Oxl+1x5
28-56 21+64 (-2+0 1+0
_( 37 —12 0+0 0+5
85 (-2 1
10 5
=P

Associativity
al, a12 11 b12 '
Consider the matrices A = i B = (' and
a21 a22 ) b21 b22 )

c=('Chl C12
C21 C22

alibil + a12 b21 a11 b12 + a12 b22 )(c11 c12

Then (AB)C =
+ a22 b21 a21 b12 + a22b22 )c21 C22

[aiibii + a 12 b21 ]c11 + [a11 b12 + a12b22 ]c21 [a11 b11 + a12 b21 ]c12 + [a11 b12 + al2 b22 ]C22

-- (la2lbl + a22 b21 ]c11 + [a21 b12 + a22 b22 ]c21 [a21 b11 + a22 b21 ]c12 + [a21 b12 + a22 b22 ]c22

a11 b11 c11 + a12 b21 c11 + a11 b12 c21 + a12 b22 c21 a11 b11 c12 + a12 b21 c12 + a11 b12 c22 +
-(
-

a21 b11 c + ab21 c11 + a21 b12 c21 + a22 b22 c21 + a22 b21 c12 + a21 b12 c + a22b22c22
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

(bl, b12 \(c11 c12

And BC= I
b21 b22 ) c21 c22
b11c + b12 c21 b11 c12 + b12 c22
-- (b2lCll+ b22 C21 b21 c12 + b22 C22
all a12 1b11 c11 + b12 C21b11c12 + b12 c22
So A(BC) =
a21 a)b21c11 +b22 C21 b21 c12 +b C22

-
all [b11 c11 + b12 c21 ]+ a12 [b21 c11 + b22 c21 1 all [b11 c12 + b12 c22 ]+ a12 [b21 c12 + b22 c22 ])
- a21 [b11 c11 + b12 c21 ]+ a22 [b21c11 + b22c21 ] a21 [b11 c12 + b12 c]+a22 [b21 c12 + b22 c22 ])
- (a11b11 c11 + a11b12 c21 + a12b21 c11 + a11b11 c12 + a11b12 c22 + a12b21 c12 + a12b22 c22
- a21 b11 c11 + a21b12 c21 + a22b21 c21 + ab22 c21 a21 b11 c12 + a21 b12 c22 + ab21 c12 + a22b22 c22
-
a11b11c11 + a12b21 c11 + a11b12 c21 + a12b22 c21 + a12b21 c12 + a11 b12 c22 + a12b22 c22
(a,,bllcl, + ab21 c11 + a21b12 c21 + a21b11 c12 + ab21 c12 + a21b12 c22 + a22b22 c22

Clearly, (AB)C = A(BC).

The multiplication of matrices is associative.

Matrix multiplication is associative.

ABC = (AB)C = A(BC).

Example 11
(-2 5 '\ —3'\
Given that P = _6JaR_2
4J' = (3 oJ'
find
(a) (PQ)R (b) P(QR)
Solution
(-2 5'\(3 1
(a) Now PQ=
4J(7 —6
(_2x3+5x7 —2 x 1+5 x [-6]
- 0x3+4x7 0 x 1+4 x [-6]
(-6+35 —2-30
0+28 0-24
29, —32
(
—24
 Matrices and systems of linear equations

29 —32'\( 5 —3
And (PQ)R= II
( 28 —24)-2 0
(29x5-32x[-2] 29 x[-3] - 32 x0
28x5-24x[-2] 28x[-3]-24x0
(145+64 —87-0
140+48 —84-0
_(209 —87
(\ 188 —84

(
(b) Now QR=I II
!\7 —6)-2 0
(3x5+lx[-21 3x[-3]+lxO
(7x5-6x[-2] 7 x[-3] - 6x0
(15-2 —9+0
35+12 —21-0
(13 —9
47 —21
(-2 5V13 —9
And P(QR)=( 0
4fi\ 47 —21
(_2x13+5x47 —2x[-9]+5x[-211
0x13+4x47 0x[-9]+4x[-21]
(-26+235 18-105
0+188 0-84
(209 —87
188 —84

• Distributivity
(b11 b12
Consider the matrices A = ( a11 B and
a2l a22
al2J = b21 b22J

C11 C12
C =I
'\ C21 C22)
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

= all a12]F(bii b12\ + c11 c12')1

Then A(B+C) 1
(a2, a22 [ b2 b22 } ( C21 c22 )]
(a11 al2J(bfl+dll b12+c12')
a21 a22 b21 + c21 b22 + C22 )
all (b11 + c11 ) + a12 (b21 + c21 ) all (b12 + C12)+ a12 (b+ c)
a21 (b11 + c11 ) + a (b21 + c21 ) a21 (b12 + C12)+ a22 (b + c)
a11b11 + a11 c11 + a12b21 + a11b12 + a11c12 + a12b22 + a12c22
+ a21c11 + a22b21 + + a21c12 + a22b22 + a22c22

And AB+AC=(a11 a12 )(bii b12 ') (a11 a12 )1c11 c12 ')
a21 a) b21 b22 ) a21 a7 C2 C22 )

a11b11 + a12b21 a11b12 + + (al,cli + a12 C21 1711 C12 +

a21 b11 + ab21 a21 b12 + a22b22 + a22 C21 a21 C12 +
a12b12 + a12 b22 + 11 C12 +
a11 b11 + a12 b21 + a11c11 + a12c21
a21b11 + ac21 + a21c11 + ac21 + a22b + a21 C12 +
a11b11 + a11 c11 + a12b21 + a12c21 a12b12 + a11c12 + a12b22 + cz12c22
a21b11 + a21 C11 + a22b21 + a22c21 a21b12 + a21 C12 + a22b22 +

Clearly, A(B + C) = AB + AC.

The multiplication of matrices is distributive over addition.

[Matrix multiplication is distributive over addition.

( a11b11 - a11 c11 + a12b21 - a12c21 a11b12 - a11c12 + a12b22 - a12c22

Show that A(B - C)
= a21b11 - a21 C11 + a22b21 - a22 C2 a2 b 2 - a21 C12 + ab22 - a22C2Z]
=AB—AC

That is A(B - C) = AB - AC.

The multiplication of matrices is distributive over subtraction.

I Matrixmu
ii ltiplication is distributive over subtraction.
 Matrices and systems of linear equations M
.

-Example 121 -2
( 1'\ -3)
(4 -3" (8 0
Given that P = I and j, find
5) 6) -1 9)
(a) (i) P(Q + R) (ii) PQ+PR
(b) (i) P(Q - R) (ii) PQ - PR
- Solution
(a) U) P(Q + R) =(
][( )+( )]
(-2 1"1(4+8 -3+0
0 5,fl7-1 6+9
(-2 f'1(12 -3
0 5,ft6 15
(-2x12+1x6 -2 x[- 3]+ 1 x15
0x12+5x6 0x[- 31+5x15
(-24+6 6+15
0+30 0+75
(-18 21
30 75
(-2 i\(4 -3'\ (-2 1"\( 8 0
(ii) PQ +
PR ( 0 5fi7 6J 0 5,J1\- 1 9
(_2x4+1x7 -2x[-3]+1x6' (-2x8+lx[-1] -2 x 0+1 x 9
0x4+5x7 0x[-3]+5x6) 0x8+5x[ -1 1 OxO+5x9
(-8+7 6+6-16-1 (-16-1 0+9
=1 1 +1
0+35 0+30) 0-5 0+45
(-1 12 (-17 9
35 30) -5 45
(-1-17 12+9
35-5 30+45
(-18 21
- 30 75
LJ Pure Mathematics for CAPE

= (-18 21
Clearly PQ + R) = PQ + PR
30 75

(-2 1F(4 —3'\ ( 8

(b) G) P(Q—R)
= 0 5JL7 6J_i 09
(-2 1'1(4-8 —3-0
= 0 5,ll7+1 6-9
(-2 1(-4 —3
0 5 8 —3
(-2 x [-4] +1 x 8 —2 x [-3] +1 x [-3]
Ox[-4]+5x8 0 x [-3] +5 x [-3]
(8+8 6-3
I0+40 0-15
(16 3
40-15

(-1 12 (-17 9
(ii) PQ - PR
= (35 30) —5 45
(-1+17 12-9
35+5 30-45
(16 3
40 —15
3"
ClearlyP(Q—R)=PQ—PR=I 16
40 —15 J
Product of two 3 x 3 matrices
a11 a12 a13 b12 b13
Consider the matrices A = a21 a a and B = b21 b b
a31 a32 a33 b31 b32 b33
The product of the mat] ices, AB is
all a12 a13 b11 b12 b13
a21 a a23 b21 b b23
t 31 a32 a33 b31 b32 b33
+ a12b21 + a13b31
allb12+ a13 b22 + a13b32 + a12b23 +
= a21b11 + a22b2l+ ab31 a21b12 + ab + ab32 + ab +
a31b11 + a32b2l+a33b31 + a32b22 + a33 b32 a3lb13+ a32b23 + a33b33
 Matrices and systems of linear equations t}'41

-Example 13
-1 25 -4 13
Given that A = 4 0 7 and B= 2 -5 0 ,find
6 -3 8 -1 -6 9
(a) AB (b) BA
- Solution
-1 2 5 -4 1 3
(a) AB= 4 0 7 2 -5 0
6 -3 8 -1 -6 9
-lx[-4]+2x2+5x[-1] -lxl+2x[-5]+5x[-6] -1 x 3+2 x 0+5 x 9
= 4 x[-4 1+ 0 x 2 +7 x[-11 4 x 1 +Ox[-5]+7 x[-6] 4x3+OxO+7x9
6 x [-4] -3 x 2+8 x [-1] 6x1-3x[-5]+8x[-6] 6x3-3x0+8x9
4+4-5 -1-10-30 -3+0+45
= -16+0-7 4-0-42 12+0+63
-24-6-8 6+15-48 18-0+72,)
3 -41 42
= -23 -38 75
-38 -27 90
-4 1 3 -1 2 5
(b) BA =2 -5 0 4 0 7
-1 -6 9 6 -3 8
-4 x [-11+1 x 4+3 x 6 -4 x 2+1 x 0+3 x [-3] -4 x 5+1 x 7+3 x 8
= 2x[-1]-5x4+0x6 2 x 2-5 x 0+0 x [-3] 2x5-5x7+0x8
-lx 2-6 x 0+9 x [-3] -1 x 5-6 x 7+9 x 8
4+4+18 -8+0-9 -20+ 7 +24
= -2-20+0 4-0-0 10-35+0
1-24+54 -2-0-27 -5-42+72
26 -17 11
=-22 4-25
31 -29 25
Clearly, AB # BA
Transpose of a matrix
The Transpose of a m x n matrix A is a n x m matrix AT. It is found by interchanging
each row with its corresponding column, so R 1 becomes C1.
•" Pure Mathematics for CAPE

( a11 a12 a13 (8 —6

Consider the matrix A = (ii) Since Q
a22 a23 ) = 0
which is a 2 x 3 matrix.
Then the transpose matrix of then QT..8
)
all a21
A, AT = a12 a22 Since R=[
a13 a23 2)
which is a 3 x 2 matrix. —1
then RT=
Properties of transpose matrices )
The properties of transpose matrices are: 8 7) + (—1 9
S0QT+RT=[6
• (A+B)T__AT+BT o8 2
• (A_B)T=AT_BT 8-1 7+9
• (AT)T=A
6+8 0+2
(-
• ()4)T_)T where AE ER
• (AB)T = BTAT (7 16
2
- Example 14
3 —2 (7 16)
Q= (8 —6"\ Hence (Q+R)T=QT+RT_
and 2 2
Given that P = 0 1 ,
7 = (8 8
54 (b) (i) Now Q - R
7 0 92 )
R= (-1 8
(8+1 _6_8)
2
= 7-9 0-2
Find
(a) (1) (Q + R)T (ii) QT + RT 9 —14)
(b) (i) (Q - R)T (ii) QT - RT ( —2 —2
(c) (1) (PT)T (ii) (QT) T —2)
(d) (I) (5p)T (ii) 5pT So(Q_R)T=[
—14 —2
(e) (i) (QR)T (ii) RTQT
8 7) (_1 9)
(ii) QT - R -
- Solution - (_6 0 - 8 2
8
(a) (i) Now Q + R 8+1 7_9)
=( 0J + 2J =
p8-1 —6+8'\ ( -6-8 0-2
7+9 O+2J 9
=( )
(17 2'\
6 2) 9 —2
Hence (Q_R)T=QT_RT=
(_14 _2J
(7 16\
So(Q+R)T=2
J
 Matrices and systems of linear equations LJ

3 —2 pT
3 0 5'\
then
(c) (1) Now P= 0 1 (-2 1
54 30 s
So pT
S0PT=(
3 0 5 (-2 1 4)
-2 1 4 (5x3 5x0 5x5
3 —2 5x[-2] 5x1 5x4J
And (PT)T = 0 1 (150 25
54 1
-10 5 20J
3 —2 15 0 25\
(pT)T Hence (5p)T = 5P
Hence =P= 0 1 = (-10 5 20J

—6) (e) (i) Now QR

(ii) Now Q = 8
(7 0 =( J( )
(8x[_1]_6x9 8x8-6x2
S0QT=(8 7)
t7x[-1]+0x9 7x8+0x2
(-8-54 64-12
_6)
And (Q T) T . ( 8 56+0
(-62 52
_6)
Hence (QT) T = Q-.(8 56

So(QR)T =(:2 _7)

(d) (1) Now 5P=5 0 1
54 (-1 98 7\
ii) RTQT
5x3 5x[ -21
(

=1 8 2 1Jt-6 oJ
= 5x0 5x1 I-1x8+9x[ 7 6] —1x7+9x0"\
5x5 5x4 8x8+2x[-6] 8x7+2xOJ
15 —10 —8-54 —7+0)
=0 5 56+OJ
25 20 (-62 —7)
So(5P)T=(
15 0 25 56J
-10 5 20 (-62 —7
Hence (QR)T = RTQT -
3 —2 52 56J
(ii) Since P= 0 1
54
L'1:I Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Exercise 9a

1. Given that P = 12
\
X
y 4j
and Q=I2P
8 6q)
,ifP=Q, find the values ofx,y,p and q.

x-2 —2 4
2. Given that A and B = , if A = B, find the values of x, y, p and q.
=( y+4 8 ) —1 q-3)

3. X,Y and R are matrices such that X=I1,Y=( b and R _( 2

a) —2)
(a) Calculate 3x + 2Y.
(b) If 3x + 2Y = R, calculate the values of a and b.
(6 8'\
4. Given that A 04JandB 3Jifind
1
(a) (i) A + B (ii) B + A
(b) (i) A —B (ii) B —A
1
(c) (i) 2A (ii)

(d) (i) 5B (ii)

(e) (i) 3A + 2B (ii) 2B + 3A
(f) (i) A - 2B (ii) 2B - A

(g) (i) 5(A + B) (ii) 2(A - B)

—5 8
5. Given that P = 4 and Q = —3 , find
2 0
(a) (i) P + Q (ii) Q + P
(b) (I) P - Q (ii) Q - P
1
(c) (1) 3P (ii) - -P

(d) (i) 4Q (ii)

(e) (i) 2P + 5Q (ii) 5Q + 2P
1
(f) (i) .P-3Q (ii) 3Q—P

(h) (i) 3(P + Q) (ii) 4(P - Q)

 Matrices and systems of linear equations

6)
H 6. Given that A=( 7}B=]andC=( find

(a) (A - B) - C (b) A - (B - -C)

71Q=(_1 andR=(8
7. Given that P=( find
0 -2) 5 6) 3 0)
(a) P - (Q - R) (b) (P - Q) - R
(2 -3'\ (-6 0'\ ( 7 1 4'\
8. Given that A = I I, B = I I and C = I I, find, where possible,
t4 5) 3 -1) -8 6 3)
(a)A+B (b)A-B
(c) 2A (d) -'B

(e) 2AB (f)

3 2 3
(g) 2(A+B) (h) 3(A-B)
(i) AB (j) BA
(k) AC (1) CA
(m)B2 (n) C2
3 = (8
9. If A =1 =1 ,

i'), B and C find

-2 4) 6 7) L2 1)
(a) 5A - 2B + 3C (b) AB
(c) AC (d) !BC

( -7 (-5 8
10. Given that A = 6 and B find
0 4) 1 3)
(a) AB (b) BA
(c) AB (d) -BA

(e) A 2 (f) B 2
(g) A 2 - B2 (h) (A2 - B2 )

0Q=(5 _2R( 7 8andI=(1 0find

11. Given that P=(1
4 3) 0 6) -4 9) 0 1)
(a)P2 +P-41 (b)Q2 -Q+31
(c) 2R2 + 3R +51 (d) P(QR)
(e) (PQ)R (f) (QR)P
F1!i Pure Mathematics for CAPE

( -5 0 '\ (6 -4" 1-2 7 \

12. Given that A = I I, B = and C I I, find
3 2) 0 1) 8 -1)
(a) (i) A(B + C) (ii) AB + AC
(b) (i) A(B - C) (ii) AB - AC
(c) (i) (A + B)C (ii) AC + BC
(d) (i) (A - B)C (ii) AC - BC
7 -2
4 -1
13. Given that P = 0') and Q = 0 8 ,find
2 5)
6 -4
(a) PQ (b) QP
(c) 2 PQ (d) -3 QP
(e)1 P (f) -QP
14. Evaluate each of the following products.
6 0 7
(-5
(a) (7 -)I (b) (8 -3 2) -1 3 -2
3 2
514
-7 6
6 _8')( 2') 1 (8)
(c) (d) 4
(-5
-2 3
-502 8 -416-32
(e) 3 -1 4 0 (f) 2 -5 3 0 4
6 -7 1 -2 0 7 8 1 6
-1 2 0 -2 1 5 -5 2 6 0 1 -4
(g) 3 -4 6 -6 -3 4 (h) 3 -1 4 -6 5 2
7 -5 8 0 -7 8 -2 0 7 7 6 8
-5 3 1
-6
15. Given that A= 1 0 / B=(9
0 8)
I and C = 4
I. find
1)
72
(a) (i) (B + C)T (ii) BT + CT
(b) (i) (B - C)T (ii) BT - CT
(c) (i) (AT)T (ii) (BT)T

(d) (1) (3A)T (ii) 3AT

(e) (i) (_4B)T (ii) 4 BT
(f) (i) (BC)T (ii) CT BT
 Matrices and systems of linear equations

Determinant of a n x n matrix
Determinant of a 2 x 2 matrix

A determinant exists only for a square matrix.

The determinant of a matrix A is denoted by I A I , or det (A), or detA.
1a b" (ll
a a12
If A=1
d)
I If A=
a22)
II
ab all a12
then IAI= then JAI=
IC dI a21 a22
= ad - bc = a11a22 -

The determinant of a 2 x 2 matrix is the product of the leading diagonal elements

minus the product of the non-leading diagonal elements.

• Properties of a n x n matrix A
The properties of a square matrix A are as follows:
•
Example Example

('J,
=
If A then AT = ab - ab = 0.
=( }
So JA I = ad - bc and J A T I = ad —bc. a a
= IA! b -ab—ab=0.
b
If the rows and columns are transposed
(interchanged), then the value of the If two rows (or columns) are identical, then
determinant is unaltered. the value of the determinant is zero.
Hence, any property that is valid for rows is
also valid for columns. Example

Example
la a
= lad - Ac = 2(ad - bc) =2
c a c d C
=bc—ad=—(ad--bc)=—
a b c d AIAI
=—JAI Aa b a b
b a a b AC d c d
=bc—ad=—(ad—bc)=—
d c c d zAIAI
= -JAI If each element of one row (or column) is
multiplied by a scalar A, then the value of
If two rows (or columns) are interchanged, the determinant is multiplied by A.
then the sign of the determinant is changed.
FM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Example Example 15
'a ± Ac b ± ,zi Evaluate the determinant of the following
= (a ±.&)d - (b ± Ad)c matrices.
d 1
= ad ± Acd - bc Acd (a) A= (b) B =
(5 9) 8 6)
= ad - bc
Solution
- a bl (7 '\
c d (a) Given A=
49J
AI Then Al =7x9-4x5
Ia±A.b bI =63-20
c±Ad d(a)d±)b =43
= ad ± Abd - bc :: Abd (b) Given B=
= ad - bc (-3 )
Then BI= -3 x 6— (-5 )x 8
Ia bI --18+40
c d =22
=(Al
If a multiple of one row (or column) is
added to or subtracted from another row
(or column), then the value of the
determinant is unaltered.
• Determinant of a 3 x 3 matrix
The determinant of a 3 x 3 matrix can be found in several ways.
Consider the 3 x 3 matrix
(a11 a12 a13 '\
A=1a21
a31
a
a32
a2 J
aJ
a22 a23 I a21 a23 I a21 a22
Then JAI = all I I - a12 I + a13 Expanding along the first row.
a32 a33 a31 a331 a31 a32
a12 a131 all a13 all
= —a 21 1 i + a22 I I - a23
I a31 I Expanding along the second row.
a32 a33 j a31 a331 a32 }

a13 1 a11 a13 I all a12 I

= a31 I I - a32 + a33 I Expanding along the third row.
a22 a23 a21 a23 a21 12 22!

12 22 a23I a12 a13I all 1213

=a11 I— a21 Expanding along the first column.
1a32 1233 a32 a331 a22 a23
 Matrices and systems of linear equations

1 ?21 a23 a11 a13 all a13

a12 + a22 a32 Expanding along the second column.
a31 a33 a31 a33 t21 '23
a21 a22 a ll a12 a ll a12
= a13 a23 Expanding along the third column.
a31 a32 a31 a32 a21 a22

• Minors and cofactors

How is the determinant of a 3 x 3 m:atrix found?
Consider the 3 x 3 matrix

all a12 a131

A=IIct2ia22 a23
a32 a33

I!
22 a23
The minor of a ll is M11 = a
a32 a 331

The minor of a ll is obtained by deleting all the elements in the first row and the first
column.

•
L a l2 a131
A= a21 a a23

Al a32 a 33

a21 a23
The minor of a12 is M12
= a 31 a 33

The minor of a12 is obtained by deleting all the elements in the first row and the
second column.

a11 a12 a13

A= a21 a22 a23

a31 a32 a33

=a
21 a
22
The minor of a 13 is M13
a31 a32

The minor of a 13 is obtained by deleting all the elements in the first row and the third
column.
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

If a positive or negative sign is attached to a minor, then a cofactor is obtained.

Where does this sign come from?
+—+
- +-
+—+

The sign to be attached to the minor is given in the pattern of signs in the matrix show
above.
Hence:
a22 a2
The cofactor of the element a ll is A11 =+M11 = +
a32 a33
a21 au j
The cofactor of the element a 12 is A l2 = - M12 - I I.
a31 a33 J
a2 a
The cofactor of the element a 13 is A 13 = + M13 = +
a3 a
.

The cofactor of an element is the minor of the element with its sign attached.
The determinant of a 3 x 3 matrix is the sum of the product of the three elements in a
row (column) and its corresponding cofactor.
I a22 a23 1 a21 a23 +a13 a21 a 22
Hence J AI = a11 - a12
a32 a33 a31 a33 a31 a32
= a11 A 11 + a12A l2 + a13 A 13
-Example 16 Then the minor of the element 3 is
392 4 5
Given the matrix A = 1 4 5 M11= 8
768 =4x8-5x6
(a) Find the minor of the elements in the = 32 - 30
first row =2
(i) 3 (jj) 9 (iii) 2
(b) State the cofactor of the elements in the (ii) The minor of the element 9 is
first row M 15
(i) 3 (ii) 9 (iii) 2 127 8
(c) Hence, calculate the determinant of the =1x8-5x7
matrix A. = 8 - 35
-Solution 3 9 2 = —27
(a) (i) Given A = 1 4 5
768
 Matrices and systems of linear equations 03
(iii) The minor of the element 2 is (c) Hence, calculate the determinant of the
matrix A.
M13
6 - Solution
=1x6-4x7 5 -1 4
=6-28 (a) (i) Given A = -7 3 -2
=-22
6 -8 0
(b) (i) The cofactor of the element 3 is
Ali =+Mil Then the minor of the element
45 3 -2
=+ 5isM =
68 -8 0
=2 = 3 x 0 - (-2)(-8)
= 0-16
(ii) The cofactor of the element 9 is
A l2 = - M12 = -16
(ii) The minor of the element -7 is
15 -14
78 M21=
- 0
=-(--27) =-1 x 0-4x(-8)
=27 =0+32
(iii) The cofactor of the element 2 is =32
A 13 = + M13 (iii) The minor of the element 6 is
14 -1 4
M31=
6 3 -2
=-1 x(-2)-4x3
= -22
=2 - 12
(c) The determinant of the matrix A is =-10
I
AJ = ci11A 11 + a12A l2 + a13A 13 (b) (i) The cofactor of the element 5 is
4 51 5 14 A 11 = + Mil
6 87 8+27 6 3 -2
= 3(2) + 9(27) + 2(-22) -8 0
= 6 + 243 -44 =-16
=205 The cofactor of the element -7 is
(ii)
-Example 17 A21 M21
5 -1 4 -1 4
Given the matrix A = - 7 3 -2 -8 0
6 -8 0 = -32
(a) Find the minor of the elements in the (iii) The cofactor of the element 6 is
first column A 31 = + M31
(i) 5 (ii) -7 (iii) 6 -1 4
(b) State the cofactor of the elements in the
first column 3 -2
(i) 5 (ii) -7 (iii) 6 =-10
LIi Pure Mathematics for CAPE

(c) The determinant of the matrix A is The cofactor of the element 0 is

3 -2
Al a11A 11 + a21A 21 + a31A 31 A=-
12
8 6
3 -2 -1 4 -1 4
=-[3x6-(-2)x8]
-8 0-8 o+6 3 -2
= -[18 + 16]
= 5(-16) - 7(-32) + 6(-10) = -34
= -80 + 224 - 60 The cofactor of the element 7 is
= 84 31
A 13 =+ 8
Example 18
-4 0 7 = 3(-5) - 1 x 8
Evaluate the determinant 3 1 -2 =-15-8
= -23
8 -5 6
-4 0 7
Solution
The determinant 3 1 -2
The cofactor of the element -4 is
1 -2 8 -5 6
A11=+5 6 = a11A 11 + a12A l2 + a13A 13
=1 x6-(-2)(-5) = -4(-4) + 0 (-34) + 7(-23)
= 6 - 10 =16+0-161
= —4 =-145

Exercise 9b

1. Evaluate the determinant of each of the following matrices.

(5 3" 19 -4" (-6 2 ( 35
(a) A (b) B = (d) D
= t\
8 2) 2) (c) C = -8 3) = t-6 8
413
2. Given the matrix A = 7 5 9
286
(a) Find the minor of the elements in the first row
(i) 4 (ii) 1 (iii) 3
(b) State the cofactor of the elements in the first row
(i) 4 (ii) 1 (iii) 3
(c) Hence, calculate the determinant of the matrix A.
-5 4 0
3. Given the matrix A = 2 -1 3
7 6 -8
(a) Find the minor of the elements in the first column
(i) 5 (ii) 2 (iii) 7
 Matrices and systems of linear equations MI

(b) State the cofactor of the elements in the first column

(i) 5 (ii) 2 (iii) 7
(c) Hence, calculate the determinant of the matrix A.
4. Evaluate the determinant of each of the following matrices.
–47 1 2 –3 0
(a) A= 8 –2 5 (b) B= 4 1 6
6 3 –9 8 –4 5
8 –5 4 9 –6 3
(c) C = 0 3 6 (d) D = 8 0 –7
9 –2 1 1 3 –2
5. Evaluate each of the following determinants.
2 –5 3 –8 1 4
(a) 0 1 6 (b) 7 –4 5
–4 –2 7 6 3 2
60-5 9-32
(c) 2 –4 1 (d) 4 1 –6
–38-2 708

;~ iingular and non-s i ngul ar

A is a singular matrix if I A 0
A is a non-singular matrix if I A 0.
A singular matrix is a matrix whose determinant is equal to zero.
A non-singular matrix is a matrix whose determinant is not equal to zero.

Example 19 Example 20
(7 14'\ 5
Show that the matrix A = I I is a Find the value of x if 2j is a smgular
singular matrix 2 4) matrix. X
,

Solution
Solution
(7 14 7 5 7x2-5xx
Given A= 2
x 2 =14-5x
Then J AI =7x4-14x2 Since the matrix is singular, then
= 28 –28 0 = 14 5x
-

=0 So 5x=14
Hence the matrix A is singular. 14
x=-
5
01 Pure Mathematics for CAFE

-Example 21 2
X x
Find the values of x if I us singular.
6 2)
- Solution
X=x2x2-xx6
6 2 =2x 2 -6x
Since the matrix is singular, then
2x2 - 6x = 0
So x2 -3x=0
i.e. x(x-3)=0
Either x=0 or x-3=0
x=0 or x=3
Hence the values of x are 0 and 3.
- Example 22
3x+2 9 -8
Solve the equation x+4 2 -7 =0.
3x 4 -11
- Solution
3x+2 9 -8
Given x+4 2 -7=0
3x 4 -11
2-7 9-8 9-8
Then (3x+2) 4 11 -(x+4) 4 11 +3x 2 7 0

So (3x + 2)(-22 + 28) - (x + 4)(-99 + 32) + 3x(-63 + 16) = 0

i.e. (3x + 2)(6) - (x + 4)(-67) + 3x(-47) = 0
18x + 12 + 67x + 268 - 141x = 0
= (18+67-141)x+12+268=0
-56x+280=0
= 56x=280
= x=5
Hence x = 5.
Example 23
(9 4\
Show that the matrix A is non-singular.
= t\ 5 4
Solution
(9 -4
Given A=t¼S 2
Then J AI=9x2-(-4)x5
= 18 + 20
=38
Since I A I # 0, then the matrix A is non-singular.
 Matrices and systems of linear equations -.'

Exercise 9c

1. Show that each of the following matrices is a singular matrix.

(8 16"\ (-6 9 (20 —25 (-4 —5
(a) A
= 12 4)
(b) B
= (-4 6)
(c) C =
t\
4 —5)
(d) D
= 16 20
2. If each of the following matrices is singular find the value of x.
(8 —7 (2x 9 (3 x-5"3 (- 3 8
(a) I I (b) I (c) I (d)
x5) 4 —7) 9 8 5 2x+1
3, If each of the following matrices is singular find the values of x.
(x2 x" (x2 _9\
(a) J
f 82 x 3 8x
(b) j (c) (d)
(2 x
J
(x2—27
x —3
4. Solve each of the following equations.
2x+1 26 1 8 2 2x+3
(a) x+1 11 —5=0 (b) 7 —10 x+2 =0
2x-1 19 —7 11 —14 2x+1
17 2x+4 9 26 9 2x+1
(c) 9 x+3 2 =0 (d) 11 x-10 16 =0
15 2x 4 x+7 4 26
5. Express each of the following determinants as a product of factors.
0yx x0 z x2 1 x x x3 x2
(a) y 0 x (b) x y 0 (c) x x 2 1 (d) x2 x x3
X2
Yy0 0y z 1 x x3 x2 x

Inverse of a non-singular n x ii Consider a 2 x 2 non singular matrix A.

matrix (a b
If A=(
• Inverse of a 2 x 2 matrix
Then A 1= adj
An inverse exists only for a non- JAI
singular square matrix. (A) —b)
• 1 1 a)
This is so smce - = - which is
lAb a, 1 a12
undefined for a singular matrix. If A=
( 21 a22
The inverse of a matrix A is denoted
by A 1 .
111111133 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

(-6 —8)
then A1__adj(A) (b) Given

a22 12 Then B =-6x4-(-8)x5

1(
a11a22 - a12a21 \T21 a11) --24+40
= 16
Here, A -1 is the inverse for a non-singular = [4
2 x 2 matrix. And adj (B)
_:j
The adjoint of matrix A, adj (A) is equal So B 1= 1 adj (B)
1 d —b" IBI
to the matrix I 114
—c a)
I -6)
The adjoint of matrix A is obtained by ( 4 8 \
interchanging the elements in the leading I 16 j I
diagonal and multiplying the elements in = I —5 —6 I
the non-leading diagonal by —1. j- j--)
-Example 24 i i i
Find the inverse of the following matrices. I 4 2 I
(a) A
(7 4"
(b) B =
(-6 —8" 1 31
= 2) 5 4) -)
Solution Multiplicative inverse
(7 4)
(a) Given A=I 5 2 Consider the matrix
b"
Then AI= 7 x 2-4 x 5 A=
=14-20 (aC d )
=-6 1 d —b
-4 Then A1
And adj (A) = (_2 = ad -bc (—c aJ
) (a b 1
A1=iadj(A) So AA '= d)Xad_bc_c
So a)
lA
1 a b —b\
1 2 —4\
(

5 7
adbc(c
= dJ_c a)
1 (ad—bc —ab+ba'\
1 ) = ad_bc(cd—dc _cb+daJ
—5 7 1 (ad—bc 0
—6 —6) ad—bc 0 ad_bc)
1 2 (ad—bc 0 '
I 3 3 I Iad—bc ad—bc I
=15 71 __ 0 ad—bc'
6 _6J ad—bc ad—bc)
 Matrices and systems of linear equations II

(1 0 4)
And adj (A)=(2
1
=1 So A 1 =1jadj(A)
Thus AA -1 =I
1 (d —b'\('a b - 1 (-2 4
Also A1A = I II
ad — bc —c a)tc d 10-7 9
- 1 ( da—bc db—bd 2 4
- ad - bc k—ca + ac —cb + ad - 10 10
- 1 (ad _bc 0 79
ad—bct 0 ad—bc 10 10
12
ad—bc 0
- 55
= ad—bc ad—bc
79
0 ad—bc
10 10
ad—bc ad—bc
(1 0 (9 -4'\ 11-2 4
(b) Now AA' =I tx—I
1 7 -2) 10-7 9
=1 1 (9 -4"(_2 4
Thus A -'A=I. 107 -2)--7 9
Hence AA -1 = A 1 A = I.
In general, if A is a non-singular square - 1 (-18+28 36-36
matrix and AB = BA = I, the commutative 10(-14+14 28-18
law holds and the result is the identity 1(10 0
matrix, then B = A -1 is the multiplicative
inverse of the matrix A. The matrix A 10
and its inverse matrix A -'- are of the same 10
order. 01
Example 25 =1
(9 -4 (-2 4(9 -4
Given the matrix A And A 1A =
= -2 10 '\-7 9fi\7 -2
(a) Find A 1 (-18+28 8-8
(b) Hence show that AA = A A = I.
10 -63+63 28-18
Solution
1 (10 0
Given A=( 10 0 10
j (1 0
Then I Al =9(-2)-(-4)x7
= -18 + 28 1
= 10 =1
Hence AA -1 = LA=I
MMI Pure Mathematics for CAPE

e Inverse of a 3 x 3 matrix
Here, we shall find the inverse of a non-singular 3 x 3 matrix.
Consider a 3 x 3 non-singular matrix A.
a11 a12 a13
If A = a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33
Then A 1 =adj(A)

How do we find adj (A)?

Method 1
A 11 A l2 A 13
The cofactor of matrix A is K = A 21 A 22 A 23
(matrix of cofactors) A 31 A 32 A 33

Then the adjoint of matrix A is adj (A) = KT

A 11 A 21 A 31
= A l2 A A 32
A 13 A 23 A 33
All A 21 A 31
So the inverse of matrix A is A -' = A l2 A A32
JAII
A 13
(
A 23 A 33
Method 2
a11 a21 a31
The transpose of matrix A is AT = a12 a22 a32
a13 a23 a33
A 11 A 21 A 31
Then the cofactor of matrix AT is adj (A) = A l2 A 22 A 32
A 13 A 23 A 33
All A 21 A 31
1
So the inverse of matrix A is A -1 = - A l2 A22 A32
JAI
A 13 A 23 A 33
F- Example 26
12 3
Given the matrix A = —3 0 7
5 4 —2
(a) Find A'
(b) Hence show that A A' = A' A = I.
 Matrices and systems of linear equations LI

- Solution
Method 1
123
(a) Given A= -3 0 7
5 4 -2
Then Al - a11A 11 +a12A l2 +a13A 13
0 7 -3 7 -3 0
=14 _22 5 -2 5 4
= 1(0 - 28) - 2(6 - 35) + 3(-12 - 0)
= 1(-28) - 2(-29) + 3(-12)
= -28 + 58 -36
All A l2 A 13
And K = A 21 A 22 A 23
Al A 32 A
0 7 -3 7 -3 0
4 -2 - 5 -2 + 5 4
2 3 1 3 12
4-2 5-2 54
23 13 12
+ - +
0 7 -3 7 -3 0
(0-28) -(6 -35) +(-12 -0)
= -(-4-12) +(-2-15) -(4-10)
(14-0) -(7+9) +(0+6)
-28 29 -12
= 16 -17 6
14 -16 6
-28 16 14
Soadj(A)isKT= 29 -17 -16
-12 6 6

A 1 =jadj(A)
JA
-28 16 14
29 -17 -16
-6
-12 6 6
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

28 -16 -14
=1 -29 17 16
6
12 -6 -6
28 -16 -14
6 6 6
- -29 17 16
6 6 6
12 -6 -6
6 6 6
14 8 7
3 3 3
- 29 17 8
6 6 3
2 -1 -1
Method 2
123
(b)Given A -3 0 7
5 4 -2
Then JAI -a11 A 11 +a21 A 21 +a31 A 31

07 2 3 23
=1 -(-3) +5
4 -2 4 -2 0 7
= 1(0 - 28) + 3(-4 -12) + 5(14 - 0)
= 1(-28) + 3(-16) + 5(14)
= -28 - 48 + 70
= -6
1 -3 5
And A T =2 0 4
3 7 -2
A 11 A l2 A 13
So adj(A)= A 21 A 22 A 23
A 31 A 32 A 33
2 20
Now A li=+0 41A 12 4 and A 13
7 -2 3 -2
=0-28 =-(-4-12) =14-0
= -28 = -(-16) = 14
= 16
 Matrices and systems of linear equations

-3 5
A 21 = = + 15 and A 23 = - j
=-(6-35) =-2--.15 =-(7+9)
= -(-29) = -17 = -16
=29
-3
5 1 5 1 -3
A 31 = + ,A32 and A33
0 4 = 24 2 0
=-12-0 =-(4-10) =0+6
=-12 =-(-6) =6
=6
-28 16 14
.. adj (A) = 29 -17 -16
-12 6 6

Thus A1jadi(A)

14
=-- 29 -17 -16
_612 6 6
28 -16 -14
= -29 17 16
6
12 -6 -6
14 8 7
3 3 3
- 29 17 8
6 6 3
2 -1 -1
1 2 3 28 -16 -14
(b) Now AA -'= -3 0 7 x 1 -29 17 16
54-2 12-6-6
1 2 3 28 -16 -14
-3 0 7 -29 17 16
6
4 -2 12 -6 -6
MM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

28-58+36 -16+34-18 -14+32-18

=1 —84-0+84 48+0-42 42+0-42
6 140-116-24 —80+68+12 -70+ 64 +12 1
600
= 0 6 0
6
006
100
=010
001
=1
28 —16 —14 1 2 3
And A 1A = —29 17 16 x —3 0 7
-2 4
6 12 —6 —6 5
1 28+48-70 56-0-56 84-112+28
=- —29-51+80 —58+0+64 —87+119-32
6 12+18-30 24-0-24 36-42+12 .11
600
J 060
6
006
100
=010
001
=1

Hence AA-1 = A 1 A = I.
• Properties of inverse matrices
The properties of inverse matrices are as follows:
AA 1 —A'A=I
• Since =A 1A
= A 1 (A 1 ) 1

Then (A') 1 = A
• Now AB(B 1A 1) = A(BB')A'
= A1A 1
= AA-1
=1
And AB(AB)' = I
(AB) = B 1 A
 Matrices and systems of linear equations

Exercise 9d

1. Find the inverse of each of the following matrices.

(9 4'\ (7 —2'\ (-2 6 \ (8 5
(a) A (b) B (c) C = (d) D
= 12 5J = 6 3) 1 4) =
2. (a) Evaluate the inverse matrix of each of the following matrices.
(2 5 (-5 —2\ (-4 7\ (6 —3
(i) A (ii) B = C (iv) D
= —8 —3) 4 7) —6 3) = 10 —2
(b) Hence, show that
H (i) AA 1 =A 1 A=I (ii) BB 1 =B 1 B=I
(iii) CC 1 =CC=I (iv) DD=DD=I
3. Find the inverse of each of the following matrices.
215 30-3 —258 4-10
(a)A=3 0-1(,)B=-12 6(c)C= 310(d)D=-5 2 3
4-3-2 54-7 —104 —36-2
4. (a) Evaluate the inverse matrix of each of the following matrices.
5 —4 1 6 2 —1
(i)A= —1 0 2 (ii) B= 0 3 4
—2 3 —6 —2 1 —5
—352 8-13
(iii) C= 1 0 —1 (iv) D= 0 2 —4
410 —205

(b) Hence, show that

(i) AA 1 =A 1A=I (ii) BB 1 =B 1B=I
(iii) CC=CC=I (iv) DD 1 =DD_—I
(3-1 2 (2 3 1)
5. Given the matrices A = 1 0 5 and B = 0 - 4
6 4) 3 7 -2
(a) Find
(i) A (ii) B (iii) (A 1 ) iv) (B 1
( ) 1

(b) Find
(i) AB (ii) BA (iii) (AB) 1
(iv) (BA) 1 (v) B 1A 1 (vi) A1B1
 J Pure Mathematics for CAPE

iis 1i iR4 - 1 tI} iI.)4hS izs{

Here we shall solve a system of linear equations using Cramer's rule which is based on
determinants.
System of linear equations in two unknowns
Consider the system of linear equations:
a11 x + a 12 = b1
a21 x + a 22 = b2 ©
We can use the method of elimination to solve for x.
© xa22: a ll a22 x+a12 a22 y=a22 b1 ©
© x a12: a12 a21 x + a12 a22 y = a12 b2
© - ©: all 122 X - a12 a21 x = a22 b1 - a12 b2
So (a11 a22 - a12 a21) x = a22 b1 - a12 b2
a22b1 - a12b2
i.e. x=
a11a22 - a12 a21
b1 a12
b2 a22
X=
a ll a12
a21 a22
b1 a12
b2 a22
Al
Here I A I is the determinant of the matrix of coefficients of x and y in the system of linear
equations.
a11 a12
The coefficient matrix, A =
(a2l a22

The result is known as Cramer's rule.

Cramer's rule states that for a pair of linear equations in two unknowns:
b1 a12 all b1
b2 a22 a21 b2
X = and y = where J AI # 0.
Al JAI

Example 27El
Solve the system of linear equations using Cramer's rule.
2x + = 9
5x + = —5
Solution
Given 2x + 3y = 9
5x + = —5
 Matrices and systems of linear equations !11J

= (2 3
Then the matrix of coefficients is A
5 2
So the determinant of matrix A is I Al =2x2-3 x5
= 4 - 15
= —11
Using Cramer's rule:
93 29
—5 2 5 —5
x= y=
—11
- 9 x 2-3 x (-5) 2x(-5)-9x5
—11 —11
18+15 - —10-45
—11 —11
33 —55
—11 —11
= —3 =5
Hence x = —3, y = 5.
-Example 28
Solve the system of linear equations using determinants.
5x - = —13
x + 4y =15
- Solution
Given 5x-2y=-13
x+4y=15
(5 —2
Then the coefficient matrix is A =
1 4
So the determinant of the coefficient matrix is I A = 5 x 4 - (-2) x 1
=20+2
Using Cramer's rule:
—13 —2
15 4 (b1 (-13
X= First column is I =
22
= —13x4—(-2)x15
22
- —52+30
22
—22
22
= —1
E3 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

5 —13
15 b \ 13)
Second column is 1
(-

22 ( b2 15
= 5x15—(-13)xl
22
75+13
22
88
22
=4
Hence x = —1, y = 4.
System of linear equations in three unknowns
Consider the system of linear equations:
a11x + a12y + a13z =
a21x + a229, + a23 = b2
a31x + a32 / + a 33 = b3
The determinant of the matrix of coefficients is:
all a12 a13
IAI= a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33
all a12 a13
Then xIAI = x a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33
a11x a12 a13
= a21x a22 a23
a31x a32 a33
a11 x + a12 y + a13 z a12 a13
= a21 x+a22 y+a23 z a22 a23 —C 1 +C2y+C3 z
a31 x + a32y + a33z a32 a33
b1 a12 a13
So xJAI = b2 a22 a23
b3 a32 £7 32
b1 a12 l3
b2 a a23
b3 a32 a33
JAI
 Matrices and systems of linear equations till

Here I A I is the determinant of the matrix Using Cramer's rule: First column is
of coefficients of x, y and z in the system 113 b1
of linear equations. —231 b2 =-2.
Cramer's rule states that for a system of
three linear equations in three unknowns. 3 2 1 3
b1 a12 a13 —33
13 —23
b2 a22 a23 +3
21 31 32
b3 a32 a33
—33
Al - 1(3-2) - 1(-2 —3) + 3(-4 —9)
all b1 a13 —33
a21 b2 a23 - 1(1) - 1(-5) + 3(-13)
- a31 b3 a33 —33
Y JAI - 1+5-39
—ii
all a12 b1
—33
a21 a22 b2 —33
Z= a31 a32 b3
.
=1
and where A 0. Second column is
Al 2 13 b1 1
-Example 29 1 —2 1 b2 = —2
Solve the system of linear equations using Y=531 b3 3
Cramer's rule.
2x+ y+3z=1
x+3y+ z=-2 1 11+ —2
2' —1
5x+2y+ z=3 - 31 51 53
- Solution —33
- 2(-2-3)-1(1-5)+3(3+10)
Given 2x+y+3z=1
- x+3y+z=-2 —33
5x + + z= 3 - 2(-5) - l(-4)+3(13)
Then the matrix of coefficients is —33
213 —10+4+39
A= 131 —33
521 33
So the determinant of matrix A is —33
J AI =a11 A 11 +a12 A l2 +a13 A 13
2 1 1 Third column is
3.1 1 1 +313
=2 —1 1 3 —2 b1
21 51 52
52 3 b2=-2.
=2(3-2)-1(1-5)+3(2-15) and z=
=2(1) -, 1(-4) + 3(-13) 3
= 2 +4— 39
=-33
Llil'I Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Using Cramer "s rule:

3 —2 _ 1 1 —2 +1 1 3 The first colunm is
_22315 3+15 2
—1 —1 3 b1 —1
—33 —5 2 —5 b2 = —5
- 2(9+4)-1(3+10)+1(2-15)
—7 —3 2 b3 —7
—33 x=
—53
- 2(13)-1(13)+1(-13)
2 —5 —1 3 —1 3
—33 (5) +(-7)
- 26-13-13 - —1 —3 2 —3 2 2 —5
—33 —53
0 - —1(4-15) + 5(-2 +9) —7(5-6)
—33 —53
=0 - —1(-11)+5(7) - 7(—l)
Hence x = 1, y = —1, z = 0. —53
- 11+35+7
Example 30 —53
Solve the system of linear equations using 53
determinants. —53
4x - y + 3z = —1 = —1
x + - 5z = —5 The second column is
2x - + 2z = —7 4-13 —1
- Solution 1-5-5 b2=-5.
Given 4x—y+3z=-1
x + - 5z = —5 Y 1 2 —7 2 b3 —7
2x - + 2z = —7 —53
Then the coefficient matrix is —5 —5 —1 3 —1 3
4 —1 +2
4 —1 3 - —7 2 —7 2 —5 —5
A= 1 2 —5 —53
- 4(-10 —35)— 1(-2 + 21) + 2(5 + 15)
2 —3 2
—53
So the determinant of the coefficient matrix 4(-45) - 1(19)+2(20)
-

is JAI =a11 A 11 +a21 A 21 + a31 A 31

—53

L
2 —5 1 31 I—i 31 - —180-19+40
4 1 1+21
—3 2 —2
3 2 —53
—159
=4(4— 15)— 1(-2+9)+2(5-6)
= 4(-11) - 1(7) + 2(-1) —53
= —44 - 7— 2 =3
The third column is
= —53 4 —1 —1
b1 —1
1 2 —5
b2 = —5
2 —3 —7
and z= b3 —7
—53
 Matrices and systems of linear equations FM

116-4+14
4 +2 —53
—3 —7 —1
—53 —106
- 4(-14 —15) - 1(7 —3) + 2(5+2) —53
—53 =2
- 4(-29)-1(4)+2(7) Hence x=-1,y=3,z=2.
—53

Exercise 9e

1. Solve each system of linear equations using Cramer "s rule.

(a)3x+2y=1 (b) 2x—y=5
x+5y=9 3x+5y=-12
(c) x+4y=-18 (d) 3x-2y=9
7x-3y=29 x—y=4
2. Solve each system of linear equations using determinants.
(a) 3x+y=7 (b) 2x+7y=8
3x+4y=10 —3x-4y=1
(c)4x-3y=11 (d)2x+3y=4
2x+5y=-1 5x-6y=-17
3. Solve each system of linear equations using Cramer's rule.
(a)x+2y+32=1 (b) 2x—y—z=6
3x+y-5z=4 x+y+2z=5
x—y+z=8 3x—y-5z=1
(c) 2x+y-3z=-3 (d) 2x+y+z=7
x+2y+3z=9 x-5y+3z=3
3x+y+4z= 12 3x+2y—z=6
4. Solve each system of linear equations using determinants.
(a) x+2y—z=-5 (b) 3x—y—z=2
3x—y+z= 12 x+2y+z=5
x+5y+2z=7 x-3y—z=-6
(c) 5x-2y+z=4 (d) 3x—y+3z=7
x+2y-3z=0 4x+y-27=8
3x+3y—z=5 2x+3y+z=11
5. Solve each of the following matrix equations using determinants.
123 .v 7 12 lx 3
(a) 1 3 —1 ii = —2 (b) 1 5 2 y = 3
—1 2 —5 —IS 3 —1 —1 z 4
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

(1 -1 OV x ) ( 3\ (1 -2 O'Vx' (3
(c) I1 2 4 y =1 15 (d) 2 -5 -4 I y 1=1 5]
-6 -4)z) -5) -6 1)zJ 9

Solving a system of linear -3 -2"

equations using an inverse And adj (A)
= (-5
Consider the matrix equation
AX = B Thus X= --- adj(A)B
Then pre-multiply both sides by A 1 .
JA I
So A -1 AX = A B 1 (-3 -2" (_4'
i.e. IX = A B
= 3J25J
X=A -1 B
2 x 2 system of linear equations 1 ( -3x[-4]-2x25 )
Consider the of linear equations = 19-5 x[-4]+ 3 x
aX + a 12 = b l
a21x+ay=b2 1 ( 12-50)
Then the linear equations in matrix form is: 1920+75
all ai2 )(x\ (bi) 1 ( -38)
( a21 aJ yJ = b) 19 9
It is in the form AX = B
So X=A1B LX [38]]
19
X = adj (A) B = 1
Al x 95
Example 31 (x ) 2'
Solve the set of equations using an inverse.
3x + = -4
= L-sJ
5x-3y=25 -Hence x=2,y=-5.
Solution 3 x 3 system of linear equations
Given 3x + 2y -4 = Consider the system of linear equations
5x - = 25 a11 x + a12y + a13z =
Then the linear equations in matrix form is: a21 x + a22y + a23z = b2
(3 2"(x(_4) a31 x + a 32 + a 33 = b3
Then the linear equations in matrix form is:
= [ a11 a12 a13 \[x\ (b1 '\
It is in the form AX = B
X=AB
a21 a22 a23 y = b2 I I I I
Since A
= (3 2' a31 a32 a33 J zJ b3 j
t5 _3J It is in the form AX = B
So X-AB
Then IAJ=3x[-31-2x5
=-9-1O ... X=adj(A)B
___19
 Matrices and systems of linear equations I1

Example 32
-
3 -2
Solve the set of equations using an inverse. A31=+4 1=3_8=_5
x+3y-2z=-10
2x-4y+z=10 1 -2
A 32 = - 2 1 =-(1+4)=-5
3x + y - z = -2
- Solution
13
Given x+3y-2z=-10 and A33 = 2 -4 =-4-6=-10
2x-4y+z=10
3x + y - z = -2 3 5 14
Then the linear equations in matrix form is: So the matrix of cofactors, K = 1 5 8
1 3 -2 x -10
-5 -5 -10
2-4 1 y= 10
3 1-lz -2 3 1 -5
adj (A) is K T = 5 5 -5
It is in the form AX = B
X=A -1B 14 8 -10
1 3 -2 3 1 -5 -10
Since A= 2 -4 1 Thus X=--- 5 5 -5 10
-10
3 1 -1 14 8 -10 -2

Then Al =1 _11 1
-4 1 2 1 2 -4
1
- 3 3 -1 + (-2)
13 1
3x[-10j+lx1O-5x[---2]
5 x[-1 0]+5 x 10 - 5x[-2]
=1(4-1)-3(-2-3)-2(2+12) 14x[- 10]+8x10 - 10x[-2]
= 1(3) - 3(-5) - 2(14) -30+10+10
= 3 + 15 - 28
__10 -50+50+10
10
-140+80+20
-4 1
Also A11=+ 1 _i=4_1=3=3 -10
10
21 10
Al2 =- 3 -1 =-(-2-3)=-(-5)=5 -40

2 -4 ---x[-101
A13=+3 i2+1214 10

3 -2 = - 1 x10
A21 1 -1 =-(-3+2)=-(-1)=1 10

1 -2 10
A22=+3 _i1+65 1
13 = -1
A 23 = - 3 1 = -(1-9) = -(-8) =8 4
Hence x = 1, y = -1,z =4.
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

- Example 33
-2 3
Solve the set of equations using the inverse A 31 =+ 4 891
of a matrix.
5x - 2y + 3z = 7 =_ 53
A32 = -(5 x[-4]- 0) = 20
- 4z = 11 0
2x +6z=-6
5 -2
- Solution and A 33 =+0 3 =5x3+2x0=15.
Given
5x - + 3z = 7 18 -8 -6
—42= 11 So the cofactor matrix of A. K = 12 24 -4
2x +6z=-6
-1 20 15
Then the linear equations in matrix form is:
5-23 X') 7 18 12 -1
0 3-4 y 1 adj (A) if KT = - 8 24 20
2 0 6 z -6 -6 -4 15
It is in the form AX = B 18
12 -1 7
X=A -1B
Thus X=--- -8 24 20 11
5 -2 3 88
-6 -4 15 -6
Since A= 0 3 -4
206 18 x 7 + 12 xli -1 x [-611
-8x7+24x11+20x[-6]
3 3 -2 3 88
Then IAI= 5 0 60
-4--2 6+2 -6x7-4x11+15x[-6]
0 3 -4
126+132+6 )
=5(18 + 0) + 2(8 - 9)
= 5(18) + 2(-1) =--- -56+264-120
88
= 90 - 2 -42-44-90
=88
264
3-4
Also A11=+0 618018 88
88
-176
0-4
Al2=-2 =-(0+8)=-8
6 x 264
88
03 11
A13=+2 o0_66 = —x88
88 88
23
A 21 = - 0
- 6 = -(-12-0) =12 ix[176J
88
53 3
A22=+2 630624 = 1
-2
5 -2
A23=-2 0(0+44 Hence, x=3,y= 1,z= -2.
 Matrices and systems of linear equations L1J

Exercise 9f

1, (a) State each set of equations in the form AX = B.

(b) Find A 1
(c) Hence, solve the matrix equation AX = B.
(i) 5x-2y=26 (ii) x+y=3
7x+3y=19 2x+y=8
(iii) 4x - = 5 (iv) -2x + y =5
3x+2y=8 -x + 2y = 7

2. Solve each of the following matrix equations by using an inverse matrix.

(3 -5(x (-31) (72(x 8
II III 1=(
8 3j!y) -1 3 -5)y) 21

(c) 13 _2'u(x)
- Ay)
(23)
5
(d)
(-3 5')1x') = 117
-2 -3)y) 5

3. (a) State each set of equations in the form AX = B.

(b) Find A'.
(c) Hence, solve the matrix equation AX = B.
(i) x-2y+z=8 (ii)x-2y+3z=16
2x-5y-4z=0 2x-y+z=9
3x-6y+z=18 x-5y-z=3
(iii) x+y+z=2 (iv)x+3y+2z=1
3x±y-5z=4 3x-y-5z=1
x+2y+3z=1. 2x-y-z=6
4. Solve each of the following sets of linear equations by first finding the adjoint matrix and
inverse matrix.
(a)x+2y+3z=9 (b) x+y-z=1
x+y+z=4 x-5y+3z=3
3x+y+4z=12 2x+y+z=7
(c) x+y+z=5 (d)x+2y-3z=O
x + 2y + 3z = 11 x — 2y + 2z = 1
3x+y+4z=13 3x+3y—z=5
5. Solve each of the following matrix equations by using an inverse matrix.
2 -7 4 x 17 1 -1 1 x -3
(a) 3 -2 7 y = 21 (b) 3 -9 5 y = —15
402 z -4 1 -3 3 z -1
 I1 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

1 -1 3 x -14 3 -1 5 x 56
(c) 5 4 —3 y = —7 (d) 5 —4 —2 y = 43
3-2-1z —19 433 z 31

Solving a system of linear i.e. 2x = —9+3

equations using Gaussian .. 2x = —6
x = —3
elimination and row echelon Hence x=-3,y=1
form Since 2x - = —9
Y1 ©
Equivalent systems are two sets of
equations with the same solution. This system of equations can be
reduced to row echelon form.
Here we shall use the Gaussian elimination
method and row echelon form to write the A system of linear equations is reduced
given system of equations as an equivalent to row echelon form when the leading
system of equations in a simplier form which coefficients are all is and exist in different
allows the system of equations to be solved. columns, all elements below the is are Os,
and at least one element above the is is not 0.
2x2 system of linear equations
Example 34 ©
2 2
Given the system of linear equations
2x - = —9 y=i ©
Here the system of linear equations has
x+4y=i.
been reduced to row echelon form.
(a) Write the system of equations as an
The given system of linear equations can be
equivalent system
solved using the equivalent system of linear
(b) Hence, solve the system of equations.
equations in row echelon form.
Solution Substitute y = 1 into ®:
(a) Given 2x - = -9 9
x— —(1)=--
3
x+4y=i © 2 2
Then 2x-3y=-9 (1) 3 9
x (-2): —2x - = —2 © So x- —=- —
2 2
So 2x-3y=-9 3
—11/=—ii i.e. x= -- 9—
i.e. 2x-3y=-9 22
y=i © 6
This final system of equations is 2
equivalent to the given system of x=-3
equations. Hence x = — 3, y = 1.
(b) From (M: y=l The system of equations in row echelon
substitute y = 1 into i: form can be written as a matrix equation in
2x-3(1)=-9 row echelon form.
So 2x-3=-9
 Matrices and systems of linear equations LI4

9 This find system of equations is

1 --
equivalent to the given system of
Thus 2 = 2
1 X)
3( equations.
0
(b) From ©:z=-3
substitute z = —3 into ®:
A square matrix is stated in row echelon -(-3) = 7
form when all the elements in the leading So
diagonal are is, all elements below the is i.e.
are Os, and at least one element above the
Is is not 0. = y=2
Substitute y = 2 and z = —3 into (I)
3 x 3 system of linear equations 4x + 6(2) (-3) = 19
-

Example 35 So 4x+12+3=19
i.e. 4x+15=19
Given the system of linear equations
4x=19-15
4x + z = 19
-

=> 4x=4
3x+2y+z=4 => x=1
5x+9y-2z=29. Hence x=i,y=2,z=-3.
(a) Write the system of equations as an Since 4x+6y—z=19 ©
equivalent system. 2y z=7 — ©
(b) Hence, solve the system of equations. z=-3
Solution This system of equations can be
(a) Given 4x+6y—z= 19 reduced to row echelon form.
3 1 19

Then
3x + + z =
5x +
4x +
2z =
z=
-
4
29
19
©
©
© ~ 4: x+ y--z=
—

2 4
1 7
4
© —

y_ . : z=
x
(-i) + ®:
55Y+7
—

24
41
4 z=-3
Here the system of linear equations has
3 3 21
X + ©: y--z=-
—
© been reduced to row echelon form.
24 4 This system of linear equations can be
So 4x+6y—z=19 © solved using the equivalent system of
®x4: —10y+7z=-41 linear equations in row echelon form.
®x4: 6y-3z=21 © Substitute z = —3 into :
i.e. 4x+6y—z=19 17
R3 R 2: 6y-3z=21 © Y —.(-3)=.
R2 R3 —10y+7z=-41 ©
4x+6y—z=i9 © So y+—=—
37
6y-3z=2i ©
2z=-6 i.e. Y 73
4x+6y—z=19 ©
2y—z=7
4.
y=
z=-3
y=2
F1IPI Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Substitute y = 2 and z = -3 into ©: Then 2x + 6y - z = -24 (1)

3 1 19 x (-2) + ®: -15y + 4z =61 ®
x + (2) - -(-3) = -
2 4 4 3x+2y+z=-5 ©
So 2x + 6y - z = -24 ©
So x+3+-=—
3 19 -15y+4z=61 ©
15 19 ©x( -+©: -7y+z=31 ©
44 2) 2
19 15 i.e. 2x + 6y - z = -24 ©
X=---- -15y+4z=61 ©
4 ©x2: -14y+5z=62 ®
2x + 6y - z = -24 ©
-15y+4z=61 ©
=> x=1 14) 19 76
Hence x= 1,y=2,z= -3 —Z— ©
The system of equations in row echelon ( _15 15 15
form can be written as a matrix equation x+3y—z=-12 ©
in row echelon form.
4 61
YjZj ®
2 4
15
Thus 0 1 - y= z=4
19
00 1 Z Here the set of equations has been
reduced to row echelon form.
This set of equations in row echelon
Row echelon form of a matrix equation form can be written as a martix
is not unique. More than one form of the
equation in row echelon form as:
row echelon form is possible for a matrix
equation. The row echelon forms are 13 -- -12
equivalent forms of a matrix equation.
4 61
o i -- = --
-Example 36
15 15
O 0 4
Given the set of equations
2x + - z = -24 (b) From :z=4
4x - + 2z = 13 Substitute z = 4 into ®:
3x + + z = -5 y (4)±
(a) Write the set of equations in row 15 15
echelon form. 16 61
(b) Hence solve the set of equations. So Y - j
-
- Solution 16 61
i.e.
(a) Given 2x + - z = -24 15 15
4x-3y+2z=13 © 45
3x+2y+z=-5 © 15
y=-3
 Matrices and systems of linear equations

Substitute y = —3 and z =4 into ®: i.e. x - 11 = —12

1 ... x=-12+11
x+3(-3)--(4)= —12
2 x=-1
So x-9-2=-12 Hence x= —1,y= —3,z =4.

Exercise 9g

1. Given the system of linear equations (i) 3x-2y— z=2

8x + = —7 2x+ y— z=4
4x - = —23 x+ y+ z=1
(a) Write the system of equations as an (ii) 2x+4y+ z=5
equivalent system. x + + 2z = 8
(b) Hence, solve the system of equations. y— z=1
X—

2. (a) Write each set of linear equations as (iii) 2x + - 2z = —1

an equivalent system. x - + z =-2
(b) Hence, solve each set of linear x+ Y+ Z=1
equations. (iv) 2x+ y+ z=4
(i) 6x-5y=38 x+2y+ z=2
3x + = 1 x+ y+2z=6
(ii) 9x + = 15
5. (a) Write each set of equations in row
3x-5y=-12 echelon form
(iii) 8x - = —14 (1,) Hence, solve each set of equations.
2x + 7y = 12
(i) 3x+y— z=1
(iv) 10x-3y=-23 2x + y + 3z = —1
5x-2y=-12 x+y— z=1
3. Given the system of linear equations (ii) 3x+y+9z=27
4x+ 3y+ 5z=11 —2x + y + 4z = 8
9x+ 4y+15z=13 —x+y+ z=1
12x+10y— 3z=4 (iii) 4x+2y— z=11
(a) Write the system of equations as an 3x-5y+2z=-13
equivalent system 2x— y+ z=-3
(b) Hence, solve the system of equations. (iv) 5x-3y+2z=21
4x+ y-3z=-5
4. (a) Write each set of linear equations as
an equivalent system. 2x-5y+ z=13
(b) Hence, solve each set of linear
equations.
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

An augumented matrix is a matrix that combines two matrices with the same number of
rows and separates them by a vertical line.

An augumented matrix is very useful in finding the inverse of a matrix and solving a system of
linear equations.
Consider the matrix A and the matrix I.
Then we can form the augumented matrix (All)
Using row reduction this augumented matrix can be transformed to another augumented
matrix of the form (IIA), where A is the inverse matrix of A.
Inverse of a 2 x 2 matrix
( all i 0 '

I
Consider the matrix A =

Then the augumented matrix

a2 a22 )
I and the matrix I
1 J.
aa21
11 ,). 0
(AJI) =
( a2l 1122 01
Row reduction is then used to transform this augumented matrix to another augumented
1 0a1 a2
(

of the form (IlA)=I

0 1a3 a4 11 o
The matrix A has been transformed to the reduced row echelon form I =
The matrix I has been transformed to the inverse matrix A-1. \0 1

A square matrix has been transformed to reduced row echelon form (row canonical form)
when it is stated as its identity matrix for multiplication.

This means that the row echelon form of a matrix has to be further transformed to obtain
the reduced row echelon form. The reduced row echelon form is unique.

Example 37 2 5 I 1 0'\
Use row reduction to find the inverse of the (AlI)=3
1J
(2
matrix A=3
51 ü 1
Solution 212 I
[3 i0 i)
= (2 5
Given 3A 5) 1 "
1 ( —I - UI
2) 2
Then form the augumented matrix
13 3
-3R1 +R0 - —I- - 11
212 )
 Matrices and systems of linear equations

1 i 0 R2+R1-11 _.:1
22
2 3 2 7!
--R2 --0 1
13 13 13
iI-
6
5 1 5 It is in the form (IIA).
--R+R 1 -- 1 0 -- -
22 13 13 1 2
0 --- Hence, the inverse matrix is A'
13 13 = 7
It is in the form (IlA). 6 6
Hence, the inverse of the matrix A is
1 5
• Inverse of a 3 x 3 matrix
13 13
all a12 a13
3 2
Consider the matrix A = a21 a22 a23
13 13
a31 a32 a33

- Example 38
100
and the matrix I = 0 1 0
7 —4
Find the inverse matrix of A 001
using row reduction. ( -5 2
Then the argumented matrix
- Solution all a12 a13 1 0 0
7 —4 (All) = a21 a22 a23 0 1 0
Given A=5
2) . a31 a32 a33 0 0 1
Then form the argumented matrix

(AII)
7 —4 1 0) ~ Row reduction is then used to transform
this argumented matrix to another
(-5 2 0 1 argumented matrix of the form
1 0 0 a1 a2 a3
(11A')= 0 1 0 a4 a5 a6
2 0 1] 0 0 1 a7 a8 a9
The matrix A has been transformed to the
77 100
reduced row echelon form I = 0 1 0
5R, +R2 > 0
—
- 1
77 001
1 2: The matrix I has been transformed to the
7 7 inverse matrix A1.
7 5
--R 2 ---
6
0 1 -- --7
6 6
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

- Example 39
Use row reduction to find the inverse of the K
I22
2: 0 0 'l
253
2 I
8 16
1 0—
matrix A= 1 6 4. _R3+R2H0 21 211
078
0 1
1 2 ii
- Solution I¼ - )

2 5 3"\ 3 61 40 25'\
0
A=[1 6 41 2 42 21 42
Given
8 16
0 7 1 0 1
O —•21 21 211
Then form the argumented matrix
1 2 ii
2 5 311 0 0 0 i
- )
(AV)=L 6 40 1 20 19 2
7 80 0 lJ
_R3+R1
2 11 0 0
21 - 21 211
-

11
1 -
2
6
311
-
22
40
- 0

1
01
ol
I H 1

0
° Hi
1
8

1
• -
16
21
51
211

10 7 810 0 1J
-2 3)
5 31 1 It is in the form (11A 1).
(1 - - - 0 0
2 2 2 Hence, the inverse of the matrix A is
7 5 1 20 19 2
—R1+R20 - —I-- 1 Ol
2 21 2 21 21 21
7 8 0 0 lJ A1=
5 31 1 21 21 21
(1 - - 0 0 1
2 21 2
3
1
71 7 7 -Example 40
1 0 7 8 0 0 lJ 3 —2 5
5 31 1 Find the inverse matrix of A = 6 —4 —3
(1 - —I - 0 0

—7R 2 + R3
L 0
2
1

0
21

71
3
--
7
2

7
1 —2
using row reduction.
- Solution
3 —2 5
7 0 —5

Given A=I 6 —4 —3
5 31 1
(
1 - —1 - 0 0 0 —5
2 21 2
Then form the argumented matrix
1 3 —2 5 1 0 0
71 7 7
(AII)= 6 —4 —3 0 1 0
0 1 1
I 3 3 3) —7 0 —5 0 0 1
 Matrices and systems of linear equations FII1

1 251
–R1 --~ 1 -- - - 0 0 0 0
3 333 3 3 3
6 –4 –3 0 1 0 3 10 1 3
----R-- ~ 0 1---- 0--
–7 0 –5 0 0 1 14 7 2 14
0 0 1 --- ----- 0
00 13 13
3 33
–6R1 + R2 -> 0 0 –13 –2 1 0 0 0
–5 33 3
–7 0 0 0 1
10 51 10 3
—R +R 2 - 0 1 0 - -- --

1 - 182 91 14
3 33
0 1 -- 0
o 0 –13 –2 1 0 0
13 13
7R1 +R3 –> 0
14 20 7 2 5 40 20 1
--- 0 1 –R2 +R1 --4 1 0 - - --
3 3 3 3 3 273 273 7
1 51 10
010--- ----
3 33 182 91 14
R3 –> R2 14 20 7
--- 0 1 0 0 1 0
3 3 3 13 13
R 2 –> R3 0 0 –13 –2 1 0 10 5 1
1 0 0
91 91 7
1 - 0O
333 51 10 3
010
14 20 7 182 91 14
0 01
1
33 3
001 i 0
2 1 13 13
0 1 --- 0
13 13 13

It is in the form (11A 1).

1051
9191 7
51 10
Hence, the inverse matrix is A 1 = - ---- - -
182 91 14
2 1
0
13 13

CD Elementary row operations

Following are the three elementary row operations.
Multiply a row by a constant.
a11 a12 a13
Given A= (
a a22 a23
2l
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

icR1 ---> (ka11 '12 kci13

Then
a21 a22 a23
where k is a constant.
Add a multiple of a row to another row.
(all a12a13
Given A=
a21 a22 a23
(a11 a12 a13
Then
kR 1 +R2 — ka 11 +a21 '12 + a21 13 + a 23
° Interchange two rows.
al l a12 a13
Given A=
a21 a22 a23)
R2 R1 (a21 a22 a23
Then
R1 - R 2 a11 a12 a13 )

Solving
I systemjSPiIlinearLequations by rowareductionE.)4Tfl
I1()
augumented•matrix
I
The system of linear equations is first stated as an augumented matrix.
This augumented matrix is then transformed to an equivalent augumented matrix in row
echelon form or reduced row echelon form.
If the equivalent augumented matrix is transformed to row echelon form, then the system of
linear equations can be solved by backward substitution.
If the equivalent augumented matrix is transformed to reduced row echelon form, then the
system of linear equations is already solved.
Solving a 2 x 2 system of linear equations by row reduction of an augumented matrix.
Consider the 2 x 2 system of linear equations
a11 x + a12y =
a21x + a 22 = b2 .
The 2 x 2 system of linear equations can be written as the augumented matrix
(a11 a12 b1 ).
a21 a22 b2

I
This augumented matrix can then he transformed to the row echelon form:
(1 a1 d1 ).
1 d2
Or the augumented matrix can be transformed to the reduced row echelon form:
(1 0 e1 ).

ko 1 d2
 Matrices and systems of linear equations M
.
-Example 41 1
So x+-5 =— 17
Use row reduction on an augumented 22
matrix to solve the system of linear 17 15
equations: 22
2x+5y=17 2
3x + = 9
2
=1
Given 2x+5y=17 Hence x = 1, y = 3.
3x + = 9 Alternatively, the row echelon form can be
The system of equations in matrix form is: transformed to the reduced row echelon
(2 5(x (17 form as follows:
13 2fiy) 9 –.R2 +R1 _>(1 o 1
The augumented matrix is then: 13
(2 5 17 This augumented matrix can be written as
3 2 9 the matrix equation
(10(x (1
This augumented matrix is then
transformed to row echelon form as follows: to 1)1y)3
1 5 17 Then x=1
–R-1–-
21 2 2 And y=3
32 9 -Hence x=1,y=3.
17 - Example 42iFa
1
2 2 Use row reduction on an augumented
11 33 matrix to solve the system of linear
–3R, + R2 –> 0 -- -
2 2 equations
17 4x - 7y = 29
1 5x + 2y =4.
22
– - R2 -0 1 3 - Solution
11
This augumented matrix can be written as Given 4x - =29
the matrix equation: 5x + 2y =4
5,) , The augumented matrix for this system of
17
1 –(xi - equations is
2 I 1= 2
(4 –7 29
o 1Y)
5 2 4
517
Then x+–y=— @ This augumented matrix is then
2 2
transformed to row echelon form as follows:
And y=3 ©
Substitute y = 3 into ©: 1 7 29
41R --> 1
–

5 17 44
2 2 5 2 4
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

-5R1 +R2
(1
-
43
71

I-
129
29

)
a12 a13 I
a21 a22 a23 b2
a31 a32 a33 b3
[all
J
I This augumented matrix can be
-7 29
-- transformed to the row echelon form

Then
43 R2 -> [ 0
7
x— —y= —
29
(D
1 -3)
0 1 a3 d2
0 0 1d
J.
[1 a1 a2 I d1 ')

4 4
= 3 ®
Or the augumented matrix can be
Substitute y -3 into ©: transformed to the reduced row echelon
7 29 form
x-(-3)= 0 0Ie1 "
4 4
21 29 0 1 0e2
So
4 4 [10 0 1Id3)
29 21
i.e. x=--- - Example 43
44
8 Use row reduction on an augumented
4 matrix to solve the system of linear
=2 equations
Hence x = 2, y = -3. 2x + y + 5z =20
Alternatively, the row echelon form can be 4x + + z = 14
transformed to the reduced row echelon x + + 3z = 13
form as follows: - Solution
R2+R1 ->( 1 02) Given 2x+y+5z=20
4x + + z = 14
x + + 3z = 13
Then x=2 The system of equations in matrix form is:
Andy = - 3 2 1 5 x 20
Hence x = 2, y = -3.
-
4 3 1 y = 14
• Solving a 3 x 3 system of linear equations
1 2 3 z 13
by row reduction of an augumented
matrix The augumented matrix is then:
Consider the 3 x 3 system of linear 2 1 5 20
equations 4 3 1 14
a11 x + a12y + a13z = 1 2 3 13
a21x + a22y + a23z = b2
a31x + a 32 + a33z = b3 . This augumented matrix is then
The 3 x 3 system of linear equations can transformed to row echelon form as follows:
be written as the augumented matrix
 Matrices and systems of linear equations

15 Substitute y = 1 and z =3 into ():

-R 1 -- 1 - - 10
2 22 x+.-(1)+.(3)=10
4 3 1 14
1 2 3 13 1 15
So x+-i----=10

i 10 i.e. x+8=10
22 x=10-8
-4R1 +R2 --- 0 1 -9 -26 =2
1 2 3 13 Hencex=2,y= 1,z=3
Alternatively, the row echelon form can be
10 transformed to the reduced row echelon
22 form as follows:
0 1 -9 -26
1-10
-R, +R3 0 3 22
22 9R 3 + R2 0 1 0 1
10 0013
22 5 19
0 1 -9 -26 1 0
2 22
0 0 14 42 0101
1 10 0013
22 1 0 0 2
- -26
0101
0 0 1 3
This augumented matrix can be written as The augumented matrix can be written as
the matrix equation: the matrix equation
15 1 O. 01 x 2
x 10 010 y=l
0 1 -9 y = -26 001 z 3
00 lz 3
Then x=2
Then x+.y+z=10 y= 1
And z=3
y-9z=-26 © Hencex =2,y = 1,z =3.
z=3 © Example 44
Substitute z = 3 into ©:
y - 9(3) = -26 Use row reduction on an augumented
So y-27=-26 matrix to solve the system of linear
i.e. y=27'-26 equations.
=1 -3x + 2y - z = 10
4x - + 2z = -20
-5x + 3y - 4z = 23.
 !I Pure Mathematics for CAPE

- Solution
Given –3x + - z = 10 3 3 3
4x - + 2z = –20 q
–5x + - 4z = 23 0 1–
7 7
The augumented matrix for this system of 7
3 0 1 –3
equations is 17 R
–3 2 –1 10 2 1 10
Then x– –y+ –z=– --
4 –5 2 –20 33 3
–53-423 2 20
This augumented matrix is then transformed 7 7
to row echelon for as follows: z=-3 ©
1 2 1 10 Substitute z = –3 into ©:
--R 1 -- 1 -- - -- 2 20
3 33 3 y – (-3)= -
4 –5 2 –20
–5 3 –4 23 6 20
So y+– --
20 6
33 3 i.e. y= ---
7 2 20 77
–4R+R2
1 -- 0 - - - -- 14
33 3
–5 3 –4 23 7
=2
1 2_ Substitute y = 2 and z = into (I)
–3
3 3 3 2 1 10
0 2 20 x - (2)+ –(-3) = - -
3 3 3
3 3 3 4 10
1 7 19 So x– ---1=– —
5R, +R3 –> 0 -- -- - 3 3
3 3 3
7 10
2 i.e.
3 3
3 3 3
7 10
3 2 20 x=---
--R-->0 1-- - 33
7 7 7
3
3
3 3 3
= –1
Hence x=-1,y=2,z=-3.
3 3 3
2 20
0 1 -
7 7
1 17 51
–R2 +R3 – 0 0 -- -
3 7 7
 Matrices and systems of linear equations M
Alternatively, the row echelon form can be
transformed to the reduced row echelon —R 3 +R1 [1 0
form as follows:

2 Then x=-1
R3 + R2 —> 0 10 2
y=2
0 0 1 —3
And z=-3
Hence x= —1,y=2,z=-3.
3 R+R—1
2 1 0 —2

0102
0 0 1 —3

Exercise 9h

1. Use row reduction to find the inverse of 4. Find the inverse matrix of each matrix
each of the following matrices. using row reduction.
(-34 7-21 47-3
(a) A=1 (b) B=
3) 27 (a)4-5 6 (b)-9 25
(7 —6'\ (8 3 80-9 0-8 1
(c) C (d)
= U 4) (7 —2 5 2 —9 —9 1 —4
2. Find the inverse matrix of each matrix (c) 8 —7 6 (d) 0 —8 3
using row reduction.
—4 10 26-5
5 —2 (b)
2 —5
1
4 —3)
5. Use row reduction on an augumented
(a)(- 6 1) matrix to solve each of the following
(-1 —2'\ (6 1 systems of linear equations.
(c) (d)
4 8) - - (a) 5x+3y=21 (b) 5x+3y=31
2x+7y=20 2x+y=12
3. Use row reduction to find the inverse of
each of the following matrices. (c) 2x + = 1 (d) 2x + = —8
2 3 4 3 1 0 —x+2y=-4 5x-2y=18
(a) A= 1 0 7 (b) B= 8 5 6 6. Use row reduction of an augumented
869 724 matrix to solve each system of linear
equations.
015 914
(a) x-5y=2 (b) —3x+2y=4
(c) C= 7 8 6 (d) D= 8 3 5 —2.±7y=-1O x + 3y = 17
4 23 72 6 (c) x-5y=2 (d) 2x-5y=3
—2x+7y=-10 x-3y=1
LEI Pure Mathematics for CAPE

7. Use row reduction on an augumented matrix to solve each of the following systems of
equations.
(a) x+2y+z=5 (b) x+y+2z=8 (c) 3x+4y+z=7 (d) x+y+z=-1
x + + 2z = 7 3x + + 5z =21 2x+5y-3z=19 5x + + 3z = -4
3x+y+z= 10 x+y+z=7 3x+2y- 10z=23 4x + + 2z = -9
8. Use row reduction on an augumented matrix to solve each system of linear equations.
(a) -x+y+z=0 (b) 3x-y-5z=-7 (c) 4x-y+3z=-15 (d)5x-2y+3z=2
3x+y-5z=-12 -x-3y+2z=10 x + 2y - 4z = 17 2x+6y-5z=-16
x-2y+3z=17 2x+y-3z=-7 -2x-3y+z=-15 7x - 2y + 4z = 4
9. Use reduced row echelon form of an augumented matrix to solve each of the following
systems of equations
(a) 5x-2y+4z=15(b)-6x+y-2z=11 (c)7x+3y+2z=21 (d)8x-5y-3z=-28
—2x+3y-2z=-9 7x-2y+3z=-15 5x-4y-3z=-1 7x+4y+2z=-4
4x-5y+3z=15 -2x+3y-z=7 2x+5y+z_-4 —3x — 2y + z = —1
10. Use reduced row echelon form of an augumented matrix to solve each system of equations
(a) 6x-3y+5z=-4 (b) 9x+4y-3z=28 (c) 8x+5y-3z=11 (d) 9x-4y+2z=-58
2x+4y-3z = -10 -4x+3y+2z= -20 -5x-2y+4z = -6 -4x + 3y - z = 30
-4x - y + 2z = 18 5x-2y-z=26 -2x+3y-z=-19 3x-5y+4z=-47

Consistency of a system of linear equations

If a system of linear equations are represented graphically, then there are three possible cases.
• The lines or planes all intersect at a single point. The equation has a unique solution and
the system of equations is consistent.
• The lines or planes all coincide or intersect along a common line. The equation has an
infinite set of solutions and the system is consistent.
• The lines or planes are parallel or do not all intersect at a mutual (unique) point. The
equation has no solution and the system is inconsistent.
These facts are illustrated in the diagram below.
System of equations

Consistent ) ( Inconsistent

of intersection) (Line of intersection) (No unique intersection

Unique solution) (Infinite munber of solutions) ( No solution

 Matrices and systems of linear equations

A system of equations is consistent if it has a unique solution or an

infinite number of solutions.

D Two linear equations in two unknowns

Consider a system of two linear equations in two unknowns (variables) x and y.
Then a 11 x+a12y=b1
a 21 + 122Y
Each of the two equations can be represented as a straight line graph.
Algebraically, there are three possible cases.
Geometrically, there are three possible cases.
The system has exactly one solution
a2i x+a22 y=b2
IV_ T all x+a12 y=b1

0 x

Here, the two lines intersect at one point.

The system has a unique solution if the coefficients of the unknowns are not proportional.
A system is consistent if it has a solution.

That is all . a12

a21 a22
-Example 45 (b) Since the system of equations has a
(a) Show that the system of equations solution then it is consistent.
3x-2y=14 (c) Given 3x - = 14 ©
2x+y=7 2x+y=7 ©
has a unique solution. Then 3x-2y=14 ©
(b) Is the system consistent? ®x2-i-© 7x=28 ©
(c) Hence, use equivalent equations to So 3x-2y=14 ©
solve the system of equations. ©+7: x=4
Substitute x = 4 into ©:
- Solution Then 3(4) — = 14
(a) Given 3x — = 14 So
2x + y = 7 i.e.
Then 3 —# —2
—
21 +2: y=—1
so the system of equations has a unique Hence x=4,y=-1.
solution.
ZI Pure Mathematics for CAPE

If the reduced equivalent equations does (x) (5 ( 1)

not have a row of zeroes or zero equal (c) Since
=3J 13
to a constant, then the 2 x 2 system of
linear equations has a unique solution. 3 -2( 0
Then
The system has a unique solution if the ( y)
X1 13 -1 5fij3
determinant of the matrix of coefficients 1 0-26
is not zero.
13 0+65
Given AX = B 1 -26
Then X=A -1 B 13 65
If A -' * 0, then the system has a unique
solution. —(-26)
13
Example 46
(a) Use a determinant to show that the (65)
13
system of equations
(-2
5x + = 0
x + = 13
has a unique solution. Hence x = -2, y = 5.
(b) Is the system consistent?
(c) Hence, use the inverse of a matrix to If the system is stated as an
solve the system of equations. augumented matrix which is
transformed to the reduced row echelon
Solution
(1 0 e1 "

(a) Given 5x+2y=0 form I I which does not have

x + = 13 1 e2 )

The system of equations as a matrix a row of zeros, then it has a unique

equation is solution.
(5 2"(x" ( 0
Example 47
(\ 1 3fi\y)13
(a) Use an augumented matrix to show
(x (5(0 that the system of equations.
Then y J(i 3J 1j3 4x + = 7
3x-2y=11
52 has a unique solution.
And =5x3-2x1
13 (b) Is the system consistent?
-15-2 (c) Hence solve the system of equations.
= 13 Solution
52 (a) Given 4x + 5y = 7
Then 1 3 =13 # 0, so the system of
3x - 11
equations has a unique solution.
(b) Since the system of equation has a
solution then it is consistent
 Matrices and systems of linear equations Im
The system of equations in
1
1
augumented form is: _-.R 2 +R1 --(1 0 3
(4 5 7 1 -1
3 -2 11 The augumented matrix transformed
157 to reduce row echelon form does not
-R-+1
41 - - have a row of zeroes, so the system of
44
equations has a unique solution.
3 -2 11
(b) Since the system of equations has a
1 solution, then it is consistent.
44 (1 0 3
23 23 (c) SinceI
-3R1 +R2 --> 0 - l0 1 -1
44 Then x=3
5 7] and y=-1
1
44 Hence x = 3, y = -1.
4
0 1 -1
23 R 2

•. The system has an infinite number of solutions

Here, the two lines are coincident. 48WA

(a) Show that the system of equations
The system has an infinite number of 2x+ 7y=-1
solutions if the constant terms of the -lOx-35y=5
equations are in the same proportion. has an infinite number of solutions.
(b) Is the system consistent?
That is (c) Hence,
a12 a22 b2 (i) use equivalent equations to find the
general solution of the system of
A system is dependent if it has more equations
than one solution. (ii) state a particular solution of the
system of equations.
M Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Solution Hence x = -4, y = 1 is a possible solution.

(a) Given 2x+7y=-1
-lOx-35y=5 If the determinant of the matrix of
7 -1 1 coefficients is zero, then the system has
Then 2 either no solution or an infinite number of
-10 -35 5 5
So the system of equations has an solutions.
infinite number of solutions.
Given Ax = B
(b) Since the system of equations has
Then x=A 1 B
solutions then it is consistent.
If A = 0, then the system does not
(c) (i) Given 2x + = -1
have a unique solution.
-lOx -35y=5
Then 2x+7y=-1 • Example 49
0=0 © (a) Show that the system of equations
3x - = 7
If the reduced equivalent equations, has -6x+4y=-14
a row of zeros, then the 2 x 2 system (i) does not have a unique solution, by
of equations has an infinite number of using a determinant
solutions. (ii) has an infinite set of solutions, by
using equivalent equations.
The last equation is a true equation, that (b) Hence, state a particular solution of the
is, 0 = 0. It indicates that the system of set of equations.
equations has an infinite set of solutions.
If we put y = A, where A E Ef, then Solution
the general solution of the system of (a) (i) Given 3x - = 7
equations is -6x+4y=-14
2x + 7A = - 1 The system of equation as a matrix
So 2x=-7A-1 equation is:
-72-1
ie x= ( 3 -2)(x) = (_17 7
2 -6 4y4
-7 1
X =-2--
2 2 (x) (3 -2'\( 7
Then =1 I
Hence, the general solution y -6 4) -14
of the system of equations is
3 -2
7 1 And -6 =3 x 4- (-2) x (-6)
X = - -2- -, y =2.
2 2
= 12-12
(ii) If
=0
then x=-(1)- So the system of equation does not
2 2
71 have a unique solution.
22 (x\ (_3 -2V 1 ( 7
(11) Since I1= II
8 yJ 6 4) t\-14
2 (x'\ 14 2\ 7'\
-4 Then
-
3Jt_l4J
 Matrices and systems of linear equations

(b) Hence
However 2- is undefined. This indicates (i) find the general solution of the
0
that the system of equations does not have system of equations
a unique solution. This matrix equation (ii) state a particular solution of the
does not allow us to find a solution. system of equations.
Given 3x-2y=7 Solution
—6x+4y=-14 ©
(a) Given —8x + = 9
Then 3x-2y=7
9
0=0 © 2x—y= --
The last equation indicates that the 4
system of equations has an infinite The system of equations in
number of solutions. augumented matrix form is:
(b) Let y=.% where AE. —8 4 9
Then 3x-2A,=7
So 3x=2A+7 2-1—
4
2,+7
1 1 9
3 --R - 1 -- --
81 2 8
2 7
x=—A+- 2 —1-
3 3 4
Put ,%= —1
2 7
Then x= —(-1)+ — 2 8
3 3 —2R,+R2 --- 0 0 0
27
= --+- Since the augumented matrix has a row
33
5 of Os then the system of equations has
an infinite set of solutions.
3
9
(b) (1) Now 1—1 —
Hence x = , y = —1 is a particular
0 0 0
solution of the set of equations.
1 9
If the system is stated as an augumented Then x— —y=- —

2 8
matrix which is transformed to the row Since the system of equations is
( a e '\ represented by one equation, then the
echelon form i 1 i which has a row of
000) lines representing the equations coincide.
Os, then it has an infinite set of solutions. Let y=AwhereEff
1 9
Then x--A=----
Example 50 2 8
(a) Use an augumented matrix to show 1 9
that the system of equations So x=—A--
2 8
—8x + = 9 Hence, the general solution of the
9 system of equations is:
2x—y= —
1 9
has an infinite set of solutions. x=—A—,y=A.
!. M Pure Mathematics for CAPE

(ii) Let Hence, a particular solution of the

1 9 system of equations is:
Then x=-2--
28 1
x= - y = 2.
,

= (2) -

2 8
=1-
8
1
8

The system has no solutions

Here, the two lines are parallel.

The system has no solution if the constant terms of the equations are not in the same proportion.

a11 - a12
That is -

a21 a22 b2
Example 51
If the reduced equivalent equations has a
(a) Show that the system of equations row with zero equal. to a constant which
x—y=7 is not zero, then the 2 x 2 system of
—3x + =1 equations has no solution.
has no solution.
(b) Is the system consistent? Method 2
Given x—y=7
Solution —3x+3y=1 ©
Method 1 Then x—y=7
(a) Given y=7x - 0=22 ©
-3x + =1 The last equation is a false equation,
1 —1 7 1 since 0 # 22. It indicates that the system
Then —=— ~ —;--#7 of equations has no solution.
—3 3 1 3
So the system of equations has no (b) Since the system of equations has no
solution. solution then it is inconsistent.
 Matrices and systems of linear equations .•

If the system is stated as an augumented matrix which is transformed to the row echelon
(

form1
I a ) where the coefficient matrix has a row of Os and the element rn the
O0
correspond row of the second matrix is not 0, that is 0 = e2 (but e2 # 0), then it has no solution.

-Example 52 (-2 —2 5
Use an augumented matrix to show that the 61
set of equations
—2x - = 5 15
--R-1
21 1--
6x + 6y = 1 2
is inconsistent. 66 1
Solution 5]
11-
Given —2x - =5 2
6x + 6y = 1 —6R 1 +R2 —> 0 0 16
The set of equations in augumented matrix The last row indicates that the set of
form is: equations has no solution and it is therefore
inconsistent.
.:
Three linear equations in three unknowns
Consider a system of three linear equations in three unknowns (variables) x, y and z.
Then
7t2 :a21x+a22y+a23z=b2
7t3 . a31x +
a 32 + a 33 = b3
Each of the three equations can be represented as a plane.
Algebraically, there are three possible cases.
Geometrically, there are six possible cases.
The system has exactly one solution

A unique solution exists.

The system is consistent and independent.
Here, the three planes intersect at one point. A unique solution exists for the system and
can be found.

If the reduced equivalent equations does not have a row of zeros or zero equal to a
constant, then the 3x3 system of linear equations has a unique solution
TliJ Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Example53U 3 1 15
(c) Now x+—y--z---
(a) Use equivalent equations to show that
the system of equations 8
4x+3y-2z=-15 y— —z=-7 ©
5
2x-y+3z= 10
5x + + z = -3 z=5
has a unique solution. Substitute z = 5 into ©:
(b) Is the system consistent? So y-(5)=-7
(c) Hence solve the system of equations.
- Solution y -8 = -7
ie. y=8-7
(a) Given 4x + - 2z = -15
2x-y+3z=10 ©
y= 1
Substitute y = 1 and z = 5 into ©:
5x+2y+z=-3 © 3 1 15
Then 4x+3y-2z=-15 x + -(1) --(5) = - -
4 2 4
( i Z., 5 35
-y+4z=-2-- 3 5 15
So x+----=--
42 4
5 ) + (a): 7 63 3 15 5
(D X - Y+ 7 Z = © x=----+-
442
So 4x+3y-2z=-15 8
3x2: -5y+8z=35 4
©x4: -7y+14z=63 © x=-2
i.e. 4x+3y-2z=-15 Hence x= -2,y= 1,z=5.
-5y+8z=35
-y+2z=9 © The system has a unique solution if the
4x+3y--2z=-15 determinant of the coefficient matrix is
-5y+8z=35 © not zero.
© x (-5) + ©: -2z = -10
4x+3y-2z=-15 Given AX = B
-5y+8z=35 Then X=A'B
z=5 If A 1 0, then the system has a unique
3 1 15 solution.
+4: x+ —y- --z=— — ©
Example 54 J
y-z=-7 © (a) Use a determinant to show that the
system of equations
z=5 2x + - 5z = -4
The system of equations has been 3x-4y+z=--23
reduced to row echelon form and it 5x + 2y- z = -15
has no row of zeros so it has a unique has a unique solution.
solution. (b) Is the system consistent?
(b) Since the system of equations has a (c) Hence use the inverse of a matrix to
solution then it is consistent. solve the system of equations.
 Matrices and systems of linear equations Im
- Solution
(a) Given 2x + - 5z = —4
3x - + z = —23
5x + 2y — z = —15
The system of equations as a matrix equation is:
2 3-5 x —4
3-4 1 y=-23
5 2—lz —15
5i
X 2 3 _4
Then y = 3 —4 1 —23
z 52-1 —15
23-5
4 1 3 1 3-4
And 3 -4 1=2
2 -15 -15 2
52-1
=2(4-2)-3(-3-5)-5(6+20)
= 2(2) - 3(-8) - 5(26)
=4+24-130
=-102
2 3 —5
Then 3 —4 1 = —102 0, so the system of equations has a unique solution.
52-1
(b) Since the system has a solution then it is consistent.
X 2 3 —5' —4
(c) Since y = 2 —4 1 —23
z 52-1 —15
X 2 —7 —17 —4
Then = 1
y 8 23 —17 —23
—102
26 11 —17 —15
—8 + 161+255
= 1
—32-529+255
—102
—104-253+255 x —4
408 So y= 3
1306 Z
—102
—102 Hence, x=-4,y=3,z= 1.
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

If the system is stated as an augumented

matrix which is transformed to the —2 —19
1 3
1 0 0 e1 5 50
01—-
reduced row echelon form 0 1 0 e2 7 7
0 0 1 e3 10R2 +R3 0 0 !. -

which does not have a row of zeros, then \ 7 7_

it has a unique solution. 1 3 —2 —19

-Example 55 01—-
7 7
(a) Use an augumented matrix to show —7R3 --0 0 1 3
that the system of equations —13
2R3 +R1 — 1 3 0
x + - 27 = —19
2x - y + z = 12 01—-
4x + - z = —5 7 7
has a unique solution. 00 1 3
(b) Is the system consistent? 1 3 0 —13
(c) Hence, solve the system of equations.
R3 +R2 [ 0
- Solution
(a) Given x+3y-2z=-19
2x - y + z = 12 —3R2 +R1 -- 1 0 0 2
4x + - z = —5 0 1 0 —5
The system of equations in 001 3
augumented matrix form is:
The augumented matrix transformed
1 3 —2 —19 to reduce row echelon form does not
2 —1 1 12 have a row of zeroes, so the system of
equations has a unique solution.
4 2 —1 —5
(b) Since the system of equations has
1 3 —2 —19 a solution, then it is consistent and
—2R, + R2. --> 0 —7 5 50 independent.
4 2 —1 —5 100 2
1 3 —2 —19 (c) Since, 0 1 0 —5
001 3
o —7 5 50
Then, x = 2, y = —5, z = 3.
—4R1 +R3 --- 0 —10 7 71
1 3 —2 —19
1 5 50
--R2 —> 0 1 -- --
7 7 7
0 —10 7 71
 Matrices and systems of linear equations C3
The system has an infinite number of solutions
In

H Line - Plane
of Infinite solutions of
intersection intersection
H

Each system is consistent and dependent.

Here, the three planes intersect in a line. Here, the three planes are coincident
Each point on the line is a solution (same plane).
for the system and there are infinite Each point in the plane is a solution for
solutions. the system.

If the reduced equivalent equations has a row of zeros, then the 3x3 system of equations
has an infinite number of solutions.

-Example 56 2y-i-6z=12 ©
(a) Use equivalent equations to show that x-4z=5 ©
the system of equations y+3z=6 ©
x + 3y + 5z = 23 y+3z=6 ©
x + 4y + 8z = 29 x-4z5 ©
x+5y+llz=35 y+3z=6 ©
has an infinite number of solutions. 0=0 ®
(b) Is the system consistent? The last equation is a true equation,
(c) Hence, that is, 0 = 0. It indicates that the
(i) find the parametric equations of the system of equations has an infinite
system of equations number of solutions.
(ii) state a solution of the system of (b) since the system of equations has
equations. solutions then it is consistent.
(c) (i) x-4z=5
- Solution y+3z=6
(a) Given x+3y+5z=23 0=0
x+4y+8z=29 © Let z = A where AE R.
x+5y+llz=35 © Then x-4%=5
x + 3y + 5z = 23 D .so x=4,%+5
y+3z=6 And y+3%=6
2y+6z=12 © So y=-3A+6
x-4z=5 ® Hence, the parametric equations of the
y+3z=6 system of equations are:
x=4%+5,y= —3%+ 6,z =A
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

(ii) If =2(2-5)-1(2-0)+8(1-0)
then x=4(0)+5=5 =2(-3)-1(2)+8(1)
y=-3(0)+6=6 = —6-2+8
Hence, x=5,y=6,z=Oisa =0, so the system of equation does
possible solution. not have a unique solution.
X 21821
If the determinant of the coefficient matrix 13
(ii)Since y= 115
is zero, then the system has either no
solution or an infinite number of solutions. z 012 5

Given AX = B
Then X = AB Then ][13]
If A -1 = 0, then the system does not have a
unique solution.
Example 57 1 However is undefined. This indicates
0
(a) Show that the system of equations that the system of equations does not
2x + y + 8z = 21 have a unique solution. This matrix
x + y + 5z = 13 equation does not allow us to find a
y + 2z = 5 solution.
(i) does not have a unique solution by Given 2x+y+8z=21
using a determinant x+y+5z=13 ©
(ii) has an infinite set of solutions by y+2z=5 ©
using an inverse matrix Then x+y+5z=13 ©
(b) Hence, state a particular solution of the y+2z=5 ©
set of equations. 2x+y+8z=21
So x+y+5z=13 ©
• Solution y+2z=5 ©
(a) (i) Given 2x + y + 8z = 21 y+2z=5
x + y + 5z = 13 x+3z=8 ©
y + 2z = 5 y+2z=5 ©
The system of equations as a matrix 0=0
equation is: The last equation indicates that the
2 1 8 x 21 system of equations has an infinite
number of solutions.
1 1 5 y = 13
(b) Let
012 z 5
11
Then y+2A=5
So y=5-2A
(2 1 8h(21\
Then
1'"
iy 1 5 13
And x+3A=8
So x=8-3A
zJ 0 1 2) 5) Put
Then x=8-3(0)=8
2 1 81 y = 5 - 2(0) = 5
1 5 Ii 5 1 ii z=0
And 1 1 5
0 1 21
H 2
I 1 2 1I
—il
0 2
+8
0 11 Hence, x = 8, y = 5, z = 0 is a particular
solution of the set of equations.
 Matrices and systems of linear equations EMI

If the system is stated as an augumented R1 -R2 --- 1 0 53

matrix which is transformed to the row 01 -3 2
1 a b e1 O -2 6 -4
echelon form 0 1 c
10 53
OOOO
01 32
which has a row of Os, then it has an infinite 2R2 +R3 - 00 00
set of solutions.
Since the augumented matrix has a row
-Example 58 of Os, then the system of equations has
an infinite set of solutions.
(a) Use an augumented matrix to show
that the system of equations 10 53
2x + y + 7z = 8 (b) (i) Now 0 1 -3 2
x + y + 2z = 5 00 00
2x+lOz=6
has an infinite set of solutions. Then x+5z=3
(b) Hence And y-3z=2
(1) find the general solution of the Let z=,%, where AELF
system of equations. Then x+5,%=3
(ii) state a particular solution of the So x=3-5A
system of equations. And y-3A=2
So y=2+3)t
- Solution Hence, the general solution of the
(a) Given 2x+y+7z=8 system of equations is:
x + y + 2z = 5 x=3-5i%,y=2+3A,z=A.
2x + lOz = 6 This is the parametric equations of a
The system of equations in straight line, since the planes intersect
augumented matrix form is: in a line. Each point in the line of
2 1 7 8 intersection is a solution of the system
of equations.
1 1 25
(ii) Let A= -4
2 0 10 6 Then x=3-5A,
R2 -*R1 1 1 2 5 = 3 -5 (-4)
=3+20
2178
=23
2 0 10 6 y=2+3A
11 25 = 2 + 3(-4)
=2-12
O 1 -3 2
2R, -R2 2 0 10 6 and z=-4.
1125 Hence, a particular solution of the
system of equations is:
R3 -2R1 -+ 0 1 -3 2 x=23,y=-1O,z=-4.
O -2 6 -4
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Example 59
1 —3 2 1
(a) use an augumented matrix to solve the 0 000
system of equations
x - + 2z = 1 —3R 1 +R3 — 0 0 0 0
—2x + - 4z = —2 Since the augumented matrix has
3x-9y+6z=3. two rows of zeroes, then the system
(b) state a particular solution of the system of equations has an infinite set of
of equations. solutions.
Then x-3y+2z=1.
Solution
This is the Cartesian equation of
(a) Given x-3y+2z=1 a plane, since all the planes are
—2x + - 4z = —2 coincident. Each point in the plane is a
3x - + 6z = 3 solution of the system of equations.
The system of equations in Let z= /land y=u
augumented matrix form is: Then x=1+3i-2A
1 —3 2 1 (b) Letz=A=1andy=ji=-4,
—2 6 —4 —2 Then x=1+3,u-2A
=1+3(-4)-2(1)
3 —9 6 3 = 1 - 12 - 2
1 —3 2 1 - -13
2R, +R2 Hence, a particular solution of the
-4 0 0 0 0
system of equations is
3 —9 6 3 x = —13, y = —4, z = 1.

The system has no solutions

/3/ No solution
All three planes are Two planes are No planes are parallel. Planes intersect
mutually parallel parallel and distinct pairwise in a straight line.
and distinct. and a third plane
intersects them.
In these cases, there is no point that is in all three planes and there is no solution for the
system.

If the reduced equivalent equations has a row with zero equal to a constant which is not
zero, then the 3 x 3 system of equations has no solution.
 Matrices and systems of linear equations L11I

-Example 60 - Example 61
(a) Use equivalent equations to show that Use an augumented matrix to show that the
the system of equations set of equations
2x+3y—z=5 2x—y+3z=4
—6x — + 3z = 1 —4x + — 6z = 5
4x+6y-2z=-3 3x — + 4z = —2
has no solution. is inconsistent.
(b) Is the system consistent?
-Solution
- Solution Given 2x—y+3z=4
(a) Given 2x+3y—z=5 —4x + — 6z = 5
—6x-9y+3z=1 © 3x-2y+4z=-2
4x+6y-2z=-3 © The set of equations in augumented matrix
Then 2x+3y—z=5 () form is:
0=16 @ 2 —1 3 4
0=13 © —4 2 —6 5
1 3 1 5
X -: x+—y--Z=— © 3-24-2
2 22 2
0=16 © 1 13
—R 1 — 1-- —2
0=13 ® 2 22
Since 0 # 16 and 0 * 13, then the system —4 2 —6 5
of equations has no solution. 3 —2 4 —2
(b) Since the system has no solution then it
is inconsistent. 1—. 2
2 2
If the system is stated as an augumen ted
4R 1 +R2— 0 0 0 13
matrix which is transformed to the row —3R 1 + R3 —* —8
0 --
—•

I a 1' e 2 2
echelon form 0 I - e 2'where the
1 - 2
0 0 () 2 2
coefficient matrix has a row of Os and the • R3 —R 2 0 —. -- —8
constant in the corresponding row of the 2 2
second matrix is not 0, that is () = R2 — > R3 0 0 0 13
(but e. # 0), then it has no solution. R1 —R 2 1 0 2 10
--

—2R2 --3 0 1 1 16
0 0 0 13
The last row indicates that the set of
equations has no solution and it is therefore
inconsistent.
ITI1 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Exercise 9i

1. (a) Show that the system of equations (i) does not have a unique solution,
4x + = 14 by using a determinant
3x-2y=19 (ii) has an infinite set of solutions, by
has a unique solution. using equivalent equations.
(b) Is the system consistent? (b) Hence, state a particular solution of
(c) Hence, use equivalent equations to the set of equations.
solve the system of equations.
6. (a) Use an augumented matrix to show
2. (a) Use a determinant to show that the that the system of equations
system of equations —9x + = 7
5x+3y=O 3x—y=— 7 -

x+2y=7
has a unique solution. has an infinite set of solutions
(b) Is the system consistent? (b) Hence,
(c) Hence, use the inverse of a matrix to (i) find the general solution of the
solve the system of equations. system of equations
(ii) state a particular solution of the
3. (a) Use an augumented matrix to show
system of equations.
that the system of equations
3x - 7y = 34 7. (a) Show that the system of equations
5x + 2y =2 —x + y = 8
has a unique solution. 4x - = —1
(b) Is the system consistent? has no solution
(c) Hence, solve the system of equations (b) Is the system consistent?

4. (a) Show that the system of equations 8. Use an augumented matrix to show that
2x + = —3 the set of equations
—8x - 20y = 12 —3x - = 19
has an infinite number of solutions. 12x+12y=13
(b) Is the system consistent? is inconsistent.
(c) Hence,
9. (a) Use equivalent equations to show that
(i) use equivalent equations to find the system of equations
the general solution of the system
3x - + 3z = 39
of equations
2x + - 3z = —13
(ii) state a particular solution of the
4x - y - 6z = —4
system of equations.
has a unique solution.
5. (a) Show that the system of equations (b) Is the system consistent?
6x - = 7 (c) Hence, solve the system of equations.
—12x + = —14
 Matrices and systems of linear equations F. .'M

10. (a) Use a determinant to show that the 14. (a) Use an augumented matrix to show
system of equations that the system of equations
2x + - 3z = -7 2x+y+4z=17
x + - z = -2 x + y + z = 13
3x - y + z =20 x + - 3z = 31
has a unique solution. has an infinite set of solutions.
(b) Is the system consistent? (b) Hence,
(c) Hence, use the inverse of a matrix to (i) find the general solution of the
solve the system of equations. system of equations
(ii) state a particular solution of the
11. (a) Use an augumented matrix to show system of equations.
that the system of equations
x+6y-4z=-17 15. (a) Use an augumented matrix to solve
8x - y + 5z = 12 the system of equations
5x - + z = -1 x - + 3z = 4
has a unique solution -3x + - 9z = -12
(b) Is the system consistent? 2x-4y+6z=8
(c) Hence, solve the system of equations. (b) State, a particular solution of the
system of equations.
12. (a) Use equivalent equations to show that
the system of equations 16. (a) Use equivalent equations to show that
x + y - z = -1 the system of equations
x-y-5z=-9 3x - + z = 8
2x+y-4z=-6 -6x + 4y - 2z = -15
has an infinite number of solutions. 9x - - 3z = 14
(b) Is the system consistent? has no solution.
(c) Hence, (b) Is the system consistent?
(i) find the parametric equations of 17. Use an augumented matrix to'show that
the system of equations the set of equations
MY state a solution of the system of 5x + - 2z = 9
equations. -10x-8y+4z=-15
13. (a) Show that the system of equations 4x + + 2z = 7
x+y-z=10 is inconsistent.
2x+y+z=13 18. Solve the system of equations using an
x + - 7z =24 augumented matrix, if possible.
(i) does not have a unique solution, -2x+y-6z=-16
by using a determinant 2x+2y+6z=-8
(ii) has an infinite set of solutions, by 3x+3y+9z=-8.
using an inverse matrix.
(b) Hence, state a particular solution of
the set of equations.
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

19. Solve the system of equations using an 20. Solve the system of equations using an
augumented matrix, if possible. augumented matrix, if possible.
x+y+z=5 x + - = 19
3x+y+z=10 2x—y+3z= 16
—3x-3y-3z=-15. 4x + 2y + z = 21.

0 Area of a triangle
C (x3, Y3)

A(x 1 ,y 1 ) B(x,y 2)

1x1 y1 1
The area of a triangle is A = x2 y2 1
X3 y3 1
where (x1 , y 1 ), (x 21 y2) and (x3 , y) are the three vertices of the triangle.

• Example 62
= . [-2(5) - 5(-1) + 1(-23)]
Find the area of a triangle with vertices
(-2,5), (4, 3) and (5, —2).
= 2:(_1o + 5....23)
Solution
Set (x1 , y 1 ) = (-2, 5), (x 21 y2) = (4,3) and = 2:(.28)
(x3 , y 3) = (5, —2)
Then the area of the triangle is
Hence, the area of the triangle is 14 units.
X1 Y1 1
1 Collinear points
A=x 2 y2 1
X3 y3 1

—2 5 1
4 3 1
2
5 —2 1
ii 3 1 41 4 3
L 2 -2 15 1+15 -2 Three points are collinear if and only if
= . [-2(3+2) - 5(4-5)+l(-8-15)] X1 y1 1
X2 Y2 1=0.
X3 1
 Matrices and systems of linear equations IM
-Example 63 the cost of a pair of pants is $225, the cost of
Determine which set of points are collinear. a shirt is $ 110 and the cost of a hot is $95.
(a) (-2, —5), (0, 4), (3, 7) Use matrices to find the total cost of the
(b) (-2, —3), (0, 1), (3, 7) items for the two cricket teams.

- Solution
X1 y1 1 —2 —5 1 Pants Shirts Hats Cost ($)
X2 1= 0 41 Male 9 8 11 Pants 225
Y2
Female 10 7 9 Shirts 110
X3 y3 1 3 7 1
Hats 95
41 01 04
=-2 —(-5) +1 2x3 3x1
71 31 37
Method 1
=-2(4-7)+5(0-3)+1(0-12) The total cost of the items for each team
= —2(-3) + 5(-3) + 1(-12) 225
(19 8
= 6-15-12
O 7 9J 110
=-21 95
Since —21 # 0, then the three points are not ( 9x225+8x110+11x95
collinear.
t10x225+7x110+ 9x95
X1 y1 1 —2 —3 1
- (2025+880+1045
X2 Y2 1= 0 11
X3 y3 1 3 7 1 2250+770+ 855

11 01 01 (3 950)
=_27 1+13 7 3875
= —2(1-7) ±3(0-3) + 1(0 —3) The total cost of the items for both
= —2(-6) + 3(-3) + 1(-3) teams = $(3 950 + 3 875) = $7 825
=12-9-3 Method 2
=0 The total cost of the items for both team
X1 •225
Yi 1
=(19 15 20) 110
Since x2 Y2 1 =0, then the three points
X3 y3 1 95
- are collinear. = (19 x 225 +15 x 110 + 20 x 95)
• Total cost = (7 825)

-Example 64tiA
A school has a male cricket team and a
female cricket team. The male cricketers
need 9 pair of pants, 8 shirts and 11 hats.
The female cricketers need 10 pair of pants,
.7 shirts and 9 hats. At Sports and Games store
LII Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Exercise 9j

1. Find the area of a triangle with vertices (a) State a matrix to represent the results of
(a) A(2, 7), B(5, 3) and C(9, 2) the matches played by the three teams.
(b) P(3, -2), Q(8, 1) and R(5, 7) (b) The number of points awarded for
(c) K(-3, 4), L(-1, 0) and M(4, 9) a win is 5, for a loss it is 0 and for a
(d) X(-1, -2), Y(-5, -3) and Z(-9, -8) draw it is 21/2.
Construct a matrix product which
2. Determine which set of points are may be used to find the number of
collinear. points each team was awarded at the
(a) A(1, 5), B(3, 2) and C(6, 8) end of the tournament.
(b) P(-2, 0), Q(0, 2) and R(5, -3) (c) Use your matrix product to calculate
(c) K(-2, 5), L(-7, 3) and M(-5, 1) the total number of points awarded to
(d) X(-1, -10), Y(-3, -14) and Z(-5, -18) each team.
3. (a) A school has a male football team 5. (a) The paths along which three airplanes
and a female football team. The male are flying are represented by the
footballers require 10 shorts, 11 jerseys system of linear equation given below.
and 9 pairs of socks. The female x--y-z=1
footballers requires 9 shorts, 8 jerseys 2x + + z = 5
and 10 pairs of socks. At Sports World x + 3y + 2z = 8.
the cost of shorts is $ 90, the cost of a
(1) Write the augumented matrix
jerseys is $ 150 and the cost of a pair
that represents the system of
of socks is $ 75. Use matrices to find
linear equations.
the total cost of the items for the two
football teams. (ii) State the augumented matrix in
reduced row echelon form.
(b) At Pro Sports the cost of a shorts is
$ 80, the cost of a jersey is $ 125 and (iii) Hence, determine the coordinates
the cost of a pair of socks is $ 60. where the three planes collide.
If the male footballers bought their (b) A man has to purchase 70 Tablet P,
items at Sports World and the female 90 Tablet Q and 110 Tablet R for his wife.
footballers bought their items at In order to get the full prescription, he had
Pro Sports, use matrices to find the to visit three pharmacies. At each of the
difference in the total cost for the three pharmacies he paid the same price
items. for each Tablet P. each Tablet Q and each
Table R. The number of tablets bought at
4. The results of the matches played by three each pharmacy and the total amount paid
teams taking part in a tournament are is recorded in the table below.
shown in the table below. Number Number of tablets bought Total
I of amount
HResult T.ihk•i P. Lhk't Q TibI.t
Pharmacy paid

S .
 Matrices and systems of linear equations C3
(i) Form a system of linear equations (ii) Express the system of equations
in x, y and z to represent the in the form
information given in the table, AX=B
where x, y and z is the cost of where A, X and B are matrices.
1 Tablet P, 1 Tablet Q and 1 Tablet (iii) Use the inverse of a matrix to
R respectively. find the values of x, y and z.

5. Find P—QifP = 3 _8àndQ= —2 3 :

c 1 _7
M Pure Mathematics for CAPE

6. Find the matrix product AB if

7
4 = (-2 5 1) and B = —4
3
(a) -37 (b) -34 (c) -31 (d) 37
8
7. Find the matrix product PQ if P = —3 and Q = (4 —6 —1)
5
32 32 -48 -8
(a) 18 (b) -12 18 3 (c) (45) (d) (55)
-5 20 -30 -5
8. Determine which of the following sys ems of equations is/are consistent.
I 2x + 5y = 4 II 3x+6y=21 III 2x+2y=5 IV 3x+3y=5
3x+2y=-5 x+2y=7 x+y=2 2x + 2y = 3
(a) lonly (b) III only (c) I and II (d) III and IV
9. Determine which of the following systems of equations is/are inconsistent.
I 2x-3y=8 II 2x-5y=7 III 3x+y=5 IV 3x—y=-5
5x+2y=1 4x-10y=3 9x + 3y = 4 5x+y=-3
(a) I only (b) III only (c) I and IV (d) II and III
50
(1-2
10. Find the matrix product AB, if it is defined, given that A B = 0 —2
= 3 5 4) and
16
1 —5 4"\ 15 4'\ 5 —4 1 5-4
(a) I I (b) ( I I(d) I
-11 34) i —34) (c)(11 —34) L-11
11. Which of the following methods is not used to solve a system of equations?
(a) graphing (b) substitution
(c) Gaussian elimination (d) Fundamental theorem of algebra
12. The graph of a system of liner equations with no solution consists of
(a) intersecting lines (b) parallel lines (c) coincident lines (d) skew lines
13. The point that is a solution to the system of equations
2x+y-z=-3
3x-2y+z=10
is
(a) (1, —2, 3) (b) (-1, —2, 3) (c) (1, —2, 3) (d) (1, —2, —3)
 Matrices and systems of linear equations E3

14. Using Gaussian elimination, the system of equations

5x-2y=-18
3x+4y=1O
can be reduced to
2 18 218 2 18 2 18
(a) (b) x—y=--- (c) x--y=-- (d) x---y=--
x=2 x=-2 x=-2 x=2
15. Using Gaussian elimination, the system of equations
2x+:y-3z=3
—x+2y+z=-6
x-3y—z=8
can be reduced to
13 3 1 3 3
(a) x+—y--z=— (b)
1 9 Y+ 1 9
— Z= -

5
z=-1
1 3 3 1 3 3
(c) x+—y--z=— (d) x+y—z=-
1 9 1 9
—y+—z=— —y+—z=--
5 5 5
Z=1 z=1
16 Use determinants to solve the following system of linear equations
3x=y+4
2x+3y=-1.
Then, which of the following matrix equations is true?
3 1( 4"\ (x) 1 ( 3 -4V 3
(a) (b)
,=ii_2
(X) 3A—l1i =- 2 —)
J1
(c) (x)1( 3 1(
(d) (X)=
y) 11-2 3)t-1) y 5-2 1)L-1
17 Given the following system of linear equations, state the associated augumented
matrix
2x - + z = —5
3x+2y—z=7
x + - 5z = 3
LIJ Pure Mathematics for CAPE

2 —3 1 —5 2 —3 —5 1
(a) 3 2 —1 7 (b) 3 2 7 —1
14-53 143-5

—3 1-5 2 2 1-5-3
(c) 2 —1 7 3 (d) 3 —1 7 2
4-531 1-534
18. Given the following augumented matrix, state the associated system of linear equations.
1 1-1 1
1 —1 1 2
2 0 —1 4
(a) x+y—z=1 (b) x+y—z=1 (c) x+y—z=-1 (d)x+y—z=1
x+2y+z=-1 —x+y+2z1 x—y+2z=1 x—y+z=2
2x+4y—z=0 —y+z=2 2x-4z=-1 2x—z=4
19. Given the following system of equations, state the coefficient matrix
x—y—z=1
2x+4y+z=5
x+3y+2z=8

(a) 5241 (b) 2 415

8132 1328

(c) 4 1 5 2 (d) 2 1 5 4
3281 1283
20. Given the following system of linear equations
4x+2z=-3 1

3x-2y+7z=1
2X7y+4Z2.
The solution to the equation is given by the point
(129 19 63 (129 19 63
(a) -,- i (b) I , -- ,

13065
1 130) 130 65 130

(c) (J
130'
-
65'130)
(d) 1-,-,---
13065 130
 Matrices and systems of linear equations Ii

21. (a) The augurnented matrix for a system of three linear equations with variables x, y
and z respectively is
1 —1 1 —2
A= —7 1 1 —6
—22-25
By reducing the augumented matrix to echelon form, determine whether or not
the system of linear equations is consistent.
(b) The augumented matrix for another system is formed by replacing the third row
of A with (1 —2 11 - 4).
Determine whether the solution of the new system is unique. Give a reason fOr
your answer.

102
22 Let A be the matrix 3 1 —1
1-11
(a) Find the matrix B, where B = A2 - 3A.
(b) Show that AB = —81
(c) Hence, find the inverse, A, of A
(d) Solve the system of linear equations
X 4
B y = —2
z 1
Lll1 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

(c) (i) Show that (x, y, z) = (1 1 2,3) is a solution of the following system of equations:
x+y+z=6
—2x-2y-2z=-12
3x+3y+3z=18
(ii) Hence, find the general solution of the system.

24. A system of equations is given by

x+y+z=0
3x+y—z=8
2x — 2z = k
where is a real number.
(a) Write the augumented matrix of the system.
(b) Reduce the augumented matrix to echelon form.
(c) Deduce the value of k for which the system is consistent.
(d) Find all solutions corresponding to the value of k.
111
25. (a) Solve for x the equation x 3 1 =0.
x2 9 1
(b) Three cellphone companies P, Q and R offers three rates, in cents, per call as shown
in the table below.

T
-ah P Q R

•ni1r-

A customer makes 25 local calls, 30 mobile calls and 15 foreign calls.

Use matrices to find the total cost of the calls using each of the three cellphone companies.
(c) A customer made x local calls, y mobile calls and z foreign calls using each of the
three cellphone companies and the total cost was $44.50, $ 61.00 and $ 85.50 using
cellphone company P, Q and R respectively. Use an inverse matrix to find the
number of local calls, mobile calls and foreign calls that the customer made.
 Matrices and systems of linear equations III

> Matrix and order

6 A matrix is a rectangular array of elements (entries) enclosed by a pair of square or
curve brackets.
+ Each element (entry) is a number or algebraic expression.
+ A matrix can be denoted by a single capital letter or common letter.
a11 a12 a13 "
+ A= I is a 2 x 3 matrix, since it has 2 rows and 3 columns.
2 2 , a22 a23
(a
+ An m x n matrix has m rows and n columns.
• a32 is the element in the third row ad second column.
Types of matrices
+ Column matrix (vector)
all
a21
a= a31 is a m x 1 matrix, it is a column matrix (column vector).

ami
• Row matrix (vector)
b (b11 b12 b13 b1 is a 1 x n matrix, it is a row matrix (row vector)
)

+Square matrix ..
all a12 a13
a= a21 a22 a23 is a 3 x 3 matrix, it is a square matrix. -
a31 a32 a33
+ Null (zero) matrix
000
I =0= 0 0 0 is a 3 x 3 zero matrix (null matrix).. All the elements are zero.
000
It is the identity matrix for the addition of 3 x 3 matrices;
+ Diagonal matrix =

all 0 0
A is, a 3 x3 diagonal matrix, only the elements in the leading,
0 0' diagonal are non-zero,
0 0 a33
EM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

•:• Unit Matrix

100
- 0 1 0 is the 3 x 3 unit matrix. It is a diagonal matrix where each element
- in the leading diagonal is 1.
00 1
It has a magnitude of 1 and it is the identity matrix for the multiplication of 3 x 3
matrices.
> Equal matrices..
A=B.
Two matrices are equal if:
• The matrices are of the same order
•. Corresponding elements in the two matrices are equal.
) Addition of matrices
= a 1 a12] bil b12
•:• If A and B=
(a2, a11 b21 b22)
a11 + b11 a12 + b12
then A+B=
(a2l+b2l a22
+ A + B = B + A commutative law holds.
+ (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)associative law holds.
+ A + I = I + A each order of matrices has an identity matrix for addition.
+ A + (—A) = —A + A = I each order of matrices has an additive inverse.
Subtraction of matrices
("I a12 = (bli b12
+ If A = I and B
a21 a22 ) b21 b22
(a11 —b 11 a12 —b 12
then A—B=I
- b21 a22
a21 - b22
22 - b22) .
+ A - B # B - A commutative law does not hold.
4• (A - B) - C # A - (B - C) associative law does not hold.
Multiplication of a matrix by a scalar
(a a(Aa
12 = 11Aa 12
+ AA = 21 I where A is a scalar, AE R.
a21 a11) Va2l '22)
+ A(A + B) = 1A + 11B, scalar multiplication is distributive over the addition of matrices.
+ A(A - B) = AA - AB, scalar multiplication is distributive over the subtraction of matrices.
- Multiplication of matrices
(a11 a1 2 \ (b 11 b12
•: If A=I and B=I
a21 a11 b21 b22
 Matrices and systems of linear equations 13

a11b11 + a12b21a11b12 + a12b

then AB
2lbil + a22b21 a21b12 + a22b
(a
+ If A is an m x n matrix and B is a n x p matrix
then (in x n) x (n x p).
The inner product n x n indicates that the two matrices are conformable for
multiplication, since n = n.
I

The outer product in x p indicates the order of the resulting matrix.

+ Al = IA each order of square matrices has an identity matrix fOr multiplication.
+ AB BA commutative law does not hold.
•:• (AB)C = A(BC) associative law holds
+ A(B + C) = AB + AC multiplication of matrices is distributive over addition.
+ A(B - C) = AB - AC multiplication of matrices is distributive :over subtraction;
) Transpose of a matrix
all a21
+ If A = a12 a22
a13 a23
a11 a12 a13
then A T I is the .transposeofA.:
=(a2l a22 a23
+(A+B)T=AT+BT
+(A_B)T=AT_BT
+(AT)T=A
•:•(/14)T = )4T where Ile ll
•:• (AB)T = BT AT
Determinant of a n x n matrix
(a b
d
then JAI = ad - bc is the determinant of A. r

+ JAI = IATI
Any property that is valid for rows is valid for columns.
+ If two rows (or columns) are interchanged, then the sign of the determinant is changed.
+ If two rows (or columns) are identical, then the value of the determinant is zero.
+ If each element of one row (or column) is multiplied by a scalar A, then the value of
the determinant is multiplied by A.
+ If a multiple of one row (or column) is added to or subtracted from another row (or
column), then the value of the determinant is unaltered
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

all a12 a13

+ If A— a 21 a a23
a31 a32 a33
a22 a23
then M11 = is the minor of all

a21 a23
M12 = is the minor of a12
31 a33
= a21 a2
and M13 is the minor of a13.
a3, a32

+ The matrix of signs is - + —

+—+
all a12 a13
+ If A = a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33
a a23
then A ll = +M11 = + 22 is the cofactor of all
a32 a33
= — 21 23
Al2 = —M 12 is the cofactor of a12
a31 a33
a2
and A 13 = M13 is the cofactor of all
= h'
+ A = a11A 11 + a12A l2 + a13A 13 (row expansion).
A J = a11A 11 + a21A 21 + a31A 31 (column expansion).
) Singular and non-singular matrices
+ If Al =0, then Ais singular.
.:e If Al t0, then Aisnon-singular.

> Inverse of a non-singular n x n matrix

•:• A 1 = --- adj(A)
IAI
(a b
•JfA
d
d —b'\
then A' = 1 is the inverse of A.
ad—bc (—c a)
+ AA-1 = A 1A = I where A -1 is the multiplicative inverse of A.
 Matrices and systems of linear equations E3

a11 a12 a13

+ If A= a21 a a23
a31 a32 a33
1
then A -1 = adj(A)

11 A 21 A 31
1A
= - A l2 A A 32 is the inverse of A.
JAI A
13 A 23 A 33
All A l2 A 13
+ The cofactor of matrix A is K = A
A2121 A 22 A 23
A 31 A 32 A 33
A 11 A 21 A 31
8 The adjoint of matrix A is adj (A) = A l2 A 22 A 32
A 13 A 23 A 33
•: The (matrix of cofactors of A)T = KT = adj(A).
Solving a system of linear equations using determinants
+ Cramer "s rule is based on determinants.
+ System of linear equations in two unknowns
Given a11 x + a 12 bl
a21x+a22y=b2
b1 a12 a
b2 a22 - a21 b2 -
Then x = and y -
141. A
all a12
where IAI= #O.
a21 a
A is the coefficient matrix.
8 System of linear equations in three unknowns
Given a11x + a12y + a 13 =
a21x + a 22 + a 23 = b1
a31x + a 32 + a 33 = b3
b1 a12 a13 all b1 a13
b2 a a23 a21 b2 a23
b a3 a a31 b3 a33
enx— / -
JAI A
11111 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

all a12 b1 1
a21 a b2 I
- a31 a33 b3
and z -

JAI
all a12 a13
where JAI = a21 a a23# 0.
11 31 a 32 a33
A is the coefficient matrix.
) Solving a system of linear equations using an inverse
+ Given the matrix equation AX .= B.
Then X = A -' B.
X=adj (A) B.
JAI
Solving a system of linear equations using Gaussian elimination and row echelon form
+ 2 x 2 system of linear equations
Method 1
Given a11 x + a12 y = b1
a21 x + a22 = b2
Then transform the system of linear equations to the equivalent form:
a11 x + a12 = b1
y = b3
The value of x can then be found by backward substitution.
Method 2
The system of linear equations can be transformed to the row echelon form:
x + ay =
y = b3
The value of x can then be found by backward substitution.
•• 3 x 3 system of linear equations.
Method 1
Given all x+a12 y+a13 z=b1
a21 x + a22 y + a23 z =
a31X+a32y+a33Z_b3
 Matrices and systems of linear equations thu

The transform the system of linear equations to the equivalent form

all x+a12y+a13z=b1
a1 y+a2 z=b4
z=b5
The values of y and x can then be found by backward substitution.
Method 2
The system of linear equations can be transformed to the row echelon form:
x±a1 y±a2 .z=b7 .

y±a3 z=h6
z=b5
The values of yand x can then be found by backward substitution
> Finding the inverse of a matrix using row reduction.'
+ An augumented matrix combines two matrixes with, the same number of rows,
separating them by a vertical line.
=(a11 a2 1 "\ lb b
+ If A and B = 11 12 , then the augurnented matrix
a21 a22 ) b21 b22 )
a11 a12 b11 b12
AIB = ( b21 b22
a21 a
•• Inverse of a 2 x 2 matrix
a11 a12 1 Q
The augumented matrix All = is transformed to the reduced
(a2l a 0 1)I
1 1Oa1 q2
row echelon form I A =i .
0 1 a3 a4
+ Inverse of a 3 x3matrix
a11 a12 a13 1, 0 . 0
The augumented matrix All = a21 a22 a23 0 1 0 is transformed to the
a31 a32 a33 0 0 1
100a1 a2 a3
reduced row echelon form II A` 0 1 0 a4 a5 a6
0 0 1 a7 a8 a9
4-Elementary row -operations
aaa
Given A= 11 12 13
(a2l an a23
Pure Mathematics for CAPE

a1 a12 a13
then kR2 — (ka2, '22 '23

kR 2 + R1 — 121 + all ka 22 + a12 23 + a13

t a21 a22 a23 , )
R2 -4 R1 ( a21 a22 a23
R1 —* R2 all a12 a13
Solving a system of linear equations by row reduction of an augumented matrix
The system of linear equations is first stated as an augumented matrix which is the row
reduced.
• Solving a 2 x 2 system of linear equations by row reduction of an augumented matrix
Given all x+a12y=b1
a21 x±a22 y=b2
Then the augumented matrix is:
all a12 b1
a 1 a22 b2

(1 a d1
1 d2
I
This augumented matrix can be transformed to the row echelon form:

Or the augumented matrix can be transformed to the reduced row echelon form:
(1 0 e
1 e2
+ Solving a 3 x 3 system of linear equations by row reduction of an augumented
matrix.
Given all x+a12y+a13z=b1
a21 x+a22 y+a23 z=b2
a31 x+a32 y+a33 z=b3
Then the augumented matrix is:
all a12 a13 b1
a21 a22 a23 b2
a31 a32 a33 b3
This augumented matrix can be transformed to the row echelon form:
1 a1 a2 d1
o 1 a3 d2
0 0 1 d3
 Matrices and systems of linear equations WLI1

Or the augumented matrix can be transformed to the reduced row echelon form:
1 0 0 e1
o 1 0 e2
o 0 1 d3
Consistency of a system of linear equations
+ Algebraically, a system of linear equations is consistent if they have a solution.
• Geometrically, a system of linear equations is consistent if all the lines or planes
representing the system intersect at a point or in a line or in a plane.
+ A system is consistent if it has a unique solution or an infinite number of solutions
It is inconsistent otherwise.
• Two linear equations in two unknowns
• A system with exactly one solution
Given a ll x + a12 y =
a21 x+a22 y=b2
The system has a unique solution if and only if
a2l a22

• Given AX=B
Then X-A -1 B.
The system has a unique solution if 1141 # Q•

(lO e 1
• Given i
1 e2
The system has a unique solution since it does not have a row of zeroes.
+A system withan infinite number ofsolutions,
a11 a12 b
• The system has an infinite number of solutions if — = = -.
a21 a2 .. b2
• The system has an infinite number of solutions or no solution if IA I - 0.-
ft
(1 a e
• Giveni
10 0 0
The system has an infinite number of solutions since it has a row of zeroes.
+ A system with no solution

• The system has no solution if

a21 a22 b2
(1 a e1
• Given .
tO 0 e 2
The system has no solution since a row in the coefficient matrix is zero and the
corresponding element in the second matrix is not zero.
till:! Pure Mathematics for CAPE

•. Three linear equations in three unknowns

• A system with exactly one solution
• Given AX=B
Then X=A -'B.
The system does not have a unique solution if A ( = 0. Further check necessary.
1 0 0 e1
'Given 0 10 e2
0 0 1 e3
The system has a unique solution smce it does not have a row of zeroes
4'- A system with an infinite number of solutions

• Given AX=B
Then X = AB.
The system does not have a unique solution if I A I = 0.
Further check necessary.
1 a b e1
o Given O 1 ce2
0000
The system has a infinite set of solutions since it has .,a row of zeroes
+ A system with no solution
1 a b e1
0 1 c
0 0 0 e3
The system has no solution since a row in the coefficient matrix is zero and the
corresponding element in the second matrix is not zero.
> Applications of matrices: real world problems
+ The area of a triangle with vertices A(x 1 , y1 ), B(x 2, y2) and C(x3 , y3) is
X1 Yi 1
A=x 2 y2 1.
X3 :v3 1
The value calculated may be positive or negative.
The area of a triangle must always be positive, so the magnitude is taken,
neglecting the sign if it is negative.
•• Three points A(x 1 , y 1 ), B(x 21 y2) and C(x 31 y3) are collinear if
X1 Yi1
X2 Y2 1-0.
X3 Y3 1
Differential equations

A differential equation is an equality that involves at least one derivative of an unknown

function of a single variable.
An ordinary differential equation is an equality involving a function and its ordinary
derivative(s), as opposed to partial derivative(s).

LY is the first derivative of y with respect to x.

dx

d is the second derivative of y with respect to x.

dx

and & Y indicates the order of the differential equation; first order and second order
dx dx2
respectively.

The order of a differential equation is the highest derivative in the

equation.

/ \ 2
1dy dy
is the square of-.
kdx dx
(&Y) 2
is the square of
dx2 dx2
(dy' 1
and I - I indicates the degree of the differential equation; first degree (linear).
(dx) dx4 )
(dy (d2 2
dx
and I -4)
dx)
indicates the degree of the differential equation; second degree (non4inear)

The degree of a differential equation is the power of the highest

derivative in the equation.
EM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Example
dy
(a) dx
- + y x = 5x; dependent variable y, independent variable x.

(b) &Y - x + y =0; dependent variable y, independent variable x.

dx2 dx
& Y+ xdy
(c) -- - - xy = cos y; dependent variable y, independent variable x.
dx dx

(a) which is the first derivative indicates that the order is 1.

dx

(b) which is the second derivative indicates the order is 2.

(c) which is the third derivative indicates the order is 3.

dx3
dy
In each differential equation the power of the highest derivative is 1. Each of the terms - ,
dx
and &Y is linear. Each of the three differential equations has a degree 1 and is linear.
d7 dx3
The general form of the first order linear ordinary differential equation is:
dy
+ P(x)y = Q(x).
dx
The general form of the second order linear ordinary differential equation is:
+ P(x) + Q(x)y = R(x).
dx2 dx

Separable differential equation

d
Consider a first order differential equation of the form = f(x)g(y) Differential equation.
dx
where f is a function of only x and g is a function of only y.
This differential equation is a separable differential equation.
The general solution of a separable differential equation is obtained by direct integration.
Separating the variables:

=f Separate variables.
g(y) dx
Integrating each side with respect to its variable:
= $f(x) dx. Integrate each side.

G(y) = F(x) + A General solution.

 Differential equations and modelling So
-Example 1
Solve the differential equation -
dx y
- Solution

Given dy = Differential equation.

dx y
This is a first order nonlinear ordinary differential equation.
Then y dy = 3x2 dx Separate variables.
So f dy = $3 x2dx Integrate each side.

i.e. = + A' Find antiderivatives.

2 3
Y2
3
x2:
2
y2 =2X 3 + AGeneral solution.
This is the general solution of the differential equation.
A is an arbitrary constant (constant of integration; unknown constant).
- The general solution of a differential equation contains an arbitrary constant.
- Example 2
Find the general solution of the differential equation
dy
1+y3
3secO d9 = y2

- Solution
Given 3secO Differential equation.
d8 y2
This is a first order nonlinear ordinary differential equation.
(l
+Y3
dy 1
Then
desece 3y2
(l+y3
J
dy ____
So - coso _____
3y2 )
dO
3y2
i.e. dy = cos 0 dO Separate variables.
1+ y3
3y 2
J 13 dY=Sc050d0 Integrate each side.

(1+y)

1+y 3
IM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

1n J 1+y 3 sine+A
Find antiderivatives.
1+Y3 = e°' Exponentiate each side.
=
= eA'.e sin 9
—1: =A.e°
= es inO General solution.
This is the general solution of the differential equation.
A particular solution of a differential equation can be found by evaluating the constant of
integration.
In order to evaluate a constant of integration the values of x and y must be known.
In an initial value problem, the initial condition which is the initial values of x and y are given.

r Example
L y(o) = 1 means y = 1 when x =0.
In a boundary value problem, the boundary conditions which is a set of boundary values of
x and y are given.
Example

[y()=3 means y=3when x=.

Separation of variables initial value problem

-Example 3`91

(a) Find the general solution of the differential equation dy = 8x y.

dx
(b) Hence, find the particular solution of the differential equation that satisfies the initial
condition y = e when x =0.
- Solution
(a) Given LY = 8x3 y
dx
Differential equation.

This is a first order linear ordinary differential equation.

1
Then -dy = 8x3 dx Separate variables.

So f dy =58x3 dx Integrate each side.

i.e. hi y = + A' Find antiderivatives.

In y = 2x4 + A' Exponentiate each side.

= y = Ae24 General solution.

This is the general solution of the differential equation.

 Differential equations and modelling

(b) Given y = e when x = 0

Since y = A e2x4
Then e=Ae2(0)4=Ae0=A(1)=A

So y=e.e2x4
y = e2x4+1 Particular solution.
This is the particular solution of the differential equation.
Example
(a) Find the general solution of the differential equation (1 + x2) - xy (1 - y) = 0
dx
(b) Hence, find the particular solution of the differential equation that satisfies the initial
condition y = when x =0.
- Solution
(a) Given (1 + x) - - xy (1 - y) = 0 Differential equation.
dx
This is a first order nonlinear ordinary differential equation.
Then (1+ x2)= xy (1_ y)
dx
dyxy(1-y)
So
dx 1-i-x2

(i:X )[
Y(l-y)l

i.e. 1 Separate variables.

dy = dx
y(l—y) 1+x2
X
$_1 dy = $_ dx Integrate each side.
y(l—y) 1+x2
1
We need to express y(1—y) in partial fractions in order to integrate it.

1 A B
Let
Y(' - y) y l-y
= A(1-y)+By
- y(l-y)
Thus 1A(1-y)+By
Let y=0: 1=A
Let y=1: 1=B
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

1 1 1
So =—+
Y(1— y) y l—y
d2
Thus dx
$ -yly
+-J
dy = -
2 f 1+x2
dx

So lny-ln(l-y)= 1 lri(1 +x2)+lnA Find antiderivative.

i.e. In( YJ=ln(1+x2)2+lnA.

= lnA(1+x 2 ) 2

In I_ = in AV ,—+7 Product rule.

( ' 1- y)

=> ' =A'J1+x Remove in.

1— y

x(1-y): y=(1_y)Ai1+x2
= AV1+ x 2 _A y V1+ x 2
y +Ay 1+ X2 = All +x2

y (i + A1 +7)) = A1 +7 Factorize out Y.

AJ1+ x 2
y = 1+Aj1+ x2 General solution.

This is the general solution of the differential equation.

(b) Given y = when x =0.

Since y=(1_y)A.J1+x2

Then .=(1_.JAJ1+02

=.A(1)

:.
J1 + 2 .
y= Particular solution.
1+j1+ x2
This is the particular solution of the differential equation.
 Differential equations and modelling KO
Exercise 10

1. Obtain the general solution of each of the following differential equations.

2x =0
(a) dy (b)
dx x2y+8y dx x 2y
2. Find the general solution of the following differential equations.
ds 7t 2 -4
(a) -= (b) -=
dt 5s ds F7t
dt
3. Determine the general solution of each differential equation.

(a) dy _3exy2 =0
dY
(b) y3_6x2ex3+1 =0

4. Obtain the general solution of the differential equations.

- dy -X2
(a) (b) -y
dxx2 -9 dx x2 -4
5. Find the general solution of each differential equation.
dr dr
(a) r— = 5sec0tanO (b) - = 8rOsin8cosO

6. Solve the differential equation x-- = (1— 3x 2 )y given that it satisfies the boundary
condition y = 1 when x = 1. dx

7. Solve the differential equation 8x - xy = y given that it satisfies the boundary condition
y=lwhenx=1. dx

dy
8. Solve the differential equation 6X2 = 1—Y 2 given that it satisfies the boundary condition
1 dx
Y = - when x = 1.

9. Solve the differential equation dy - 2y tan x =0 given that ti satisfies

satisfies the initial condition
y=l when x=0. dx

10. Solve the differential equation 2 = (1 + y)tan x given that it satisfies the initial
condition y = 1 when = 0. sec x dx

Exact differential equation

Consider the differential equation x LY + y = 2ex where y is a function of x = y(x).
dx
This differential equation is a first-order linear ordinary differential equation.
d dv du
We know that —(uv)=u —+v ---
dx dx dx
IM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

d dy d
So —(xy)=x—+y—(x)
dx dx dx
dy
=x +y(l)
dx
dy
= x—+y

Thus (xy) = 2e x
dx
So (xy)dx=52exdx
5 dx
i.e. xy =2ex+A
2ex + A
.

y=
This is the general solution of the differential equation.
Here, the LHS of the differential equation is the exact derivative of a product.
A differential equation of this type is called an exact differential equation.
Example 5O
Find the general solution of the differential equation x 3 cos y L
Y + 3x2 sin y = -
Solution
Given x 3 COSY + 3x2 siny= _

Then

So 5-_(xsiny)dx=Sdx
i.e. x3 siny=lnxl+A
lnx+A
slny=
l x I +A
y=sln 1(ln

Exact differential equation boundary value problem

Example 6
(a) Find the general solution of the differential equation
e cosy—e . dy
slnyä=slnx.
 Differential equations and modelling

(b) Hence find the solution of the differential equation given that y = when x =
Solution

(a) Given ex Cos y_exsiny dy

ä=slnx
d
Then
a- (ex cos y) = sin X

So $4-(e Cos Y) dx = J sin x dx

x

i.e. & Cos y= Cos x+A

-cosx+A
i.e. cosy= -x

1 (-cosx+A
Y=COS
. ex
(b) Given the boundary condition:
y=-
it when x = 1-,
4 2
Since ex Cos y=_ Cos x +A
it 1
Then e 2 Cos -=-cos -+A
4 2
i
So e2 i—i=-cos--i-A
2) 2

i.e. A=—+ Cos -

2 2
1
- cos x + + cos -
y=cos1 2
ex

= cos 1 16 -X(_2cosx+J+2cos)].
This is a particular solution of the differential equation.
FM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Exercise lOb

Find the general solution of the following differential equations.

dy
1. (a) x+y= 3e x (b) cosx --ysrnx=5x 2 .

dx dx

2. (a) e x y+e x = 8 (b) xe-+e=2e'

dx dx

3. (a) In x += (b) (1 + x) +y = —2x 3

dx x x dx

4. (a) xsec 2 y+ tan y=4 tan x (b) exeY+exey = 3e2 x

dx dx

5. (a) -+lny=8(x+1) (b) -.---=4 sin x

ydx xdx x
6. (a) Find the general solution of the differential equation
2x + = 3e2 c .
dx
(b) Hence, find the solution of the differential equation given that
y = 1 when x = 1- .
2
7. (a) Find the general solution of the differential equation
3 sin x dy + 3y cos x = 3x2 .
dx
(b) Hence, find the solution of the differential equation given that
1 it
Y= - when x = -.
3 2
8. (a) Find the general solution of the differential equation
dy 1
e —+ye =-.
dx x
(b) Hence, find the solution of the differential equation given that
y = 1 when x =4.

9. (a) Find the general solution of the differential equation

2x sec 2 y - + 2 tan y = sin x.
dx
(b) Hence, find the solution of the differential equation given that
y = when x = it.
 - Differential equations and modelling EM
10. (a) Find the general solution of the differential equation
H 1dy
3x 2
—+6x]ny=5x.
2(y) dx
(b) Hence, find the solution of the differential equation given that
y = 8 when x = 1.

First order linear ordinary differential equation

A first order linear ordinary differential equation is of the form:
dy
P(x)y = Q(x),
dx +
where P and Q are continuous functions of x.
The differential equation above is stated in standard form since it is in the form:
dy
-ky=f(x).
dx
where k and are functions of x only or constants.
The exponential growth/decay equation
dy =
ky
dx
when stated in standard form is:
dy
-ky=O
dx
This is a linear equation with
P(x) = -k and Q(x) = 0
Consider the differential equation
x_=x2+5y, x>0
dx
dy 5
—=x+
-y
dx x
In standard form the differential equation is:
dy 5
---y=x
dx x
5
where P(x) = - - and Q(x) = x.
X
EM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Solving a first order linear differential equation.

Method 1
Consider the differential equation in standard form:
dy
+ P(x)y = Q(x)
dx
Multiply the differential equation by 1(x):
I(x)L+P(x) I(x)y =1(x) Q(x)
dx
1(x) is chosen to make the LHS the derivative of a product, since it is not exact.
That is I+PIy=-(Iy)

Thus -[I(x) y]= 1(x) Q(x)

dx

So f dx_[I(x) y]dx = J 1(x) Q(x) dx

i.e. 1(x) y = $ 1(x) Q(x) dx
t
i 1(x) Q(x) dx
Y =--5j
1(x) is called an integrating factor for the differential equation because it makes the equation
integrable.
The last equation holds if:
dl
PI
dx
Separating the variables:
dl
- = P dx, I> 0
dl
Then $=$Pdx /
So lnI=$Pdx,sinceI>0,1n III =lnI.
•
i.e. eml=e JPdx
I =e I)th

To solve the first order linear differential equation LY + P(x) y = Q(x), first multiply the standard
dx
form of the equation by the integrating factor 1(x) = e1 ' and then integrate both sides.
In this procedure, the left-hand side is the product I(x)y, the product of the integrating
factor and the solution function y.
 Differential equations and modelling

Method
Consider a first order linear ordinary differential equation of the form
±+P(x)y=Q(x).
dx
The standard form of the differential equation is:
i +Py= Q
dx
where P and Q are functions of x only or constants.
The LHS is not the derivative of a product, that is, it is not exact.
We can make the LHS exact by multiplying the equation throughout by which is a function
of only.
dy
Thus I + y (P1) = QI
dx
We know that
dv du d
u—+v—=--(uv)
dx dx dx
where u and v are functions of x.
Comparing the two equations:
dv dy
U= I and - =
dx dx
du
v=yand —=PI
dx
dy
So Iä_+y(PI)=QI
is the derivative of a product.
Thus, it must be in the form:
dy dl
I - + y - = QI
dx dx
dl
—=PI
dx
This is a first order linear differential equation with separable variables
So dI
5-fPdx

i.e. lnI=fpdx
fPdx

factor for the expression - + Py.

is the integrating factor
dx
And LY + Py = Q is the standard form of the differential equation.
dx
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Multiply the standard form of the differential 5 dY

equation by I: Then
dx )
I+y(IP)= IQ
dx So dx = 2f ex dx
dx
5 [[ JY+y(JP)ldx=JJQdx
dx j
i.e. x5y = 2ex+A
2e'+A
f dx-(Iy)dx=JIQdx y-
x
- Example 8
Iy=flQdx.
Find the general solution of the differential
where I = e fpdx is the integrating factor. equation
Since I and Q are functions of x only, then dy
f Q dx can normally be found. cos x - + y sin x = 3x 2 cos2 X.
dx
Example 7 I
- Solution
Find the general solution of the differential
equation Given cosx dy —+y sin x=3x2 cos2 x.
dy 2e x dx
x—+5v = Not an exact equation.
dx ' x4
dy sin 2
Cos X: —+ y=3x cosx
- Solution dx cosx
dy 2e x sin x
Given = P=
xä+Sy____ cosx
Not an exact equation. The equation is now in standard form.
dy 5 2e x 5 And fPdx=f sin xdx
—+—y=-- =P=— cos x
dx x x5 X
d
The equation is now in standard form. - ---(cosx)
dx dx
The integrating factor is I = e5 " cosx
5dx = -lnj cosx
=e
5Sf! =lnt cosx
=e
So the integrating factor I =
51nx
=ee"5
Inx5 =e
1n cosx I_i
1
=
Multiply the standard form of the equation cos x
byx5 : Multiply the standard form of the equation
x5 +5x4y = 2ex dx by 1
dx cos x
Exact equation
 Differential equations and modelling Ea
1 dy sin x So the integrating factor 1= e 1
()- 3x 2
COSX
Exact equation = e 1nsinxI1

1 sin x 1
Then
cosx dx cos 2 x
(v) ]dx=J3x2dx sin x
1 3x3 Multiply the standard form of the
So (y ) - ---+A 1
cosx - 3
'

equation by
sin x
i.e. =x3 +A 1 dy cos x
cosx
y=(x 3 +A)cosx sin xdx sin2x5
Exact equation.
1 dy cos x
Then dx =55 dx
First order linear differential sin - 2
equation boundary value problem
So 1 (y)=5x+A
Example 9 sin x
(a) Find the general solution of the y=(5x+A) sin x
differential equation
dy (b) Given the boundary conditions:
sin x--y cos x=5sin 2 X.
dx y=2when x=.
(b) Hence, find the particular solution of the 6
differential equation that satisfies the Since y=(5x+A) sin x
boundary condition y = 2 when x = Then 2=[5('K )+A]sln-7C
61 6
- Solution
So 2 = ( 57C +A)X
(a) Given sin x LY - y cos x =5 sin x
dx
Not an exact equation.
dy cosx 5
sin x: -- y=
dx sin sin A=4----
6
cosx ( 5it '.
=> P= - y=(5x__+4 ,Jsmx
sin x
The equation is now in standard form.
JPdx=J_sxdX = y=(3Ox-5it+24) sin x
And
sin x
d Example 10'&3
— (sin x)
dx (a) Find the general solution of the
sin x differential equation
= - lnlsinxl dy
5x - - y = ln x + 2, x >0.
= ln lsinx r1 dx
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

(b) Hence, find the particular solution of the differential equation that
satisfies the boundary condition y = 8 when x = 32.
- Solution
(a) Given 5x -y=lnx+2,x>0.
dx
Then write the equation in standard form; divide by 5x:
dy 1 lnx+2
— -
dx 5x—y= 5x 5x
JPdx
The integrating factor is I = e
r1
dx
= e J5x
Jfdx
5 X

=e

= e Inx 5 , x >0

=x 5
Thus x 5 y=fx )dx

=f (in x+ 2) dx
The RHS is then integrated by parts.
Since fvdu=uv-fudv
Let v = in (x +2) and du = x 5 dx
1 _L
Then dv=-dx and u=-x
x -6
So
$ x 5 (in x +2) dx = -x 5 in(x +2) - $ -x 5 dx

= -X I(Inx+2)+ x I dx
f
= -X 5 (in x +2) - 5x 5

=-x[inx+2+5]
= -X 5(lnx+7)
 Differential equations and modelling

1 1 =0+A
Thus x 5 y=-x 5 (lnx+7)+A
O+A
So y=-(lnx+7)+Ax5 cosx
= y=(O+A) sec O
y=Af-lnx-7
(b) Given the boundary conditions: -Example 12IJ
y = 8 when x =32 Show that the general solution of the
Since y=A/-1nx-7 differentiation equation
Then 8=A/'-1n32-7 dy
(x + 1) y = 7(x +1)
So 15+1n32=A(2) a- -
is y=A(x+1)+7(x+1)ln Ix+1I.
A- 1532
2
- Solution
15+1n32 5 r-
= '= 'jx-1nx-7 Given the differential equation
2
(x +1) dy- - y = 7(x +1)
- Example 11 i dx
Show that the general solution of the dy 1
-- y=7=P=----
differential equation dx x+1 x+1
dy P di
- y tan e = sec e The integrating factor is I = e $
dO
is y=(O+A) sec O. =e x+1

- Solution -JLdx
= e x+1
Given the differential equation in standard
= e_ nh I
form:
dy =e hI
y tan 0= sec 0 = P = -tan 0
dx - JPd9 In
x+1
The integrating factor is I = e
1
=e f
_tarkede

x+1
1- de
=e cose

d
-(cosO)
Thus
dx x+1 (X+J
=e COSO

So ---=7J----dx
= e IncosOI x+1 x+1
= cos e i.e. --=7lriIx+1+A
x+1
Thus (cos O)y = cos 0 sec 0 d
f y=(x+1)[71nlx+1I-i-A]
1
So y cose=coseI_ dO = y=A(x+1)+7(x+1)1nx+1I
' cos 0)
i.e. ycos0=$ldO
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Exercise lOc

1. Find the general solution of the differential equations.

(a) xLy = 4x2 +3y (b) ex dy =3 2e x y
dx dx
2. Solve the differential equations.
(a) x.Z+2y=3-- (b) (1+x)-+y3J
dx x dy
3. Determine the general solution of each differential equation.
(a) e2x +2e 2xy = 4x (b) 3x -3= xln x
dx dx
4. Obtain the general solution of the differential equations.
di, x
(a) x--=cosx-y (b) 8--=e 2 +y
dx dx
5. Solve each differential equations.
dy sin dy
(a) x + = x2 (b) - + (tan x) y = sin x
dx
6. Show that the general solution of the differential equation
dy
- - v tan t =1
dt
is y = tan t + A sec t.
7. Show that the general solution of the differential equation
dx
+-= 3t-1
dt (1)X

isx=t --t+-A.
2 t
8. Show that the general solution of the differential equation
dr(2"
--I - ) r =40+1
d8 8)
isr=O(4OlnjOl+AO- 1)
9. Show that the general solution of the differential equation
sin Or+ (cos O)r = 2 tan O
dO
isr=cosecO(A-21n IcosOl).
10. Show that the general solution of the differential equation
tan Oi +r= 2 cos2 O
dO
1
is r = 5-+ -cos 2O+Acosec 0
33
 Differential equations and modelling

11. Solve the differential equation

t _ +4s= t3
44s
dt
given that it satisfies the boundary condition s = 1 when t = 2.
12. Solve the differential equation
dr
O—+r=2 sin O
dO
given that it satisfies the boundary condition r = 2 when 0 = it
13. Solve the differential equation
dr
0--2r=O sin 0
dO
given that it satisfies the boundary condition r =2 when 0=
14. Solve the differential equation
(t–l)+2s = 3(t-1)
dt
given that it satisfies the boundary condition s = 5 when t =2.
15. Solve the differential equation
dy
tant--+ysec 2t=sect
dt
given that it satisfies the boundary condition y = 1 when t =

Applications of first order differential equations

Differential equations have many practical applications. Many processes in engineering, science,
technology and economics are modelled using differential equations.
Seperable differential equations
Example 13 'CA
At a factory it was discovered that a worker can produce at most 50 computers per day. The
number of computers produced per day, N, will increase at a rate that is proportional to
the difference between 50 and N. If t is the time in days, then the rate of manufacture of the
computers is defined by a differential equation.
(a) Derive a differential equation to model the rate at which the computers are produced
by a worker.
(b) Find the general solution of the differential equation.
(c) Given that N = 0 when t = 0 and N =40 when t = 1, find the particular solution of the
differential equation.
Solution
diV
(a) The rate of manufacture of the computers is
dt
EM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

And oc(50—N)
dt
dN
1=k(50N) Differential equation.
dt
where k is the proportion constant.
dN
(b) Since = k(50 - N) Differential equation.
dt
dN
Then =kdt Separate variables.
50— N
So Integrate each side.
$ _dN
50— N
=$kdt

----(50—N)
i.e. dN dN=$kdt 50— N> 0
$ 50— N
—ln(50 — N) = kt + A' Find antiderivates.
ln(50—N)=—kt—A'
= 50 - N = Exponentiate each side.
=> N =50— et-A'
NSO _A e t General solution.
(c) Given that N =0 when t =0.
Since N = 50 - A e_ct
Then 0 = 50 - Ae_"0
= 50 - Ae°
=50—A(l)
So 0=50—A
i.e. A=50
N=50_50e_kt
Given that N =40 when t = 1.
Since N =50 - 50e_t
Then 40 = 50 - 50e'
=50 - 50e_k
So 50e_k = 50 —40
i.e. 50e_k = 10
e -k = 1
5
11
= e 5
=' ek = 5
= k=1n5
N=50_50e _thl15
N = 50 (1 - e_t In 5) Particular solution
 Differential equations and modelling

- Example 14
The rate of growth of the volume, V,of a spherical cell is proportional to its surface area, S.
which is given by the formula S = V 3
(a) Derive a differential equation to model the cell growth.
(b) Find the general solution of the differential equation.
(c) Given that v=I when t = 0 and V = 1 when t = 1, find the particular solution of the
27
differential equation.
-Solution
dV
(a) The rate of growth of the spherical cell is
dt
And YOCS
dt
dV
So
dt
dV
= kV Differential equation.
dt
where k is a constant of proportion.

(b) Since = kV 3 Differential equation.

dt
dV
Then —i- = k dt Separate variables.
V3

So = fk dt Integrate each side.

i.e. 5vdv=$kd

V3
= kt + A Find antiderivative.
--

3V 3 =kt+A
kt+A
V3 = Cube each side.
3
/
kt+A
= V =I I General solution.
k3 )
 I Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Alternative Method
(c) Given that V = --- when t = 0
27
(c) Since = fic.t
kt+A 3 1 V3 0
Since V=
J 27

3
5 V - dV = [kt1
)
1 (kx0+A 3
Then
Then
27 3 27

1 1

V3
=w So
1 =k(1)—k(0)
1 A3 31:
So 27
27 27
i.e. A3 =1 1 i
A=1 ie 3 13 _(_) =k-0
[

Given that V = 1 when t = 1.

Then V=
J 3[1—W] =
1=(k x1+1 3 3I1-"1=k
So 3)
)
=(k +1)3 2)
i.e. 1 3( .. =
3
2=k
k+1 k=2
1= Take cube root of each side.
3
=> 3=k+1
k=3-1
=> k=2
(2t+1 3
V =i I Particular solution.
3)

Example 15 'al
At point P (x, y) on a curve the gradient is _. The graph passes through the point (1, 1).
Find the particular equation of the curve.
Solution
dy - -3x
(a) Given - - Differential equation.
dx 2y
Then 2ydy=-3xdx Separate variables.

So J2ydy=5_3xdx Integrate each side.

 Differential equations and modelling EM
2y2 = —3x2
i.e. Find antiderivatives.
2 2

2__3 X +A
Y
=> 2y2 =-3x2 +A
=> 3x2 +2y2 =A
= 3(1) + 2(1)2 = A (1,1) x = 1, y = 1.
3+2=A
=> 5=A
3x2 + 2y2 = 5 Particular solution.
Hence, the particular equation of the curve is 3x 2 + 2y 2 = 5.

First order linear differential equations

F c

A simple electrical circuit consists of an electric current I amperes, a resistance R ohms, an

inductance L henry and a constant electromotive force E volts as shown in the diagram above.
If the switch S is closed when t = 0, then the current I satisfies the differential equation
I

L 41 +RI=E.
dt
This differential equation represents Kirchoff's second law which is based on the law of
conservation of energy.
Example 16
(a) Find the current I as a function of t (in seconds), given that I satisfies the differential
equation
L + RI = sin t
dt
where R=4 ohms when L=2henry.
(b) Find the particular solution of the differential equation given-the initial condition I = 0
when t=0.
(c) Hence, find the current I when t = seconds. Leave your answer in terms of e.
EM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

- Solution
(a) Given L'+RI=sirLt,R=4andL=2.
dt
Then 2—+41= sin t
dt
So —+2I=-sint=P=2
dt 2
the integrating factor I = f Pdt = eS2ct = e 2
Thus e2tI = Je2t (sin t dt

= _Se2t sin tdt

2
2 sin t dt is found using integration by parts. Alternative Method
$e
2t 21
$ e sin t dt = f du = uv — $ u dv
$ (e sin t) dt
Let v= sin tand du=e2tdt — Im Je(2 +i)tdt

Then dv= COS tdtand u=e2t =1

2+i
2 e(2t 2-i
So J e 2t sin t dt = e sin t — $e t cost dt =1
2+1 2-i
=-e 2tS.int ­1 e2tcostdt
2 2 =1
$ e 2t cost dt is found using integration by parts. = ._e2tI in (2eit - i e)
$ e cost dt = $ v du = uv — f u dv
2 5
Let v= COS tand du = e2tdt = - e tI [2 cost + 2i sin t — i(cos t + i sin t)]
Then dv= -sintdt and u=e2t
2 = e 21 IM (2 cost + 2i sin t — i cost + sin t)
2 2
So $ e 2t cost dt = -2 e cost -$ -2 e (—sin t dt) 1
= — e2t (2 sin t — cost)
=-e 2tcost+- e sin 2t tdt

Thus $ezt sint dt = e2t sint — e2t cost+ fe2t sin dt)

= e 2 sin t — e2 t cost — $ e2 t sin t dt

e e 2 cost
So $ 2t sin t dt + - $ e sin t dt - e sin t —
2 2
 Differential equations and modelling FM

i.e. J e sin t dt = e 2 sin t - cost

2
-$ e t sin t dt = ( l e 2t sin t - - e cost)

=–e2t srnt---e
sin cost
5 10
Hence e 2t I = - e2t sin t - - e 2tcost + A
5 10
1 1 A
I=–sint--cost+—
5 10 e2
Here, the current I is expressed as a function of t.
This is the general solution of the differential equation.
(b) Given the initial condition I = 0 when t =0.
1 1 A
Since I=–sint--cost+--
5 10 e2
1 1 A
Then 0=–sin0------cos0+---
5 10
=-(0)---(1)+
5 10 1
So 0=---1--+A
10
1
i.e. A=-
10
1
1 10
s in
I=–sint--cost+--
5 10 e2
___
= - sin t - -1cost +
5 10 lOe2t
I=—(2smt— cost +e -2t )

Hence, the particular solution is I = (2 sin t -cost + e 2t) .

(c) Since I = —(2 sm t - cost + e ) and t = -

2
1 IC 7C
Then I=[2sin_cos+e2(2))

=—(2x1-0+e )
10
EM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

So I=---(2+e)
10
= 0.204 (correct to 3 s.f.)

Hence, the current is I = —(2 + e) amperes = 0.204 amperes.

10

ExerciselOd

1. At a factory it was determined that a worker can produce at most 80 computer tablets per
day. The number of computer tablets produced per day, N, will increase at a rate that is
proportional to the difference between 80 and N. If t is the time in days, then the rate of
manufacture of the computer tablets is defined by a differential equation.
(a) Derive a differential equation to model the rate at which the computers are produced
by a worker.
(b) Find the general solution of the differential equation.
(c) Given that N = 0 when t = 0 and N = 60 when t = 1, find the particular solution of the
differential equation

2. The rate of growth of the volume, V, of a spherical soap bubble is proportional to its
surface area, S, which is given by the formula
4
S=V 5
(a) Derive a differential equation to model the bubble growth.
(b) Find the general solution of the differential equation.
(c) Given that V = 32 when t = 0 and V = 243 when t = 5, find the particular solution of the
differential equation.

4x
3. At a point P (x,y) on a curve the gradient is .The graph passes through the point (-1, —1).

Find the particular equation of the curve.

4. (a) Find the current I as a function t (in seconds), given that I satisfies the differential
equation
dI
L - + RI = cost
dt
where R =15 ohms when L =5 henry.
(b) Find the particular solution of the differential equation given the initial condition I = 0
when t=0.
(c) Hence, find the current I when t = seconds. Leave your answer in terms of e.
 Differential equations and modelling

5. (a) Find the current I as a function of t (in seconds), given that I satisfies the differential
equation

dt
where R =50 ohms when L = 10 henry and a = 70.
(b) Find the particular solution of the differential equation given the initial condition
1=0 when t =0.
(c) Hence, find the current I when t = 5 seconds.

Second order linear ordinary differential equation

A second order linear ordinary differential equation with constant coefficients is of the form
d2 i dy
a#0
where a, b, c E R andf is a continuous function.
This equation is also called a second order non-homogeneous linear differential equation
with constant coefficients.
If f(x) = 0, then we get the equation
d2 ii di,
dx2 dx
This equation is called a second order homogeneous linear differential equation.
This equation is also known as the complementary equation (associated equation) of the
non-homogeneous equation.
The general solution of the non-homogeneous differential equation is
Y=y+y
where yc, the complementary function, is the general solution of the homogeneous equation,
and y, the particular integral, is a particular solution of the non-homogeneous equation.
4= Homogeneous linear equations
Consider the second order homogeneous linear differential equation with constant coefficients
d2 y dy
a— +b—+cy=0, a#0.
dx2 di
What is the solution to this differential equation?
From experience, it is known that the exponential function y = el is a solution to the differential
equation.
If y=e'
dy= reTx
then
dx

And erx
dx
Thus ar2e1 + bre rx + ceT = 0
So (ar2 + br + c) eTx = 0
FM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Since e rx
Then ar2 +br+c=0
Hence y = erx is a solution to the differential equation if
ar2 + hr + c = 0.
The equation dr2 + hr + c = 0 is called the auxiliary equation (characteristic equation) of the
homogeneous equation
&Yd 0.
dx2 dx

The general solution of the homogeneous equation a &Y + b

dX2 dx
LY
+ cy =0 is called the
complementary function, y.

d2y dy
Notice that a --+b—+cy = 0
dX2 dx
ar2 +br+c=0
2
is replaced by r, - is replaced by r and y is replaced by 1.
ax dx
Since ar2 + hr + c = 0 is a quadratic equation in r, then it can be solved using the standard
methods, are: factorization, quadratic formula or completing the square.
Using the quadratic formula, the roots of the auxiliary equation are
–b - Jb2 - 4ac –b + J2 - 4ac
and =
2a 2a
These cases are possible due to the sign/value of the discriminant b2 - 4ac.
Case 1: Two real and distinct roots; b2 - 4ac> 0

Consider the differential equation a &Ydy + b - + cy = 0.

dx2 dx
Let y = Aenlx + Be2c , enlx # 0 and e 2 x # 0.
dy = Aren1+Brer2x
_
Then 1 2
dx

And = Aie + Brer2x

dx
Thus a (Ari2e + BreT2) + b(Aiie' + Br2er2x) + c(Aenlx + BeT2) = 0
So a (Arj2e + bAr1e' + cA e ) + (aBrer2x + bBr2er2) + cBeT2) = 0

i.e. (au 2 + bu + c)Aen1' + (ar + hr2 + c)BeT2' = 0

0.Ae + O.Be 2 x= 0
Since au2 +bu+c=0 and ar+br2 +c0
y =Aenlx+Ber2x.
 Differential equations and modelling IM

If the discriminant b2 - 4ac > 0, then the roots of the auxiliary equation ar2 + br + c = 0, r1
and r2, are two real and unequal roots and the general solution of the homogenous equation
a &Y + b + cy =0 is y = Aenlx + Be.
dx2 dx

- Example 17 - Solution
Find the general solution of the differential Given the homogeneous differential equation:
equation
3 &Y + 4 - y =0.
dx' dx
2 d2y + 5 dy - = o. Then the characteristic equation is:
3r2 + 4r - 1 = 0
- Solution where a=3,b=4 and c=-1.
Given the homogeneous differential Use the quadratic equation:
equation: -b ± yb2 - 4ac
X=—
2 d2y +5 dy - =0. za
dx2 dx Then - _ 4±J42 —4(3)(--1)
Then the auxiliary equation is:
2(3)
2r2 + 5r - 3 = 0
Factorizing: (2r - 1) (r + 3) = 0 - -4±J16+12
Either 2r-1=0orr+3=0 6
or r=-3 -4±/
2 6
1 - -4±2fi
Let r =-and r2 =-3
' 2 6
Since the roots are real and distinct, then the
- 2(-2±fi)
general solution is:
6
Ae2X + Be -3 x.
y= -2±fi
3
-Example 18l -2-
-2+
Let r,= and r2 =
Obtain the general solution of the
differential equation Since the roots are real and unequal, then
the general solution is:
3 &Y +4 - y =0.
dx2 dx y = Ae3 X+ Be 3X

'(.fi_2)x _(.+)x
y=Ae 3 +Be'

If the auxiliary equation ar2 + br + c = 0 has two real distinct roots r i and r2 then the
,

general solution of the differential equation a + b dy + cy =0 is y = Ae + Ber2x,

r2= _b_jb2_4ac
where r,1 = and
2a 2a
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

CD Case 2: Two real and equal roots; b2 - 4ac =0

Consider the differential equation
d2 y b dy
a— o
dx2 dx
Let y = A e 'x + B xe c, erc ~ 0.

Then LY = Are' + Brxerx + Be' If b - 4ac = 0

dx b
then r=----
2a
And = Ar 2e ± Br2xeTx + Bre + Bre)
dx So 2ar + b = 0
= Ar2eT)c + Br2xer) + 2Bre
Thus a(Ar2e1 ± Br2xe + 2Bre) + b(Are + BrxeTx + B e c) + c (A eTX + Bxerx) = 0
So (aAr2eTx + bAre + cA erx) + (aBr2xerx + bB rxer + cBxeTx) = 0
i.e. (ar2 + hr + c) Ae + (ar2 + br + c) BxeTx = 0
(ar2 + hr + C) (A erx + Bxerx) = 0
=> ar2 +br+c=0
Y = Ae + Bxe. rx

= y = (A + B x)erx.
If the discriminant b2 4ac= 0, then the roots of the auxiliary equation aT 2 + br + c = 0,
-

r, are two real and equal (repeated) roots and the general solution of the homogeneous
equation a+b+cy=0is y = A erx +B xe rx = (A +B x )erx .
dx2 dx

In reality, the auxiliary equation ar2 + hr + c = 0 has only one real root r.
-Example 19
Find the general solution of the differential equation
–-6+9y=0.
dx2 dx
Solution
Given the homogeneous differential equation:
–6 + 9 Y =0.
--

dx2 dx
Then the auxiliary equation is:
r2 6r + 9 = 0
-

Factorizing: (r 3)2 = 0
-

So r-3=0
r=3
Since the roots are real and equal, then the general solution is
y = A e3' + Bx e3
y = (A + Bx)e3x.
 Differential equations and modelling

-Example 19 ' ZA
= —(-2J) ± - 4(1)2
Obtain the general solution of the Then r
2(1)
differential equation
- 2..J±j4(2)-8
= 0. 2
dx dx
- 2i ± J8 —8
- Solution
2
Given the homogeneous differential
- 2i±Vö
equation:
2
= 0. 2J
dx dx
Then the characteristic equation is: 2
r2 2hr + 2 = 0
-
=
Since the roots are real and repeated, then
where a = 1, b = —2h and c = 2.
the general solution is:
Use the quadratic equation: r
y = Ae 2 x +Bxe
—b + jb2 4ac -

x=
2a y = (A + Bx)e.

If the auxiliary equation ar2 + br + c = 0 has only one real root r, then the general solution
of the differential equation a + b 2Y + cy = 0 is y = Aerx + Bxerx = (A + Bx)e,
b dX2 dx
where r = -

2a

CD Case 3: Two complex roots; b2 - 4ac < 0

Consider the differential equation
d2ij dii
a -- +b + cy =0.
--

dx2 dx
Let y = Ae(x +Be(_x, ~ 0 and e'' #0

Then = A(a+i)e 1 +B(a_ 1 3)e _ 1

dx
And = A(a+i3)2 e' +B(a—i) 2 e
dx
+ i)X]
Thus a [A(a + i)2 e + B(u i13)2 e('
-
- i)x]
+ b [A(a + if3)e + B(cz -
iI3)e
-

+ c[Ae1 - 'P)x = 0

So 1aA ((X +i)2 + bA ((x +i)e + cAe]

+[aB(a_i)2 +bB(a_i)e(a-i)x +cBe x] =
0
EM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

[a (cc +if3)2 +b (cc +i3)+c]Ae

i.e.
+[a (cc _i)2 +b((x_i)+c]Be(a- i)x = o

Since a (cc +iI3)2 +b(a+i1)+c=O

and a(a–i13)2 +b(a–i13)+c=0
=> y = Ae +Be
+ i)x
If y =Ae (a + Be (a - i)x
then y = e (Ae + Be)
=e [A (cos 13x + i sin 3x) + B (cos 13x - i sin
=e [A cos 13x + B cos 13x + i (A sin 13x - B sin x)]
= e[(A+B)cospx+i(A–B)sinf3x]
So y=e(P cos 3x+Q sin J3x)
where P = A + B and Q = i (A – B).
Hence y = Ae' +Be"'
=e (P cos I3x+Q sin 3x)
If the discriminant b2 - 4ac < 0, then the roots of the auxiliary equation ar2 + br + c = 0,
r1 and r2, are two complex roots and the general solution of the homogeneous equation
d2y dy
= 0 is y =Ae' +Be
dx2 dx
= -b
i.e. y = e (P cos Px + Q sin x) where r1 = a + iP, r2 = - iP,u, =- ,
2a 2a
P=A+BandQ=i(A–B).

NOTE: i2 =-1 =i=sJii.

Example 20 Then the auxiliary equation is:

Find the general solution of the differential r2 - 2r + 5 = 0
equation where a = 1, b = –2 and c = 5.
Use the quadratic equation:
dy
–2 + =0. –b ± yb2 - 4ac
dx2 dx X =—
2a
Solution
–(-2) ± (_2) 2 - 4(1)5
-.
Given the homogenous equation: Then r =
2(1)
–2 +5y =0. - 2 ± V4 –20
dx2 dx
2
 Differential equations and modelling

- Solution
2±
2 Given the homogeneous equation:
2± + 5y =0
2
2±4i Then the characteristic equation is:
+ 5 = 0.
2
So r2 =-5
=1±2i
i.e. r2 = 5i2
Itisinthe form r=a±i=x=1and2 r ±V57
Sor1 =1+2i and r2 =1-2i. = r=±i-Ig
Since the roots are complex, then the general
Itisinthe form r=±ia=0 and f3=J,
solution is
Y =Ae1 + 2i)x + Be1 - 2i)x So r1 = i'Jg and r2
or Since the roots are complex, purely
imaginary in this example, then the general
y = ex (P cos 2x + Q sin2x) solution is
Y = Ae' + Be'
Example 21 I
or
Obtain the general solution of the
2 Y = P cos ../x+Q cos Jx.
differential equation d y +5y =0.

If the auxiliary equation ar2 + br + c = 0 has two complex roots r and r2 which are
d2y dy
conjugates, then the general solution of the differential equation a -- + b + cy =0 is
a-
y= + Be'
or
y=e(Pcosx+Qsinf3x)

—b + i4ac - b2 = Tb i4ac - b2
where r = an d
2a 2a
If the auxiliary equation is of the form aT 2 + c = 0, then the roots r1 and r2 are purely
imaginary and the general solution of the differential equation
d2 y
aä_+cy=O 1s
PX
y = Ae + Be-'
or
y=P cos 3x+Q sin 13x.
as Pure Mathematics for CAPE
Exercise lOe
1. Find the general solution of each differential equation.
(a) (b) -4+4+1Oy=O
dx2 dx dx dx
- d2 1, di ,
(c) -3 -4y=O (d) -4+4--- -12y=O
dx2 dx dx dx
2. Obtain the general solution of each differential equation.
(a) 64+7+2y=O (b) 154-11+2y=O
dx

(c) 8j4-2-3y=O (d) 2O4-13+2y=O

dx
3. Solve each of the following equations.
(a) 34+6-y=O (b) 4-4+5-2y=O
dx
(c) 34-8+2y=O (d) 54-6--3y=O
dx
4. Find the general solution of the following differential equations.
d2ii dii d2y
(a) ---2---+v=O (b) ---4— dy+4y=O
dx2 dx ' dX 2 dx

(c) 4-1O+25y=O (d) 4-16+64=O

dx
5. Obtain the general solution of each of the following differential equations.
(a) 4 4 -4 +y=O (b) 94-12-+4y=O
dx
(c) 164-8+y=O (d) 254-3O+9y=O
dx
6. Solve each of the following equations.
(a) 3-2sJ+Y=O (b) 2ç-2J.+3y=O
dx
(c) 3-4-2i+y=O (d) 54-4J+4y=O
dx
7. Solve each differential equation.
(a) (b) 2±2y=0
!+3+0

(c) 4-3+3y=O (d)

 Differential equations and modelling EM
8. Solve the following differential equations.

(a) 2-4-3+2y=o (b) 3-4-4+2y=0

(c) 375y=0 (d) 54-2+3y=0

9. Solve the differential equations.

(a) 4 +4y=0 (b) 4 +9y=o

(c) 4 4+y= 0 (d) 24+25y=0

10. Solve

(a) 2-4 -5 + 9y= 0 (b) 24-5-9y=0

(c) 24+5-9y=0 (d) 2j4+5+9y=o

dx

Second order differential equation

Initial value and boundary value problems
The general solution to a second order differential equation contains two arbitrary constants so
in order to find a particular solution it is necessary to know two conditions.
Initial conditions specify the value of the solution function and the value of its
derivative at the same point:
f(x0) = y 0 and f(x0) = y 1 = ( x0 , y 0) and (x0 , y 1 ).
These values are the initial values.
An initial value problem is a differential equation together with its specified initial
conditions.
Both homogeneous and non-homogeneous second order linear initial value problems have a
unique solution.

Boundary conditions specify the values of the solution function at two different points:
e.g.f(x1) = y1 andf(x2) = y2;f(x0) = y0 andf'(x1) = y 1 = (x1 , y 1) and (x y2); (x0, y0) and (x1 , y1 ).
21
These values are the boundary values.
A boundary value problem is a differential equation together with Its specified
boundary conditions.
A boundary value problem does not always have a solution, or it may have more than one
solution.
IM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

-Example 22 -Example 23WA

Solve the initial value problem Solve the boundary value problem
d2y dy
+3 -- - by =0 --2—+y=O
dx2 dx dx2 dx
dy given that y = 1 when x = 0 and
given that y = 1 and - =0 when x =0.
dx dy
- Solution - 1 when x = 1.
dx
Given the equation - Solution
+ 3 - bOy =0 Given the equation
dx2 dx
Then the auxiliary equation is: -2 dy + y =0
dx2 dx
r2 +3r—l0=O
Factorizing: (r + 5)(r - 2) = 0 Then the auxiliary equation is:
Either r+5=Oorr-2=0 - 2r + 1 = 0
r=-5or r=2. Factorizing: (r - 1)2 = 0
r=1
Let and r2 =2.
Since the roots are real and distinct, then the Since the roots are real and repeated, then
general solution is the general solution is:
y = A e_5 x + B e 2x. Y = A e x + B xe x.
dy = _5A e 5 x + 2B e2 x . dy
So and = Aex + Bxex + Bex
dx dx
Thus 1= Ae ° + B(0)e °
Thus 1=Ae° +Be° So A=1
So A+B=1
And 1=(1)e1 +B(1)e1 + Be'
And 0= -5Ae ° + 2Be° So 1=e+Be+Be
So —5A+2B=0 ©
i.e. 2Be=1—e
©x5: 5A+5B=5 ©
7B=5 B=-
2e
B= Hence, the solution of the boundary value
7 problem is
x [-2]: -2A - 2B = -2 (1—e
—7A=-2 y = ex + (j-----) xex
A= (b—e'
ex +I—Ixe
7 X-i

Hence, the solution of the initial value 2)

problem is
2 -5x 5 = —[2e+(1-e)x]
y =-e +-e
= ex-'(2e + x —ex)
y=e 5 x(2+5e7 x) .
y = .e'(x—ex+2e)
 Differential equations and modelling FM
-Example 24 Method 1
dy Since y = Ae' +
Solve the equation 4+2+4y = 0
Then LY = (_i + iJ) Ae1+1 + (_i - iJ) Be1
dx
given that y = 1 and - =1 when x =0.
dx Thus 1= Ae ° + Be °
- Solution So A+B=1
Given the equation And 1= (-1 + ij)Ae ° + (-1- iJ)B e0
d2 d
- Y+2 - + =0 So (-1+h1 )A+(-1-i/)B=1 ©
dx2 dx
X (1+ i'j): (1+isj)A +(1+ i.J)B = 1 +
Then the auxiliary equation is:
+ 2r +4 =0 2hfA=2+hJ
where a = 1, b = 2 and c = 4.
Use the quadratic equation: i.e. A_ 2 +
-b ± jb2 - 4ac 2i/
X =—
- i(2+ii)
- 2i2 J
_2±22 -4(1)4
Then r= 2i-J
2(1).
= -2±J4-16
A_ 2i
- -2±
2 x (1-iJ)A+(1-i'f)B = i-i.i L.A

-2i,13- B = 2-ii
2
2- iJ
i.e. B
2 -2i
= -i±ij = i(2-iJ)
_2i2 F
3
It is in the form r=cL±iJ3=>oc=-1
and 3= 2i+
So r1 = 1 + iF3 and r2 = -1-
-

Since the roots are complex, then the - + 2i

general solution is B
2J
y= + Be(_1_
Since y = Ae' +
iJ)x + Be(_1 -
or

Y = e (P cos -..Jx + Q sin Jx)

 . Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Then
2J 2
j-2i -x ______
= e
2-J3- 2J
-x ( +2i
(_2i)[cosF3+isin,[3-xl+e-x )[COS(–,[3- X) +isin( x)]
2
-x (+2i
=e I _____ J(cos_isinJx)
213-
(,[3- -2i +2i x+e_2 +2i ),Sn N
=e + I cos x
2J 2,F3) 2V-3- - 2J
(2i 4i
=e I —cos sJxJ+e"I -----isin
2

So y = e (cos x +sin x).

This is the solution of the homogeneous differential equation.

Method 2
Since y=e(P cos Jx+Qsin-fx)

Then LY =
dx
–e (P cos + Qsin x)
Thus 1=e° (P cos o+Q sin O)
= 1(P x 1 + Q x 1)
So P=1
And 1=e0(_JPsin0+JQcos0)
–e° (P cos 0+ Q sin 0)
= 1(-1P x 0+ JQ x 1
–1(Pxl+QxO)
So 1=–P+iQ
i.e.
 Differential equations and modelling

JQ=2 1
e (J cos Jx +2 sin sjx)
= =
= e (3 cos +2 sinx)
Hence, the solution of the homogenous
differential equation is:
y = e (1 cos + sin Jx

Exercise lOf

1. Solve the initial value problem 6. Solve the equation

+2 —8=0 —10+25y=0
dx2 th
given that y=1 and =0 when x=0 given that y = 1 and L Y =0 when x =0.
dx dx
2. Solve the boundary value problem 7. Solve the initial value problem

—2 —3=0
dx2 dx dx2 dx
given that y = 1 when x = 0 and =0 given that y =4 and dy =5 when x =0.
dx dx
when x = 1.
8. Solve the boundary value problem
3. Solve the equation

+5 - =0 dx2 + 4y =0
dX2 dx dy
given that y = 2 when x = 0 and y = 0 giventhaty=l when x=irand
it: X
when x = 1. when x =
2
4. Solve the initial value problem 9. Solve the equation
44-6dx
-- +9=0 +3 LY + 4y =0
dx2 dx
given that:: 3 and =4 when x 0. given that y = 1 and LY =2 when x =0.
dx dx
5. Solve the boundary value problem 10. Solve the equation

—6 + y = 0 —2 + 6y =0
dx dx dx2 dx
given that y = 1 when x = 1 and - =1 given that y = 1 and =1 when
when x=2. x
M. Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Particular integral of a differential equation

Consider the second order linear ordinary differential equation with constant coefficients of the
form
d2y dy
= f(x), a # 0 andf(x)# 0,
dx dx
where a, b, c, E R andf is a continuous function.
The functionf(x) can be
• a constant
• a polynomial
• a trigonometric function
• an exponential function.
The solution of f(x) is called a particular integral.
The method of undetermined coefficients is used to solve for the unknown values.
Case 1:f(x) is a constant
Consider the differential equation
a + b + cy = f
dx2 dx
wheref(x) E R,f(x) is a constant function.
Assume a trial solution y = p where p E R.
Then
dx
And
dx2
Substitute into the left-hand side of the differential equation.
Thus a(0) + b(0) + cp =f(x)
So cp =f(x)
i.e. P
Hence, the particular integral is y
Example 25 Then f(x) = 12 which is a constant
Find the particular integral of the function.
Assume a trial solution of the form
differential equation +2 - 3y =12. y=p.
Solution Then
2 dx
Given the equation d Y +2 dy - 3y = 12.
So &Y
 Differential equations and modelling EM
Substitute into the left-hand side of the Equating constant terms: -3p - 4q = 1
differential equation.
Thus 1(0) + 2(0) - = 12 So _3(_)_4=1
So -3p=12
12 i.e. --4q=1
i.e. p=— 2
Hence the particular integral is p = -4. 4q=-1
CD Case 2:f(x) is a polynomial
=> 4q=
Consider the differential equation
dy 7
a—+b—
&Y +cy = f(x) q=-
dx2 dx
Hence the particular integral is y = - +
wheref(x) is a linear function.
Assume a trial solution of the form • Consider the differential equation
- y=px+q. d2y dy
- Example 26
Find the particular integral of the wheref(x) is a quadratic function.
Assume a trial solution of the form
differential equation4_3-4y = 6x+1. y=px2 +qx+s
Solution - Example 27 iJ
Find the particular integral of the differential
Given the equation &Ydy
2
equation ä_2ä__y=x
&Ydy +x-1.
Then f(x) = 6x + 1 which is linear.
Assume a trial solution of the form -Solution
y = px + q. 2 +x-1.
Given the equation &ydy
Then
dx Then f(x) = x2 + x - 1 which is quadratic.
Assume a trial solution of the form
And
dx2
Y = px2 + qx + s
dy
Substitute into the left-hand side of the Then -=2px+q
dx
differential equation.
Thus 0 - 3p - 4(px + q) = 6x + 1 And -4-=2p
So -4px+(7 3p-4q)=6x+1 dx
Equating coefficients of x: -4p = 6
Substitute into the left hand side of the
6 differential equation.
So p=-
Thus 2p-2(2px+q)-(px2 -i-qx+s)=x2 +x-1
3 So 2p-4px-2q-px 2 -qx-s=x2 +x-1
i.e. -px2 + (-4p - q) x + (2p - 2q - s) = x2+x-1
FM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Equating coefficients of x2 : –p = 1 So(–p + q – 3p) cos x + (–q – p – 3q) sin x = sin x

P= -1 i.e. (-4p + q) cos x + (–p – 4q) sin x = sin x
Equating coefficients of x: –4p - q = 1 Equating coefficients of cos x: –4p + q = 0 ©
So Equating coefficients of sin x: –p - 4q = 1 ©
i.e. 4–q=1 –16p+4q=0 ©
q=4-1 –l7p=l
q=3 1
Equating constant terms: 2p - 2q - S = –1
So 2(-1) - 2(3) - s = –1 Substitute p = - --- into ©:
i.e. –2-6–s=-1
s=-8+1 =
=> s=-7 (_17)
Hence the particular integral is y = –x2 + 3x –7.
So —+q=0
17
Case 3:f(x) is a trigonometric 4
function q=–
Consider the differential equation Hence the particular integral is
d2y dy 1 4.
a + b + cv = sin x y=---cosx--smx
dx2 dx 17 17
wheref(x) = sin x is a trigonometric function.
Assume a trial solution of the form = - -- (cos x +4 sin x)
17
y = p cos x + q sin x.
• Consider the differential equation
Example 28'6A d2y dy
a + b - + cy = cos mx
Find the particular integral of the
differential equation --+-3y = sin x. wheref(x) = cos mx is a trigonometric
dx2 dx function.
Solution Assume a trial solution of the form
y = p cos mx + q sin mx.
Given the equation d2 Y + L_3y= sin x
dx Example 29
Then f(x) = sin x is a trigonometric function. Find the particular integral of the
Assume a trial solution of the form d2y dy
y = p cos x + q sin x. differential equation - +2— - = cos R.
dx2 dx
Then Solution
–p sin x + q cos x
dx = d2y dy
Given the equation --+2--3y = cos R.
dx dx
And 1=pcosxqsinx Let y=pcos3x+qsin3x
dx2
dy
Substitute into the left hand side of the Then— = –3p sin 3x+3q cos 3x
differential equation. dx
Thus (–p cos x–q sin x)+(–p sin x+q cos x) And
–3 (p cos x + q sin x) = sin x dx2
 Differential equations and modelling EM
Substitute into the left-hand side of the differential equation.
Thus (-9p cos 3x-9q sin 3x)+2(-3p sin 3x+3q cos 3x)-3(p cos 3x+q sin 3x)= cos 3x
So (-9p + 6q - 3p) cos 3x + (-9q - - 3q) sin 3x = cos 3x
i.e. (-12p + 6q) cos 3x + (-6p - 12q) sin 3x = cos 3x
Equating coefficients of cos 3x: —12p + 6q = 1 (i)
Equating coefficients of sin 3x: —6p - 12q = 0 ©
x2: —24p+12q=2 ©
—3Op=2

(_ 30
1) 15

Substitute p=- into©: _12(_)+6q=:

15 15
So +6q=1
5
1
i.e. 6q=
1
q=
1
Hence, the particular integral is y = - cos 3x + .sin 3x
15 30
y=—(2 cos 3x— sin 3x)

• Consider the differential equation

-i, di,
a &Y- + b —s- + cy = cos mx ± sin mx
dx2 dx
where f(x) = cos mx ± sin mx is a trigonometric function.
Assume a trial solution of the form
y= pcos mx±q sin mx

Example 30 Let y=pcos2x+qsin2x

Find the particular integral of the dy
Then - = —2p sin 2x + 2q cos 2x
differential equation dx
d2y dy d2y = —
--+3--2y=5
dX2 cos 2x-2 sin 2x. And 4p cos 2x - 4q sin 2x
dx dx 2
Substitute into the left-hand side of the
Solution
differential equation.
Given the equation Thus(-4p cos 2x - 4q sin 2x) +
3 (-2p sin 2x + 2q cos 2x) -
4 +3-2y=5 cos 2x-2 sin 2x cos 2x + q sin 2x) = 5 cos 2x - 2 sin 2x
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

So (-4p + 6q - 2p) cos 2x + (-4q - - 2q) sin 2x = 5 cos 2x - 2 sin 2x

i.e. (-6p + 6q) cos 2x + (-6p - 6q) sin 2x = 5 cos 2x - 2 sin 2x
Equating coefficients of cos 2x: -6p + 6q = 5 (D
Equating coefficients of sin 2x: -6p - 6q = -2 ©
-12p=3
1

12q=7
7

Hence, the particular integral is

y = --cos2x+—sin2x.
4 12

y= - (3 cos 2x- 7 sin 2x)

CD Case 4:f(x) is an exponential function

Consider the differential equation
d2y dy
a - + b - + Cy = f(x)
dx2 dx
wheref(x) is an exponential function.
Example 31
Find the particular integrals of each differential equation
(a) 4_2_3y= 4e x (b) 4-2-3y=4e
dx
= 4e 3 x = 4e3 x
(c) -2 - 3y (d) -2 - 3y

Solution
(a) Given the equation 4-2-3y = 4e x .
dx
Let y =pe x
Then dy= pe'
dx
And d4 =pex
dx
Substitute into the left-hand side of the differential equation.
Thus pe x - 2(pe x) - 3(peX ) = 4ex
So _4pex = 4ex
i.e. p= -1
Hence, the particular integral is y = _ex.
(b) Given the equation &Y -2 Ly - 3y = 4e
dx dx
Let y = pe_x
 Differential equations and modelling EM
Then = —ne
dx
Anddx2 = pe
Substitute into the left-hand side of the differential equation.
Thus pe _x - 2(pe_') - 3pe _x = 4e _x
So pe _x + 2pe _x - 3pe _x = 4e _x
i.e. 0 = 4e _x
This is not a valid solution since e_x> 0
This case is referred to as the failure case
The failure case results because e is a part of the complementary function
Given the equation —2 - = 4e.
dx2 dx
Let y = pxe _x
dy
Then = px(—e) + pe
dx
= ex + pe

And &Y = —px(—e) - pe + p(—e)

=pxe _x_p e_x_p e_x
pxe - 2pe
Substitute into the left-hand side of the differential equation.
Thus (pxe_' - 2pe_x) - 2 (_pxe_x + pe _x) - 3pxe _x = 4e _x
So pxe _x - 2pe _x + 2pxe _x - 2pe _x - 3pxe _x = 4e _x
i.e. (p + 2p - 3p) xe_x + (-2p - 2p)e = 4e _x
_4pe_=4e _x
= p =-1
Hence the particular integral is y = _xe_x
(c) Given the equation - 2 - = 4e 3x
dx
Let y = pe_3c
Then = _3pe 3 x
dx
d2 Y
And -- = 9pe 3 '
dx2
Substitute into the left-hand side of the differential equation.
Thus 9p e_3x - 2(_3pe_3x) 3p e_3x = 4e-3x
So 9pe_3 + 6pe3' - 3pe_3x = 4e-3x
i.e. 12pe_3x = 4e-3x
1

Hence the particular integral is y =

Em Pure Mathematics for CAPE

(d) Given the equation —2 a

- = 4e"
dx2 dx
Let y = pe3x
dy
Then dx =3pe3x

And = 9pe3 x
dx
Substitute into the left-hand side of the differential equation.
Thus 9pe3x - 2(3pe3x) - 3pe3x = 4e 3x
So 9p,3' - 6pe3x) - 3pe3' = 4e32c
i.e. 0 = 4e
This is not a valid solution since e3x> 0.
The failure case results because e3x is a part of the complementary function.
dy
Given the equation &Y-2--- = 4 e3 x.
dx2 dx
Let y = pxe3x
Then = px(3e3x) + pe3x
dx
And = 3px (3e3 x) + 3pe3 x + 3pe3 x
dx2
= 9pxe3x + 6pe3'
Substitute into the left-hand side of the differential equation.
Thus (9p xe3x + 6pe3x) - 2(3pxe 3 ' + pe3') - 3pxe3' = 4e 3 x
So 9pxe3x + 6pe3 " - 6pxe3' - 2pe3x - 3pxe 3x = 4e 3x
i.e. (9p - - 3p)xe3' + (6p - 2p)e3x = 4e3'
4pe3x = 4e3x
= p=l
Hence the particular integral is y = xe3x.
- Example 32 Thus 16pe - 8(4pe4x) + 16pe4 = 5e
Find the particular integral of the So 16pe4x - 32pe4x + 16pe4 = 5e 4x
d2y dy i.e. 0 = 5e which is not valid.
differential equation —8— + = 5e4'.
dx2 dx What is the reason for the resulting failure case?
- Solution
Given the equation ---8+16y 5 e4 x.
d2y dy dx2 dx
Given the equation —8— + 16y = 5e4'. y = pxe4x
dx2 dx Let
Let y = pe 4x Then = px(4e4x) + pe4'
d dx
Then y= 4pe4'
dx = 4pxe 4' + pe4x

And = 16pe41 And = 4px (4e4 x) + 4pe4x + 4pe4

dx2
Substitute into the left-hand side of the = 16pxe4x + 8pe4x
differential equation.
 Differential equations and modelling IM

Substitute into the left-hand side of the differential equation.

Thus (16pxe + 8pe4x) - 8(4pxe 4' + pe4?c) + 16pxe4x = 5e 4x
So 16pxe4x + 8pe4x - 32pxe4x - 8pe4' + 16pxe4x = 5e
i.e. (16p - + 16p) xe4x + (8p - 8p) e 4x = 5e4"
0 = 5e' which is not valid.
What is the reason for the resulting failure case?
Given the equation &Y –8
dx dx
Ly
+ 16y = 5e 4x

Let y=px2 e

Then - = px 2 (4e 4x )+ 2pxe 4 x

dx
= 4px2e4x + 2pxe 4'

And = 4px2 (4e4 x) + 8pxe 4 x + 2px(4e4x) + 2pe4

= 16px2e +8pxe4' + 8px e4x + 2pe4'
= 16px2e + 16pxe4x + 2pe4x
Substitute into the left-hand side of the differential equation.
Thus (16px2e4x + 16pxe4x + 2pe - 8(4px2e4x + 2pxe 4x) + 16px2e4x = 5 e4x
So 16px2e4x + 16pxe4 + 2pe - 32px2e4x - 16pxe4x + 16pX2e4x = 5 e4x
i.e. (16p - + 16p) x2e4x + (16p - 16p) xe4x + 2pe4x = 5e4x
2pe4=5e4x

Hence the particular integral is y = x 2e4x .

-Example 33 I What is the reason for the resulting failure?

Find the particular integral of the Given the equation &Y - = 2e5'.
differential equation - 25y = 2 e5 x. Let y = pxe5x
dx
- Solution Then = 5pxe 5' + pe5x
dx
Given the equation &Y - = 2e5 x.
So = 25pxe5x + 5pe5' + 5pe5'
Let y = pe5x
= 25pxe 5 x + 10p e5 x
Then —=5pe. Substitute into the left-hand side of the
dx
differential equation.
And 4=
dx
25pe5 x Thus (25p xe5x + 10pe5x) - 25pxe5 = 2e5x
lOpeSx = 2e 5x
So
Substitute into the left-hand side of the
differential equation.
Thus 25p e5x - 25pe5x = 2e5
Sx
Hence the particular integral is y = xe.
So 0=2e5x which is not valid.
EM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Exercise lOg )

1. Find the particular integral of each differential equation.

(a) 4-5+4y=8 (b) -4+7+1Oy=5

dx dx dx dx

(c) ---6-7y=21 (d) --+4-12y=3

dx2 dx dx2 dx
2. Find the particular integral of the differential equations.

(a) 4 +3-1Oy=7x-2
dx
(b) - 4 -4 + 3y= 8 x+ 5

(c) 4-2-4y=5x-1 (d) 4-5+2y=6x+7

dx
3. Find the particular integral of each equation.
(a) _Y+5Y_2 y= 3x2 + 2x _1 (b) 4_4+y = x2 _3x+5
dx2 dx dx
d2y dy
(c) ä-j-_3ä__5y=_x 2+2x-1 (d) j4+6_3 y= _2x2 _5x+ 4
dx
4. Find the particular integral of the equations.
d2 y dy
(a) —+4— +5y=smx (b) 43Y+2y=4sinx
dx2 dx dx dx
2y dy
(c) d (d) -4+4-3y=-2sin3x
dx dx
5. Obtain the particular integral of each equation.
d2y dy
(a) —i- +5— + = cos x (b) = -7cosx
dx dx dx2 dx
(c) -6 + 2y =4 cos 3x (ci) -7 - -5 cos 4x
dX2 dx dx2 dx
6. Find the particular integral of each differential equation.
d2y
(a) —+2 -y=sinx+cosx (b) ---4+2y=2sinx+5cosx
dx2 dx dx2 dx

(c) --5-3y=4sin2x+3cos2x (d) --+3+4y=7sin5x+2cos5x

dx2 dx dx2 dx
7. Find the particular integral of the differential equations.
d2y dy d2y dy
ä--=smx_cosx
(a) ä-.++2y (b)

(c) 4-2+5y=5sin3x-4cos3x (d) 4+2-3y=-3sin4x+2cos4x

dx
 Differential equations and modelling

8. Find the particular integral of each equation.

(a) - 10y = 8e2x (b) - lOy = 8e_2 x

(c) -4 —3 - by
= 8e5x (d) —3 - by
= 8e_5 x

9. Find the particular integral of the equations.

(a) •- —4 dy - 4y = 3e 2x (b) -- —6 +9y = _4e 3 x

dx2 dx dx2 dx

(c) 4
+ + y = 5e (d) 4+8 + 16y = —7e
10. Obtain the particular integral of each equation.

(a) &Y2 - = 2e-5 x (b) - = -5e 2x

dX

(c) 44_ = 4e' (d) =

dx dx -

Non-homogeneous linear equations

Consider the second order non-homogeneous linear ordinary differential equation with constant
coefficients
a 4 +bi+cy=f(x), a 0
dx
What is the solution to this differential equation?

The general solution of the non-homogeneous differential equation is y = The complementary

function + The particular integral
i.e. y = y, + y
d2y dy
where y is the general solution of the complementary equation a + b + cy —0 and
y is a particular integral of the equation uX uX
d2y dy
=f(x)

=y c + y is called the superposition principle .

c Case 1: f(x) is a constant

Example 34 - Solution
Find the general solution of the differential The complementary equation is:
equation
—4 dy -5y =0
—4 dy - 5 y = —10. dx2 dx
dx2 dx The auxiliary equation is:
- 4r - 5 = 0
EM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Factorising: (r - 5) (r + 1) = 0 Since the roots are real and equal, then the
Either r-5=0 or r+1=0 complementary function is:
r=5 or r=-1 = (A+ B x )e5x.
Let r1 = 5 and r2 = —1.
Since the roots are real and distinct, then the Given the equation a4_10+25y =3-8x.
dx
complementary function is: Thenf(x) = 3 - 8x is a linear function.
YC = Ae 5' + Be - x.
Assume a trial solution of the form
dy
Given the equation &Y -4 - - = —10. y = px + q
dy
Thenf(x) = —10 which is a constant. Then
dx
Assume a trial solution of the form
y=p And
dx2
Then Substitute into the left-hand side of the
dx
differential equation.
So Thus 0-10p+25(px+q)=3-8x
dx So -10p+25px+25q=3-8x
Substitute into the left-hand side of the i.e. 25px + (25q - lOp) = 3 - 8x
differential equation. Equating coefficients of x: 25p = —8
Thus 0-4(0)-5p=-10 8
P= - -
So —5p=—lO
i.e.
Equating constants: 25q - lOp = 3
the particular integral is y = 2.
Hence, the general solution of the So 25q-10I--- ")=3
non-homogeneous differential equation is 25)
Y =y +y 16
y =Ae 5x + B e+2 i.e. 25q=3- —

5
CD Case 2:f(x) is a polynomial 1
5
Example 35 '
1
Find the general solution of the differential
equation
This method is called the method of
—10 + 25y =3— 8x
dx2 dx undetermined coefficients.

Solution
The particular integral is y = - -p-- x - ---
The complementary equation is: 25 125
Hence, the general solution of the
—10 dy +25Y =0 non-homogeneous differential equation is
dx2 dx
The auxiliary equation is: Y = +y
r2 - lOr + 25 = 0 25 125
Factorising: (r - 5)2 = 0
r=5
 Differential equations and modelling EM
Example 36 Thenf(x) = 1 -. x2 is a quadratic function.
Find the general solution of the differential Assume a trial solution of the form
equation. Y = px2 + qx + s

–3 +4y =1_X2 Then –=2px+q

dx2 dx dx

- Solution And
dx2
The complementary equation is: Substitute into the left-hand side of the
differential equation.
–3 dy + 4y =0
th2
dx Thus 2p_3(2 px+q) + 4(px2 +qx+s)=1_ x 2
The auxiliary equation is: So 2p-6px-3q+4px 2 +4qx+4s=1–x2
r2 - 3r +4 = 0
where a = 1, b = –3 and c = 4. i.e. 4px2 + (-6p + 4q)x + (2p - 3q + 4s) = 1_X2
Use the quadratic equation: Equating coefficients of x 2: 4p = –1
–b± - 4ac 1
X=— Pj1
2a
Equating coefficients of x: –6p + = 0
± - - 4(l)(4)
Then r

- 3±-..J9-16
2(1) So

•
–6
H) 3
i.e. 4q=--
2 2
3± 3
2
Equating constants: 2p - 3q + 4s =1
3±&i
2 So 2(_1)_3(_-')+4S=1
' 4) k. 8)
3± ifi
i.e. --++4s=1
28
=-±i- 5
-+ 4s =1
2 2 8

Itisin the form r=x±ia= and = 4s=1--

8
3
3. 3.fi 4s=–

So r1 =–+i-- and r2 = -- i-. 8

2 2 2 2
3
Since the roots are complex, then the
complementary solution is
the particular integral is
fi • 3
Y C =e 2 cos -- x x v 1 --x+—
"' =--x
4 8 32
Given the equation -f- –3 LY 4y =1– x2.
dx2 dx +
EM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Hence, the general solution of the non-homogeneous differential equation is:

Y=y +y

.. y=e2 Pcos - -x+Qsin -- --x

2 _ 3 3
--xx+
4 8 32
CD Case 3:f(x) is a trigonometric function
Example 37
Find the general solution of the differential equation = 3 sin 2x.
dx2 dx
Solution
The complementary equation is
The auxiliary equation is dx dx 4
- 2 + =0.

- 2r + 5 = 0
where a=1,b =-2 and c=5.
Use the quadratic formula.
-(-2) ± j(_2)2 - 4(1)5
Then r=
2(1)
= 2 ± [4---
20
2
2±
2
2±J
2
2±4i
2
=1±2i
So r1 =1+2iandr2 =1-2i.
Since the roots are complex, then the complementary solution is
y =ex(P cos 2x+Q sin 2 x)

Given the equation &Yd

-2 + 5y =3 sin 2x.
Then f(x) = 3 sin 2x is a trigonometric function.
Assume a trial solution of the form
y = P cos 2x + Q sin 2x

Then -=-2Psin2x+2Qcos2x
dx

So 4=-4P cos 2x-4Q sin 2x

dx
 Differential equations and modelling IM
Substitute into the left-hand side of the differential equation.
Thus (-4p cos 2x - 4q sin 2x) - 2 (-2p sin 2x + 2q cos 2x) + 5 (p cos 2x + q sin 2x) = 3 sin 2x
So (-4p - 4q + 5p) cos 2x + (-4q + 4p +5q)sin 2x = 3 sin 2x
i.e. (p - 4q) cos 2x + ( 4p + q) sin 2x =3 sin 2x
Equating coefficients of cos 2x: p - 4q = 0
Equating coefficients of sin 2x: 4p + q = 3 ©
16p+4q=12 ©
l7p=l2
12

-4p+16q=0
17q=3
3
q=

The particular integral is y = cos 2x + -p-- sin 2x

" 17 17
1
= —(12 cos 2x +3 sin 2x)
17
Hence, the general solution of the non-homogeneous differential equation is:
Y =y +y
- .. y = e x (p cos 2x + qsin
sm 2x) + (12 cos 2x + 3 sm 2x).

Case 4:f(x) is an exponential function

Example 38
Find the general solution of the differential equation
i +4Y_5 y 2e 5 x .
dx2 dx

Solution
The complementary equation is
-+4-5y=0.
dx2 dx
The auxiliary equation is
r2 +4r-5=0
Factorising: (r + 5)(r - 1) = 0
Either r+5=0 or r-1=0
r=-5 or r=1
Let r1 = - 5 and r2 = 1.
Since the roots are real and distinct, then the complementary function is:
YC = A e _5x + Bex.
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

—i- +4 -
Given the equation d2y d = 2e-5x
dx dx -
Thenf(x) = 2e-5x which is an exponential function.
Assume a trial solution of the form
y = pxe_5x Check the complementary function for the reason.
Then dy = _5pxe5x +
dx

And &Y = 25pxe 5 x - 5pe 5 x - 5pe 5 x

dx2
= 25pxe 5' - 10pe 5'
Substitute into the left-hand side of the differential equation.
Thus (25pxe' - lOpe_5x ) +4 (_5pxe_5x + pe_5 x) - 5pxe5' = 2e -5x
So (25p - 20p - 5p)xe_5x + (-lOp + 4p)e_5x = 2e-5x
i.e. _6pe_5x = 2e-5x
1
13
The particular integral is y = - xe5'

Hence, the general solution of the non-homogeneous differential equation is

Y=y +y
= Ae_5x + B e x - xe_5 x .
3

Example 39 = (A + Bx) e 7x
Find the general solution of the differential Given the equation -14 LY + = 3e 7x
equation
i_14 ± 49y =3e7 x Thenf(x) = 3e 7x is an exponential function.
dx2 dx Assume a trial solution of the form
y = px2e 7x why?
Solution dy
Then - = 7 P2e 7x +2pxe
The complementary equation is dx
-14 + =0 = 49px2e7 x + 14pxe7 x
d7 dx And
dx2
The auxiliary equation is ± 14pxe7x + 2pe7x
r2 - 14r ±49 = 0
Factorising: (r - 7)2 = 0 = 49px2e7 ' ± 28pxe7' + 2pe7x
r=7 Substitute into the left-hand side of the
Since the roots are real and equal, then the differential equation.
complementary function is
 Differential equations and modelling EM

PX2 e 7x + 2pxe7x +49 (px2e7 x) = 3e 7x

Thus (49px2e7x + 28pxe7x + 2pe7 x) -14(7 )
So (49p - + 49p) x2e?x + (28p - 28p)xe 7 x + 2pe7 x = 3e7 x
i.e. 2pe7 x = 3e7 x
3

2 7x
The particular integral is y, = 3 x e

Hence, the general solution of the non-homogeneous equation is

y = yc + yp
= (A + Bx)e7x + x2e7x

-Example 40 ' 2
Given the equation d y - = —7e-2x
Find the general solution of the differential
equation. Thenf(x) = 7e_ 2 ' is an exponential function
Assume a trial solution of the form
- = —7e —2x y = pxe_2' why?
dy
Then - = -2pxe 2 X +pe 2
-Solution dx
The complementary equation is Sod Y = 4px&2 x - 2p&2 x - 2pe 2 x

dx2 = 4pxe _2x - 4pe_2x

The auxiliary equation is Substitute into the left hand side of the
r 2 -4=O differential equation.
So r2 -22 =O Thus (4pxe2' - 4pe_2x) - 4pxe2' = -7e -2x
i.e. (r+2)(r-2)=O So 4pe_2 =
r+2=O or r-2=O 7
Either i.e.
r=-2 or r=2
Let r1 =-2 and 72 =2 the particular integral is y = xe_2X
Since the roots are real and distinct, then Hence, the general solution of the
the complementary function is non-homogeneous differential equation is
Y C = Ae_2x + Be2' Y=y+y
7
= Ae 2 X +Be2 X +—xe 2 X
4
Exercise 1Oh

1. Find the general solution of each differential equation.

(a) 4-5-14y=7 (b) _Y_8Y + 16y =_32

dx dx dx2 dx

(c) --2+8y=-2 (d)

dx2 dx dx2 dx
FM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

2. Find the general solution of each equation.

d2y dy d2
_i_4+4y=2x-5
(a) --+5--14y=x+3 (b)
dx dx dx2 dx

(c) -4+2+3y=4-7x (d)

dx dx dx2 dx
3. Find the general solution of the differential equations.
dy
(a) &Y-+4--5y=x 2
—5 +2x-3 (b) d2Y_6+9yx2_4x+l
dx dx w

d2y dy (d) 44+3+7y=4x2

(c) —+--+4y=2+3x-x 2
dx dx dx dx
4. Find the general solution of the equations.
(a) 4-3+2y=4sinx (b) 4+2+4y=3sin2x
dx
(c) 4-2+y=5sin3x (d) 4-3+4y=-8sin2x
dx
5. Obtain the general solution of each differential equation.
d2y dy d2y dy
(a) ä__4ä_+3y=2cosx (b)

d2y dy d2y dy
(c) (d)
6. Find the general solution of each differtial equation.
(a) 4 +-6y=sinx+cosx (b) ---1O+25y=2sinx+3cosx

(c) -+2+5y=3sin2x+6cos2x (d) -4-2+6y=5sin3x+1Ocos3x

dx
7. Find the general solution of each equation.
d2y dy d2y dy
(a) (b)

(c) 4 +2-3y=2sin3x-3cos3x (d) 4+4+4y=4sin4x-7cos4x

dx
8. Find the general solution of the differential equations.
(a) - 8 + 7'y 5e7x (b) + 7 Ly + 6y = 4e

(c) 4+4_12y=_3e2x (d) 4_2_15y=_9e3x

dx
 Differential equations and modelling

9. Find the general solution of the equations.

dy 2,
(a) 4+2+y=6e (b) &Y
dx dx

(c) 4+6+9y=4e3x (d) 4+i0+25y=_7e5x

dx
10. Obtain the general solution of each differential equation.

(a) -y=
4e_x (b) -
= _8e3 x
2 2

H (c) -2y=-6e (d) 4_5y=1Oe

Second order ordinary differential equation with given conditions

Given the second order nonhomogeneous linear ordinary differential equation with constant
coefficients
d2y dy
a—+b----+cy=f(x), a#0
dx 2 dx
We can find its general solution.
Given appropriate values of y, and x, then it is possible to find a particular solution for
dx
the nonhomogeneous differential equation.
-Example 41 the complementary function is
dy YC = Ae 2x + Be - x.
Solve the equation -- - - = 4x -5
dx2 dx Given the equation ----2y=4x-5.
dy dx2 dx
given that y =0 and - =1 when x =0. Then f(x) = 4x - 5 which is a linear function.
dx
- Solution Let y = px + q be the trial solution.
d
Then y=
Given the equation dx
dx2 dx
The complementary equation is And
dx2
=0 Substitute into the left-hand side of the
dx2 dx
differential equation.
The auxiliary equation is Thus 0 - p - 2 (px + q) = 4x - 5
r2 - r -2 = 0 So -2px+(--p-2q)=4x-5
Factorising: (r - 2)(r + 1) = 0 Equating coefficients of x: -2p = 4
Either r -2=0 or r +1=0 p=-2
r=2 or r=-1 Equating constants: -p - 2q = -5
Let r=2 and r2 = - 1 So -(-2)-2q = -5
EM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

i.e. 2-2q=-5 The auxiliary equation is

2q=7 r2 + 4r +4 = 0
7 Factorising: (r + 2)2 = 0
=
So r=-2
The particular integral is y, = -2x + .. The complementary function is
= (A + Bx) e_ 2x.
Hence, the general solution of the d2y dv
non-homogeneous differential equation is Given the equation --+4----+4=x 2 -1
dX2 dx
Y=y+y Then f(x) = x2 - 1 which is a quadratic
y= A e2 x + B e _2x+ function.
Let y = px2 + qx + s be the trial
solution.
So LY = 2Ae2x_Be_2
dx
©
dy
Substitute y = 0, x = 0 into ®: Then —=2px+q
dx
0=A+B+
2 And 4=2p
dx
A+B=-- © Substitute into the left hand side of the
2 differential equation.
Substitute LY =1,x=0 into ©: Thus 2p + 4(2px + q) + 4(px2 + qx + 5) = x2 -1
dx So 4px2 + (8p + 4q)x + (2p + 4q + 4s) = x2 -1
1 = 2A - B -2 Equating the coefficients of x 2: 4p = 1
2A—B=3 1
P=j
©+: 3A=—A=—=B=-
2 6 3 Equating the coefficients of x: 8p + 4q = 0
Hence, the particular solution of the
non-homogeneous differential equation is 812 .')+4q=0
So
Y=_1 1 2x--e
10 -x
-2x+-
7
2+4q=0
6 3 2 is
4q=-2
- Example 42a3 1
dy
—+4 ------+4y=x 2 -1
Solve the equation &Y
dx2 dx
Equating the constants: 2p + 4q + 4s = -1
given that y = 2 and dy =1 when x =2.
dx So 2( 1 )+4(- 1 "1+4s=-1
2)
Solution
dy i.e. --2+4s=-1
d —+4--+4y=x2 -1
Given the equation 2
dx2 dx 1
The complementary equation is 4s=-
2
d2y dy 1
+4— + 4y =0
dx2 dx 8
 Differential equations and modelling IM

1X + 17 4 15 4
The particular integral is y, = x2 So A+—e =—e
2 8
Hence, the general solution of the • (15 17' 4
non-homogeneous differential eqation is i.e. A=i----ie
k8 2)
Y = y +y
1 • A=—e
•
y=(A+Bx)e -2x +—X 2 _ X+ 8
4 28
Hence, the particular solution of the
So =(A+Bx)(2e 2 ')+Be 2' +x- non-homogeneous differential equation is
dx 2 2 (53 4 17 4-2x 121 1
y=i ---e +—xe le +—x ---x+--
= —2(A + Bx)e2x + Be2x + x- ' 8 4 ) 4 2 8
22
(5317'_ 1 2 1 1
Substitute y =2, x = 2 into : =1 ---+—X le +—x --x+--
8 4) 4 2 8
2=(A+2B)e +_ + 2
S -Example 43 1J

So (A+2B)e=t!.
Solve the equation-4 + = _13 e5 x
A+2B=e dy
8 given that y 1 and - =0 where x = 0
CIX
dy -Solution
Substitute —=1,x=2mto®
dx
Given the equation —4 += _13e5 x
1=-2(A+2B)e +Be-4 +1— 1
2 The complementary equation is
1
So =_2(A+2B)e+Be
2 —4 LY + =0
dx2 dx
i.e. =-2(A+2B—B 'le The auxiliary equation is
2 2) r2 - 4r + 8 = 0
where a= 1, b = —4 and c = 8.
_iJA+.B'le 4
4 t\ 2) = —(--4) ± j(4)2 - 4(8)1
Then r
A+—B=--e 2(1)
2 4 = 4±i16-32
®—: z
2 8 • 4±ii
B= 21 e 2
4

Substitute B = e' into ®: 2

4 4 ± 4i
A+2( —e 4 =—e 4 2
4) 8 =2± 2i
IM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

So the complementary function is

e2 (P cos 2x + Q sin 2x)
dy 5
Given the equation ----4—+8y=-13e
&Y
dX2 dx
Then f(x) = - 13 e5x which is an exponential function
Let y = pe5x be the trial solution.
Then = 5pe
dx
d2 1 ,

And —i- = 25pe5 x

dx2
Substitute into the left-hand side of the differential equation.
Thus 25p e5 x - 4(5pe5x) + 8pe 5x = _13e5x
So 25pe5x - 20pe5x + 8pe 5x = - 13e 5x
i.e. 13pe 5x = _ 13e 5x
p= -1
The particular integral is y = _ e5x.
Hence, the general solution of the non-homogeneous differential equation is
Y =y+y
y = e2x (P cos 2x + Q sin 2x) - e 5 ()
So = e (-2P sin 2x + 2Q cos 2x) + 2e 2x (P cos 2x + Q sin 2x) - 5e 5 x
dx
(2Pe2x + 2Qe2x ) cos 2x + (2Pe2 x + 2Qe2 x) sin 2x - 5e 5X

... LY = 2(P + Q)e2x cos 2x - (P - Q)e2x sin 2x 5e5x

dx
Substitute y = 1, x = 0 into ©:
1=1(P cos O-i-Q sin o)-1
So P=2
dy
Substitute —=0,x=O into ®:
dx
0=1(-2P sin O+2Q cos O)+2(P cos 0+Q sin 0)-5
So 2P + 2Q = 5
i.e. 2(2)+2Q=5
2Q=1
Q= 1:j
Hence, the particular solution of the non-homogeneous differential equation is
y = e2 x (2 cos 2x + sin 2x) - e
5

= e 2 (4 cos 2x + 2 sin 2x) - e SX

2
y=e2x(4cos2x+2sin2x_2e3x)
 Differential equations and modelling FM
Example 44
d2y dy
Solve the equation ---2----+2y = 3 cos 2x-4 sin 2x
dx2 dx
dy it
given that y = 1 and 3 when x
- Solution
d 2 y dy
Given the equation ---2--+2y = 3 cos 2x-4 sin 2x
dX2 dx

The complementary equation is &Y -2 dy + 2y=0

dx2 dx
The auxiliary equation is
r2 - 2r + 2 = 0
where a= 1,b=-2 and c--2
= -(-2) ± V(-2)2 - 4(1)2
Then r
2(1)
_2 ± i4 -8
2
2±J

2±
2
_2±2i
2
=1±i
So the complementary function is y = ex (P cos x + Q sin x)
Given the equation -4-2-i+2y = 3 cos 2x-4 sin 2x
dx dx
Then f(x) =3 cos 2x -4 sin 2x is a trigonometric function
Let y = p cos 2x + q sin 2x be the trial solution

Then
dx

And —=--4p cos 2x-4q sin 2x

dx2
Substitute into the left-hand side of the differential equation.
Thus (-4p cos 2x - 4q sin x) - 2(-2p sin 2x + 2q cos 2x) + 2 (p cos 2x + q sin 2x)
= 3 cos 2x - 4 sin 2x
So (-4p - 4q + 2p) cos 2x + (-4q + + 2q) sin 2x
= 3 cos 2x - 4 sin 2x
EM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Equating coefficient of cos 2x: —2p - 4q = 3

Equating coefficient of sin 2x: 4p - 2q = —4 ©
—8p+4q=8 ©
-lop =ll
11
P=- j
-4p-8q=6
-lOq=2
1

1 .
The particular integral is y = - 11 cos 2x - - sin 2x
10 5
Hence, the general solution of the non-homogeneous differential equation is
y=y +y
= ex (P cos x + Q sin x) - cos 2x - sin 2x
10 5
y = ex (P cos x + Q sin x) —(11cos2x+2sin2x)

So LY = e' (—P sin x + Q cos x) + e' (P cos x + Q sin x) - - (-22 sin 2x +4 cos 2x)
dx 10
dy = ex(P + Q)
... cos x+ex(_P+Q) sin x _.(2 cos 2x _11 sin 2x ) ©

Substitute y = 1, x= into (1:

1 It.It
1=e 2 1 Pcos—+Qsm— -----(llcosit+2smit)
2 2 10
So

Q e2=i

1 7C

Substitute Ly =3, x = 7C2 into ©:

dx
3 = e 2 (P +Q)cos +e 2 (—P +Q)sin—(2cosm-11sinIt)

So 3=e2(—P+Q)--(-2)
 Differential equations and modelling

• 1- 2
i.e. 3=e 2 1-P---e 2 1+-
10 ) 5
13 1
—=-Pe2 -----
5 10
7C

Pe 2 _ 27

P=_e 2

Hence, the particular solution of the non-homogeneous differential equation is

Y = e' I __e 2 cos x - - e 2 sin x)_10

—(11cos2x+2sin2x)
10 10

= --e 2 (27 cos x + sin x) - -- (11 cos 2x + 2 sin 2x)

10 10
-Example 45:&3

Solve the equation +10 LY + 25y = 3e-5x

dx2 dx
given that y = 0 and dy =1 when x = 0
dx
Solution

Given the equation dX2 + 10 LY + = 3e-5x

dx

The complementary equation is &Y + 10 dy + = 0.

The auxiliary equation is r2 + lOr +25 = 0
Factorising: (r + 5)2 = 0
So
the complementary function is y = (A + Bx)e_Sx

Given the equation -4 + 10dx± 25y = 3e -5 x

Then f(x) = 3e -5x which is an exponential function

Let y = A x2e 5x be the trial solution. Why?
dy
Then —=-5cix2e-5x+2axe -5x
dx

And &Y = 25ax2e_5 x - 10 axe _5 x - 10axe_5x + 2ae_5x

dx2

So 4
dx
= 25ax2e _Sx - lOax&5x ± 2ae_5x
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Substitute into the left-hand side of the differential equation.

axe_5 x + 2 ae_5 x) + 10(_5ax2e_5x + 2
axe_5 x) + 25 ax2e_5 X 3e-5x
Thus (25 ax2e_5X - 10
(25a - 50a + 25a) e - + (-lOa + lO a)xe_5x + 2ae_5 x == 3e
3e-5x
_5x
So 2ae_5 x
i.e. 3
2

The particular integral is y, = - x2e_5 x

Hence, the general solution of the non-homogeneous differential equation is
y=y+y
y= (A +B x )e 5 x + X2 e 5x

+ x2 (_5e 5 x) +
3xe5x
So = (A + B x )(_5e 5 x) + B e 5 x 2
dx
= _5Ae_5x - 5B xe 5 x + Be-5x - x2e 5 x + 3xe_5x
2

... __- 15 xe 5 x + ( 3- 5B) xe 5 x + ( B - 5A)e 5 x

dx 2
Substitute y = 0, x = 0 into @):
0=A =A=0

Substitute =i, x =0 into ©:

dx
1=B-5A =B=1
Hence, the particular solution of the non-homogeneous differential equation is
:
y=xe 5 x +x2 e 5x

y= 1 xe 5 x(3x +2)
2

Exercise lOi
1. Solve each differential equation with the given conditions.
(a) - + 3y =8 given that y = 0 and Ly =1 when x =0.
dx
dx2 dx
dy
(b) -4 Ly + 3y =7, given that y = 1 and
dx=0 when x =0.
dx2 dx
d2 dy Ly =1 when x = 0.
(c) -y +4— + = -5 , given that y = 0 and dx
dx2 dx
dy =0 when x =0.
(d) -= -6, given that y = 1 and dx
 Differential equations and modelling EM
2. Solve each of the following differential equations with the given conditions.
dii
(a) ---2-d
&Y +1=3x+2, given thaty=Oand --=1 whenx=O.
dx2 dx dx
d2
(b) -4- 9y = 2x -1, given that y. = 1 and dy
- =0 when x =0.
dx

(c) &Y - + = 1- 4x, given that y =0 and dy = 1 when x'= 0.

(d) - + 2y =2-5x, given that y = 1 and 0 when x =0.

3. Solve each differential equation with the stated conditions.

(a) &Y -2 - 3y = +5, given that y = 0 and =1 when x =0.
dx2 dx. dx
(b) &Y + 2 + y = -2, given that y = 1 and dy =0 when x =0.
dx2 dx dx

(c)4 +2
dx dx
+ 3y =3- x2 , given that y =0 and
dx
=1 when x 0.

(d) &Y -2 + 3y =1- x2 , given that y = 1 and L y = 0 when x =0.

dx2 dx dx
4. Solve each of the following differential equations with the stated conditions
d2 u di' . dy
(a) -- -44+3y
-- =3 sin x, given, that y = 0 and - =1 when x = it.
dx2 dx dx
d2y dy dy
(b) —i- -6— + 9y = -8 sinx, given that y = 1 and - =0 when x = it.

(c) &Y -2 + y =3 sin 2x, given that y =0 and dy =1 when X= it.

(d) —+2--3y=-2 sin 3x, given that y=l and --=O when x=-Jr.
dx2 dx dx 3
5. Solve the differential equations using the given conditions.
. dy
(a) -- i + 2— + y =4 cos x, given that y =0 and =2 when x = it.
&Ydy

(b) -3+2y=-3cosx,giventhaty=1
and =3 when x= 7r.

(c) -4-2 - + 5y =6 cos 2x, given that y = 0 and - =2 when x= - it.

(d) &Y -2 Ly + y = - 2 cos (4x), given that y = 1 and Ly = 3 when x = it.

EM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

6. Solve each differential equation with the given conditions.

dy
(a) -
&Y +3— + = sin x + cos x, given that y = land =2 when x = it.
dx2 dx dx

(b) +6 9y =3 sin x +2 cos x, given that y = 2 and =5 when x =

dx +
it.
dx
dy
(c) &Y +2— +2y =3 sin 2x + cos 2x, given that y = 1 and
dx 2 dx dx
= 2 when x=-it.
4
Ly
(d) 4i3 + 2y= 5 sin 3x+ 2 cos 3x, given that 2and .L=3 when x=it.
cj%2 dx cix 6
7. Solve each of the following differential equations with the given conditions.
(a) &Y -3 = sin x - cos x, given that y = 3 and = 2 when x = it.
dx 2 dx - dx
(b) &Y -2 +y= 5 sin x -2 cos x, given that y = 2 and dy =3 when x= -it.
dx 2 dx dx 2
dy
(c) &Y +2 + y =3 sin 2x -2 cos 2x, given that y = 1 and dx = 1 when x = it.
d2 y
(d) 4+-2y=-4sin3x,giventhaty=2 and =1 when x=.it.

8. Solve each differential equation with the stated conditions.

42
y dy
(a) - + 4-- l2y = 3e,6xgiven that y =3 and =7 at x =0.
dx2 dx dx

(b) +7 +l2y = 2e 3 x, given that y = 4 and =5 at x = 0.

dx2 dx dx
dy
(c) -
&Y -6— + = -5e 4x, given that y = 2 and =3 when x =0.
dx2 dx dx

(d) & Y _4_5y=_2e5x,giventhaty= land =2 when x=0.

dx 2 dx dx
9. Solve each of the following differential equations with the stated conditions.
dy d
&Y -2— + = 3e x, given that y = 3 and
(a) —i 6 when x = 0.
dx dx dx

(b) +4 += 4e 2 x, given that y = 1 and =3 when x =0.

dx2 dx dx

(c) -6 = _2e3 x, given that y = 2 and =4 when x = 0.

dx2 dx + dx

(d) i+8+16=_3e, given that y=3and =1 when x=0.

dx2 dx dx
 Differential equations and modelling EM
10. Solve the differential equations using the given conditions.
&Y y = 5e, given that y 2 and =1 when x =0.
(a) --
dx2 dx

(b) dx2 - = 3e2 x, given that y =3 and dx =2 when x=0.

(c) &Y_3y=4ex,giventhaty=1 and when x=0.

dx2 dx

Solving a differential equation by substitution

Certain first order and second order ordinary differential equations can be reduced to a suitable
form for the purpose of integration, by a suitable substitution which is normally given for a
particular problem.
Here we are given a differential equation in a form that is not recognizeable for direct
integration. A suitable substitution is used to reduce the equation to a differential equation
which can be solved using a known method.
First order ordinary differential V
equation So x —=1-4v+4v2
dx
- Example 46 v
i.e. x —=(1--2v) 2
Use the substitution y = xv to find the general dx
solution of the differential equation Seperating the variables and integrating:
dyx2 -3xy+4y2 dv 1dx
dx x2 f _2v)2 ix

- Solution J(i _2v)-2dv = Jdx

Given the substitution y = xv
Differentiate using the product rule: =lnx±A
dy dv d
Thus —=x—+v—(x) 1
dx Ox dx =lnx+A
dv 2(1-2v)
= x—+v(1)
dx Substitute v = into the equation.
dy dv
dx dx =lnx+A
Substitute into the left-hand side of the 2(1-2- '1
differential equation.
dv x2 -3xy+4y2 Then
Thus x—+v=
dx x2 2—
dv 2
Then x +v=1_3+4() If y=vx 1
dx x So =lnx+A
2x -
=1 - 3v + 4v2 then V= X
EM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

X dv
i.e. =lnx+A xv 2 : -x —+v=3x
2x-4y dx
• x dv v
=2x-4y ---=-3
(in x + A) dx x
= 2x - x dV( i
(lnx+A) —+I--Iv=--3
dxx) x
2x(ln x + A) - x
This equation can then be solved using an
lnx+A integrating factor.
- x(21nx-1+2A)
The integrating factor I = e h1 X

4(lnx+A)
X

- Example 47
=e
Use the substitution y = to find the
=
general solution of the differential equation
dy =ei
x—+y=3xy 2 = x_1
dx
1
- Solution
X
Given the substitution y = - V = f -3( dx
Thus
Differentiate using the quotient rule:
V (1) -1 (v) = -3$ dx
Thus dY ._ dx dx
= -3 in x + A
dx v2
- v(0)_1() So v=A-3inx
dx
-
• dy 1d i.e. 1=A-31nx
X y)
dxv2 dx
Substitute into the left-hand side of the 1
differential equation. xy A3
1 dv'\
Thus x(__ja_J+y=3xy2 1
y= x(A-3lnx)
xdv 1 1 )2
Then --- + - = 3x( - since y = -
v 2 dx v V v
xdv 1 3x
So ------+—=—
v 2 dx v v 2
 Differential equations and modelling FM
Second order ordinary 2 d2y dy d 2
differential equation i.e. x —+x----=------
dx2 dx du2
-Example 48 Given the differential equation with
variable coefficients
(a) Use the substitution x = e' to show
that the differential equation 2 d2y dy
I
X
2d 2 dx2 dx
can bereduced
dx2 dx
Then
d2y dy u• dx2 dx dx
totheform
dU2 du Substituting into this differential
(b) Hence, equation.
(i) find the general solution
of the differential equation du2 du
2 d2y dy
X —+2x--6y=2x This is a differential equation with
dx2 dx constant coefficients.
(ii) solve the equation given that y = 1 (b) (i) The complementary equation is
and dy =0 whenx=1.
dx du2 du
Solution
The auxiliary equation is
(a) The substitution x = eu ==eu r2 +r-6=O
du Factorizing: (r + 3)(r -2) = 0
Using the chain rule: Either r=-3orr=2
Let r1 =-3 and r2 =2
dx du dx The complementary function is
dy 1
= —x------ YC = Ae 3l + B e2u
du dx The differential equation is
du d2y dy
—+--6u=2e
=x: du2 du
du x
Let y = Xe3 u be the trial solution
• dy = dy
dxdu Then LY =3Xe3u
du
And
dx dx) dxdu And
du2
So dx2 dx - du2 dx Substitute into the left-hand side of
the differential equation
d2y 1
= —x--- Thus 9X e3 1 + 3Xe3 u - 6Xe3 u = 2e3'
du2 dx
du So 6Xe3 u = 2e 3u
d2y 1
du2 X x
x=i3
EM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

-Example 49 1
The particular integral is y, = -
di,
(a) Use the substitution u = -- to
The general solution of the dx
differential equation is: show that the differential equation
d2y d y
Y=y +y — --- —=4 cos 3x-2 sin 3x can be
dX2 dx
= Ae_3u + Be2u + e3 du
3 reduced to -u=4cos3x-2srn3x.
dx
y =Ax 3 +Bx 2 + x 3 since x=eu (b) Hence,
(1) find the general solution
of the differential equation
(ii) Given that y = 1 when x = 1.
d2y dy
= 4cos3x-2sin3x
then y=Ax3+Bx2+x3 dX2 dx
(ii) solve the equation given that y = 0
becomes 1=A+B+- dy
3 and - =1 when x 0
dx
- Solution
So A+B= ©
3 (a) The substitution
Given that -v-
dx
=0 when x = 1, == 4
dx dx thth) dx 2
1dul=.
Substitution into the differential equation
then = _3Ax+ 2Bx+X2
dx d2y dy
-----= 4cos3x-2sm3x
becomes 0 = -3A + 2B + 1 dx2 dx
So -3A+2B=-1 © du
Thus --u=4 cos 3x-2 sin 3x
© dx
3 (b) (i) The complementary equation is
-5A=- 7 -
du
3 dx
du =U
A=-7- So
15 dx
©x3: 3A+3B=2 Separating the variables:
5B=1 du
- = dx
U
B=
5 rdu
i.e.
Hence, the particular solution of
the differential equation is lnu=x+A
7 1 1
v=—x +-x 2+ -x. u=ex
15 5 3
 Differential equations and modelling EM
The general solution of the differential
dx equation is
y = feAdx Y =y+y
7 1.
... y=Ce+B---cos3x+--sm3x.
=ex+A +B 15 15
(ii) Given that y = 0 when x = 0,
==> y=Ce'+B 1 .
The complementary function is then y = C ex + B - —7 cos 3x + — sin 3x
15 15
YC = C + B 7
The differential equation is becomes 0=C+B_
15
d2y dy
4 cos 3x-2 sin 3x so B+C=L
dx2 dx 15
Let y=P cos 3x+Q sin 3xbethe d
trial solution Given that y = 1 when x =0,
dx
Then -----3Psin3x+3Qcos3x
dx then = Ce x + sin 3x+. cos 3x
dx 5 5
And -1=-9P cos 3x-9Q sin 3x .
dx2 becomes 1 =C+
Substitute into the left-hand side of 5
the differential equation. ©
Thus (- 9P cos 3x - 9Q sin 3x) 5
- (- 3P sin 3x + 3Q cos 3x) substitute C = into (i):
=4 cos 3x —2 sin 3x 5
So (-9P-3Q) cos 3x+(3P-9Q) 4 7
sin 3x B+ = —
—

5 15
= 4 cos 3x —2 sin 3x 7 4
Equating coefficients of cos 3x: so B=-- —

15 5
—9P+3Q=4 (1)
Equating coefficients sin 3x:
3P-9Q=-2 © 3
x [-3]: —27P + 9Q = —12 © Hence, the particular solution of the
30P=-14 differential equation is
417 1
y=—e ----- cos 3x+-- sin 3x.
15 5 3 15 15
®x3: 9P-27Q=--6 Example 50
—30Q=-2
dy
Q=j (a) Use the substitution u = to show that
dx
d 2 y dy
The particular integral is the differential equation —i- + 3— = 9x
dx dx
y cos 3x + ± sin 3x du
15 15 can be reduced to —+3u=9x.
dx
EM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

(b) Hence,
i.e. = 3x _1+Ae 3 x
(1) find the general solution of the
dx
differential equation &Y +3 dy = 9x y= $(3x _1 + A e 3x)d x
(ii) solve the equation given that y = 2
= y=-x 2 -x--Ae -3x +B
and -.- =3 when x =0. 2 3
dx
- Solution (ii) Given that y = 2 when x = 0,
dy du d 2 then y=x2 _ x _iA e 3 x + B
(a) The substitution u = - => - = 2 3
dx cix dx
Substitute into the differential equation.
becomes 2=-A+B
du
- + 3u = 9x => P=3
dx Given the -v
dx
=3 when x =0,
fPdx
(b) U) The integrating factor I = e
e J3dx then
= dx
=e 3 becomes 3 -1 + A

So Iu=f9xe 3'dx
From @: 2:-(4)+B
exu = $9xe3xdx
Integrate by parts, the right-hand B=
3
side of the equation.
Hence, the particular solution of the
Thus e3'u = 3xe3x - $ 3e3xdx differential equation is
= 3 xe3 x -3$ e 3 xdx 3 1 10
y= — x 2 -x--(4)e x
2 3 3
= Re 3x —3Ie+A
'...3 ) i.e. y=-x -x- -e -3+ 10
2 3 3
=3xe3 _ e3 x + A
So u=3x-l+Ae 3'

Exercise

1. Use the substitution y = xv to find the general solution of the differential equation
dy x2 -xy+y2
dx x2
2. Use the substitution y = xv to find the general solution of the differential equation
dy x2 +xy+y2
cix x2
 Differential equations and modelling

3 Use the substitution y = to find the general solution of the differential equation
dy 2
dx

4. Use the substitution y = to find the general solution of the differential equation
V
2dY2
dx
5. (a) Use the substitution x = e 1' to show that the differential equation
H
x24_2x+2y4x3 can bereduced totheform _3 + 2y= 4e3 u
dx dx du2 du
(b) Hence,
M find the general solution of the differential equation x 2 - 2x + = 4x3

(ii) solve the equation given that y = 2 and =5 when x = 0.

dx
6. (a) Use the substitution x = &' to show that the differential equation
x2 - 7x - = 3x2 can be reduced to the form —8 = 3e u .
dx2 dx du2 du
(b) Hence,
(1) find the general solution of the differential equation x 2 - 7x L - = 3x2

(ii) solve the equation given that y = 1 and =0 when x = 1.

dx

7. (a) Use the substitution x = eu to show that the differential equation x 2 - 5x +9y 5x2
dx dx
can be reduced to the form yd2y7 - 6 dy
— + 9y 5e 2u
du
U
(b) Hence,
(1) find the general solution of the differential equation x 2 - 5x + = 5x 2
dx
(ii) solve the equation given that y =2 and =1 when x =1

12 y d
8. (a) Use the substitution u = to show that the differential equation - —2 =5 cos 4x
dx dx2 dx
can be reduced to du —2u=5cos4x
dx
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

(b) Hence,

U) find the general solution of the differential equation -- -2 = 5 cos 4x

dX2 dx
(ii) solve the equation given that y = 2 and LY =1 when x = - it.

9. (a) Use the substitution u = to show that the differential equation

dx
du
+4
dX2 dx
LY
= 2 cos 3x -4 sin 3x can be reduced to + 4u = 2 cos 3x -4 sin 3x
dx
(b) Hence,

(i) find the general solution of the differential equation +4 LY =2 cos 3x -4 sin 3x
(ii) solve the equation given that y = 2 and dy = 2 when x =

d2 d
10. (a) Use the substitution u = d to show that the differential equation
dx dx dx -4
+ 5- = 8x can

du
be reduced to —+5u=8x.
dx
(b) Hence,

(i) find the general solution of the differential equation +5 = 8x

dx2 dx
(ii) solve the equation given that y = 1 and =1 when x = 0
dx

Applications of second order differential equations

Example 51 - Solution
(a) The vibrations of a spring is given (a) Given the differential equation
by the differential equation
-4+25x=0
4+25x= 0.
Then the associated equation is
Find the general solution to this r2 +25=0
equation So r2 =-25
(b) Hence solve the equation given that i.e. r2 = 25i2
dx
x=8 and —=lO when t=0. r=±\bi
dt
r=±5i
 Differential equations and modelling EM
Hence, the general solution is
x = A e5it + B e _5it
... x=Pcos5t+Qsin5t
(b) Given that x = 8 and t = 0,
then x = P cos 5t + Q sin 5t
becomes 8 = P cos 0 + Q sin 0
so 8=P(1)
P=8
dx
Given that _jiO and t=0
dx
then =-5P sin 5t+5Q cos 5t
dt
becomes 10 = —5P sin 0 + 5Q cos 0
so 10 = 5Q(1)
Q=2
Hence, the particular solution of the differential equation is
x =8 cos 5t + 2 sin 5t.
This equation represents simple harmonic motion.
- Example 52WA
LI

Kirthoff's second law states that if a potential E is applied to a simple circuit with inductance
L, resistance R and capacitance C, then the charge q coulomb on the capacitor after time t
satisfies the differential equation
LL +R +±L = E
dt2 dt C
(a) Find the general solution of this equation for the circuit in which L = 5.0 x io henry,
R=6 ohm, C = 1.0 x io farad and E = 220 volts.
(b) Solve the differential equation given that q = 1 and =0 when t =0.
dt
- Solution
Method 1
(a) Given the differential equation
L+R-+=E
dt2 dt C
Rn Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Then 5.0x10 3 --+6+ q

=220
dt2 dt 1.0x10 3
d2 q
x103: 5 — +6x10 3+106xq=220x103
dt2 dt

4dt2--+12OO+20000Oq=
dt
44000
The complementary equation is
r 2 + 1 200r + 200 000 = 0

where a=1,b= 1200 and c=200 000

-1200 ± /1 2002 - 4(1)(200 000)
Then r =
2(1)
-1200 ± 44 0000-800 000
-

2
- -1200 ± v9ZO 000
2
-1 200±800
2
= -600± 400
r1 = -600 + 400 = -200
and r2 =-600-400=-1000
The complementary function is
qC = Ae_200t +Be_lOt
The differential equation is
d2 q d
~ 1 200 44000
dt2 dt
Then f(x) = 44 000 is a constant function.
Let q = Abe a trial solution
Then
dt

And 4=o
Substitute into the left-hand side of the differential equation.
Thus 0+0+200000A=44000

50
 Will Pure Mathematics for CAPE

q
Then =220
dt2 dt 1.0x10 3

x103 :
dt2 dt

+5:
dt2 dt
where =1,b= 1.2xl03 and c=2x105
= -1.2x103 ±..j(1.2x103 )2 -4(1)(2x10 5 )
so r
2(1)
- _1.2x103±6.44x106-8x105
2
- -1.2x10 3 ±11.44x106 -0.8x10 6
2
- -1.2x10 3 ±V0.64x10 6
2
- -1.2x 10±0.8x10 3
2
CI) - (-1.2±0.8)x103
CD 2
= = (-0.6 ± 0.4) >< 103
0
r1 =(-0.6+0.4)x103 = -0.2x 103 = -200

and r2 = (- 0.6-0.4)x 10 3 = -1.0x10 = -1000

The complementary function is
= Ae_203t + Be -'

The differential equation is

+1.2 x +2 x 105q = 4.4 x

dt2 dt
Then f(x) = 4.4 x 10 is a constant function.
Let q = X be a trial solution

Then
dt

And
dt2
 Differential equations and modelling EM

The particular integral is qP =

Hence, the general solution of the differential equation is q = q + q
q = A&200t + Be` 000t +
50
(b) Given that q = 1 when t = 0,
then q = Ae_200t + Bel000t +
50
becomes 1=A+B+ 1
50

50

Given that dq 0 when t =0,

dt
then = —200Ae 200t —1 000B&1 000t
dt
becomes 0 = —200A - 1 000B
—A-5B=0 ©

©x5: 5A+5B= ©
10
4A
10
A=
40
39
—4B= T
50
B=---
200
Hence, the particular solution of the differential equation is

q= e_200 t __ e_lOOOt
40 200 50
q = -- (195e -2001 - 39e-1 000t + 44)
200
Method 2
(a) Given the differential equation
E
dt2 dt C
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Find the general solution to this equation.

(b) Hence, solve the equation given that 0 = 0 and =10 when t0.
dt
3. (a) The warm-up temperature T(°C) of a curling iron is given as a function of time
t (seconds) by the differential equation.
—+2 21 +5T=1500.
dt2
H dt
Find the general solution to this equation.
(b) Hence,
(1) state the equilibrium temperature which results when t
dT
(ii) solve the equation given that T = 30 °C and =50 °C/sec when t = 0.
dt
4. (a) A particle moves along the x-axis so that at time t it satisfies the differential equation

—+4—+3x=7t+4.
• dt2 dt
• Find the general solution to this equation.
dx
(b) Hence, solve the equation given that x = 9 and = —10 when t =0.
dt
5. (a) The force on a particle is defined by the differential equation
40_d2 = 3t2 _1
dt2
dx
(b) Hence, solve the equation given that x = 1 and =5 when t =0.
dt
Find the general solution to this equation.

6. The charge q on a capacitor in a circuit is defined by the differential equation

L4 L
dt2 dt C
where L, R, C, and E are constants.
(a) Find the general solution given that
L = 2.5 x 10, R = 50, C = 4.0 x 10-6 and E = 2.5e 5t
dq
(b) Hence, solve the equation given that q = 0 and = 0 when t0.
dt
7. (a) Hooke's law patterns the undamped motion of a spring, by the differential
equation the motion of a spring c f + 36h =0 in air,

Find the general solution to this equation.

(b) Hence, solve the equation given that h = 1 and =7 when t =0.
dt
 Differential equations and modelling EM

Substitute into the left-hand side of the differential equation.

Thus 0+0+2x105 7=4.4x10 4
So X=2.2x10 1
0.22
The particular integral is q = 0.22
P
Hence, the general solution of the differential equation is
q=q+q
q = Ae_200t + Be' 000' + 0.22
(b) Given that q = 1 when t =0,
then q = Ae_200t + Be1 000t + 0.22
becomes 1 = A + B + 0.22
A + B = 0.78
Given that d q =0 when t =0,
dt
Then = —200Ae 200t —1 000Be 1000t
dt
becomes 0 = —200A - 1 000B
so 0=—A-5B
—A-5B=0 ©
—4B=0.78
B=-0.195
@x5: 5A+5B=3.9 ©
4A=3.9
A= 0.975
Hence, the particular solution of the differential equation is
q = 0.975e 200t —0.195e 1000t + 0.22

Exercise 10k

1. (a) The simple harmonic motion of a spring is given by the differential equation
4+5h=0

Find the general solution to this equation.

(b) Hence solve the equation given that h = 8 and =4 when t =0.
dt
2. (a) The needle of a measuring instrument makes an angle 0 with its reference
position after time t. The deflection of the needle is given by the differential equation
—3 —40=0.
17 dt
 Pure Mathematics for CAPE

3 At each point on a curve the gradient is 6x 2y. If the curve passes through to pomt
(0, 8), then its equation is
x
() y 8e 2 (b) y = e2x3 +9 (c) y =2X3 + 8 (d) y In (2x3 + 1) +8
dy
4. Given that - =2ysec .2 x. and y=7 when x=0, then y=
dx
(a) 7ex +tan x (b) etan. x + 7 (c) 7e2th
. (d) tan x + 7
••• •• dy ...
S. Given that —=3y andy= 1 when x.=1, then when x=2,y= .,
-

- dx
(a) (b) - . 1(c) (d)
6. A baby -has amass of 3 k at birth and 6 kg twomonths later, The mass of the baby
during the first 9 months increases at a rate proportional to its mass. The mass, M, of
the baby t months later, where 0 !! ~ t :!~ 9, is given by
(i\
(a) m=.32 2 ) (b) m=2.3 2 ) (c) m=3 1 23 / (d) m=23 3
7. In a controlled culture bacteria increase at a rate proportional to the number present.
If the number of bacteria doubles in five hours, then the number of hours in which. the
bacteria triples is t =
. .... 51 :..5.Ini2 ....
...•:..

(a) . (b) ................. (c) •.(d).

. •.

1n2 'In 2 1n2 1n3

8 During a flu epidemic, the number of people that are infected at any time .increases
at a rate which is proportional to the number of people that are infected at that time.
Initially, .750 people are infected, and 1 500 are infected 2 days later. The number of
people infected 6 days after the epidemic started is
(a) 3 000 (b) 4500 (c) 6000 (d) 7 500 .

9 A population N grows accordmg to the differential equation = kt, where k is a

constant and t is the time .-my-ears. If the population doubles every 5 years, then the
value ofk=
(a) In (b) (c) -ln5 (d) -ln2

10 Given the differential equation x 2 dy = y Ox and y = 1 when x = 2, then the particular

solution is
1 11
=e = e2X2
(a) y 2 (b) y = x2 (c) y (d)
=X .

11 The general solution of the lmear differential equation ax + = e5'

(a)y=l+Ae5x . (b) y=(x+A)e_5x (c) y=(x+A)e5" (d) !,=Ae_5

 Differential equations and modelling FM
8. (a) The damped motion of a spring, the motion of a spring in a fluid, is patterned
by the differential equation
10 +20 - 30h =0
dt2 dt
Find the general solution to this equation.
(b) Hence, solve the equation given that h = 0 and =2 when t = 0.
dt
9. A circuit consists of a resistance R in series with a parallel combination of an
inductance L and a capacitance C. When the switch is closed to apply a voltage of E volts
then the current i in the inductance is governed by the equation
RLC dt2 + L. + Ri = E.
dt
(a) Find the general solution of this equation for the circuit in which R = 1 when,
L = 2.0 x 102 henry, C = 5.0 x i0 farad and E = 8 volts.
di
(b) Solve the differential equation given that i = 0 and =0 when t=0.
dt
10. (a) Given that the differential equation
d 2i di
RLC+L+Ri=E
dt2 dt
represents the current flow in a closed circuit, R = 5 ohm, L = 1.0 x 10-2 hei1iry,
C = 1.0 x 10 farad and E = 13 cos 200t, find the general solution.
di
(b) Hence, solve the equation given that i = 0 and =0 when t = 0.
dt

1 The rate of change of the increase in volume, V. of water in an aquarium wi4i respect
to time, t, is directly proportional to the increase in square root of the volume. The
differential equation that describes this relationship is
(a) V = (b) = (c) 4K = kJ7 (d) = k-..JV

2. Given that =- 3y and j = 1 when t = 0, then the value oft for which y = is

(a) - (b) (c) (d) in 3

. 3 . . .3 '3
FM Pure Mathematics for CAPE
 Differential equations and modelling E M

12 The particular solution of the differential equation = x2 , given that y = 7

-

dx x
when us
= l(t2 +13) (c) If = 2 (x2 +13) (d) y = —13)
(a) y = x (x2 +13) (b) Y

13 The general solution of the differential equation +6 + = o is

dx
(a) it = Ae 6r + B ex (b) y = A e_5x + B ex (c) y = Ae + B e_x (d) y = A e_5x + Be_x

14. The general solution of the differential equation +6 Ly + =0 is

(a) y = (A + B x)e3x (b) y = (A + BX)eT3 (c) y = (A + B x)e6x (d) y =(A + B x)e 6x

15. The general solution of the differential equation +2 5y =0 is

dx +
(a) y = e (A cos 2x + B sin 2x) (b) y = ex (A cos 2x + B sin 2x)
(c) y = e (A cos 2x B sin 2x)
- (d) y = ex (A cos 2x B sin 2x) -

dy
=2
1. The particular solution of the differential equation y" — 25 y 7 0 if y = 7 and X
when x=Ois
e5x (37e e5X We "' + 33)
(a) 1/ = —33) (b) y -

yeT5x(37elO1±33)
(c) i/= _e 5x(37e 10x _33) (d) 10
10
17. The general solution of the differentil equation +4 Ly +3 y 10 cos x is
•dx dx
(a) it =Ae_3x+Be+cosX+25iflX (b) =Ae_3x+Be_cosX+2 sin X
it
(c) y= Ae 3x+Be_x_ cos X2 sin X (d) y= Ae_3x+Be_x+ cos X_2 sin . X

2 2X
18. The general solution of the differential equation d y -- - y = 5e is

+e2t
(a) y = Aex +Be _e21 (b) y= A e x +Be

(c) i/= Aex — Be _e2x (d) y = Ae x —Be

= e5 ' with y = 1 and =4

19. The solution of the initial value problem A~Y
dx
- -6
dx + dx
when x=Ois
(a) it=(e3x+e2x_3) (b) y=(e3x_e2x+3)
EM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

* . Differential equations
+ A differential equation is an equality that involves at least one derivative of an
unknown function of a single variable
-*.-.An ordmary differential equation is an equality involvmg a function and its ordmary
derivatives
+ The order of a differential equation is the highest derivative m the equation
+ The power of a differential equation is the power of the highest derivative in the
equation
+ A first order linear ordinary differential equation is of the form
All
 Differential equations and modelling IM

(b) (i) Find the values of the constants rn and n, given that y = m cos x + n sin x
satisfies the differential equation
d2y dy
.--2---+3y=iOcosx . .
dx2 dx .
(ii) Hence, find the general solution of the differential equation.
25. (a) Solve the differential equations.
.dy .dy
(1) __y=ex . (11)

(b) Solve the differential equations.

(i) .4_y=3x+1 (ii) 4+y=3x+1
dx
(c) Solve the differential equations.
(i) 4_y=3x2+1 (ii) 4+y=3x2+1
dx TX
(d) Solve the differential equations. . .
.ay ..dy 2 ..
3
(1) ---y=2x +1 (11) —2-+y=2x3+1
dx dx .
(e) Solve the differential equations.
(1) 4_y=e3x . (ii) ._4 +y=e3 x . ..

(f) Solve the differential equations.

(i) dX2 - y sin x . (ii) + y = sin x
(g) Solve the differential equations.
d2y .. dy
(i) ---y=cosx (n) ä_+I= Cos x ............
(h) Solve the differential equations. .

M - --y=xsinx (ii) 4+y=xsinx

dx
(1) Solve the differential equations. . .

(i) - y = .x cos x (ii) + y:= xcos x

(j) Solve the differential equations.
(j) - y = x2 sin x
dX2 (ii) +y = x2 sin x
(k) Solve the differential equations.
(i) dY = cos x (ii) dX2 +y = x2 cos x
dX2 -
EM Pure Mathematics for CAPE

Homogeneous linear equations

•) The general solution of the homogeneous equation a y + b + cy =0 is called the
dx d.
complementary function, y•
+ Characteristic equation :: . . ..
.• . . . .

• Given the homogeneous equation . . . . . - .. ..

d2y dij
a--+b--+cy=0, a 0.
dx dx
 Differential equations and modelling

Then $ d
j–xy)dx=5f(x)dx

So xy=F(x)+A
) First order linear ordinary differential equation
• Given the first order linear ordinary differential equation in standard form:
dy
+ P(x)ii = Q(x)
dx

Then --- [I(x)y] I(x)Q(x)

dx
so f --
d
[I(x)y] dx =5 I(x)Q(x) dx
x

i.e. I(x)i = 5I(x)Q(x) dx

) SI(x)Q(x) dx
= J(
where 1(x) is called an integrating factor.
and 1(x) =
Applications of first order differential equations
+ Kirchoff's second law:
dl
L+RI=E
dt
Second order linear ordinary differential equation
+ Given the second order linear ordinary differential equation with constant coefficients
d2 y d
a--+b-- y+ ci f(x), a•#O
dx dx
where a, b, c E R andf is a continuous function.
This equation is also called a second order non-homogeneous linear differential
equation with constant coefficients.
•:• If f(x) =0, then
d2 y dy
a—+b— +cy =0.
dx2 dx
This equation is a. second order homogeneous linear differential equation.
It is also the complementary equation (associated equation) of the
non-homogeneous equation.
•• The general solution of the non-homogeneous differential equation, by the
superposition principle, is y = y ± y
where y, is the complementary function and y p is the particular integral.
EM Pure Mathematics for CAPE
 Differential equations and modelling

where a,b,c e R andfia continuous function

itfl1TUTLIêJA ,

Constant function p
Linear function px + q
Quadratic function px±qx+s
Cubic function px3 ± qx2 + sx + t
Trigonometric function
cos x, sin x, cos x ± sin x, p Cos x±qsinx
cos mx, sin mx, cos mx ± sin mx p cos mx ± q sin mx
Exponential function
Y does not contain e' - pe'
Y does not contain emx Pe nzx
Y contains ex pxe'
contains emx pxemx
Y contains ex and xex px2e'
ycontainsemxandxemx pX2e MX

Nonhomogeneous linear equations

+ Given the second order non-homogeneous linear ordinary differential equation
with constant coefficients
d2y dy
aO

+ The general solution of the non-homogeneous differential equation by the

superposition principle is
Y = The complementary function + The particular integral
i.e. y = y+y

+ y is the general solution of the complementary equation a +b + cy =0

+ y is a particular integral of the equation a +b + cy = f(x),

+ y, can be found by solving simultaneous equations using the method of
elimination, the method of substitution or the method of undetermined coefficients
Second order ordinary differential equation with given conditions
+ Given the second order non-homogeneous linear ordinary differential equation

with constant coefficients a +b + cy = a#0

 Answers

MODULE 1
Complex Numbers and Calculus II
1 Complex numbers
Exercise la

1. (a) x = ± i'j (b) x = ± i ,[5- 10. (a) -4 , 1F

Oi (b) -711i
2. (a) x = ± 3i (b) x = ±
3. (a) x=±2i-.ñ (b) x=±3i'j
(c) _~ L (d)
3
11. (a) i (b) 1 (c) -i (d) -1
4. (a) x = ± (b) x = ±
2 12. (a) 1 (b) -i (c) -1 (d) i

5. (a) x = ± i. (b) x = ± i
J
I2
13.
14.
(a) i
(a) -i
(b)
(b)
-i
i
(c)
(c)
I
-1
(d)
(d)
-i
1
15. (a) 1 (b) i (c) -1 (d) -i
6. (a) 5i (b) 71 (c) 4.Ji (d) 7
J2
1 16. (a) lOi (b) 2i (c) -6 (d) -

7. (a) 'jii (b) 'Jii (c)

J2i (d) Ji 17. (a) 9i (b) -30 (c) i
2
(d) 2
11
18. (a) -72
8. (a) 2Ji (b) 3-vi (c) j!1i (d)
(b) 12i
14
(c)
10
- (d) 21

19. (a) 5i (b) - (c) 15i (d) -90

3
9. (a) -15i (b) -32i (c) ----i (d) - -i
2 20. (a) (b) -42 (c) -2i (d) 221

Exercise lb

1. (a) 2 complex roots

(b) 2 real unequal roots 9. (a) (i) 2 complex roots (ii) x = - 1± - i
2
2. (a) 2 real unequal roots .. 2
(b) 2 complex roots (b) (1) 2 real distinct roots (ii) x= - or x =1
3. (a)
(b)
2 real unequal roots
2 complex roots
10. (a) (1) 2 complex roots (ii ) X = -1 ± -

2
i

4. (a) 2 complex roots (b) (1) 2 complex roots (ii) X= -

2

(b) 2 real unequal roots '

5. (a) 2 real equal roots (b) 2 complex roots 11. (a) z = 1 ± 'ii (b) z = 1 ± 'Ji
6. (a) W2 real distinct roots (ii) x = -1 ± 2
12. (a) z = ± i (b) z=± i
(b) (i) 2 real equal roots (ii) X = -1
1 .i1iii.
7. (a) (1) 2 complex roots (ii) x =
3 'fi i 13. (a) z=
4 4
(b)
- ± -
5 5
2 2
2 complex roots
3 1 Jiii
(b) (1) (ii) x=-2±i 14. (a) (b)
10 10 3 6
8. (a) (i) 2 complex roots ii x =1 ± 'Ji
" 9 "
1 15 . (a) z=-±---i (b) z=- ±- --i
(b) (i) 2 complex roots (ii) X = ± - i-
14 14 16 16
22
 Answers

Exercise ic

1. (a) x2 +25=0 (b) x2 -4x+29=0 11. c=53

2. (a) x2 +4=0 (b) x2 -6x+73=0 12. b=-8
3. (a) x2 +36=0 (b) x2 -8x+65=0 13. k=45
4. (a) x2 +100=0 (b) x2 -14x+149=0 14. p=169
5. (a) x2 +169=0 (b) x2 -18x+277=0 15. q= 289
6. (a) 3-21 (b) x2 -6x+13=0 16. x=4 and y=-'I
7. (a) 4+i (b) x2 -8x+17=0 17. x=8 and y=-5.J
8. (a) 5-8i (b) x2 -lOx+89=0 18. x=4 and y=-8
9. (a) 6+51 (b) x2 -12x+61=0 19. x=l6 and y=14
10. (a) 8-9i (b) x2 -16x+145=0 20. x=O and y=-5'.fi

Exercise id

1. (a) 11+3i (b) 5+111 2 3 •. 2 3

27. (a) (i) - +
2. (a) 10 + 4i (b) 9 - 3i 13 13 13 13
3. (a) -5-9i (b) 10+16i 4 7 4 7
(b) W (ii) +j
4. (a) 4 - 41 (b) 13 + 17i 65 65 65 65
5. (a) 16 + 6i (b) 10 + 5j 35 10 35 10
28. (a) M - --I (ii) - +-j
6. (a) 2 + 21 (b) 2 + 5i 53 53 53 53
7. (a) 2 + 2i (b) 3 + 3j 48 40 48 40
(b) U)
8. (a) 2 + 6i (b) 1 + 121 61 61 61 61
9. (a) 4 + 6i (b) 4 + 21i 10 7 10 7
29. (a) M - - I (ii) +
10. (a) -5 + 14i (b) -4 + j 149 149 149 149
11. (a) 14 + 6i (b) 5 + 6i 9 4 9 4
(b) U) +
12. (a) -2 - 151 (b) 0+I 97 97 97 97
13. (a) 3 + 7i (b) 1 4i 72 45 72
30. (a) M (ii) + 45j
14. (a) 22 - 7i (b) 5+i 89 89 89 89
15. 14 - 21 3 + 61 14 12 14 12
(a) (b) (b) M - +-I (ii) - --
17 17 17 17
16. (a) -2 + 23i (b) 11 + 21
23 1 11 18
17. (a) 1 - 411 (b) 31 + 291 31. (a) -+ -i (b) - --+ --i
1010 55
18. (a) -2 + 291 (b) 7 - 261
30 7 19 30
19. (a) 28 -471 (b) 18 + 431 32. (a) ---I (b) - -- -I
13 13 13 13
20. (a) 101 + 37i (b) 25 - 15i
59 . 40 7
21. -1-2'Ji
(a) (1,) 67+ Ui 33. (a) -+ 12
-i (b) -- -I
25 25 17 17
22. -2 + 2Jii
(a) (b) 37 + Oi
53 4
23. 5-2J1i
(a) (b) 256 + Oi 34. (a) 1 - 2i (b) -+ -i
25 25
24. 3+2öi
(a) (b) 464 + Oi 3 11 65 74
25. (b) 267 + Oi (a) -±--i (b) -±-i
5-4Ji
(a) 5 5 89 89
123 123 47 267
26. (a) (1) - - - (U) - + - 36. (a) - - + - I (b) - --I
17 17 17 17 5 5 29 29
5 1 .. 5 1. 26 7 29 22
(b) W+I (ii) --1 37. (a) ----I (b) --+-i
13 13 13 13 29 29 25 25
 Answers

1637 62 61. 49. (a) (z - 2 + 2i)(z - 2 - 2i)

38 (a) - ----i (b) -----i i J ( i k.
65 65 85 85 (b) I z+ -+-i ii z+ ----i
57 67. 3 3 )k. 3 3
39. (a) - (b) --1+
5 5 73 73 (1 V3-9 . i

50. (a) I z+-+ -----i U z+ -------i

(

13 125. 215 54 A
40 (a) -------1 (b) -------i
106 106 157 157 (Ji.'( 3i.
(b) I Z+-+----i Ii
41. (a) ±(2 + i) (b) ±(3 - 1) 4 4 A 4 4
42. (a) ±(4 - 2i) (b) ±(5 + i) 51. (a) z1+iorz=2+i
43. (a) ±(1 - 71) (b) ±(2 + 3i) (b) z = 1 - i or z = -2 + i
44. (a) ±(2+Ji) (b) ±(3_Ji) 52. (a) z = -1 + i or z = 2 - i
45. (a) ±(i+Ji) (b) ±(J_4i) (b) z = -1 - i or z = -2 - i
46. (a) (z - 1 + 2i)(z - 1 - 2i) (b) (z-2+i)(z--2-i) 53. (a) z2+iorz=3-2i
47. (a) (z + 3 - i)(z + 3 + i) (b) z = -2 + 3i or z = 2 - i
(b) (z+4i)(z-4i) 54. (a) z=2+iorz=4+i
iJ II
iJi) (b) zz-3+2iorz=2-4i
Z- -+----i
48(a) ( 2 2 ) 2 2 55. (a) z = 3 - 2i or z = 5 + i
(b) (z-3+ii)(z-3-ii) (b) z = 2 + 3i or z = 4 - 2i

Exercise le

1. (0,2)
(a) (b) (0,-3) (c) (1,0) (d) (-2,0)
2. (2,3)
(a) (b) (-4,2) (c) (3,-l) (d) (-1,-2)
3. (-5,-4)
(a) (b) (-4,7) (c) (6,-5) (d) (7,4)
4. (-6,8)
(a) (b) (8,-7) (c) (9,6) (d) (-8,-6)
5. (9,-6)
(a) (b) (-10,-5) (c) (-12,9) (d) (13,10)
6. z*=1_i
(a) (b) z*=1+i (c) z*=_1_i (d) z*_1+i
7. z = -8 - 31
(a) (b) z' = -8 + 31 (c) z* = 8 + 3i (d) z* = 8 - 31
8. z*=3+5i
(a) (b) z*=3_5i (c) z*=_3+5i (d) z*_3_5i
9. z*=_4+8i
(a) (b) z*=_4_7i (c) z*4_7i (d) z* 4 + 8i
10. z = 7 - 101
(a) (b) z* = 7 + 101 (c) z* = -7 + lOi (d) z -7 - lOi
11. (a) Izi=12 (b) IZ21 = 12
ir ( ir '\ 5ir ( 57c
argz1 = --. I 12--) argz2 = --12, ---
6 6 6)
(c) IZ31 =12 (d) jz4 =12
5ic( 571 IC
argz3 = argz4 =---•12,--
--•L.12'-----)
12. (a) IziI=2 (b) IZ21 = 2
2ic( 2ir
arg z 1 = . 2, arg z2 = -- _
(c) IZ31 =,2 (d) IZ41 =2
2ic( 2ir' argz4 = ---.2, -
It
argZ3 =
_---)
M Answers

13.(a) 1 z,\Ji (b) 1

IZ2 ='ji
3it "
argz1 argz2

(c) I z3 j=ii (d) I Z4 1 = 'jiJ

argz3
37 37
argz4 =
TC 7r )
14. (a) I z1=4sj (b) I Z21 =4'j
2ir'\
argz1 argz2 = ,r3-
3 ( 11 ) (4 , -i-)
(c) I Z3 = 4 j1 (d) 1
I Z4 = 4 J

argz3 = -
2n
(4,F3,
21r
argz4 = 4J, _:)
3. 3
15.(a) I z1 =2sj (b) 1
I Z2 = 2 J
2ic"
argz1
3 ( 3)
arg z2 =
-J
(c) I Z31 2 J (d) IZ41 =2,
27c 27c
argz3 3 . (2-~6,
- - argz4
3
16. (a) 5(cos 0 + i sin 0)
E cos
J+isin
(b)8 (
--

2) ( - -2Jj
71 )
17. (a) 4(cosic+isiri7c) cos-+isin-
(b)7 ( 2 2
18. (a) 10 (b) ioi
19. (a) 14 (b) 8i
20. (a) 8J (b) 2,jg
21. (a) 4( cos 1 .190c + i sin l .190c) (b) 4,J5(co52.035c + i sin 2.035c)
22. (a) 5 [cos(-.2.215c ) + i sin(_2.215')] (b) 3J [cOS(_0.464c) + i sin(-0.464)]
23. (a) 134 [cos(_0.540c) + I sin(_0.540)] (b) [cos(_2.864c) + i sin(_2 . 864)]
24. (a) 10(cos 2.215c + i sin 2.215c) (b) 2,J( cos 0.540c +i sin 0.540c)
25. (a) 3Ji [coS(_2.246c) + i sin(-2.246 c )] (b) 15 [coS(_0.927c) + I sin(-0.927')]

26. (a) z1 = + I (b) z2 = -2J + 2i (c) z3 = - -322

-3 1 (d) z 4 = 3- 35

27. (a) z1 = + -1 (b) z 2 = - +

hi. (c) z 3 =-------i (d) z4 =J-'1i
2 2 2 2 2 2

28. (a) z1 = -+-----i

2 2
(b) z2 = ----+-----i
2 2
(c) z 3 = -'J - (d) z4 = tfl
L
- 0
L
29. (a) z 1 = 4.132 + 1.711i (b) z 2 = -311+0i (c) z3 = -1.624 - 3.9201 (d) z4 =0-4'fii

30. (a) z 1 = 2.676 + 8.2361 (b) z2 = -1.070 + 3.295i (c) z3 = -3.325 - 4.5761 (d) Z4 = 5i1+5J
2
- 5/i+5.
2
5 5. 5 5h. 5h 5.
31. (a) -+----i (b) ------- i (c) ----+----i (d) --i
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
 Answers

32. (a) 4 + 4Ji (b) 4- 4Ji (c) -4 + 4Ji (d) -4- 4Ji
7 7 7 7J 7
33. (a) 1+ i (b) --

22
-i (c) ------+-i
22
(d) -------i
2 2
22
34. (a) 0 + 6i (b) 0 - 6i (c) 0+4i (d) 0-4i
9 ,[2- 9 r2-,

35 (a) (b) (c) -9 + Ui (d) - -

22 2 2 2 2
I 5\ ( 5\1
36. (a) z* = i[cos( (b) w = r7- COS
- 4) 4 Jj
(
-
[
(. . 3t\ (b) w * = 7C R
37. (a) z = 3-,r6- -+'sJn- cos -+is-I
in
5 5J 5 5)
7n 7ic'\
38. (a) z*=4f( cos -+isin
' - (b) = COS - isin -
2 2) ( 9 9)
I 3ic'\ " 37t '1
39. (a) [COS i -- I+isinl -- II 4)] (b) w*=5.J'(cos7r +i sin7t)
)
I I 7C . . 9ir "
40. (a) z*=9[ cosi ---- i+isinl - - II (b) w*=4,r7- ' cos +ism- I
2) 2)] 10 10)

I Exercise If

1. (b) (i) z1 + z2 = 1 + Si (ii) I Z1 + Z21 = (iii) arg(z1 + z2) = 1.373c (78.7°) (iv) z1 +z2 = 1-Si
2. (b) (i) Z1 + z2 = 5 + 12i (ii) lZI +z2 j = 13 (iii) arg(z1 + z2) = 1.176c (67:4°) (iv) z1 +z2 = 5-12i

3. z1+z2=-4+4i k1+z2I=4h arg(z1+z2)=(13S°)

4. (a) z1 +z2 =1-9i
(b) (i) lZ1 +z2 j = (ii) arg(z1 + z2) = _1.460c (-83.7°) (iii) Z1 +z2 = 1+9i
5. (a) (iii) z 1 + z2 = -2 - Si
(b) (i) z1 +z2 = (ii) arg(z1 + z2) = _1.951c (-111.8°) (iii) z1 +z2 = -2+5i
6. (b) (i) z 1 - z2 = 8 - 2i I Zi - = 2,H7 (iii) arg(z1 - z2) = _0.245c (-14.0°) (iv) z1 - z2 = 8 ± 2i
7. (b) (i) z1 - z2 = 2 - 3i j z1 - z21 = fii (iii) arg(z1 - z2) = _0.983c (-56.3°) (iv) z1 - z-2 ='2+3i
8. z, - = -3 + 8i l Z1 -z 2 = arg(z1 - z2)= 1.930c (110.6°)
9. (a) z1 - z2 = -6 - 4i
(b) (i) I Z1 - Z21 = 211 (ii) arg(z1 - z2) = -2.554' (-146.3°) (iii) z1 - z 2 = -6 + 4i
10. (a) (iii) z1 - z2 = 1 +12i
(b) (1) z1 -z21 iJi (ii) arg(z1 - z2) = 1.488c (85.2°) (iii) z1 -z2 = 1-121
11. z 1z2 = 13 + lii z1z2 J5 arg(z1z2) = 0.702c (40.2°)
12. (a) z1z2 =16-lli
(b) (i) lZlZ21 = (ii) arg(z1z2) = _0.602c (-34.5°) (iii) Z1Z2 = 16+lli
13. (a) z1z2 =-13+26i
(b) lZlZ21 = 13J arg(z1z2) = 2.034c (116.6°)
14. (a) z1z2 = -23 - 14i
(b) (i) lZlZ21= 5i (ii) arg(z1z2) = _2.595c (-148.7°) (iii) Z1Z2 = -23 + 14i
15. (b) (1) z1z2 = -18- 16i (ii) IZIZ21 = 2-.ii (iii) arg(z1z2) = _2.415c (-138.4°) (iv) z1z 2 = -18+16i
M Answers

I 3\ 37 \l
16. (a) M z1 z2 = 3'J (ii) arg(z1 z2 ) = (b) z1z2 = 4 Ji[cos t - - I +ism
) 4)]
(b) in-
zi z2 =3J (Cos —+is TC
2 2) (c) Enlarged by 4 and rotated clockwise.
2
It
(c) Enlarged by 'J and rotated - anti-clockwise. 24. (a) (i) z1z 2 = 10 (ii) arg(z1 z2 ) =
3
5it
17. (a) (i) I zj zj j =6 (ii) arg(z1 z2 ) = IC . . It
(b) z1z2 = l0cos—+ism-
6 6
Sit \
(b) z1z2 = 6( cos_+isin_J (c) Enlarged by 5 and rotated anti-clockwise.
6 6 2
(c) Enlarged by 3 and rotated anti-clockwise. 77c
25. (a) (i) Z1Z2 = 4,[6- (ii) arg(z1z2) = -
77t I 7 it"1 ( 7it 1
18. (a) (i) z 1z 2 = 10 (ii) arg(z1z2) (b) z iz 2 = +isin l --
= 12)]
77c
(b) 12 = cos _+isin_J it
io( 12 12 (c) Enlarged by 2,[2- and rotated - clockwise.
4
(c) Enlarged by 2 and rotated anti-clockwise. (z it
3 26. (a) (i) =8 (ii) arg i I = --
z2 3 )

Sit
19. (a) W ZiZ2 = 4 .\r2- (ii) arg(z1 z2 ) = I
-- - (b) = 8 cos --I+isin -
1 Sit 5 it)] z2 [ ( 3) 3)]
(b) z1z2 = 4[cosi -- 1+isin
6) ( 6 (c) Enlarged by 4 and rotated clockwise.
27t 2
(c) Enlarged by and rotated - anti-clockwise.
27. (a) (I) =6 ii arg=
37c
-- 1z21 (zl
z 2 ) 12
20. (a) W z 1z = 6,f5- (ii) arg(z1z2) -
= It it
i 6 cos - +isin - J
3it 1 2 ( 12 12
(b) z1z 2 = 6[ cos 1+isin
41
( _L 4
(c) Enlarged by 2 and rotated clockwise.
(c) Enlarged by and rotated anti-clockwise.
28. (a) W ( ii) arg
LI 3it
Sit =-
( Z2 1 10
21. (a) Wjz1 z2 j = ioi (ii) arg(z14z2 ) = z
37c3it)
Sit 57c -- —=4 cos—+isin-
(b) z1z 2 = ioi( z2 ( 10 10
12 12
cos_+is_J
(c) Enlarged by 8 and rotated clockwise.
(c) Enlarged by 2 and rotated anti-clockwise.

22. (a) (1) jziz2 j = 4'J (ii) arg(z1z2) =

57c 29. (a) (i) LJ = 2 ii arg (.Zi)
z2
-it
8
Sit S it it
- = 2 cos --J+isin itl
(b) Z1 Z2 = 4,j( cos—+isin— (b) -
12 12j 2 [ ( 8 ( 8)]

(c) Enlarged by 2,[2- and rotated anti-clockwise. (c) Reduced by and rotated clockwise.

23. (a) (i) jz1 z2 = 4,[1-4- (ii) arg(z1 z2 ) = _ 3n 30. (a) (i) = 3(ii) argo - " =
( 1 itt
4 z2j Z2 20
 Answers EM
z1 ( hit" .
. I ilitl z1, 5n . . 5it"
(b) -
= 3cosl I+isinl (b) 46- (Cos —+ism— I
Z2 I .
-

20) .
--J]
20 Z2 . 12 12)

(c) Reduced by and rotated - clockwise. (c) Reduced by and rotated anti-clockwise.
4 4

31. (a) (i) kLI = (ii)

arg
34. (a) (i) il = Ii (ii) arg(i.1 = -

Z2 3 (Lz2
i z21 2 kz 21 10
1 1[ I it'\ " it" z1 5 ( _ 37,) +,Sn ( _3 )] ,,

(b) —=-I cos i il

+isin -I- (b) cos
3[ 2)
- -

2)1 2 -

10 10
1 179n
(c) Reduced by and rotated - clockwise. (c) Reduced by and rotated anti clockwise.
-

3ji 0 ~ 450

32. (a) (i)

= 1
T6
(ii) arg ( L'
-

12
35. (a) (i)
Z
(ii) g 1-' = -

12
Z2 Z2 Z , Z2)
1
(b) —=----+isin— I z1 7 /' 7it" I 7it'\1
(b) —=—1 cosi -- l+isinl
Z2 1 ( COS 2 12) Z2' '2 1 L '. 12) 12

(c) Reduced by and rotated clockwise. (c) Reduced by 1 and rotated clockwise.
4i 6 2 3
(z, 5,,
33. (a) M
z2
=J (ii) arg
z2 ) 12

Exercise ig

1. (a) x2 +y2 _-16,C:0+Oi,r=4 (b) x2 +y2 =25,C:0+Oi,r=5

2. (a) x2 +y2 = 36, C: 0 + Oi, r = 6 (b) x2 +y2 =100,C:0+Oi,r=3
3. (a) x2 + y2 = 100, C: 0 + Oi, r = 10 (b) x2 +y2 =9,C:0+Oi,r=9
4.(a) (x-1) 2 +y2 _-9,C:1+Oi,r=3 (b) (x - 2)2 + y2 = 25, C: 2 + Oi, r = 5
5. (a) (x-4) 2 +y2 _-4,C:4+Oi,r=2 (b) (x+1)2 +y2 =16,C:-1+Oi,r=4
6. (a) (x+9)2 +y2 _-49,C:-9+Oi,r=7 (b) (x + 5)2 + y2 = 81, C: -5 + Oi, r = 9
7. (a) x2 +(y-2)2 _-9,C:0+2i,r=3 (b) x2 +(y-5)2 =4,C:0+5i,r=2
8. (a) x2 +(y-8)2 =100,C:0+8i,r=10 (b) x2 + (y + 3)2 = 16, C: 0 - 3i, r = 4
9. (a) x2 +(y+6)2 =25,C:0-6i,r=5 (b) x2 +(y+9i)2 =64,C:0-9i,r=8
10. (a) (x-2) 2 +(y+3)2 _-16,C:2-3i,r=4 (b) (x - 4)2 + (y + 7) 2 = 64, C: 4 - 7i, r = 8
11. (a) (x+5)2 +(y-2)2 _-9,C:-5+2i,r=3 (b) (x + 8)2 + (y - 5)2 = 100, C: -8 + 5i, r = 10
12. (a) (x-4) 2 +(y-3)2 --25,C:4+3i,r=5 (b) (x - 6)2 + (y - 2)2 = 16, C: 6 + 2i, r = 4
13. (a) (x + 3)2 + (y + 7) 2 = 36, C: -3 - 7i, r = 6 (b) (x+4)2 +(y+8)2 =81,C:-4-8i,r=9
14. (a) (x-5) 2 +(y+4)2 =49,C:5-4i,r=7 (b) (x + 8)2 + (y - 5)2 = 100, C: -8 + 5i, r = 10
15. (a) (x - 8)2 + ( y - 9)2 = 4, C: 8 + 9i, r = 2 (b) (x + 2)2 + (y + 7)2 = 9 , C: -2 - 7i, r = 3
5 5 1
16. (a) y=- -x- --, M:- -+Oi (b) y=- x- , M:-2i
24 2 6 12
lOx + 4y + 5 = 0 lOx + 12y + 19 = 0

17. (a) y=-2x,M:0+Oi (b) y=-21 x-2, M:- 1 -i

5 5 22
2x + y = 0 11x+5y+13=0
 Answers

11 11 1
18. (a) y = X+ M: -1 - i (b) y=—x+—, M:--+Oi
33 2 4 2
4x - + 1 =0 22x - + 11 = 0
5 9 1 1.
19. (a) y = - X - M: -1 + i (b) y=—x+—, M:- -+-i
3 3 1313 22
4x + + 1 =0 5x-13y+9=0
11 8 1 1.
20. (a) y-- - --x+ M: - +i
-- -, (b) y=--x+-, M:-+-1
1313 22 5 5 22
5x+13y-4=0 lix + - 8 = 0
32 79
21. (a) x 2 +y2 -6x- --y+— =0 (b) C:3+ — —
16.i,r= 10
3 3
22. (a) x2+y2_.x_2y_3=0
2
(b) C :-+i,r= 2
Ji
3 3
23. (a) x2+y 2_11
—x- -y+ —=0
9
41 11 9
(b) C :—+-i r=
. Ji.I
4 28 84 8
i1 15 1 .
24. (a) x2+y 2_ 15
---x-y+ (b) C :—+-i,r=
8 82 8
134 64
2 ----x--y+--- 311 67 32. 4'J
25. (a) x2 +y (b) C :—+—ir=
15 15 15 15 15 15
92 104 46 2.
26. (a) x2 +y2 - —x- -y+
4 --=0 (b) C :---i,r=
15 5 15 15 5 15
27. (a) x2 +y2 -4x+8y+12=0 (b) C:2-4i,r=2'J
44 8 80 22 4. 2J
28. (a) x 2 +y2 +--x-.-y+—=0 (b) C:--+-i,r=
33 3
15 1 15. 3ii
29. (a) x2+y2+ X+ --y+ (b) C:----i,r=
8 28 8
2 20 139 1 10. 4J
30. (a) x2 +y2 + —x- —y+ —=0 (b) C:-----+—i,r=

31. (a)
Y1 L
15

Locus of P
3 15
(b)
15 3

Locus of P
y,
15

0 x
32. (a) y (b) YA

çx
V
RI
2n x

Locus of P
Locus
33. (a)
Y t Locus of P
(b) Locus of P
YA

-2+1
-2 L..
1-2i -2 0 x
 Answers

34. (a) y (1)

0.
0 2 x
2- 3i -3-1

Locus of P Locus of P

35. (a) (b)

36. (a) (b)

x2 + y2 = 1,y> 0 X2 + y2 = 9, y> 0

37. (a) (b) y

/
L
us of Z

+ y2 =4, y < 0 X2 + y 2 = 25, y < 0

38. (a) C(0,1),0+li
(b) x2 +(y-1) 2 =2,y>0
M Answers

39. (a) C(O, 8), 0 + 8i

(b) x2 +(y-8) 2 =128,y>0

40. (a) C(-2,3),-2 + 3i

(b) (x+2) 2 +(y-3)2 =18,y>0

41. (a) C(2, 4), 2 + 4i

(b) (x - 2)2 + (y - 4) 2 = 32, y > 0

—2 U 2 b X

42. (a) C(-3, -3), -3 - 31

(b) (x + 3)2 + (y + 3)2 = 18
 Answers

43. (a) C(2,-2),2 - 2i

(b) (x-2)2 +(y+2)2 =8

44. (a) (b)

Major arc of a circle Major arc of a circle

45. (a) (b)

Minor arc of a circle Minor arc of a circle

 Answers

53. z=1+i
46. (a) Z = 2i + i2J (b) Z = -+1--- 54. z=-4+i(1+Ji) and z=_(4+i (i_Ji))
2 2
77 55. z = -6 + Oi and z = -6 + 2i
47. (a) z='i+i (b) z=—+-i
22 56. z=2+—+ii 2+— I and z=2-----+ii 2---
2 2) 2 2
9
48. (a) z 3 + i3'J (b) z = - +i 9
2 2 57. z=2+i2'i
58. z =3+3i
49. (a) z = 1+ i— (b) z = -1+1-
3 3
59. z=3J+J_i(_3n+5)
50. (a) z = 2+i2j (b) z = -2+i2j5
51. (a) z =3 + 3i (1) z =-3+3i 60. z=2h-6i
52. z=1+i(1+2J) and z=1+i(1_2J

61. (a) In(z) (b) Im(z)

Re(z) Re(z)

62. (a) IM(z) (b) IM(z)

Re(z) Re(z)

63. (a) IM(z) (b) Im(z)

i=2

Re(z) Re(z)
 Answers

64. (a) IM(z) (b) Im(z)

-I=3

Re(z) Re(z)

65. (a) IM(z) (b) Im(z)

5i p
Re(z)
4i 0\1 2 3 4
-i \Tã -2) units
3j Iz-2-11=2
-21
JiI<2
2i1 —3i z -2 + 311 = 2
i
)Re(z)
01 12 3 4 -51 I P2

IZ 'least = ( 11_2) units Z 'least = ( Vi-2) units

greatest = ( J1+2) units IZI greatest = ( iT+2)units

66. (a) IM(z) (b) IM(z)
z+3-2i1=0 4i
P2 - Re(z)
4
2i I

4 Re(z)
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

'least = ( Ji -2) units Z 'least = (, fl-3 -2) units

greatest =
( Jii + 2) units greatest = (, fl-3 +2) units
67. IM(z)

1 2 3 4 Re(z)

-21 .(411 1) units

unit
-5i z-3 + p2

greatest
=(*ii+i)units
z+21 least =(Ji_i)units
IM Answers
68.

—7

________
V-3 In(z)

_
ta-1

-2i
1 2 3 R

—3i
—4i
Iz+5+2i1=2

k-i lgreatest _ 2 (-.ii+i) units

I z + 1 'least = 2 (iiO_i) units
69.

Iz greatest = (
iiii + 3) units
IZ_3I least =(i_3)units
70.

I z + 5 greatest = 2 (/ii + 2) units

I z — 5 'least = 2 (i17 —2) units
 Answers

(I,)
IM(z)

3 + 2i

-10 1 2 3 4
-. Re(z)

72. (a) Jr (b)

/2i (z)

-5+i
53210 Re(z)

-2i

73. (a) IM(z) (b) Jth(z)

i

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 Re(z)
Re(z)
-i -i
-2i -2i
-
2-4i
-4'

74. arg(z-3-i)=

IzI=2

-2 3 5 Re(z)

-2i
 Answers

75.

Exercise lh

1. (a) 8i (b) —8+8ji (c) —16'j+16i (d) —64

2. (a) —144-J3
144J - + 432i (b) 1 728 (c) —1728,13
1 728j -—5 184i (d) —10 368 +10 368'Ji
3. (a) —64 (b) 128 - 128i (c) 512i (d) —1024 - 1 024i
4. (a) —128 + 128,i (b) 512 + 512ji (c) 4 096 (d) 8 192-8 192'j5i
5. (a) 2 018 + 842i (b) 5 922 - 2 823i (c) 5 532 - 18 889i (d) —5.78 x 310 - 8.49 x 310i
6. (a) (cos 0+i sin 0)2 =(cos2 0—sin2 O)+2i cos O sin O
(b) (1) cos 20 = cos 2 0 — sin2 0 (ii) sin 202 cos 0 sin O
2tan0 cot2 O-1
(c) tan 20 = and cot 20 =
1— tan 2 0 2cot0
7. (a) (cos 0+i sin 0) 3 =(cos3 O-3 cos 0sin2 0)+i(3cos2 0 sin 0— sin 3 0)
(b) (i) cos 3O= cos' 0-3 cos Osiri2 0 (ii) sin 30=3cos2 0 sin O— sin' O
3tariO—tan3 O cot 3 O-3cot0
(c) tan 30 = 2
and cot 30 =
1-3tan 0 3cot2 0-1
8. (a) (cos 0+i sin 0)4 =(cos4 0-6cos2 0sin2 O+sin4 O)+i(4 cos' 0 sin O-4 cos 0sin3 O)
(b) (i) cos 40=cos4 0-6cos2 0sin2 Q+ sin4 0 (ii) sin 40=4cos 3 0 sin O-4 cos 0sin3 0
4tan0-4tan 3 O cot 4 0-6cot2 O+1
(c) tan 40 = 2 and cot 40 =
1-6tan O+tan4 9 4 cot 3 0-4cot0
9. (a) (cos 0 + i sin 0) 6 = (cos6 0 - 15 cos4 0 sin2 0 + 15 cos2 0 sin4 0 - sin6 0)
+i(6cos5 0 sin 0-2Ocos3 Osin3 O+6 cos 0sin5 0)
(b) (i) cos 60 = cos6 0 - 15 cos4 0 sin2 0 + 15 cos2 0 sin 4 0 - sin6 0
(ii) sin 6O=6cos5 0 sin 0-2Ocos3 Osin3 O— sin 6 0
6 tan 0-20 tan 3 0— tan 6 0 cot 0-15 cot4 0+15 cot2 0-1
(c) tan 60 = and cot 60 =
2 4
1-15tan 0+15tan 9— tan 6 0 6cot 0-20cot 3 0-1
10. (a) —i (b) 1 (c) i (d) —1
11. (a) i (b) —0.924 - 0.383i (c) i_ (d) 0.383 + 0.924i
2 2
 Answers

12. (a) -1 (b) 0.309 + 0.951i (c) 0.809 0.588i

- (d) -0.809 - 5.88i
H 13. (a) 0.809 + 0.588i (b) 0.951 - 0.309i (c) 0.309 0.951i
- (d) -0.588 - 0.809i
= 2tan0
14. (a) cos 20 = 2 cos2 0 - 1 (b) sin 20 = 2 sin 0 cos 0 (c) tan 20
1-tan 2o
H 15. cos 4O=8cos4 O-8cos2 0+1
16. (a) 16 cos5 0 20 cos3 0 + 5 cos 0
-

(b) 16sin5 0-20sin3 0+5 sin O

17. 32 cos6 0 48 cos4 0 + 18 cos2 0 1
- -

19. (a) z3 = cos3 0 + i sin 30 (b) z 4 = cos 40 - i sin 40

20. (b) W cos80=(z8+_) (ii) sin 70=.(z7 _4)

22. (a) cos4 0 = 1 (cos40+4cos2O+3) (b) sin4 0 = 2 (cos 40-4 cos 20+3)

sin 40
23. =8 cos 0-4cos0
sin
24. (a) cos 70 i sin 70 - (b) cos 118 + i sin 110
H 25. (a) cos 20 + i sin 20 (b) cos 40 + i sin 40

Exercise ii

F3 1 1. hi .
1. (a) -+-i (b) ---1 (c) - -+ - i (d) ---- -i
22 22 22 22

2. (a)
12 F2
-+-i (b) ---1 (c) ---+-i (d) ----1
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 i5. 1 1
3. (a) -~ ---i (b) ---1 (c) - -+-i (d) ----i
22 22 22 22
4. (a) 0.309 + 0.951i (b) 0.309 0.951i - (c) -0.309 + 0.951i (d) -0.309 0.951i
-

5 (a) (i) e lx ± e_lx (ii) e)

(b) (i) z+- z--

z 1! Z
(c) 8z
6. (a) W(ex + e) --
(e - e)
2 2i
5( 1 51 1
(b) (j) Z+_) (ii)
5
(c) -

7 (a) 2+2Ji (b) -- Ji (c) 6i

8. (a) 'J-'ji (b) (c) -9i

9. (a) - 3,r3 + ,[3 i (b) (c) -10

10. (a) -4- 4Ji (b) (c) 12i

11. (a) 1.915 - 4.620i (b) 2.298 + 5.5441 (c) -3.064 - 7.392i
IM Answers

Ir 11 I 7C..1E
12 • (a) 8 ( cos-+ism- (b) -i cos - +lsln--- I (c) 21 cos--ism-
2 2) 2 10 10) 10 10
' 5 11 tic
13 • (a) 75( cos-+isin--- I (b) -I cos-+isin - I (c) 3--ism-
(cos
4 4 ) 3L 4 4) 4
11 Sir . . 5n
14 • (a) 36(COS +isin(b) 41 cos+isin--- (c) Cos --is in---
-,
7) 7 7 7) 7 7
I 3ic3it\ 3( 77c 7ic' 3n 3it
15. (a) 1351 Cos -ism1(b) -I cos--isin---- I (c) -i cos -ism.
. 8 8) 5.. 8 8) 3' 8 8
1-
it
1-
it
4
16. (a) 27e (b) 3e (c) -e
3
. 7it it Ic
1- 1 1-
17. (a) 16e 6 (b) -e 2 (c) 4e(2)
4
1 -1- -1-
18. (a) z 1 = -e 7 (b) z = 5e ?
5
It 51r

19. (a) z=fiJie'4 (b) z=,Je6

2 1 (c) z = Mein
271
20. (a) z = 14e 3 (b) z = 2j17e1326' (c) z = 12e2
1

Revision Exercise 1
1. (a) -3-7i
1 .
2. (c) -5+8i I =---' -

J+i) 2 2
3. (b) 18. (a) (ii) -1 - i (b) Roots: -1 - 21 and -2 - 3i
19. (a) 5+1
tan -'1 'J
4. (d) -tan ,r2- (b) Roots: 1 - 21 and 5
5. (d) -A1
-5cos (_ 7c+ tan1 ) + i sin(_ic + tan1 4)]
20. (a) u=2+Sioru=-2-5i
(b) z=-1+3iorz=-3-2i
An 21. (a) z = 8 - 5i. p = -16 and q = 89
6. (b) 8e 1
22. (a) (i) (7-i) (ii) , =
7ir 7it
7. (a) 5-+ism-
(cos
9 ...[i .i 161 73.
8. (a) x2 +y2 (iu)i-(7-i)i =---i
L10 j 500 500
9. (b) z1 +z2 1. - 4
10. (b) a circle with centre (0, -1) and radius 3 (b) (1) z= 2(2+ti),z+z=
4+t 4+t 2
11. (a) C(0, 1), r = 5
I x_) 1
+y2 =-.
(1
r=-
12. (c) complex and conjugate (ii)
13. (b) major arc of a circle which cut the x-axis at ±4
14. (c) circle 23. (a) (x_) 2 +(y_)2 = with y>0
15. (a) a straight line

16. (b) M32e ' (b) (x+)2+y2= 9 with y>0

17. (b) iii cos(_)+isin(_) 5 )2 =
1)
(c) with y> 0
+ ( -
 Answers

= 2±i
(d) (x_)2 +y 2 = with y>0 x

24. (a) (i) 2 cos 0 (ii) 2 cos 20 5 4

W (ii) 1%,q=: -
(c) M 2i sin 0 (ii) 2i sin 30

25. (A) (a) M 7+ J8= (ii) a/3= 2 = -5 ±[23 i

urn x
____ 2 1
(ni) x (g) W a'+,8= (ii) a,8=
=

(b) W(ii) afl=2 1±2j

2 =
5
-5±Ji 7 1
(h) (i) a+fi=-- (ii) c5= -

(c) W (ii) —7±jii

16
-3±'fii (B) (a) X2 + 10 (b) x 2 -2x+5=0
(iii) X
8 (c) X2 (d) x2X2 -2x+1O=O
2 1 (e) x 2 -4x+13=0 (f) X2 -8x+25=0
(d) (i) a+5= () a/Y= x2 - lOx + 29 = 0 (h) x2 - 14x + 53 = 0
(g)
-1±2i (C) (a) 4isin{1+cos) = 2(*f+1)i
x

(e) (i) a+,8= 2 (ii) a/i= (b) I,

dsinL ji

2 Differentiation II
Exercise 2a 4

1. (a) dy = 5e 5x (b)
dx dx

(c) = 8e2x + 5 (d) = 3(4x - 1)e-4x+9

dy = 8e8x = -6e67
2. (a) (b)
dx dx

(c) = l5eSX + (d) = 4(7x - 1)e_7x + 2

dx dx
dy = _2e_x 2e2x_S
3. (a) (b)
dx dx
dy
(c) dy = —5e (d) = 7(9x - 1)e9' + 2

4. (a) = 14xe (b) = _8xe_4x2_7

 Answers

dy dy = _2x (9x3 + 9x _1)e _6x3 + 5

(c) - = _18x2e2x3+5 (d)
dx dx

5. (a) = _16xe_8X2 (b) = 10xe5 x2 + 1

dx dx
dy _x(21x3_63x_2)e_7x3_4
(c) - = _72x2e4x3_7 (d)
dx dx
dy _2x2+3 d
6. (a) - = -xe 2 (b) --= 14xe74
dx dx
dy x2+3 dy
(c) —=8xe 2 (d) —=-x(x 3 +5x-2)e
dx dx
dy = _5 sin xe5C0 dy
7. (a) (b)
dx dx
dy - thnx = 2e3 s
(c) - = -4 sec 2 xe5 (d) (3x sec x tan + 1)
dx dx
dy dy
_=_5 sin xeSc0_2
8. (a) —=2cosxe2 " 5 (b)
dx dx

(c) Ly = —3sec2
dx
2+tanx
(d) Ly = 3e2
dx
X(1 2x sec x tan x)

dy
__=_2cosxel_2sm dy
9. (a) (b) —=2sinxe32 cosx
dx dx

(c) = 14sec2 xe5_2tX (d) dy = -4e 3secx 1 (3xsecx tanx+1)

dx dx

e2 e'
10. (a) f'(x) (b) f '(x) =
-
I
(c) f '(x) = e (3J+2) (d) f'(x) = 2e_2 x(e 4x + 3)
2
e 7e
11. (a) f '(x) = ____ (b) f '(x)= —

(c) f'(x) = _e8 (4J + i) (d) f'(x) = I ex

4 3
lOe 27e
12. (a) f'(x) - (b) f '(x)= —

(c) f '(x) = e' (9Ji -2) (d) f '(x) = eX + 5e3 X

dy dy x
13. (a) _=6xe2+1) (b) —=6x-15
dx dx ex'
dy dY = 15x2e2x + 10x3e2x
(c) - = 2xe3x + 3x2e3' (d)
dx dx
dy dy 8
(e) —=3&cos3x+e'sin3x (f)
dx dx e
 Answers

14. (a) (b) =4xex2_6e2x+_

dx e3 X dx ex

(c) = 8xe3x+12x2e3x (d) = 6e2 +12x2e2_3)

(e)

dy = 20
15 (a) =6 x2e_2x_4x3e_2X (b)
dx dx ex '

H
d d
(c) - = - (d) - =10 cos 2xes2x
dx x dx

(e) dy =_12sin3xec0s3x (0 dy =_etsec2x

dx dx 2

Exercise 2b

1 (a) (b) zr

dx x dx 4x+7
dy=— dy27
(c) (d)
dx 8-3x dx
3x+8
dy 6
2. (a) =- (b)
dx x dx
6x+13
dy72
(c) (d)
dx 9-4x dx
9x-4
8x
3.(a)= (b)i=
dx x dx 4x2 -3

6x3
(c) = x(3 + 2 in 7x3 ) (d) = 15x2 + ln(6x3 —1)
H dx dx 6x-1
dy 18x
4 (a) (b)
dx x dx 9x2 -5

(c) =x(3+2in9x) (d) = 24x2 [_7x3 +ln(7x3 -6)

dx dx L7x3 -6
dyl x dy 1 x
5. (a) —=–cot– (b) ---tan-
dx7 7 dx 8 8
dyl x dyl x
(c) - = –cosec– (d) - = –tan-
dx3 3 dx4 4
dy2 2x dy 3 3x
6. (a) —=--cot— (b) —=--tan-
dx5 5 dx 4 4
dy 6 6x dy 4 4x
(c) —=–cosec— (d) —=–tan-
dx 5 5 dx 7 7
dy 20: dy52xlnx
7. (a) -- 'b'/ 2x
dx 4x-7 dx - -
5xe5
 Answers

dy e3x(3xlnx_i) dy -ii
(c)—= (d)
dx x1n2 x dx 2(3x+2)(4x-1)
dy = 28 dy = 2(1 - 4x in x)
8. (a) (b)
dx 7x+2 dx xe4X
4x
dy e7(4xlnx-7) dy 2(7-8x)
(c) (d)
dx 21xln2 x dx3(2x-i)(4x+i)

9. (a) (b)
dx x dx 3x
dy 1 dy_i
(c) —— =— (d)
dx 2x dx 2x
dy --4
10. (a) (b) =-
dx x dx 2x
dy 1 d
(c) (d) -=3--
dx 2x dx x
dy = 10-3x3 dy = 2(J1)
11. (a) (b)
dx x dx x
dy 2 dy
(c) -=--- (d) —=2cotx
dx x-3 dx
dy dy
12. (a) - = -3 tan x (b) - =5 sec x cosec x
dx dx
dy dy
(c) - = 2 cos 2x cosec x sec (d) - = 5tanx
dx dx
dy = 6ex2 (1 + x2 In 3x2) y = sin x + cos x -1
13. (a) (b) dx (1- cos x)(1- sin x)
dx x
dy 2x dy - 10
(c) —=lOx +ln (4x _1)] (d)
dx 14x-1 dx - 2x -3
dy 4X 3
14. (a) (b)
dx 6x-2 dx — x4 -1
dy 4x-15 dy - 3(1+3X 3 )
(c) —=
dx x(x-5) (d) dx - (1+3x)(1-x 3 )
dy 6eX dy3-x]nx3
15. (a) - = (b) xex
dx 9-e2' dx
dy lnx-6 dy2lnx+5
(c) —= ____ (d) _____
dx x2 dx x3

Exercise2c

(a) dy(1+2t)2
1. (a) (i) Ly =- 2t-3 (ii) 2. (b)
dx dx dx t dx =-
(b) (i) dy 7 (ii) 4y 2t-5 =1:
dx = 2 dx lx=-3 =-
3. (a)
dx 6t
(b)
Z 5
,= 6
 Answers

dy 2 =_: = te2t _3
4. (a) —=--tant (b) Ly 8. (a) (b) e
dx 5 dx_1t 5 dx 4 dx2 2

5. (a) =-cot2t (b) 9. (a) (b)

dx 4 dx_31t 4 dx It dx 4 4e2
8 te 2
dy dyl 10. (a)
Ly 20 =±
6. (a) —=-tan2t (b) = 43- (b)
dx dx dx It 0,=5 e2
te 5
7. (a) =e3t(4t+1) (b)= 1-e
dx 2 dx. 1 2

Exercise 2d

d 3 dii
1. --
= 6. -- = tan 20
dx 5 dx
(a) 8x + 5y - 25 = 0 (a) Jx-y-4=0
(b) 5x - -49 = 0 (b) x+iy - 2i5 = 0
2 --- 7
dx 4 dx 3t
(a) 8x+y-14=0 (a)e2x+3y-3(2]n3+1)=0
(b) x_8y+=0 (b) 3x_e2y+2eh139]=0

. dy 4
dx 3t2 8.
dx = 15te3t
(a) x+3y-2=0 (a) 2x-5e2y+10e2(2]n2-3)=0
(b)3x-y+24=0 (b)5e2x+2y-(81n2+75e4)=0
dy
4. —=--tant '. UY
--e -
dx dx
(a) 2x + - = 0 (a) 4e3x - y + 3e5(1 - 4 In 4) = 0
(b) x-y=0 (b) x+4e3y-3(4e8 +1n4)=0
dy dii
5. - = - cot 2t 10. - 2e (t -2)
dx dx
(a) '.Jx + y =0 (a) 4e8x - y + 5e8(1 - 4 In 2) = 0
(b) -x + hy -6 = 0 (b) x + 4e8y - 5(4e16 - in 2) = 0

Exercise 2e

1. (a) y'(x)=- (b) y'(x)=--2

y x

2. (a) y'(x)=i (b) y'(x)=--

x

3. (a) y'(x)=- (b) y(x)=x5l

M Answers

- 2x2 -2xy-3y 2 2(xy+1)

4. (a) y'(x) (b) y'(x)=
- x 2 + 6xy —x2 +3y 2 +4
6—x
5. (a) y(x) =
y -3
y [x2 (joy _1)+y2] 6x-5(x+3y)4
11. (a) y'(x) (b) y'(x)=
- x 3 —xy 2 15(x+3y)4
y(2x3 +3) 3x2 -24xy+48y2 +5
12. (a) y'(x) (b) y'(x)=
- x(x3 -3) 12(x-4y)2
x2(5-3y2)+2y
13. (a) y'(x) (b)
- 2(3x3 y+x) 8(x-2y) 2 -3x
- y[5 - 2y(4xy + 1)] 6(2x - y)2
14. (a) y'(x) (b) y'(x)=
- x(4xy 2 +5) 3(2x—y) 2 -2
15x4y-8x2-4y - 15(3x - y)4
15. (a) y'(x) (b) y'(x)
- x(5x4 +4) 5(3x—y)+4x
3cosx Cos 2 ycosx—tany
21. (a) y'(x) = (b) y'(x) =
slny+ycosy x
2 sin x Cos 2 ysinx+2tany
22. (a) y'(x) = (b) y'(x) -________________
ysmy—cosy 2x

23. (a) y'(x) = cos x cos 2 3 (b) y'(x) = __ sin x cos 2 3

12
Sill Y = 2cosy
24. (a) y'(x) (b) y'(x)
= sec2 2y—xcosy 2xsiny—l5sec 2 3y

7Y
25. (a) y'(x) = (b) y'(x) = -____Y
l5 cos 3y-7x x+7sin4y
= yex - e'
31. (a) y'(x) (b) y'(x) = y
ex — xey x
3e''2 4
32. (a) y'(x)= (b) y(x)= _(x+1)eX_
2x 5
= e1 - 2xy3
33. (a) y'(x) = xe2X - - (b) y'(x)
1 3x2y2
2(x + - e4 = (x - Y)2 - e
34. (a) y'(x) (b) y'(x)
—2(x+y)+xe' (x—y)2 +xe
e' ° '-5y 3y_2eSmY
35. (a) y'(x) (b) y'(x)=
= x sin yecol + 5x x(2 cos yes'! 3)

41. (a) y'(x)= Y (b)

x(y-1) dx x

42. (a) dy =- (b)

dx x dx x
 Answers

dy yh-iy dy_y(y+lny)
43. (a) = (b)
- x+y dx - x(y + 1)
dy y(xlny+y) dyy(2y+71ny)
44. (a)
dx - x(y in x + x) dx - x(2y + 7)

dyy(4x+4xlnx-1)
45. (a) =5y(1nx+1) (b)
dx dx x

Exercise 2f

1. (a) = 2Ve4x_1 (b) = —8sin(1— 4x)

dx dx

(c) LY = 4e4X -1) cos(4x —1) (d) L = —4 tan(4x —1)

dx dx

2. (a) Ly =2Je65 (1,) = 18 sin 2 (6 x+ 5) cos (6x+ 5)

dx dx

(c) = 6e6x +5) cos(6x + 5) (d) L = - tan(6x + 5)

dx dx
dy du
3. (a) - = 4e 4x+6 (b) - = —2 sin(4x + 6)

(c) = _2eC0S2X + 3) sm(2x + 3) (d) L =2 cot(2x + 3)

4. (a) LY = 15e15X _3 (b) = --l5cos 2 (5x - 1)sin(5x —1)

dx dx

(c)
Ly = —5 sin(5x - 1)ec0s5x -1) (d) Ly = 5 cot(5x —1)
dx dx
3
5. (a) (b) —2 tan x
(6x - 1)Jii(6x —1)

6 xe_2
(c) (d) 3 cosec x sec xln2 (tan x)
1+ex
xe"
6. (a) 15e15x + 6 (b)
x2 _3
(c) 3x2es1 cos x3 (d) 5x4
- sin(ln x) cos 4 (in x)
7. (a) —6x sin(x2 + 1) cos2(x2 + 1) (b)

3 cos 2(x+1)
(c) (d) —48x sin(8x2 —1) cos2(8x2 - 1)
2Jcos (x + 1)
8. (a) 3 (b) 15x sin(5x 2) sin(10x2)
(c) / sin (x + 1) cot(x + 1) (d) 42x sin2(7x2 + 4) cos(7x + 4)

9. (a) 6x2tan(x3 + 4) sec2(x3 + 4) (b) x4 jseO x5 sin x5

4
(c) 2xe x2 sec x 2 (d) 5 tan 5xesec 5x sec 5x
 Answers

- 18 sin8x tan2 'Jcos8x sec/cos.8x

10. (a) -30x2tan(2x3)
'Jcos8x
(c) sec J2x + 7 tan -.j2x—+7 (d) 4 sec Q/4x-1 tan QI4x-1
J2x + 7 3j(4x - 1) 2
sin x+ e_3X (1- 3x in 4x)
11. (a) (2x 3 -1)cosx+6x2 (b) x---2x ln+ Cos x(3 Cos 3x Cos x-2 sin x sin 3x)
X
2x-2)+ 3 sin 3x sinx-xcosxln4x
(c) 2 cos2x(3 cos 2 (d) - 2e 4x
(cos x + 4 sin x)
2-cos3x xsin2 x
e_4X(4x 1n5x-1)
12. (a) 6x2 Cos x-(2x3+1)sinx+
X

(b) -x++2x in+ sin 2 x(4 sin x Cos 4x+3 sin 4x Cos x)
X x
(c) 3 sin 2x(sin 2x sec 2 3x + 2 cos 2x tan 3x) + 3cos3x
3 sin 3x -4
(d) 2e5x(sinx_5cosx)+ cosx+xsinxln5x
x COS 2 x
5' (5x ln6x-1)
13. (a) (4x5+3)cosx+20x4sinx+ e
X

(b) _x2+3x2ln++ sin 4 x(5 Cos x Cos 4x-4 sin 4x sin x)

X

(c) 2 cos 4 2x(2cos 2x sec2 4x -5 sin 2x tan 4x) + 4cos4x

6 + sin 4x
4e7x(7cosx_sinx)+ sin x - x cos x in 6x
(d)
e _5 X (1- 5x in 8x)
14. (a) 2Ox 3 Cos x-(5x4+7)sinx+
X

285
(b) x2-3x ln----cos x(5 sin
3 5x Cos x+4 sin x Cos 5x)
X

(c) sin 2x(7 sin 2x sec 2 5x + 8 cos 2x tan5x) + 5 sin 5x

7+cos5x
(8 sin x + cos x) + cos x + x sin x In 7x
(d) 5e8 x
x COS 2 x

Exercise 2g

dy_ 2 - 35
1. (b)
(a) dxi_4x2 dx - ii - 49x2
dy 16x
(c) (d)
- jx(2
- - 3 x) dx - /1_(x2 +2)2
dy 4 = 90
2. (a) (b)
dxll6x2 dx J1_100x2
 Answers

dy 5 dy 20x
(c) (d) -=
dx dx jx2 (2_x2 )
dy 1 dy 15
3. (a) (b) -= ____
dx dx V25_ x2

dy 2x
(c) (d) dy i5x2
- dx Vi_ x6
dy 6x dy = 6x
4. (a) (b)
th6x2_9x4 dx j_x2 (x2 +2)
dy 2x 42x
(c) (d)
dx = i - (x 2 +3) 2 dx J1_(43x2 )2

dy 1 dy 48x
5. (a) (b) - J1_(3x2 +5)2
dx = 2Vx(i - x)
dy 1 =- 2
(c) (d)
72 x dx(x+i) 2 Ix(x+2)
(x+i)2
4 35
6. (a) k'(x) = (b) k'(x)=-
- Vi - 16x2 Vi_25x2
i2x
(c) k'(x) = (d) k'(x)=-
- Vx(2 - 5x) (X2 +5)2
7 96
7. (a) k'(x) = (b) k'(x)=-
- Vi - 49x 2 Vi - i44x2
35
(c) k'(x)=- 6 (d) k'(x)=-
Ji_(7x _2)2
10
8. (a) (b) k'(x)=-
k(x)=V V25 _X2
2x 12x
(c) k'(x) (d) k'(x)=-
Vi_ x8
2x 18x
9. (a) (b) k'(x)= -

x2 (2_x2 )
20x
(c) (d) k'(x)=-
Ji_(5x2 _4)2
24x
10. (a) k'(x) = (b) k'(x)=-
- 2Vx(1- x) ji_(4x 2 +7)2
1 5
(c) k'(x)=- (d) k'(x)=
I x (1 x)
(x_1)2 /x(x-2)
(x_i)2
M Answers

dy_ 5 dy 12
11. (a) (b)
dxl+25x2 dxl+9x2
dy_ 1 dy 6x
(c) (d)
dx2x2+2x+1 dxx42x2+2
dy_ 8 dy lOx
12. (a) (b)
dxl+64x2 dxl+(x2+3)2
dy_ dy 6x
(c) (d)
dxl+(1-4x) 2 dxl+(x2-5)2
dy 2 dy 6
13. (a) (b)
dx4+x2 dx9+x2
dy 2x dy 28x3
(c) (d)
dxl+x2 dxl+x8
dy 2x dy_ 4x
14. (a) (b)
= 1+(x2 +1)2 dxl+(2x2-1)2
dy 2x dy_ 64x
(c) (d)
dxl+(x2+5)2 dxl+(4x2-3)2
dy 1 dy 54x2
15. (a) (b)
= 2(x + 1)J dxl+(2x2+1)2
dy dy 10
(c) (d)
dx - 2(3x + 1)J dxx2+2x+2

Exercise 2h

1. (a) =12x+10 5. (a) = 2x(2 - 5x 2 )

dx dx
= 32 dy 160
(b) (I')
dx (4x - 1) dx (7x - 4
d2
2. (a) =24x-14 6. (b) -4=-2cosx-3sinx
dx dx
dy 150 d2
(b) 7. (b) —1=5sinx+4cosx
dx - (5x+1)3 dx2
d2y
3. (a) Ly =-30x+8
dx
8. (b) --=7cosx+6sinx
dx
dy 80 d2
(b) 9. (b) _-4=8sinx+4cosx
dx - (4x+5)3 dx

4. (a) Ly =-18x+12
dx
12. (a) _ç=-_9 sin 3x

dy 48 4=_4cos2x
(b) (b)
dx (3x-2)3
 Answers

-4=32tan4xsec24x d2y
(c) (c) = 2sec 2 x(x tan x + 1)
dx dx2

( ' - - 'j sin i; + Cos rx 19. (a) 4x Cos x+ sin x(2-x2)

13 .a,
dx2 - (b) -4x sin x+ Cos x(2-x2)
4x 2
(c)
(b)
dx2
4x 2
20. (a) i=2tanxsec2x
2ysec2(2 tan 1) dx2
3
dx d2y
4x 2 (b) --=2cotxcosec 2x
dx
14. (a) 4=2[cos(x2+1)_2x2sin(x2+1)]
d . 4 x
dx (c) —=sm -cosec x
dx2 2
(b) 5_4 = -2 [sin(x2 + 1)+2x2 cos(x 2 + 1)]
dx 21. (a)
2 dx2 4 2
= 2 sec2 (x2 + 1)[4x2 tan(x2 + 1) + 1]
(c) -4
dx (b)
d2y 3
—=- COS -
x
2y 5 dx2 2 2
15. (a) -=sin x(5cos2x+3)
dx2 2 (c) -4=25cos(2_5x)
dx
(b) = cos3 x(3 -5 cos 2x) x2-2
25. (a) f"(x)=-_ x2-2 (b) f"(x)=
(1_x2 )2 (1_x2 )2
(c) -4
dx
=5 tan3 x sec 4 x(5 - cos 2x)
(c) f"(x) = '
16. (a)
dx 26. (a) f"(x) = - 3
(b) __4 = 36 cos2 3x(1_2 Cos 6 x) 4 [-x(x - 1)]
dx 1-2x
(b) f"(x)=
(c) -4 =36 sec4 3x(4 - cos 6x)
dx
4 [-x(x - 1)]
-3x-1
(c) f"(x) =
17. (a) = 77sin2inxos 5 4x2(x+1)2
dx
2[ x .f1_ x2 -(x2 -2)sin 1 x]
(b) —.=---(10 sin x-6 sin 3x-5 Cos x+33 Cos 3x)
dx2 4 27. (a) f"(x) 3
d2y 2(sinx+2) (1_x2 )2
(c) 2,
ux i x. x
I Cos --sLn-
2[ xsJl_ x2 + ( x2 _2) cos_1 x]
'. 2 2 (b) f"(x)= 3
d2 (1- X2)2
18. (a) -4
dx
=2 cos x - x sin x
2(x + 2 tan-1 x)
(c) f"(x) =
d2y (1+x2)2
(b) --=-2smx-xcosx
dx
 Answers

= 100e11 = 10(2x2 ± 1)e x2 + 1 d2 y = 21x(3x3 -2)

28. (a) d2y (b) (c)
dx2 dx2 eX
= e 5 (25x2 + 20x ± 2) (b) 4LY = 4 xe4X(8x2 + 12x+ 3) d2y
29. (a) (c) -12e-2x (x -1)
dx2 dx2 dx2
6

30. (a)
d2y - 42(6x2 -1)
(b) 44 4xe x25 (2x2 ± 3) (c)
d2y 48ex(x+3)
dx2 - e3 x2 dx j; -= x4
d2ye(x_3+3) 4 2y 3e Jiii)
31 (a) (b) = 4x3e _4 x(4x2 _1Ox+ 5) (c)
dx 2 3
-
4(x-1) 2

32. (a) 4 4 = 10e2x (cos 4x -2 sin 2x + 1) (b) 44= _18ec0s3x (cos 6x + 2 cos 3x -1)
dx

(c) d2y = _2etx sec 2 x(2 tan x + sec 2 x)

33. (a) _4=ex(4cos2x_3sin2x) (b) dx

-4 =_2 sin x
dx
2
(c) —dx -=e sec x[tanx+2(tanx+1)]

34. (a) 4=2ex(3cos3x_4sin3x) (b) 4 = _2ex(3 sin 3x+4 cos 3x)

dx dx
d 2
(c) - = eXsec 23x [tan 3x + 6(3 tan3x + 1)]
dx2
d2y 9_4e x d2y ex+4
35. (a) (1,) (c) 5e
dx2 - 2e3x dx2 = e 2
d 2
36. (a) - = cos x(3 cos xe 'inx + 7ec0sx) - sin x(7 sin xeCOSX + 3ex)
dx
d2
(b) -4
dx
= cos x(8 cos xe smx - 2ec0sx) + 2 sin x(sin xe COSX - 4esllx )

(c)
d 2 = - cos x(3 cos xesmx + 2ec0sx + 3ex)
) + sin x(2 sin xecO
dx
d2y2 d2 y 3 d2y - 1
41. (a) (b) (c) --
dx2 x2 dx2 4x2 dx 2x

42. (a)
d 2 1
(b)
d2y4
(c)
d2y
-- -
1
- 2
dx2 d X2 X 2 dx 4x
d2y 1 d2 y 1 d2y - 1
43. (a) (b) - (c)
dx2 2x2 dx2 - 4x2 dx 4x 2

44. (a)
d 2 = -cosec2 x (b)
d2y
= -sec 2 x (c)
d2y
-- - sec x - cosec 2x
dx2 dx2 dx

45. (a)
d 2 sec x
d 2 = sec x - cosec2 x (c)
d2y
=sec 2 x
(b) -
dx2 - dx2 dx2
 Answers

d2 v 1 d2y
46. (a) -- = cosec2 x - - 67. —i- = - sec 30
dx2 x2 dx
d 2
2 1 d2y 3t
(b) - = sec X --- 68. = 4e
dx2 x2 dx2
d2y 1 d2y 24t
(c) —=cosec 2x-sec2 x-- 69. -- =- e
dx2 x2 dx 3
2 2
51. —=-(x-1) 70. —=—e
dx2 3 dx2 16
d2 u d2y 5
52. —i-- = 3x2 71. —i- = - e 8t
dx2 dx 6
2
53 41= (x -2) 72. 4-iL = e11
dx2 9 dx2 100
d2v 24 d2y 3
54. -- = -(2x+ 7) 73. = - -
dx2 125 dx2 8t4
d2v 6 d2y 1
55. --=---(x+2) 74. IX-
2
dx2 125 6t6
4

56 -v = ---
dx2 x3
75
dx2
= 3t2

2 2
57.
dx2
= -cosec0
9
76. -4
dx
=
25
2 2
58. -v
dx2
= ----cosecB
3
77. -4
dx
=
9

83. (a) dy = -xand -

59. -'- = -cosec0 =
dx2 4 dx y dx y

60. -- = -cot 0 (b) = .- and 44 ---

dx2 9 dxy dx y
d2y
61 - -sec 0 84 (a) = --- and =
dx2 - 4 dx 3x dx2 9 x2

62.
dx2
= --cot 0
5
(b)
dx
= -
2x
and -4 15 y
dx = 4x
d2ii 2 dy 4x3 -3y d2y 4x3 -6y
63. -- = -cosec4 O 85. (a) - = and-=
dx2 9 dx 3x dx 3x 2
d2y 1 dy 2x d2y 28
64. —=-cosec 40secO (b) -=--- and
dx2 3 dx 3y dx 9y

65. = sec0 86. (a) = - and = -----

dx2 4 dx dx2

66. 44 = -sec 20
dx
(b)
dy
dx
3 -2xy
x2
and 4dx22 y = 6xyx3-12
 Answers

dy =_ y
87. (a)
dx 'ly dx2 2y3
(b) -
dx x
and
dx2 x2
-Ly -
dy = 4-6xy and 1 = l8xy l6 dy e'
(b) 93. (a) -=- and =_e 2!13y 2 +-)
dx 3x2 dx2 3x3 dx 3y 2 dx2 y)

88. (a) (b) dy 5e'2 d2y = - 25e-2 y2 ( 1

dx 2y dx2 4y3 and 2+iJ
dx 2y dx2
- y4 +1
dy
4y3 94. (a) = 2xy and d 2 Y = 2y(2x 2 + 1)
dy sinx d2y
(b) - = - ---- and 1 Cos X = 2y(21ny+1)
dx 2 dx 2
= -y (b) = . x2y and
dx 5 dx2 5 l5
89. (a) =2x sec y and 4=2secy(2tan2y+1)
12 (3
= Iny+l

(b) dy = -6xcosec y and

dx
95. (a) = 8xy and d2y =8y(8x 2 + 1)

-4
dx
= .6 cosec y(2 cot 2 y+l)
= 8y(21n2y+1)

90. (a) dy = 5x sec 2y and4=5 sec 2y(2 tan 2 2y +1) (b) Ly = 15X2 and =15xy(15x3 + 2)

= 15xy(31n4y+2)
(b) dx = -7x cosec 2Y and
-
= 2y y(3y 2 - 2xy3 )
96. (a) and d
= -7 cosec 2y(14 cosec 2y cot 2y + 1) dx 1-xy dx2 (1-xy)3
-4
dx
- y(3y 2 -2y2 lny)
91. (a) dy = -e' and d2y = --e'' - (1-my) 3
dx 7 dx2 7
and d2yy3(15-2xy)
(b) Ly = '
(b)
dx
= 12 x and = -1e
2
dx 5-xy dx2 (1-xy) 3
dx2
= 5y3 (3-21ny)
92. (a) -- = - and = (1- Sin y)3
dx x dx2 x2 I

Exercise 2i

1. (a) f = 12x2 y5 (b) fx = -35x4 y3

f= 20x3 y4 f=-21x 5 y2
2. (a) f= lOx (b) f= - 16x
f= 2y f3y 2
3. (a) f= 6x (b) f= - 1Ox
f=-21y 3 f=-6y2
 Answers

1
4. (a) (b) f= 6x(3y-2x2)(3x2y---x4-1)2
j2x-5y
5
f= 9x2 (3x2y - x4 _1)2
2,j2x-5y
3x
5. (a) f= (b) f= 2 xy — fiJ
J 3x2 +4y2
f=
4y
f
X2 Y2

x(x-2y) 6x2y4+20x3y3-2x6
6.(a) f= (b) f=
(x—y) 2 x8 +2x4 y4 +y8
y(2x—y) 5y6 - 8x3y3 - 15x4 y2
.
(x—y) x8 +20x4y4 +y8

az az
7. (a) = 5 cos(5x + 2y) (b) —4 sm(4x - y)
ax ax
az az
-
=2cos(5x+2y) = sm(4x - y)
ay ay
3Z az
8. (a) - =6 sec2(6x + 7y) (b) =8 sec(8x - 3y) tan(8x - 3y)
ax ax
aZ az
• —=7sec 2 (6x+7y) = —3 sec(8x - 3y) tan(8x - 3y)
•

•
ay ay
az az
9. (a) - = 2y cos(2x - 3y) (b) = —4y sin(4x + 7y)
ax ax
az
-
az
= sin(2x - 3y) - 3y cos(2x - 3y) = cos(4x + 7)— 7y siri(4x + 7)
ay ay
az az
10. (a) - = 5y sec 2 (5x - 8y) (b) 6y sec(6x + y) tan(6x + y)
ax ax =
az
- az
•

= tan(5x - 8y) - 8y sec2 (5x - 8y) = sec(6x + y)[y tan(6x + y) + 1]

ay ay
az (2x" 2x2 1 2x' az 5x 5x 2 . 5x
• 11. (a) - = 2x sin I + cos (b) —=2x cos - ----sm -
ax 5y) 5y
-)
I3y) ax ( 3y) 3y ( 3y )
az - 2x3 1 2x az 5x 3 . (5x
—=----sinI -
• ay 5y2 5y) ay 3y 2 3y

az 4x 4x2 2 1 4x az 3x 3x2 (3x' 3x

12. (a) - = 2x tan I - I + - sec I - (b) —=2xseci - I+—secl - Itan-
ax 7y) 7y ax 8y
8y) 8y 8y) ( )
az 4x3 2 4x az 3x3 (3 (3x
—sec I - I —=-----secl - Itani -
•
ay 7y2 7y) ay 81 2 8 y) 8y
 Answers

aZ 1 = 1 aZ 1
13. (a) (b)
ax 1 x2 jy2 _x2 ax FX2 Jy2_x2

az_ az
aY y2\/i__ y.Jy2 _ x2 ay Y2\/1_4 y..jy2_x2

14. (a) -=
az
ax
Y2 FX4=2x 2x
J—x4
(b)
aZ
3x
2x 2xy2

az - 2x2 2x2 az - 2x2 2x2 y

_ yJy—x ay - 31 xx4+y4
3i-4

15. (a)
au = ye (b) 5xy
ax ax
xe
au 5xy
ay
au au = 2xe'° '
16. (a) = 7y3 e7 ' ( b) ( 5xy + 1)
ax ax
Du 7 xy au - lox 3e°'
DY ay
au = y2e/2 au
= 2xye x 2 1
17. (a) (b)
ax ax
au - 2xyexy = xe"
ay ay
au = ex 12sec2 (2x - + tan(2x - au = e x [sin(x - 2y) + cos(x - 2y)]
18. (a) y) y)] (b)
ax ax
au - _ eX sec 2 (2x —y) Du -
_2ex cos(x —2y)
ay ay
19. (a)
au ex cosy
(b)
au = e x tan
ax ax
au _ _exsiny au
—=esec2 y
ay
au = 2ye tan 2X sec 2x = 5ye 5 x sec 5x tan 5x
20. (a) (b)
ax ax
au = et 2X -au= e 5 X

ay ay
21. (a)
au = ye cos
(b)
au = ye x sec2 x
ax ax
au sinex _au = tan(ex)
ay ay
 Answers:

22. (a)
av 1
(b)
ax X ix x
av_i avi
ay ay
(d)
av
(c)
ax ax
Y=ln2xy+1
aVx
ay ay -
23. (a) (b)
ax x—y ax x+y
av 1 avi
ay ay x+y
av av Xy
(c) (d)
5
ax x—y 22

av_ y 1= 2 2+l(x2+y2)
ay - x 2 —y2 ay x+y 2
24. (a)
av = cot(x y) (b) Yi=_tan(xy)
+
ax ax
av =cot(x+y) av
--=tan(x—y)
ay ay
aV sec 2 (x—y) av =tan(x—y)
(c) (d)
ax tan(x—y) ax
av sec 2 (x—y) av
-=—
tan(X — Y)
ay - tan(x — y) ay
25. (a)
av =in(J+y_i (b)
ax X ax (yx)+
aVx =—+x
ay y ay y

(c)
av
---=1n(sinxy)-i-xy cot xy+4xy (d) __=2Y 2 _ln(tanXY)_ YY
ax ax tanxy
JV = 2
cotxy+2x 2
ay ay tartxy

Exercise 2j

1. (a) f=3x2 +4y fxx (b) f= lOx fXX

f=4x f=-4x
fyy
fxy
fyX
2. (a) f = 14x fxx = 14 (b) fx = 3x2y4 + y2 fxx = 6xy4
fy = 8 f =0 f = 4x3y3 + 2xy f, = 12x3y2 + 2x
fXY fxy
fyx
M Answers

3. (a) f = 2x - 7y fxx = 2 (b) fx = 14xy3 - 24x2y5 xx

f = 14y3 - 48xy5
fy = 2y - 7x fyy = 2 fy = 21xy - 40x3y4 fyy = 42x2y - 160x3y3
fxy = -7 fxy = 42xy2 - 120x2y4
fyx = -7 f!IX = 42xy2 - 120x2y4
4. (a) f=2x-y fxx (b) f= 2 x -2 y
f=2y_x fyy = 2 f=_2x12y2 fyy
xy

5. (a) f=2x-3y fxx (b) fzr2X

f=6y2 _3x f=12y
yy f=1-15y2 fyy

fyx yx

6. (a) =2x+4y -=2 (b)

ax ax ax
1 =4x-1Oy ay
-lO =32y ±zz32
ay ay 2
Y 4
ayax ayax

axay axay
7. (a)
av = 8y a2V =
0 (b) = 3y2 +lOxy _-i = lOy

a2v av 2 +6xy a2v

ay ay ay
a2v
—=8
a2v
—=lOx+6y
ayax ayax
a2v
—=8 — =lOx+6y
axay axay
8. (a) = 15x2 - 8xy = 30x - (b) = 35x4 + 6x - 5y4 = 140x3 +6
ax ax ax ax
av = 18y-4x2 = -20xy 3 = -60xy2
ay 2

a2v
—=-8x
a2v
ayax ayax
a2v
—=--8x
a2v
—=-2Oy
DA Y axay
9. (a) - = 2Ox-i------ = 60x2 ----
I

(b) -- = -18x5
a2v
—i- = -90x4
ax 2x 2 y ax2 x3 y ax ax
 Answers IM

v 1 a 2 V1
- 2xy2 ay 2 - xy 3 ay 2 ay 2

1
0
ayax - 2x2 y2 ayx

1
0
Jxy - 2x2 y 2 axay

av 8x 7y2 V 14y 8 - 3y2 8x a2 V - 6y 2 8

10. (a) -----j- b ax2x3
x Y X2 L
y x x2 y
H
aV - 14y 4x - 8x2 14 aV - 6y 4x - 6 8x2

V 8x l4y 6y 8x
yax y2 ayax X2

V 8x l4y a2 v 6y 8x
=--+-
X2
xy y2 x2 xay
f
11. (a) fx —y sin xy
= fIx= —y 2 cos xy (b) fx = 3y cos 3xy = —9y 2 sin 3xy
f= —xsinxy f=—x2 COS xy f=3xcos3xy fyy
f,=—xycosxy fxy
= —xy cos xy fyx =3 cos 3xy - 9xy sin 3xy
12. (a) f=siny fxx =0 (b) f=ysec2 x fxx
f=x COS y f=_x
yy
sin y f=tanx fyy
fxy =cosy f,,=sec2 x
f=cosy fyx = sec2 x
13. (a) fx = 2xycos x2 y (b) f = tan x2y + 2x2y sec2 x2y
fxx - 8x3 y2 sin x2y+6xycosx2y
f=x2 COS x2y lxx
- cos3 x 2y
fyy f=x3 sec2 xy
—2xy sin x-y + 2x cos x2y
= fyy = 2x5 tan xZy sec2 xy

f= -2x3y sin x2'+2x Cos xi - 4x 4 y sinx2y+3x2 COS x2y

fxy COS 3 x2y
- 4x4 y sinx2 y+3x2 COS x2 y
fyx cos3x2 y
14. (a) fx = — 2y3 sin 2xy (b) fx = 2x tan 2xy + 2x2y sec2 2xy
fxx lxx = 2 tan 2xy (4x2y2 sec2 2xy) + 8xy sec2 2xy
f=2ycos2xy-2xy2 sin2xy fy = 2x3 sec2 2xy
fyy = 8x4 tan 2xy sec2 2xy
yy = 2(1 - 2x2y2) cos 2xy - 8xy sin 2xy
f,, = —4xy cos 2xy - 6y2 sin 2xy 8x3 y sin 2xy+6x2 cos2ry
f
fyx cos 3 2xy
 Answers

15. (a) f=2cos(2x+5y) (b) f=3sec2 (3x-2y)

= —4 sin (2x + 5y) fxx = 18 sec2 (3x - 2y) tan (3x - 2y)
= 5 cos (2x +5y) = —2 sec2 (3x - 2y)

= —25 sin (2x +5y) f = 8 sec2 (3x - 2y) tan (3x - 2y)
—12 sec2 (3x - 2y) tan (3x - 2y)
fxy = —10 sin (2x + 5y)
=

fyx = —10 sin (2x + 5y) fx= —12 sec2 (3x - 2y) tan (3x - 2y)

= y a2u = -2xy
16. (a) = cos 1 y =0 (b)
ax ax2 ax 1+x2 ax (1+x 2 )2

Du x a2u xy au a2u
_____ —=tan 1 x
ax 1_ y2 aY2 y(l y2)3 ax ay

a2u - 1 a2u - 1 a2u 1 a2u 1

aya - - .jjiii2 - - ayax = 1 + x 2 axay = 1 +x
-
a 2 U= au - a2 U = - 2xy 3
Y Y (b)
Y
17. (a)
ax x2y2 2 3 ax 1+x2 y 2 (1+x2 y) 2
(1_x2 y2 )2

au - x a2u - x 2y au - x a2u - - 2x3 y

aYx2y2 ay2 ayl+x2y2 ay (1+x2 y 2 )2
(1— x2y2)
au 1 a2u - 1 a2u 1—x 2 y 2 a2u - 1—x 2 y 2
ayax axay ayax(1+x2y2 )2 axay (1+x 2 y 2)2
(1_x2 y2 )2 (1_x2 y2 )2

a2u 128xy3
(b) au =
au = a2u 125xy3 = -
_
18. (a)
ax 1_25x2y2 ax2 j(1_25x2y2 )3 ax 1+16x2 y2 ax2 (1+16x2y2 )2

au 5x a2u - 125x3y au - 4x a2u -- 128x3 y

aYJ125 x2y2 ay2 J(1_25x2y2 )3 ayl+16x2y2 ay2 (1+16x2y2 )2

5 a2 - 5 a2 4(1-16x2y2 ) a2 4(1-16x2y2 )
ayax aay ayax(1+16x2y2 )2 axay(1+16x2y2 )2
(1— 25x2y2 )2 (1— 25x2y2 )2

au = -28y2 a2u = -448xy4 + 12xy

19. (a) (b) =4 tan 3xy
ax j1_16x2y2
3 ax 1+9x2y2
(1— 16x2 y2 ) 2
au - 7cos 1 4xy— _________
28xij a2 u
ay j1_16 x2y2 ax 2 (1+9x2y2 )2

a2u 448x3 y2 _56x au = 12x2

- ay 1±9x2y2
ay2
(1— 16x2y2 ) 2

a2u - 448x2y3 - a2u - -216x4y

a,ax ax (1+9x2y2 )2
(1_16x2y2)2
 Answers

au448x2y3 -56y a2 U 24x a2 U 24x

axay ayax - (1+9x2 y2 )2 axay - (1+9x2 y2 )2
- (116x2y2)2
3u y u 2x2y—y3 au y u y 3 -2x2y
20 (a (b)
ax2 - x2 (x2 _y2 )3 ax ax - x2 j(x2 _y2 )3
- x21_- - x21_-
x x
au - 1 au - 1 - y
ay - J(x2 - 2
ay2 - - .f(x2 - 2 )3
' xfi x/1 -

-
aYaxj(x2 _y2 )3 ayaxJ x2 _ y2 )3

a2u a2u
axaYI(X2_Y2)3 aXaYy(x2_y2)3

21 (a) fx = eY fxx = 0 (b) fx = yex fxx = ye'

f=xeY f=xeY f = e x f,=0
f,=eY fey f, = ex fyx =ex
22.(a) fx = 2eY fxx = 0 (1,) f = 3yex fxx = 3yex
f=2xeY f,=2xeY f=3ex f=0
f = 2eY
= 3ex
= 2eY f, = 3ex fyx

_2ye 2 =_Y2 e2 XY
23.(a) f 5ye = f = 5ye (b) f =

I = 5xexY I = 5x2exY 1 1
2'
= 5(xy + 1)exY lyx = 5(xy
+ 1)exY = —2xe J = —x e

fxy =—(xy+2)e 2 lyx =—(xy+2)e2

24 (a) Ix = —2(xy + 4)e (b) I = 3y2e3'

1 1
1
fxx =—y(xy+8)e 4 lxx =y e3

fy =-2X21 e4 1 =3(j+3)e3
1 1
1 3Y -xy
I =— x e4 =x(xy+6)e 3
1 1
1 XY -xy
I, =--x(xy+8)e 4 I =y(xy+6)e3

lyx = - x(xy + 8)e lyx = y(xy + 3)e3

M Answers

25. (a) f = (3xy - y2 + 3)exY (b) f = (2y2 - xy - 1)e xY

fxx = y(3xy - y2 + 6)exY xx y(2y2 - xy - 2)exY
f=(3x2 _ xy _1)exY f=(2xy _ x2 +2)e xY
=x(3x2 - xy - 2)exY 4)exY
yy x(2xy - x2 +
f = [6x - xy 2 + y(3x2 - 2)]exY = [2x (y2 - 1) + y(4 - x 2)]e xY
xy
= [6x - xy 2 + y(3x2 - 2)]e xY f x = [2x (y2 - 1) + y(4 - x2)]exY

26. (a)
az = 3x2e5 = 6xe5 (b) = (1– 2x2y3 )e_X2Y3
ax ax ax
a2z
az
- = 5x3e5 - 25x 3 e = 2xy (2x2y3 - 3)e _x2 13
ay 2
—i -

ax ax
az
= -3x 3 2 e_X2Y3
ayax -
ay

--- = 15x2e5' a2z

= 3x y(3x2y3 - 2)e
axay
az2 = 3x y2(2x2y33)e_x2Y3
ayax
az 2
= 3x y 2 (ex2y3 - 3)e_x2 Y3
axay
az =3x2ex313 (b)
az =2xex2_12
27. (a)
ax ax

= 3x(3x3 + 2)ex3+ = 2(2x2 + 1)ex2_

ax ax2
az =3y2ex3+Y3 az
-=-2ye
ay ay

= 3Y(3 Y3 + 2)e x3 + Y3 = 2(2y2 - 1)e x2 Y2

ay ay 2
a2 z 2 y 2 e x-Fy 3 a2z = _4xyex_Y
= 9x
ayax ayax
a2z - 2 2 x3+y3 az = _4xye x_Y
- 9x y e
axay axay

28. (a) = (2x+ 1)e25 1 (b)

ax ax

= 4(x+1)e 25 Y
ax2 ax2
az X
az =5xe2'5' - = –7xe
ay ay
a2z
= 25xe 2 x+ 5 —=49xe 3x-7y
ay 2 ay 2
 Answers

- a2z -
5(2x+1)e25 ' –7(3x + 1)e3x -
ayax ayax
a2z -
= 5(2x+1)e25 –7(3x + 1)e3x -
axay axay

29.(a) = 6x2y + y2exY2 (b) ax = 3(2x - y)ex

ax

= 12xy +Y4ye'2
e XY2 a2z3= j (y2 _2xy+2x2 )ex
ax
az
az = 2x +2xye2
ay ay
a2z = 3ex£
= 2(2xy + 1)e2
ay ay
a2 3
= 2y(xy2 + 1)e2 +6x 2
ayax

a2 z 3 (x_y)ex
= 2y(xy + 1)e 2 +6x 2
axay
az
- = 5x(3xy2 + 2)e32
(c) (d) = 2x2 (3– 2xy3 )e_213
ix ax
a2z
= 5(9X2 y + 12xy2 + 2)e 2 = 4x(2x2 y 6 - 6xy3 + 3)e_23
ax
az
- = 30x3ye3 az =
ay ay
a2z = 30x3 (6xy2 + 1)e32
—i- _24x 4 y(3XY3 - 1)e _23
ay ay 2

= 90xy(xy + 1)e' 2 = 24x3 y2 (xy3 _2)e_2

ayax ayax

= 9Ox2y (xy2 + 1)e32 = 24xy2(xy3 - 2) e_23

axay axay
az = Cos x2y_2x2ysinx2y+ye
30. (a) – = ye + sin y (b)
ax

= –6xy sin x2 y - 4x32

y cos x2 y + y2 e'
x (JZ
ax 2 - ye —i-
ax
az
ay =xe xy –x 3sin 2 y
Z
—=e +xcosy
ay
a2z uZ 2xy
e –x5cosx 2 y
= –xsiny
ay ay
 Answers

2
+cosy sin x 2 y - 2x4 y cos x 2 y + (xy + 1)e xy
ayax ayax
a2 z a2 z 2 2y+(xy+1)e'
—=e +cosy —=-3x sinx2y-2x4ycosx
axay axay
az
(c) - = 2cos2x-2xe 5 ' (d) = 3x2e8 +3ysin3xy
ax ax

- = —4sin2x-2e 5 = 6xe8 +9y2 cos3xy

ax2 ax2
aZ az
—=-5x 2 e'y =8x3e8+3x sin 3xy
ay ay
a2 z
—=64x e8 +9x2 cos3xy
ay2 ay

= —1Oxe5 = 24x2e8 + 3 sin 3xy + 9xy cos 3xy

ayax ayax

--- =24x2e8 +3sin3xy+9xycos3xy

axay axay
5 5 1 1
31. (a) f_ x (b) f —x Ix X 2
x
1 1 2 2
f= —
f= 0 fyx = O
4 4 4 4
32. (a) f = --x f = -- (b) --
x fx x = 2
x
1 1 1 1

fxy =0 fyx=0 f=O f=0

1 1 1 1
33. (a) fx
x
f=-- (b) f= XX
3x 2
2x
1 1 1 1

xy fy x= 0 fyx=O
5 5 1 1
34. (a) f=—i- (b)
2x 2
XX
2x 2x
2 2 5 5
fj fyy
f=O f=O f=O f=0
 Answers MI
= y3 ±4 = - y+4
35. (a) fx =3x2 lny fxx = 6x In y (b) fx
2x 2x
f3y2frix fyy

3x 2 =± 3y2 3y2
f xy =- fyx fyx
y
2 2 3 3
36. (a) f = -- (b) f = = --

[[64x6]]
f=2y1n(4xy) +y f= 2:(4xy) +3 f

2y 2y = 3 Y2
3y2
fyx fxy

37. (a) f = = - (b) fx = 6x ln(4x +

+ 4x+5y
= 3y2 Irt(5xy) + 48x 48x2
fyy = 6y In(5xy) + fxx =n(4x+5y)+
61
(4x+ 5y)2
4x+5y
= = 15x2 =- 75x 2
fxy X YY
' 4x+5y (4x+5y)
= = 30x(2x + 5y)
fyx
' (4x + 5Y)2
30x(2x+5y)
YX
(4x+5 Y)2
= + 7x 2
38. (a) f = -2y(x2 + 5y) (b) f = ln(7x + y2)
x -5y 7x+y

5Y = 7(7x+2Y 2 )
f = ln(x2-5y)-
x -5y (7x+y )

- -5(2x - 5y) - 2xy - 2x(7x - y2)

1YY - 7x+y2 - (7x+y2 )2
- (x 2 -5y)2
- 2x3 - 2y3
fxy - (x2-5y) - (7x+y
2x3 - 2y3
5 Y)2 Y2)2
- (x 2 - - (7x +
e2:
39 (a) fx = 2e2 X In(x + y) e lrt(x
+ =
e2X
f =4e ln(x+y)+-- 2 +e -x ln(x - y)
x+y (x+y) 2 x-y (x-y)
 Answers

e 2 - e 2 ex e_X
fYY (X+Y) 2 x—y (x—y) 2
e 2 (2y + 2x —1) e_X (x - y + 1)
fXY
(x+y) (x—y)2

e 2 (2y + 2x —1) e _x( x _ y+ 1)

fyX (x+y)2
JYX
(x—y)2

40. (a) f = 5y cot 5x fxx = —25y cosec 5x (b) fx = — 8y tan 8x fxx = — 64y sec2 8x
f=1n(sin5x) fyy f=1n(cos8x)
fxy =5 cot 5x fxy = — 8 tan 8x
fyx fyX = —8 tan 8x
2y sec 2x
(c) fX = cosec 4x (d) f=4ytan4x
tan 2x =
fxx = —16y cot 4x cosec 4x fxx
= ln(tan 2x) f = ln(sec 4x)
yy =0
yy =0
fxy = 4 cosec 4x =4 tan 4x
fXy
fyx =4 cosec 4x tan 4x
fyX = 4

Revision Exercise 2

1. (a) 3- 2(3x2 - 2y)

13. (a)
X 4x-15y2
10 14. (b) sec (x + y) —1
2. (b)
x 2 + 100
15. (b) 2_-r1
2tanx+secx
3. (d)

4. (c)
x
sin x + 2 16. (b)
-4-
X +1
17. (d) —16 sin 2x - 28 cos 2x
18. (a) (x _1)e _X
1 .1 19. (d) —sec3 t
5. (b) 2 cos —+sm-
x x
6. (a) ex (cos x_ sin x) 24x4 +5
20. (c) -
sec tan X2
7. (a) 21. (a) —2(2x2 - 1)cos 2x - 8x sin (2x)

8. (d) (5+Inx)In4 x 22. (d) (3x+10y)4+10()+6i+2=0

—1
X-1
9. (c) 23. (b) 6X2
24. (d) —24
cost 25. (d) lOe3Y
10. (b) - _
1 + sin t 4x3
11. (a) —cot 0 26. (c) T
e_t y
12. (c) - - 27. (a) 80 in 6xe4Y
2
28. (c) 2y2exY + 12 cos 2x
 Answers

29. (d) (iii) =xx (In x+ 1)

v2 dx
30. (b) 27rh j:jii-
d2y
(c) (ii) dx
31. (a) = (b) = 3 cos2 x sin x - sin x 2 25
dx x dx
dy = 3-2x
47. (a) W -
32. = dx 3+2y
dx x+y dx ( _1,3) 2
(ii) = -2(sin 2x)ec0s2x
dy 5cosx sin dy - f(6+7x) dx
33. (a) - = -5e (b) -
dx dx 2'j1 +x dy
(iii) -=7sin14x-5sin10x
H xe x + 2e x (x+ 2)e x dx
35 (a) (b) 8x3 sec2 (x4) tan (x4)
x2 +6x+9 = (x+3)2 (c) M dy4j-1

36 (a)
(ii) =3
dx
dxlt.2 2 (iii)y=3xandx+3y-10=0
(c) 5x + 2y - 17 = 0 dy
48. (a) (i) = (x + 3)x 2e x
dx
dy = - 3t2 -4
37. (a)
dx 4(5-2t) = (x2 + 6x+ 6)xe x
dx2
4 (ii) x = -3 and x = 0
(b) m
23
(iii)x=0,x=-3+j and x=-3-sJ
+ SiflX
38. (a) = (4 + cos x)e4x (b) x = 0: point of inflection, x = -3: minimum
dx
point x=-3+J and xrz-3—si: points of
(b) =4sec24x+_2x inflection
dx x2 +7
(c) (i) dy = 4(t - 2)jt(1 - t)
dx
39. (a) dy 1 (b) y=-x - 2
(ii) 4x - 12y = it + 21
= 2(x-1)y
40. (a) =4 COS 4x-4 sin 4x 49. (a)
dx dx x[y(cosy+5)-1]

42. (a) (i) e5x (5 sin icx + it sin itx) Ly =--=0.558

dx (-7,4) 1 147
3x2 +1
2x(x+1)(x-1) (b) (i) fxx = _ 25e 5x cos
(ii) f, = 25e5x cos Sy - 12y + lOx
4x
43. (b) mx + sin 4x + sin 4x (1- 2x)y
(71 _16x2 )
50. (a) dy =
dx x[y(sin y -3)- 2]
=100= 0.441
dx (84) 227
dy
45. (a) (i) = 7 sin l4x
dx xy 2(8e4x sin 4y + 7y)
(b) G)=
dy xcosx 2
dx Jsinx2 (ii) = -2(8e 4x sin 4y-3)
M Answers

3 Integration II
Exercise 3a

5 1 1 7
1.(a) + (b) +
3(x+2) 3(x-1) 4(x+1) 4(x-3)
5 2 21 1
2. (a) (b)
x+3 x+2 5(x+4) 5(x-1)
5 1 19 16
3. (a) (b) +
x+5 x-2 7(x+2) 7(x-5)
37 19 29 6
4. (a) (b) +
3(x+4)3(x+1) 5(x+2) 5(x-3)
47 39 35 17
5. (a) (b)
x+4 x+3 2(x-5) 2(x-3)
4 17 3
6. (a) -3+- ---+----
3 (b) 3
x+2 x+1 - 2(x-3)2(x-1)
114 9 95 11
7.(a) -4+ - (b) 5
7(x+5) 7(x-2) - 6(x-4)6(x+2)
23 47 123 8
8.(a)2- + (b)7- +
8(x+3) 8(x-5) 5(x+4) 5(x-1)
2 41 1
9. (a) 1----+---
8 (b) 1+ +
x+3 x+1 7(x-5) 7(x+2)
41 6 111 25
10. (a) 3- + (b) 4- +
5(x+3) 5(x-2) 2(x+7) 2(x+3)
30 1 __ 21 ______
24
11. (a) 2x+9+ - (b) 2x-l+ +
x-3 x-1 5(x-3) 5(x+2)
28 60 4
12. (a) 3x+25+ ------
156 (b) 3x-16+----------
x-4 x-2 x+3 x+1
18 760 18
13. (a) 2x+5+—+------
4 (b) 4x-23+
x+4 x-3 7(x+5)7(x-2)
14. (a) 6x-26+------- (b) 6x+39+---------
x+3 x+1 x-3 x-2
66 340 225 105
15. (a) 4x+5+ + (b) 3x-2+ +
7(x+2) 7(x-5) 8(x+5) 8(x-3)
3 1 5 2
16. (a) (b)
x±1 x+2 x+4 x+2
9 1 3
17. (a) + (b) -+ 1 -----
2(x+5) 2(x-1) x+2 x-3
19 17
18. (a) + (b) 26 19
6(x+4) 6(x-2) x-4 x-3
19 37 17 18
19. (a) + (b) - -
7(x+2) 7(x-5) 7(x+3) 7(x-4)
5 1 22 59
20. (a) -- (b) -_____
x+5 x-2 9(x+2) 9(x-7)
 Answers

22 14 3 8 2 1
21.(a) + (b) +
7(3x -1) 7(x + 2) - (x + 2) 2
+
25(2x + 1) 25(x -2) 5(x - 2)2
1 2 3 13 47 15
22. (a) (b)
2x_lI(x_3)2 32(3x+l) 32(x+3) 4(x+3) 2
19 4 1 37 2 1
23. (a) (b)
7(4x-3)7(x+1)(x+1)2 9(5x-2)9(x-1)3(x-1)2
13 29 39 1 68 44
24. (a) (b) 27(2x_1)±27(x_5)3(x_5)2
25(3x+2)25(x+4)5(x+4)2
4 37 11 51 44 1
25 (a) - - + (b) - +
13(2x -3) 13(x + 5) (x (x+5) 2 25(4x + 1) 25(x -1) 5(x - 1)2
2 x-1 9 4(2x-1)
26. (a) - (b)
x+1 x2+x3 x+2 x 2 +x-1
3 2(x-3) 7x-5 3
27. (a) - (b) 2 -
X-1 x2 -2x+3 4(x -x+2) 4(x-2)
25 23x-43 57 42x-13
28. (a) - (b)
x+3 x2 +x-5 5(x-4) 5(x 2-3x+1)
-

60 39x-22 5 4x+1
29. (a) (b)
7(x+4)7(x2+2x-1) 3(x+2)3(x2-3x-1)
6 29x-38 16 -57x+29
30. (a) (b)
13(2x + 1) - 13(x2 +3x-2) 31(3x -1) 31(x2 - 2x+4)
3+ (1)+ 1 7x 2) 25
31. (a) 2+ 2(1)
h + 2 1) (b)

5 3(x+2) 68 37x-64
32 (a) 4- ----- (b) 5+ +
x+2 x2+3 7(x-3) 7(x +5)
41 - 7x-4 5 7x-10
33 (a) 2- (b) 3+ +
6(x+4) 6(x2+2) 2(x-2) 2(x2 +4)
10 13(2x+5) 123 + 3x+1
34. (a) (b) 4-
2- 9(x + 2) - 9(x2 +5) 10(x + 3) 10(x2 + 1)
53 - 7x+1 33 23x+38
35 (a) -2- (b) -4+ +
10(x-3) 10(x2+1) 7(x+2) 7(x2+3)
x-2 1 x+1 3 - 3(x+2) 4-3x
36. (a) (b)
5(x2 + 1) - 5(x + 2) + 2 + 1)2 25(x -2) 25(x2 + 1) + 5(x2 + 1)2
5 5(x-1) 5x+4 5 -5(x+1) - 5x-11
37. (a) (b)
9(x+1)9(x2+2)3(x2+2)2 16(x-1) 16(x2 +3) 4(x2 +3)2
5 5(x+2) 6-5x - 7(x+3) - 7x-4
38. (a) b
64(x -2) - 64(x2 +4) - 8(x2 +4) 2 50(x -3) 50(x2 +1) 5(x2 + 1)2
1 x+2 x-2 1 x-1 x+6
39. (a) (b)
5(x-2) 5(x2+1)(x2+1)2 3(x+1) 3(x2 +2)(x2 +2)2
3 3(x+2) 3x-2 1 x+3 5x-3
40. (a) (b)
7(x-2)7(x2+3)(x2+3)2 4(x-3) 4(x2 +1)2(x2 +1)2
2 1 2 9
41. (a) -+
X2+1 (x2 +1)2 (b) 2 - (x2+1) 2
x +1
3 5 3 5
42. (a) X2+1 - (b) X22 + (x2+1) 2
(x2+1)2
 Answers

4 11 5 51
43. (a) - _______ (b) X 2 +9 (X 2 +9)
X 2 +4 (x2 +4)2 2
2 3x+2 2 5x-2
44. (a) X2+1 (b)
(x2+1)2 x2 +1 (x +1) 2
4 5x-4 - 6x+7
45. (a) (b) X2+1
(x2+1)2
5 4x+45 8 7x-32
46. (a) (b)
X2+9 - (x2+9)2 +
x2+4 (x2+4)2
5 5(x+1) - x-5 1 x+1 9x-1
47. (a) (b) - + +
4(x-1) 4(x2 +1) 2(x2 +1)2 4(x -1) 4(x2 + 1) 2(x2 + 1)2
1 x-1 5x-1 7 7(x-1) 5x-7
48. (a) ________ (b) - +
4(x+1) 4(x2 +1)2(x2 +1)2 4(x+1) 4(x2 +1) 2(x2 +1)2
2x+1 4 8 2(2x-1) 35x-4
49. (a) - 4—+ (b) -
81(2x-1) 81(x2 + 2) - 81(2x -1) 81(2x+1) 81(x2 +2) 9(x2 +2) 2
+

9 3x+1 2x+1 27 3(3x-1) 4x-3

50. (a) (b) - +
10(3x-1) - 10(x2 +1) + (x2 +1)2 50(3x + 1) 50(x2 + 1) 5(X2 +1)2

Exercise 3b

1. (a) (1nIx -2-1nx+ 1 )+C (b) 3(1nx-21--1nx-1I)+C

21
x -2 \ =1nA(-
x-1
=A (X+l )

H)4I
2. (a) 4(1njx+2I-1nIx+3)+C (b) (1nx+41-1nx-2I)+C
+2
A =hAt) 3

3. (a) 3(lnjx-21-ln!x-31)+C (b) 5(1nIx+4-1nIx+3I)+C

)
x+4 5I
=1nAI- = A

4. (a) (Injx-2-1nx+51I)+C (b) (1nIx-51-1nk+3)+C

=1nA1- T8
x+5) =1nA( x+3)

5. (a) 4(htlx-61-1n1x-41)+C (b) 10(lnJx+51-lnlx+41)+C

r1nAI- =lnA__J
 Answers

6. (a) 51n(x+3)-31n(x+2)+C (b)

3 1nIx-1I+lnIx+21+C
3
I(x+3) I
=lnA
=InA(x-1) 3 .(x+2) 3

7. (a) (b) .:1nIx+1i+lnIx+4+c

2 1nIx-3I-1nx-1+C
2 3 3
13 1 1
(x - 2 =lnA(x+1)3 (x+4)3
=lnA
(x_1)2

8. (a)
.5 In!x-3I-1lnJx+21+C
5 (b) lllnJx-41-61nIx-21+C
11
=1nA
lnA (x-3'5 (x _2)6
=
(x + 2)
1
9. (a) (b) -Z-lfl(X_ 5) -1n(x -2)+C
34 1nIx+4I-1nIx+1I+C
3

=inA 4 5
(x+1) 3 (x - 2) 3
10. (a) 91nIx+ 5 1 -51nIx+ 2 1+C (b) 41nIx-41-lnIx-31+C
=lnA (x+5)9 (x-4)4
=lnA
(x+2)5 (x-3)
1
11. (a) (b)
2 lnlx+ll+1nIx+3+C
2 3 3
1
=lnA (x+1) 2 (x+3) 2 =lnA (x-4)3

(x - 1) 3
12. (a) lnIx+ 3 1+ 21nIx -1 I+C (b) 111nIx+3-8Inix+2I+C
=1n A( x+ 3)(x _1)2 =lnA (x+3)1'
(x +2) 8
11 17
13. (a) (b) 4(1nIx--61+1nIx-2I)
11 17 = in A(x + 6) (x - 2)1
=inA(x+2) 7 (x-5) 7

14. (a) (b)

6 nIx+ 2 1+ 6 - lnIx -4 I+C
1
5 1nIx-6I-lnIx-1I+C
5
29 221
=lnA (x+2)6 (x-4) 6 = 1n A 6)
71
(x-1)5
M Answers

15. (a) 1njx+ 1 I+ 1nlx -5i+C (1) 1nIx+ 5 1 -1 nk+ 2 1+C

=1nA(x+1)2 (x_5) 2 (x+5) 3

mA 17
(x+2) 3
16. (a) 1nIx+ 2 1 -1ni2x+ 1J+C (b) 1nj3x+1j+InIx_-21+C

(x+2)3
=hA
(2x+1) 3

17. (a) 1nI2x --1 H-1nix -2 1+C (b)

= 1nA(2x+1) 10 (x_2) 5 = 1nA(2x+1)(x _3)7

18. (a) 1nj3x+ 1 I+ --1nIx -3 I+C (b) ---1nf3x+ 2 I+ 1nIx+ 2 I+C

30 10 12 4
19 7 1 5
= mA (3x+1) 20 (x-3) 10 = mA (3x+2) 12 (x+2) 4

7
19. (a) 1nx+2_. hii4x+31+C (b) 1n4x-31+1nx+2I+C

(x+2) 5 =lnA(4x-3) 2 (x+2)

-mA 7
(4x+3) 2°

11 1 5 x -2 1+ 1nIx+ 2 +C 1
65 nl5x -3 1+ 13 1nIx+ 2 +C
20. (a) (b)
5

=]nA (5x-2) 5 (x+2) =In (5x - 3) 65 (x + 2) 13

x- 1 1i2x-1I-1nIx+1+C
212 nI 2x -1 I+ 3 1nIx -2l+C
21. (a) (b) + --1
6 3

x_m2x_1) 6 (x+1) 3 +C x+1n(2x-1)(x-2) 3 +C

22. (a) -1n3x-2j+51nlx-1+C (b) x+1n3x-1-1nIx-1+C

7
(x_ 1)5 c x+ln (3x-1)3
35 =
3 (x-1)
= H (3x-2) 9
41 3 3 31
23. (a) ' + 1nI 4x -1 I --1 nIx+ 2 I+C (b) x+ 1-]nI 2x -1 I -1n!2x± 3 I+C
2 72 9 4 32 32
41 7
x (4x-1) 3 (2x-1) 32
=_+mn +c =-x+mn +c
2 4
(x + 2) 9 (2x+3)32
 Answers Im
3 35 59
24. (a) x -1nI 2x --1 I+ 1nI 2x -3 I+C (b) 2x+2InIx-2I-InI2x-1i+C
4 16 16 3 3
59
3 (2x-3) 16
=-x+In =2x+In (x-2)3 +c
4
(2x-1)'6 (2x-1) 3
5x 13 18
25. (a) (b) +1nx-2I---1nt3x-2l+C
3 45 5 3 4 36

=+1n(3x-1) 5 (x-2) 5 +C In (x_2)4c

(3x-2) 36
26. (a) x-3+101nIx+31+C (b) x(x+2)+7InIx-31+C
3x2-32x
27. (a) +62InIx+41+C (b) 2x(x+3)+15InIx-2I+C
5x2 +14x
28. (a) 3(x-3)+16InIx+21 +C (b) +12InIx-2I+C
2 I
29. (a) 3x2±32xi00In11C (b) x(2x-9)+231n1x+31 +C
30. (a) x(3x + 32) + 157 In I x -5 +C (b) 2x(2x-19)+1871n1x+51 +C

31. (a) ---+41nI2x+1I-41nIx+1I+C

x+1
(b) -1--
x+1 + 3 1nI2x-1I- 3 InIx+1I+C
2
2 (2x+1' 4 1 In I (2x-1
I
x+1 x+1 =— I
x+1 x+1)

4 nI 3x+ 1 I --
4 IriIx -1 I -------
32. (a) 1 (b) --+151nI3x+2I-151nIx+1I+C
x-1 +C x+1
31
= 3x+11 1 5 (3x+25
In I I----i-C =—I +ln I
(x-1) x-1 x+1 x+1)

1 '
33. (a) ---1nIx+2I---Ini3x-2I- (b) 1nIx-2I-InI4x-1!+
32 32 4x+8 49 49 7x-14
31 20
In x+2 ) 1 5 x-249
+C = +In +C
( -2 4(x+2) 7x-14 (4x-1)

34. (a) 1 InIx+ 1i - InI 5x -2 I - (b) +--InIx-2I---Int2x+5I+C

49 49 7(x+1) 9x-18 81 81
15 8
x+1) 3 4 (x-2 81
in c +In I +C
(5x-2 7(x+1) 9x-18 2x+5)

35. (a) ----+1nI2x+1I-.InIx+3(+C (b) 8 +In2x-1-InIx+2I+C

x+3 5 5 5(x+2) 25 25
21 16
1 (2x+1'VI 8 (2x-f\25
+lnI I I+C = +InI I +C
x+3 x+3) 5(x+2) x+2)
 Answers

36. (a) 1n4x-1-----1nJx+1I_ (b)

25 25 5(x+1) 36 36 6(x-1)
61 13
1. 4x 25 1 x-136 1
+c 111 +C
- x+1 5(x+1) (5x+l)
6(x-1)

37. (a) 101n1x+l1_1O1n12x+l1_-_Z-._+C (b) 1+I2x-3l-I2x-1I+C

x+1 8(2x-1) 16 16
=h- _ Y
x+1
I%2x+1) x+1 =
1(2x-3'\i
+InI +C
11

8(2x-1) 2x-1)
8 7
38. (a) (b) _ _+101n12x+1I_10InIx+11+C
9(x+2)+-.in!5x+1I-inIx+2I+c
81 81 x+1
13
8 7 (2x+1''°
(5x+1" = — ±]nI +c
= +lnl I +C x+1 x+1)
9(x+2) x+2)

39. (a) 1
(b) 1nI4x+3I-1nI2x-11-
50 5(2x -1)
19
1 +In (4x-1 3
In +C
) + (2x-1
15 23
40. (a)
64 In2x-1I-1nI2x+3I-
64 16(2x-1) (b)---1nI3x+1!---1n!2x-11-
25 25 15(3x + 1)
) 2
2x_1 - 15 In 3x+1')
(2x+3 16(2x-1) - (2x-1) +C

Exercise 3c

1. (a) 2(tanx- sec x)+C (b) -5(tan x - sec x) + C

2. (a) 4(tanx+ sec x)+C (b) -3(tan x + sec x) + C
3. (a) -5 cosec x + C (b) 4 cosec x+C
4. (a) 7 tan x + 4 cot x + C (1) -5 cot x-4 tan x+C
5. (a) 6(sinx- cos x)+C (b) 4 cot x + C
6. (a) 3(tanx+ sec x)+C (b) 4(tanx- sec x)+C
7. (a) -2(cosec x + cot x) + C (b) 5(cosecx- cot x) + C
8. (a) 2(sin 2x + 4 cos x + 2x) + C (b) sin 2x-4 cos x+2x+C
9. (a) -2(sin 2x + 4 sin x - 2x) + C (b) -sin 2x + 4 sin x + 2x + C
10. (a) -6(cosec x - cot x) + C (b) -4(tan x - sec x) + C
11. (a) -4(cot x + cosec x) + C (b) 7(cosec x - cot x) ± C
12. (a) 6(tan x + sec x) + C (b) 5(tanx- sec x)+C
13. (a) sin 2x-4 cos x+2x+C (b) 2(sin 2x + 4 cos x + 2x) + C
14. (a) - sin 2x-2 sin x+x+C (b) -sin 2x + 4 sin x + 2x + C
15. (a) -3 cot x+C (b) 5(tan x - 2x) + C
 Answers

16. (a) 4tanx+C (b) -tan2x+C

2
17. (a) 5cotx+C (b) -cot2x+C
2
18. (a) 4(cotx+x)+C (b) -5(cot 2x + 2x) + C
19. (a) 6(x-tanx)+C (b) 4(tan 2x - 2x) + C
20. (a) tanx+C (b) --cotx+C
2
3. 3. 5
21. (a) 2x- sin 2x+C (b) —sm4x+-sm2x+-x+C
16 2 4
(c) 8(tanx-x)+C
1 1 1
22. (a) - —sin 4x+ -sin 2x- -x+C (b) -sin2x-3x+C
16 2 4
4 3 4
(c) -tan x-4tarx- -x+C
3 3

23. (a) --- (sin 6x+9 sin 4x-45 sin 2x+6Ox)+C (b) --(sin6x+9sin4x+45sin2x+60x)+C
192
(c) X-(3 tan 5x_5tan3x+l5 tan x_15x)

1 1 . 43 1. 1. 27
24. (a) —sin 4x- sin 2x+ —x+C (b) —sm4x+-sm2x+—x+C
32 4 8 32 4 8
(c) ' tan x-tanx+8x+C

1 1. 1. 29
25. (a) -(sin6x-9sin4x+45sin2x+132x)+C (b) --sin4x--sm2x+—x+C
192 32 4 8
(c) - tan x+tanx+2x+C

26. (a) cos3 x -2 cos x + C (b) sin.5x--sm.3

x+4sinx+C
5 3

(c) 4 tan 2 x+8lncosx+C

27. (a) cos5 x -6 cos 3 x + 9 cos x + C (b) sinx-4sinx+C

(c) 7ln cos x+-tan 2 x--tan x+C

2 4

28. (a) cosx-5cosx+C (b) 7 sin x-- sin x+C

(c) 3In cos x+ tan 2x+C

1. 7 33.5
29. (a) - cos 5 x + cos3 x - cos x + 5x + C (b) --Sm X+ sin x—sm
.3
x+2x+C
5 .3 7 5
(c) 6x+lncosx+-tan 2 x--tan 4 x+-tan 6 x+C
2 4 6
M Answers

30. (a) – Cos x+cosx+3x+C (b) 2: sin 3 x_sinx+x+C

(c) 5x_1ncosx_- tan 2x+C

1 1 . 1 .
31. (a) cos 2x– –cos4x+C (b) –sm7x+ –sm3x+C
2 7 3
1 3 5 . 5 .
32. (a) – –cos 6x+ –cos2x+C (b) —sm8x– –sm4x+C
4 4 16 8
3 1 1. 5.
33. (a) –cos2x--cos6x+C (b) –sinl0x+–sm4x+C
4 4 4 8
1 1 3 3
34. (a) – –cos l2x+ –cos4x+C (b) —sin l6x– –sin4x+C
6 2 16 4
2 1 . 5
35. (a) sin 4x– –sin l4x+C (b) –smlOx+ —sin6x+C
7 4 12
36. (a) –2 cos x + C (b) –5cosH-C
3. 9.x 53x
37. (a) –smx--sin–+C (b) sinx+–sin—+C
2 23 3 5
38. (a) –sinx-5sin (b) 4sinx+12sin+C
2 2 3
15 2x 15 4x 35 . 3x . 5x
39. (a) —cos---cos—+C (b) —sm---7sin—+C
2 54 5 3 7 7
18 (5x 10 3x 5 6x
40. (a) _COS)9COS+C (b) —cos---cos—+C
(X)
43. (a) 2]n(secx)+C (b) 51n(secx+ tan x)+C
44. (a) 41r(sinx)+C (b) 31n(cosecx+ cot x)+C
45. (a) –7 ln(sec x) + C (b) –8 In(cosec x + cot x) + C
46. (a) x - ln(cosec x + cot x) + C (b) –5 ln(cosec 2x + cot 2x) + C
47. (a) ln[sec x(sec x + tan x)] + C (b) 4 ln(cosec 2x + cot 2x) + C
sin
48. (a) in +C (b) 3 ln(sec 2x + tan 2x) + C
cosec x + cot x )

49. (a) frI(secx+tanx)C (b) 41n(sec2x+ tan 2x)+C

sec x
cosec X
50. (a) li-k1 +C (b) 1n(sec4x+ tan 4x)+C
cosec x+ cot x) 2

Exercise 3d

1
e 4+C -x
1. (a) (b) - e3X +C 3. (a) 2e 2 +C (b) —3e 3 + c
3
-x (b) _e5X+C
2. (a) e + C (b) - e + C 4. (a) 4 4 +C
–e
 Answers

5. (a) e 8 +C (b) - +C 20. (a) _e10x_2ex_e8+C

8 10 10 8

6. (a) e3x+C (b) -2e-2x + C (b)

10
7. (a) e 4x +C (b) - +C 21. (a) 2eX2 + C (b) _ie_2x2 + C
12 5 2
8. (a) _e2x+C (b) ex2+C (b) _e3x2+C
22. (a)
2 6
9. (a) (b) e_3x+C
35 3 23. (a) 2ex3 +C (b) _e2x3+C
3
10. (a) _e6x+C (b) _e_7x+C
10 3 24. (a) ex3+C (b)
3 3
11. (a) l e3x+2+C (b) _e15x+C
25. (a) 2e X4 + C (b) _1e7x4+C
2
12. (a) -e+C (b) _e2_7X+C
26. (a) 1n1+e'+C (b) 1n1-e+C
13. (a) e7x_3+C (b) _e4_9x+C
27. (a) 1_1n1+6e2+C (b) In3_4e2+C
14. (a) -e4x_9+C (b) _.e_3x_4+C
28. (a) --1n5+9e+C (b) 1 1n4_6e3x +C
15. (a) - e& -8 +C (b) e7XlO + C 27 18

16. (a) e2x_e2x_2x+C (b) e2x_e_2x+2x+C

29. (a)
32 1
-1n7+8e+C (b) -1n9-8e+C
32
2 2 2 2
1
30. (a) --1n10+5e+C (b) lnl5,-10e-5x l+C
17. (a) e2x_2ex_e2x+C (b) e4x+2ex_e2x+C
4 2 4 2

18. (a) (b) e8x+e2x_2e+C

6 4 8 4

19. (a) e8x_e2x_e+C (b) _e10x+e2x_.e+C

8 4 10 6

Exercise 3e

1. (a) xh2x-x+C (b) 3xIn5x-3x+C

2. (a) xlii3x-x+C (b) 6xln7x-6x+C
3. (a) xln4x-x+C (b) 2xln9x-2x+C
4. (a) xln6x-x+C (b) 5xIn9x-5x+C
5. (a) xln8x-x+ C (b) 7xln1lx-7x+C

6. (a) +C In 3x+C (b) (1nx)3 +C=1113 x+C

7. (a) +C=1nx+C (b) (In x)+C=1nx+C

 Answers

8. (a) +C = in5 x + C (b) (in x)8 + C = hin8 x + C

5 5 2 2

9. (a) (In x)6 + =2: X

6 +C (b) (in x)7 + C = in7 x + C
()7
10. (a) = 2 : in
In x+C (b) K(inX)9 +C = x+C
7 . 7 9 9

11. (a) ln2 x+C (b) 31n2 x+C

12. (a) 31n2x+C (b) 61n2 x+C

13. (a) 21n2 x+C (b) 101n2 x+C

14. (a) in2 x + C (b) 28 in2 x + C

15. (a) 5in2 x+C (b) 361n2 x+C

Exercise 3f

(X 2 -6)4+C (2X2 +5)4+C -10 -_____

1. (a) (b) 13. (a) +C (b)
8 3jx3 +4 3j2x3 -5
2. (a) --(x+9)+C (b) -(2x-7)+C - 1 -
14. (a) +C (b) 3 +C
5 1
3(jx6 _4 18iJ2x6+3
3. (a) - -(x4 +3)6 +C (b) - -(2x4-1)6+C /
24 6
24
1 9 15. (a) -Jx5 +6 +C (b) -j4x5 -7 +C
4. (a) --(x 5 +8)7 +C (b) ----(4x5 -7)7 +C 5 20

1
16. (a) 4x 4 _ 5 + C (b)
12
5. (a) - (b) 12(3X2 4)2
(x2 +1)2 17. (a) sin' x+C (b) sin7 x+C

6.(a)-_
2 (b) -________ 18. (a) _ sin 8 x+ C (b) - sinx+C
3(x3 -4)3 18(2x3 + 5)3

7. (a) +C 19. (a) - cosx+C (b) _. Cos 8x+C

8(x4 -5)4 (b) 8(2x4 +7) 4
3 1 20. (a) Cos 6x+C (b) cos9 x+C
8. (a) (b)
25(x'+ 4) 5(2x5 - 9)5
21. (a) tanx+C (b) --tan 6 x+C
9. (a) 4x -7+C (b) 2,J2x 3 +9+C 3

10. (a) -x 4 +2+C (b) --j3x-8+C 8. (a) sec5 x + C (b) _ sec 6 x+C

11. (a) J(x5+2)2 +C (b) j(3x5_4)2 +c 9. (a) 2:sec6 x- 2:sec x+C (b) _2: tan 6 x+C
3 2 2

12. (a) _/( x6 _3)3 +C (b) _/(2 x6 + 9)3 +c 10. (a) tanx+C (b) - tanx - tanx+C
 Answers

5 1 4 7
25. (a) C (b) (7 + 4 cos x)2 +C 38. (a) (b) 4(6 - e +C
cos x -6 + 3 + e_X +C
2 - 1 _X_1n1_8e4+C hi1+7e+C
26 (a) +C U,) 39. (a) (b)
5(2-5 cos x) 3 6(8 + 3 cos 32 7

3 2 40. (a) 1n1-5e+C (b) _?_1n1+4e8+C

27. (a) +C (b) - +C 5 32
2(5-2 sin x) 5(6+5 sin x)2
41. (a) 41n2 x+C (b) 1n2x+C
7 5 2
28. (a) - +C (b)
27(4-9 sin x)3 16(5 + 8 sin x)4
42. (a) - Inx + C (b) -7 In2 x + C
29. (a) (b) 43. (a) ln5 x+ C (b) 4 In
2(3 cos 2x)+C 6(4+ cos 3x)2 +C
- 2
30 (a) +C (b) 3(8+ cos 5x) 3 +C 44. (a) --1nx+C
7
(b) -1n'° x+C
2
2(5- cos 4x)4

31. (a) +C (b) +C 45. (a) -1nI8-3xI+C (b)

4(8-sin2x)2 15(6+sin5x)3 InI4x+7I+C

32. (a) C (b) 46. (a) (b) --11nI8x+5I+C

(7- sin 4x)3 7(4+ sin 7x)5 +C 21n19-4x1+C

ex3+C 7 e x4 + C 1n8x2_3+C 1n9x2+4+C

33. (a) (b) 47. (a) (b)

34. (a) _ex7+C (b) 7

ex8+C 48. (a) _In6x2_1+C (b) _1n5x2+3+C

35. (a) U,) +C 49. (a) -1n5x-8+C (b) 7i4x3+1+c

ex-5 (eX+7)2 15 12
5(ex _4)6 8(eX±5)7c
50. (a) ---1n7x+4+C (b) -In6x-5+C

: a: 2(1 + ex )2 3(1 - ex )3

Exercise_ 3g _

1 1 6. (a) 3(x sin x + cos x) + C (1') 4 (sin x - x cos x) + C

1. (a) -(x-2) 6 (3x+1)+C (b) -(x+5)9(9x-5)+C 7. (a) -2(sinx-x cos x)+C (1) -3 (x sin x + cos x) + C
8. (a) &'(x-l) (b) -e(x+1)
1
2. (a) -(x+3)(5x-3)+C (b) -(x-4) 8 (2x+1)+C 9. (a) 2ex (x - 1) (b) -5e (x + 1)
10. (a) 4e _x (x + 1) (b) _7ex (x - 1)
5 4
3. (a) -(x+7) 7 (x-1)+C 6
(b) --(x-6) (x+1)+C 11. (a) x2(2 Inx -1) C + (b) _x2(2Inx_1)+C
=x2(Fnx2-1)+C
3
4. (a) -(5-2x) 10 (4x+1)+C = _ x2 (inx2 _1) + C
88 4
(b) -(3x+2)(21x-2)+C 12. (a) .-x2(21nx_1)+C (b) _x2(21nx_1)+C
63 8 16
5. (a) sinx - xcosx+C (b) xsinx+cosx+C 1 3
=-x2 (lnx2 -1)+C =--x 2 (lnx2 -1)+C
8 16
 Answers

13. (a) --(sin5x-5xcos5x)+C (b) --(4xsin4x+cos4x)+C

14. (a) --1-(6x sin 6x+ cos 6x)+C (b) --- (sin 7x---7x cos 7x)+C

15. (a) e3 x(3 x _1) + C (b) -e (2x + 1) + C

16. (a) _e4x(4x_1)+C (b) e_5x(5x+1)+C

17. (a) x2 (In 25x2 _1) + c (b) x2 (In 36x2 -1)+C

18. (a) x2(1_1n36x2)+c (b) x2(1_1n64x2)+C

19. (a) (6xsin3x+2cos3x_9x2 cos 3x)+C (b) (8x2 sin 4x_ sin 4x+4x cos 4x)+C

20. (a) (4 x sin 4x+ cos 4x_8x2 cos 4 x) + C (b) _(25x2

4 sin 5x-2 sin 5x+lOx cos 5x)+C
125
21. (a) e2 x(2x2 _2x+ 1) + C (b) -e (2x2 + 2x + 1) + C

22. (a) (b) _e_5x(25x2+10x+2)+C

125
23. (a) x(1n125x-1)+C (b) 2 x (In 64x-1)+C

24. (a) x3(1n729x6_2)+C (b) x(1n216x-1)+C

25. (a) 4(xsx+2cosx)+C (b) 12(\4smx_cosx)+C

1
26. (a) .ex(sinx_cosx)+C (b) e'(sinx+cosx)+C

27. (a) e_x(sinx_cosx)+C (I,) _.e_x (sin x+ cos x)+C

28. (a) e2x (sin 2x_ cos 2x)+C (b) e 2x (sin 2x + cos 2x) + C
1
(c) -e(sin2x-2cos2x)+C (d) -e(2sin2x+cos2x)+C

29. (a) - 1 e(4sin3x+3cos3x)+C (b) 1 e(3 sin 3x-4 cos 3x)+C

Exercise 3h

_1 x
1. (a) sin_1+C (b) sm - +C 4. (a) Sifl --i-C (b) sn+C
Ii
2. (a) sin+C (b) sin+C 5. (a) S1fl +C (b) sin-'++C
2

3. (a)
Sill-1 X
(b) sin- 'X 6. (a) -tan-1-+C
2
X
2
(b) 2 tan+C
4 4
 Answers I M

_1x __1x
7. (a) - tan - +C (I,) -
tan- - + C (b) x+C
50 25 25
tan +C tan ±C
[ In ~
8. (a) (b) +
50 (3x 4)18
-

1
9. (a) tan- - = + C (b) tank -= + C
2,F3 3 23. (a) 1- 25
25 25
10. (a)
1 tan-1 -_ 1=+C (j)
1
-tan_1 -.+C
25
[In~ (4x-3) 32
(x2 +1)16
-
+
11. (a) sin-' X + C (b) sin' C
(b) 1 x+C
13 13 13
+C +
12. (a) sin1 (b) sinT' C 1
=- -
13 (x2 +1)9
+C +
13. (a) Sin1 (b) sinT C
=
24. (a)
8x 58 29 29
14. (a) sm (b) sin C [ In
(x +
= 1) -20 tan x + C
3._,4x 7._,9x 58 (5x + 2) 0
15. (a) -Sm 7=+C (b) -sm
(b) x+C
17 17 17
16. (a)
2
tan'
2
+C (b)
4
tan 1
4
+C
=
[In~ (X2+1) 8-
, 17 (4x+1)16
17. (a) tan-, +C (b) tan- +C
5 5 7 7
25. (a) 7Inj7x ±1I_1nx 2 +1+ tan 1 x+ C
1_,4x 1 _,7x
18. (a) tan +C (b) tan 10 + C
,F7 F7= 1110
=-iIn + i+C
1 5x 1 _1 8x 2[ (x2+1)7
19. (a) tan-, + C (b) tan +C ]

=
(b) 31nx2 +1_61nI6x+5I_5tan_1 x+C
3 2x 5 _1 4x
20. (a) p tan-,
r + C (b) tan +C In (X2 + 1) 3
-5tan -1 x+C
(6x+5)6
21. (a)
26. (a)
17 17 1 1 17
=—ln
29 (x2 ±1)5
+4tan x+C
17
[~
1 In (4x +1)26
(x2 +1)'3
+

(b)
25 25 25 (b) arc tanx+C
[ In -i-9tan x+C
37
1 ~
(ft-P'°2
74 37
25 (x2 ±1)6 = in / + +C
74 (x2+1)'
22. (a) inx 2 +1_1nI2x_5I+tan_1 x+c
29 29 29
[In 2
i( X +1)
—+l0tan
2 ~ x +C
29 (2x-5)4
M Answers

25 25 19
27. (a) arc tan x + C (b) In x 2 +1
1 1 - 34 lnl5x+31+ 34 arc tanx+C
25
~
1 In (x2 +1)4
= -[ +
25 25
+C
68
1
= - [ In ~ (X'+l)' ~ + 38arctanx + C
25 (4x - 37 68 (5x + 3)50

28. (a) arc tan x + C (b)

21 ln I X2 +1 1 tanx+C
25 25 1 25 37 74 37
1 [In~ (4x +3) 26
+
(x2 +1)13
+C =-[
~
1 In (ft - 1)42
- +C
25 74 (x2 + 1)21
31 2 31 8
29. (a) (b) 1 1- 41
25
= -[
~
1 In (X2 + 1)
25
+ arc tan x + C
25 82
=
1
in
(x2 + 1)31
+
41

+C
(4x - 3)18 (4x - 5) 62
-

25 82

30. (a) arc tan +C (b) arc tan )+C

34
[~
1 In (2x 1)8
2 4
-
x
+15 arc tan- +C
2
=-
1
in
(X _ 1 6 )
x
+lOarctan - +C
(x +4) 12 (x2 +9)3 3

31. (a) in(4x2+1)_. arc tan 2x+C (b) in(9x2+1)_ arc tan 3x+C

32. (a) _1n(16x2 + 1) + arc tan 4x+C (b) In(25x2+1)_ 1 arc tan 5x+C
16 4 25 5
33. (a) in(2x2 + 1) +arc tan x+C (b) in(3x2+1)_arc tanx+C

34. (a) 1n(4x2 + 1)_ arc tan 2x+C (b) In(5x2+1)+ arc tanJx+C

35. (a) 1n(6x2 + 1)_ arc tan'Jx+C (b) --1n(25x2 + 1) + arc tan5x+C
12 T6 25
1 -1n(9x2 + 1)_
36. (a) _ln(25x2 + 1) + arc tan5x+C (b) arc tan 3x+C

37. (a) 1n(9x2 + 1) + arc tan 3x+C (b) 1n(4x2 + 1)_2 arc tan2x+C

38. (a) 1n(25x2 -F 1)_ arc tan5x±C (b) In(16x2 + 1)_ arc tan 4x+C
25 32 4
39. (a) arc tan 4x_.-in(16x2+1)+C (b) arc tan 5 x _in(25x2 + 1) + C

40. (a) arc tan 7x _in(49x2+1)+C (b) 1n(16x2 + 1) + arc tan 4x+C
x 1 3x
41. (a) 2tan 1 x+ -+C (b) - -tan -1 x- +C
x2 +1 2 2(X 2 +1)
5 x 1_ 5x
42. (a) -tan 1x+ +C (b) --tan +C
2 2(x2 +1) 2 2(X 2 +1)
7x
43. (a) 3tan' x+---+C (b) _tan_1 x—
x2 +1 2 2(x2+1)
 Answers ;.

1
44. (a) - - tan x1 - 2(x
7x x
(b)
2 + 1)
5 3x 7x
45. (a) -tan -1
x- 2(x2+i) (b) tan_1x_ 2

Exercise 31

1. (b) (I) I4 =- sin 2xcos2x---sin2xcos2x+x+C (ii) 0.295

8 16 8 32
1 n-i n-i
2. (a) I.,, cos mx sin mx+I_ 2 for n 2, n e
mn n
(b) (i) (ii) --n0.178
3 9 15 45
3. (b) (1) I6 = 1tan 4x------
tan 4x+ 2 -tan4x--x (ii)
20 12 4 60 16
4 (b) (i) (ii) 2096(4sf)
8 16 16
5. (b) (i) 3(x2 -2) sin x-x(x2 -6) cos x+C (ii) 11.9(3s.f.)
6. (a) In =xn sin x+nxl cos x_n(n_1)I n2 for n 2,nE 1.
(b) W 3(x2 -2) cos x+x(x2 -6) sin x+C (ii) 51.6(3s.f.)
1 71+17e8
7. (b) M___e4x(32x3_24x2+i2x_3) (ii) -7.26
128 128e
8. (a) I = Xn e_x + n In -1
9e-168
3
(b) M _e _x (x4 + 4x3 + 12x2 + 24x + 24) + C 1.73
e2
1 3(e6 -61)
9. (b) W__e2x(4x3_18x2+30x_19)+C (ii) 2.35

10 (b) (i) x 2 [4(in x) 3 - 6(in x) 2 + 6 in x -3] +C (ii) 49.9 (3 sf)

Exercise3j
1 6. (a) 2.17
1 (a) (i) 613.8 square units (ii) 607 square units (b) 2.17
1 7. (a) 2317.5
(b) 596 square units
(b) 1.75
2. (a) (i) 1.90 square units (ii) 1.93 square units 8. (a) 31.6
(b) 2 square units (b) 30.5
3. (a) (i) 1.90 square units (ii) 1.93 square units 9. (a) 76.3
(b) 2 square units (b) 38.2
4. (a) (1) 0.710 square units (ii) 0.704 square units 10. (a) 11.8
(b) 0.693 square units (b) 1.29
5. (a) 7295.6
(b) 0.198
M Answers

Revision Exercise 3

1. (b) 1 sin3x+C 28. (a) .(2Inx+x2)+C

2. (d) 29. (d) e2-3

9 2
14
3. (a) - 30. (a) 1ri(5x3_8)
3 15
4. (c) 7 arc tan x + C 31. _ecos X + C
1 4
5.(b)1n5-4 32. (a)
XX T x-1
6.(d)2
7. (c) 2- (b) -41nIxj++41nIx1I+C
2 x
(c) 0.984
8. (b) -'cos (2x+5)
1x
128 33. (a)
9. (d) 8e--
3
(b) Irijx +1 _In(x2+1) +C
10. (a) 2(i_ i) 2
11. (b) sinx - xcosX+C 1 (45
(c) 1i 52) = -0.0723
12. (b) 2
13. (a) x sin X + cos X + C
34. (a) I1 = (2x - 1)e 2,
14. (c)
15. (b) 21nIX+21 +ln IX - 1I +c (c) I3=(2e2+1)

16. (d) In 35. (a) xtanx+ln Icosxl +C

4
1 IX
17. (a) 1n+C (b) !(x1n4)=0.439
7 4
15 ) 3
36. (b) (i) 14 =tan x-tanx+x+C
18. (b)

19. (b) 5 I4 =-=0.119

20.(d)0 43
_____ 5 x-4
21. (c) - - j(9 - X)3 + C 37. (a) +
5 X 4
22. (b) e x' - 2x +C (b) (i)
2
1 2
23. (a) '(e-l) (11) 51nIXhI+ ln(X +1)-4tan 1 X+C

24. (b) F(b) - F(a) 38. (a) y J1+x2

(c) _(x2+1)e2+C
25.
26. (c) in Isinxl +C

27. (c) 21n2 0 X

2
 Answers Im
2x+3
(c) (iii) (4i+It) 43. (a)
2 +1
(iv) it 3.543
(b) W 3lnjx+1I-ln(x2+1)-3tan1 x+C
39. (a) (ii) 1n()-3tan'2-1.64

(1,) in 44. (b) - (3 sin8 x-4sin6 x) + C

ex+l )
- + c
24
(

40. (b) x [(in x)4 4(in x)3 + 12(lnx)2 241n x + 24] + c

- -
45. (b) -i (5 sin7 x -7 sin5 x) + C

41. (a) 46. (a) -(3cosx-cos3x)+C (b)

2
x+1 -
(x 2 +1) 2 6 3
- 5x '' -1
(b) tan +c 47. (a) - (3 cos x + cos 3x) + C (b)
-

2 2(x2+1) 6 3
13 _1 x 3x
1 48. (b) —tan -- ___
(ii) -(it+10) -1.64 16 2 8(x2 +4)
_i x 8x
1 49. (b) - tan - - +C
42. (a) 9 3 3(x2 + 9)
+ (x2 + 1)2
50. (b) tan x +C
(b) () tan x +C - 2(x2 ± 1)
+ 2(x2 + 1)
7it+2300
(ii)

MODULE
Sequences, Series and Approximations
4 Sequences
Exercise 4a

1. (a) (i) a1 =2anda 1 =a+2,nEandn ~!2. (b) (i) a1 =-8anda l1 a+3,nE andn ~!2.
(ii) a n= 2n, n E N. (ii) a n = 3n 11, n -

(b) (i) a1 =3anda 1 =a +3,n€ Jandn ~:2. 3

4. (a) W a1 = a + 1 =- a + 2, n e I%I and n ~ 2.
-,

(ii) a n 3
2. (a) (i) a1 =2anda 1 =a+5,ne Jaridn2!2. 1
(ii) a=2n-,ne N.
(ii) a=5n-3,ne N.
(b) W a1 =3anda 1 =a+4,n€ Jandn ~!2. . 7
(b) (i) a1 =--,a 1 =a+1,n Jandn ~ 2.
(ii) a=4n 1,nE N - .

3. (a) (i) a1 =4anda 1 =a 7,nE andn ~!2. -

3
(ii) an n+,n E *i.
(ii) a = 11 7n, n e N. -
M Answers

2 1 19. (a) 1,-2,10,70,4 690

5. (a) (i) a1 = , a +1= a + -, n e NJ and n ~ 2. (b) -2, 3, 8, 63, 3 968
1 1 3 5 8
(ii) an= -n- -=-(5n-1),ne
1 N 20. (a) -2,- -,- -,- -,- 13 -
2 10 10
.
2 3 5 8
2 1 (b)
(b) (i) Jandn ~!2. 2 10 290

1 5 1 21. (a) (i) 3. 5. 7, 9, 11, 13

an -n +- = -(3n+ 5), n e N.
-
(ii) divergent
4 12 12
(b) (i) 1, -2, -5, -8, -11, -14
6. (a) (ii) divergent
22. (a) (i) 3, 6, 11, 18, 27, 38
1 2
(b) -2,-i,- 2
- (ii) divergent
3'2'5
(1,) (i) 2, -1, -6, -13, -22, -33
7. (a) 4,7,12,19,28 (ii) divergent
(b) -1,2,7,14,23
8. (a) -2,-4, -8, -16,-32 23. (a) (i) 3 1, , ,

(1,) -2,4,-8,16,-32 (ii) convergent

9. (a) 0,10,36,84,160 (iii) 0
(b) 2,0,-12,-40, -90
(b) (1)
11 1 1
10. (a)
-, . , -10'1 7 f - (ii) convergent
8 8 32 32 (iii) 7
(b) 2,
-, , 17 i
-, 5 10 1525 30
24. (a) W - , -, 4,-' -' -

11. (a) 5, 15,45, 135,405 234 67

(ii) convergent
(b) -4, -8, -16, -32, -64
(iii) 5
12. (a) 3, 6, 18, 72,360 1, 21212
(b) -2, -4, -12, -48, -240 (b) (i) -,-,----,-,-
5 5 17 13 37
13. (a) -2, -12, -108, -1296, -19 440 convergent
(ii)
(b) 4, -16, 96, -768, 7 680 (iii) 0
14. (a) -1,3,11,27,59 25. (a) (i) 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128
(b) 2,2,2,2,2
(ii) divergent
5 5 5 3 3 9 15 33 63
15. (a) 5,5, (b) (i)

2 (ii) convergent
(b)8 8 2
/3' 3' 15 45 (iii) -1
16. (a) 8, 11, 14, 17, 20 26. (a) (i) 4, 7, 10, 13, 16, 19
(b) 5,3,1,-1,-3 (ii) divergent
17. (a) -4,-3,-1,3,11 (b) (i) 5,3,1, -1, -3, -5
(b) -7,-22,-67,-192, -487 (ii) divergent
27. (a) (i) 3,1,3,1,3,1
18. (a) (ii) periodic
(b) (i) 7. 7, 7, 7, 7, 7
(b) -5,,-5,,-5 (ii) convergent
(iii) 7
 Answers :

28. (a) (1) -2,13, -32,103, -302,913

(ii) divergent (b) (i)
(b) (i) -1, -1, -1, -1, -1, -1 (ii) periodic
(ii) convergent 30. (a) (1) -1, -1, -1, -1, -1, -1
(iii) -1 (ii) convergent
(iii) -1
29. (a) (i)
(b) (1) 2,-2,10,70,4690,21982030
(ii) periodic (ii) divergent

Exercise 4b

11. (a) 8,5,2,-1,-4,-7 1 1 1 1

12. (a) -1,-3,-9,-27,-81,-243 14. (a) 2,1,
' 4'8' j
13. (a) -3,6,-12,24,-48,96
15. (a) 10,5,0,-5,-10,-15

Revision Exercise 4
1. (b) 6 9. (c) an = (-1)' (n2) 18. (d) u = 5n2 - 2
2. (c) 95 10. (c) 27 19. (b) 5n - 8
3. (a) 100 11. (b) -27 20. (c) I and II only
4. (b) 40 12. (d) an= 4n -13 22. (b) (I) {u} = 1,5, 1, 5,
5. (d) 108 13. (a) S = n(n + 2) (ii) {a} = 16, 6, 6, 6, . . . }
- 81 14. (d) an = -4 (-2)n (iii) {bj = 14,-4,4,-4, ...1
6 (b)
256 15. (c) 5 000 (c) fun) is periodic, {a} is convergent;
6 2100 _1 {bn} is periodic
7. (a) 16. (c) S100= 23. 7,8,10,13
9 99
24. (a) 22, 30 and 38
8. (c) _50( 2 ) 17. (b) an = (b) t = 2(4n + 3)

5 Series
Exercise 5a

1. (a) (i) u = 2n - 1, n e N (d) (i) u= 2n + 7, n e

(2n -1) (ii) I (2n+7)

(b) (1) u = 2n, n E N 2. (a) (I) u = (_i)n + 1 n, fl E

(ii) , 1 (ii) (-1 1 '

(c) (i) U = Sn - 2, fl C N (b) (i) U = (_i)n n 2

1 (5n-2) (ii)
:.. Answers

(c) (i) u = (-l)n n3, n E N

4 (c) (i) u = (-1) + 1
(-1) (n + 1)(n + 2)
(ii)
n=1 4

(d) (i) u=21-1, nE j (n+1)(n+2)

1 n+1
(ii) 2 (d) (i) u = ___________
n=1 (n+2)(n+3)
3. (a) (i) u = (-1) 2 -1, n N n+1
5 n=l(n+2)(n+3)
(ii) (1)2 6. (a) (i) S2 = 17 (ii) S5 = 65
n=1
(b) (1) S2 = -13 (ii) S5 = -85
(b) (j) U (1) + 1 2 1, fl E N (c) W S 2 = 12 (ii) S5 = 124
()fl +1 1 40 1 210
() 2 (d) W 2= (ii) S5 =
n=1 27
7. (a) M S3 = -3 jj S = 12
(c) (i) u = (2n- 1)2, N (b) W S3 = -33 jj = -120
4
(ii) Y (2n - 1)2
,
(c) (i) S3 = 273 (ii) S6 = 199 290
21 1365
(d) (1) S3 (H) 6 =
(d) M u = (_1)h1 (2n - 1)2, 128
8. (a) U) S2 = 8 (ii) S4 = 56
(ii) (-1) (2n - 1)2 (b) U) S 2 65 (ii) S4 = 334
(c) (i) S2 (ii) 54 =
4. (a) (i) u = (n + 1)2, E N
(d) (i) S2 = (ii) S4 - -10
3 597
(ii) Y, (n +1)2 9. (a) W S3 = (ii) 'S5
n=1 = 2 210
150
(b) W u, = (_1)n+ 1 (n + 1)2, n E N (b) W S3 = (H) S5=

(ii) Y,( _,)n + 1 (n +1)2 (c) (i) S3 =

29
(ii) S5 =
103

.
(c) (i) U = (_,)n+1-1 17 131
(d) U) S3 =
n =2
(-1) + 1 -
1 10. (a) M S4 = 91 () 6 = 96
n=1 n 32
1 31 221
(d) W u = (b) (i) S4 = - () 6= -
420 2520
115 973
1 (c) (i) S4= =
( Y, 144 1200
(d) U) S4 = 57 (ii) S6 = 249
5. (a) W u = 4n + 3, n E N 12 20
4 11. (a) (i) 2, F2 + 1, + 1, 3, +1
(ii) Y, (4n+3)
n=1 (ii)
(b) (i) u=2-5n (b) (1) -2,1,6,13,22 (ii) 55 = 40
12. (a) (i) 3, 17, 55, 129, 251 (ii) S 5 = 455
(ii) (2-5n) (b) (i) 3, 6, 11, 20, 37 (ii) S5 = 77
n=1
 Answers IM
)]
13. (a) () (ii) 55 = 3 1 9. 3
r=1 +2 32
(b) (i) - -,- - - (ii) 55 = -
26122030 6 20. 10(1-0.5)=40---
n=l 16
• 1 11 11
14. (a) (1) - - - - - -
-,

4 816 32' 64 21. u iOn

11 22. Un =3(2fl_1)
S5 =-
23. un =i(2n_1)
(b) (1) 1, -2,4, -8,16 (II) S5 = 11
15. (a) (i) 1, 3, 7, 15, 31 (ii) S = 57
• 11 11 .. 61 24. Un(2fl+i)2n
(b) (1) 1 --,- S =-5-
39 27 81 243 25.
16.1 (2r+3T)=393 26.
27.
S lo - 55 = 385 - 55 = 330
S 6 -S 3 =405
28. S 12 -S 6 =616
17.1 (1- 2k)2 = 165 29. S 3 -S 4 =6460
k=1
30. Slo
5
18. n(n -1) = 210

Exercise 5b

1. (a) (i) d=5 (ii) a= -15 14. n=15 15. n=24

= 5(n - 4) (ii) S,= -(n-7) 16. (a) (i) r = 2 (ii) a=7
(b) (i) U
(b) (1) u = 7(2) 1 () S = 7(2n - 1)
(c) (I) U20 = 80 (ii) S 20 = 650
(c) (i) u10 = 3 584 (ii) S10 = 14 252
2. (a) (i) d=2 (ii) a = -10
(b) (i) Un=2(fl6) (ii) Sn =n(n - 11) 17. (a) (i) r= - (ii) a= 10
(c) (1) u15 = 18 (ii) S15 = 60
3. (a) (i) d = -3 (ii) a = -24 (b) U) Un i(2) (ii) S=2o[i_()]

u = -3(n + 7) (ii) S = - (n + 15)

(c) (i) u10 =--- (ii) Sio =180-±-
(c) (i) U10 = -51 (ii) Slo = 256 256
4. (a) (i) d = -6 (ii) a = 24 18. (a) W =5 (ii) a = 12
(I') (i) u = 12(5) -1 n
= 3(5fl - 1)
(b) (I) u = 6(5 - n) (ii) Sn = 3n(9 - n)
(c) (i) u12 = -42 jj = -108
(c) (i) u7 = 187 500 (ii) S7 = 234 372
5. (a) (i) d = -9 (ii) a = 27 19. (a) (1) r = 1- (ii) a = -8
(b) (i) u = 9(4 - n) (ii) S = (7-n)
(ii) (b) M Ufl =_8(_) U0 5n 46[1{)]
(c) (i) u14 = -90 S 14 = -441
6. (a) n=20 (b) d=8
7. (a) n = 17 (b) d = -4 (c) (i) u10 = ----- (ii)
64 64
8. (a) n=22 (b) d=7
9. (a) n=27 (b) d=-6 20. (a) U) r= -2 (n) a= -
10. (a) n=32 (b) d=9
11. n=28 12. n=20 (b) (i) Un=(_2)n1 W) 5n[1(2Y1]
 Answers

(b) 0.09 + 0.000 9 + 0.000 009 +

(c) (i) u11 =256 (ii) S11 =114
S=i 00
21. (a) r=3 (b) n=8
22. (a) r=2 (b) n=7 38. (a) 0.24 + 0.0024 + 0.000 024 +
24
23. (a) r= (b) n=11 S 00

99
(b) 0.57 + 0.005 7 + 0.000 057
24. (a) r = (b) n = 6
S = 00

25. (a) r = -2 (b) n = 10 99

26. n=8 39. (a) 0.345 + 0.000 345 + 0.000 000 345 +
27. n=8 00

28. n=10 333

(b) 0.768 + 0.000 768 + 0.000 000 768
29. n=7
30. n=10 00

125 1 333
31. (a) S = = 31- (b) S = 135
00 40. (a) 0.2 + 0.07 + 0.007 + 0.000 7 +
4 4
1 7 5
336 1 432 5 S = -+ -= -
00

32. (a) S==67 (b) S00 ==61

7 5 90 18
5 5 7 (b) 0.8 + 0.06 + 0.006 + 0.000 6
343 256 4 1 13
33. (a) S= - =-114k (1,) S= -- =-85k S =-+---=-
3 3 3 3 00

5 15 15
512 2
34. (a) S003
=-=170.
3 41. (a) s =io[i_(_)] (b) S 0 ==6
3 3
500 5 441 12 n
35. (a) S= - =-55 (b) S =
00 = 33-
9 9 13 13 42. (a) 64 (b) S = 80[1_(_)
36. (a) 0.2 + 0.02 + 0.002 + ]

S 009
= 43. (a) S (b)
3 3 32)
[
]
(b) 0.5 + 0.05 + 0.005 +
44. (a) S = - = - 16k (b)
S 009
= 5[2 ]
144
.)fl]
37. (a) 0.04 + 0.000 4 + 0.000 004 + 45. (a) S = (b) S= 2 =27
[i - (_ 7 7
S=
00
--
99

Exercise 5c

1. 7. Y. 2(r + 1) = n(n + 3)
2 1 2r=n(n+1) 8. 1 2(r + 3) = n(n + 7)

3. 11.Y1 (r+3X34
, 2 +819)

6. Y (2r + 1) = n(n + 2)
, 12.Y (r - 2)(3r - 1) = n(n2 - 2n - 1)
,
 Answers

13. (r+l)(r_2)=n(n2_7) 32. (a) --------

r=1
r-1 r+1
15 .. 25 ... 35
(c) U) (ii) (iii)
14 (r+2)(3r+2)=in(2n2+lln+17)
1 1
33. (a)
4r4(r+1)
15. (r +2)(9r +11) = n(3n2 +19n+ 38)
r=1 . 1 ..1 ...

(c) - (1) (ii) - (iii) -

8 12 16
17 (r+1)(3r-2)=n(n 2 +2n-1) _____ 3
34. (a)
2(2r + 3) - 2(2r + 5)
18 (r+l)(i_3r)=n(2n2+5n+i) . 3
(c) U) - (ii) -
14 26
2
19 (r+2)(3r+2)=in(2n2+lin+17) 35. (a) - __ 2
H r=1
4r-3 4r+1
H
.2
(c) (i)
20 (r+2)(9r-1)=n2 (3n2 +13n+8) 9 21
7 7n
1 1 n-4 36. 1 (2r-1)(2r+1) = 2n+1
21
r+2 r+3 7(n+3) 00
7 7
1 1 ni
22 r=i (211)(2r+i) 2
r+3 r+4 5(n+4)
n
11 - 15n2 +23n-204 4
23.
2(r+3) 2(r+5) 112(n+4)(n+5)
37. 1 (2r+1)(2r+3) = 6n+9
1 - 1 n-2 00
4 2
24.
2(2r -3) 2(2r -1) 3(2n -1) 71 (2T-i-1)(2r+3) 3
-
11 n-3 n
25. __ n
2(2r + 1) 2(2r + 3) 9(2n + 3)
38. = 2r(2r + 2) - 4(n + 1)
3n n(3n+5)
26. (a) (b) 5 -
n+1 (n+1)(n+2)
3n2-7n+2 1 2r(2r+2)4
5(n-3
27. (a) (b)
n(n-i) 3 7
QfI.(1 -I-
39. r=1 (31)(31+2) - 2(3n+2)
28. (a) 2(n+1) (b)
4(n+1)(n+2)
7
5(n-1) (3r - 1)(3r + 2) - 6
29. (a) 2(n+1) (b)
4(n±4)
4 = 4n(4n+5)
n-2
30. (a) 7(n+5) (b)
7(n+6)
40. j (21)(2T+3)
r=i 3(4n +8n+3)
00

4 4 4 4
31.
(a) 2r-12r+1 r=1 (21)(21+3) - 3

...4
(c) (i) 4
M Answers

Exercise 5d

11x—a(x—a) 2 (x—a) 3 (x—a)4 (x—a)5

1. (a)
x a a2 a3 a4 a5 a6
(ii) 1 =1_(x_1)+(x_1)2_(x_1)3+(X_1)4_(X_1)5

(b) = 0.990 1 correct to 4 d.p.

• 113(x—a) 6(x—a)2 10(x—a)3 15(x—a)4 21(x—a)5

2. (a) X3 - a + +
(i)
a4 a5 -
a6 a7 -
a8

(ii)

(b) =0.9423 correct to 4 d.p.

1.02
• 5510(x—a) 15(x—a) 2 20(x—a)3 25(x—a)4 30(x—a)5
3. (a) (i) 2 - a2 + +
X a3 a4 a5 a 6
a7

(ii) --=5_10(x_1)+15(x-1)2_20(x_1)3+25(x_1)4_30(x_1)5+...

(b) ---- =4.7130 correct to 4 d.p.

1 .032
6 6 24(x -a) 60(x - a)2 120(x - a)3 210(x - a)4 336(x - a)5
4. (a) G)) + + •••
- a a6 - a7 a8 - a9

(ii) _=6_24(x _1)+60( x _1)2 _120(x _1)3 + 210(x _1)4 _336(x _1)5

(b) ---- = 5.543 1 correct to 4 d.p.

1. 02
5. (a) (I) sin = sin a+(x_a) cos a_-(x_a)2sina_..(x_a)3 cosa+ 1 (x — a) 4 sin

x-- (x_) (_)

1
('1) sin
= + - 2 ,r2-- 6 ,[2-+ 24i
• lt
(b) sm—=0.998=1

6. (a) (I) cos x=cos a_(x_a) sin a_..(x_a)2 cos a+-(x_a)3sjna+J_(x_a)4 cos a
2 3 4
It IC It It
X -)

1
(11) cos x = -
-
(

2J +
(_)
6J
J 2472
_)
-•

(b) cos !E=0.5

 Answers Im
7. (a) (I) tan = tan a +(x —a)sec 2 a ±(x—a) 2 tan a sec2 a +
(
(— 41 x-
1 4 it ' 6
(ii) tan x=—+—I x— — 1+ +
J36) 3h
(b) tan =0.9791
4

8. (a) (i) sec =sec a+(x_a) tan a sec a+(x_a)2(2 tan 2 a+1)seca+...

51 x ----
2
2a' Itl 6
(ii) secx=—+—I x--i+
h36) 3h

(b) sec = 1.395 = 1.4

4

9. (a) ex = e_a _e_a(x_a)+e_a(x_a) 2 _e_a(x_a)3 +e_ a (x_a) 4 _ e_a (x_a)5 +...

120

(b) e _X = e3 _e_3(x_3)+_(x_3)2 ——(x-3) +—(x-3) ----(x-3)

2 6 24 120
(c) e 301 = 0.049 29

(x—a)2 (x—a)3 (x—a)4 (c—a)5 (x—a)6 +(x_a)7

10. (a) 1nx=1na+-
a 2a2 3a3 4a4 5a5 6a6 7a7
(b) 1nx=In4+- (x-4)2+ 1 (x-4) i_(x_4)4 +----(x-4)
4 32 192 1024 5120
(c) In 4.03 = 1.393 7( 6 correct to 6 d.p.

11. (a) (i) sin 2x = sin 2a + 2(x — a) cos 2a — 2(x — a) 2 sin 2a—(x—a) cos 2a+(x—a) sin 2a+--(x—a) cos2a—••

( it" 4( 4(
(ii) sm2x=-21 x-- 1+—i x-- I -----I x-- I
. 2) 3. 2) 15'. 2)
3ic
(1) sin—=-1.005

12. (a) (i) cos 3x = cos 3a _3(x _ a) sin 3a _(x _ a)2 cos 3a+(x_a)3sin3a+(x_a)4 cos 3a_(x_a)5 sin 3a_

( ir 9( 7t 3 81(
(ii) cos 3x=31 x-- I--i x-- I
'. 2) 2. 2) 40k. 2
(b) cos ic=-1.005
13. (a) (i) tan 2x = tan 2a+2(x—a) sec 2 2a+4(x—a) 2 tan 2asec 2 2a+••.
1 2
(ii) tan 2x = - +— X-11
-
2iI x—
id
—
3( 4
k 4

(b) tan =1.735

FM Answers

14. (a) (i) sec 2x = sec 2a + 2(x - a) tan 2a sec 2a(x - a) 2 [(cos 4a -3) sec' 2a] +...
1 11 yr"
(ii) sec 2x = -_________ - - I x - - I
I it" 3l 4)
21 x-- I
4)

(b) sec =1.997

3

15. (a) e 2
=e
2a + 2e 2a (x - a) + 2e2a (x - a) 2 + e2a- 2 2a(x-a) 4
(x a) +-e 4 2a(x-a )5 +...
+—e
3 3 15

(b) e2 X= e 14 + 2e14 (x _7) + 2e14 (x _7)2 +e14 (x _7)3 +e14 (x _7)4 +—e14(x-7)5 +.•.
3 3 15
(c) e1402 = 1 226 899 correct to 7 s.f.

32
16. (a) ex=e_4e(x_a)+8ea(x_a)2_ 32ea(x-a) 3 + —e 128
(x - a) - —e a(xa)5+
3 3 15
32 8 32 s - 128 _s
(b) e=e8-4e8(x-2)+8e8(x-2)2- —e_ (x-2) 3 + —e_ (x-2) 4 ---e (x-2) 5 +...
3 3 15
(c) e 812 = 0.000 297 528 correct to 6 s.f.

x - a (x - a) 2 (x - a)3 (x - a)4 (x - a) 5
17. (a) ln(x+2)=In(a+2)+— -
a-2 2(a + 2) 2 + 3(a + 2) - 4(a + 2) +5(a + 2)

(b) ln(x+2)=ln4+L_J-(x_2)2+-1_(x_2)3__1_(x_2)4_L(X_2)5_...
4 32 192 1024 5120
(c) In 5 = 1.609 correct to 4 s.f.

18. (b) ecosi_(x_+2(x_-)2

2) 2's. 2)
Tt 2 t 4
e (_) e(x_j
e4
19. (b) eXsinx=_+ex_-)+ -
4 F2 6h

20. (b)
2 12 48 160

Exercise 5e

1. (a) (j) 1-x-i-x2 -x3 +x4 -x5 +x6 -

(ii) 1 - 3x + 6x2 - lOx3 + 15x4 - 21x5 + 28x6 - ... (iii)
T07
1.03
0.888 487 correct to 5 d.p.
(iii) 1 - 4x + lOx2 - 20x3 + 35x3 - 56x5 + 84x3 -
2. (c) sin = 0.707 correct to 3 d.p.
(b) (i) =0.98039 correct to 5 d.p.

(ii) = 0.97059 correct to 5 d.p. 3. (c) cos = -0.500 correct to 3 d.p.

i.o13
 Answers

e2X+e_x 17 2 65 257 205

5. (b) sin - 0.523 6 correct to 4 s.f. 7. =2-5x+ --x +-x ---x
2 e3 2 6 24 24

6. (b) cost 1 = 1.047 correct to 4 s.f. 1-3x 1 92 81 729 243 6

9. In i=-9x+-x -27x +-x --x +-x
(1+3x)2 j 2 4 5 2

Revision Exercise 5
1. (c) an = (-l) n (n)2 00 1

2. (d) 1809 17. (c) S=n

n=1
3.(a)-- 00

2 8n+3
18. (b) S= 1
4. (b) a=2(-3) -1

5. (d) SIO= 1 (3101) 19. (d) 3

20. (a) 8
1
6.(c)- 28. (a)
(r+1)(r+2)
7. (b) 296
8. (c) 15 350 (b) 2(n+2)
9. (a) n fl
(c)
10. (d) •-or1
•2 21426 1
11. (b) -110 29. sin x=x --x +-x ----x 8+•
12. (b) 11 050 3 45 315
13. (c) 17 2 i 8 2 1 4 2 6
30. cos x=1-x +-x --x +-x
14. (d) 328 3 45 315

31. tan x=x + - x + - x6 + -

62 8
2 2 2 4 17
15. (b) x+
3 .45 315

16. (a) S= (-1)

21

6 The binomial theorem

Exercise 6a

1. (a) 2 (b) 6 720 (c) 84 (d) 1 10! 20!

2 8 (a) (b)
(a) 6 (b) 2 520 (c) 168 (d) 1
3. (a) 24 (b) 720 (c) 495 (d) 1 13! 32!
4. 9. (a) (b)
(a) 40 320 (b) 1 716 (c) 715 (d) 1
- -

5. (a) 362 880 (b) 272 (c) 2 652 (d) 1 41! 57!
10 (a) (b)
6. (a) (b)
5! 13! n! (n+1)!
9! 25! 11. (a) (b)
7. (a) - (b) - (n -3)! (n-i)!
6! 22!
MI Answers

n! (n+r)! (a) 5n2+17n-1 -4n2 +23n

12. (a) (b) 22. (b)
(n-r-1)! (n-l)! (n+3)! (n -5)!
(n+5)!
13. (a) (n+2)! (b) 4n3 - iOn2 + iOn -4n3 -2n 2 +4n-1
n! (n+2)! 23. (a) (b)
(Zn-i)! (2n + 1)!
(n+3)! (n+r)!
14. (a) (b) 9n3 - 15n2 + 13n 6n2 -13n-5
(n-r-l)! (n+4)! 24. (a) (b)
(3n-2)! (3n-4)!
(n-8)!
15. (a) (b) 32n3 - 24n2 + 7n + 1 -28n3 - 7n + 3n -1
(n-r)! (n-r)! 2 (a (b)
16. (a) (n + 1)! (n2 + 5n + 7) (4n-i)! (4n+1)!
26. (a) 10 (b) 5 (c) 10 (d) 5
(b) (n-i)! (n3 +3n2 +n-1)
27. (a) 35 (b) 21 (c) 35 (d) 21
17. (a) (n + 3)! (n2 + 9n + 21)
28. (a) 220 (b) 792 (c) 220 (d) 792
(b) (n+2)!(n2 +7n+i1)
29. (a) 1 (b) 9 (c) 1 (d) 84
18. (a) (n-2)!(n 3 -n+i)
30. (a) 1 (b) 15 (c) 1 (d) 455
(b) (n + 3)! (n 2 + 9n + 19)
(13
19. (a) (n + 2)! (n2 + 7n + 13) (b) (n - 3)! (5 - n) 34. (a) (9 (b) ( 9) (b)
6) (c) ( 107 8
20. (a) (n - 5)! (n2 - 13n + 43) (b) (n-i)!(3-n)
35. (a) n=Oorn=5 (b) n=5
3n2+7n -2n2-n
21. (a) (b) (c) n=3 (d) n=4
(n+2)! (n+3)!

Exercise

1. (a) x4 +20x3 +150x2 +500x+625 (b) x5 -20x4 +160x3 -640x2 +1280x-1024

2. (a) 64x6 -i-192x5 -i-240x4 +160x3 +60x2 +12x+1
(b) 2187x5 -5103x6 +5103x5 -2835x4 -i-945x3 -189x2 -,-21x-1
3. (a) 1024x+1280x4 +640x3 +160x2 +20x+1 (b) 64x6 -192x+240x4 -160x3 +60x2 -12x+1
4. (a) 1024x+3840x4 +5760x3 +4320x2 +1620x+243
(b) 243x5 - 1 620x +4 320x - 5 760x +3 840x - 1 024
1 1 32 1 15 45 135 405
5. (a) -x +-x +-x +2x+i (b) -x --x +-x --x 2 +-x-243
16 2 2 1024 256 32 8 4
6. (a) 64+192x+240x2 +160x3 +60x4 +12x5 --x6 (b) 64-192x+240x2 -160x3 +60x4 -12x5 +x6
7. (a) 243 + 810x + 1 080x2 + 720x3 + 240x4 + 32x5 (b) 243 - 810x + 1 080x2 - 720x3 + 240x4 - 32x5
8. (a) 256 + 768x + 864x2 + 432x3 + 81x4 (b) 256 - 768x + 864x2 - 432x3 + 81x4
9. (a) 16 + 160x + 600x2 + 1 000x3 + 625x4 (b) 16 - 160x + 600x2 - 1 000x3 + 625x4
10. (a) 16807 + 24 OlOx + 13 720x2 + 3 920x3 + 560x4 + 32x5
(b) 16807-24010x+13720x2 -3920x+560x4 -32x5
11. (a) 128x7 + 448x6 + 672x5 ± 560x4 + 280x3 + 84x2 + 14x + 1
(b) 128x7 -448x6 +672x5 -560x4 -i-280x3 -84x2 ±14x-1
12. (a) 243x5 +1620x4 +4320x3 +576Ox2 +3840x±1024
(b) 43x5 -1620x4 +4320x3 -5760x2 +3840x-1024
13. (a) 4096x6 +6144x5 +3840x4 --1280x3 +240x2 --24x--1
(b) 4 096x6 - 6 144x5 +3 840x4 - 1 280x3 + 240x2 - 24x + 1
14. (a) 625x4 + 1 000x3 ± 600x2 + 160x + 16 (b) 625x4 - 1 000x3 + 600x2 - 160x + 16
15. (a) 16 807x5 + 36 015x4 + 30 870x3 + 13 230x2 + 2 835x + 243
(b) 16 807x5 -36 015x4 + 30 870x3 - 13 230x2 + 2 835x -243
 Answers

16. (a) 32x5 + 240x4y + 720x3y2 + 1 080x2y3 + 810xy4 + 243y5

(b) 32x5 - 240x4y + 720x3y2 - 1 080x2y3 + 810xy4 - 243y5
17. (a) 1 024x5 + 1 280x4y + 640x3y2 + 160x2y3 + 20xy4 + y5
(b) 1 024x5 - 1 280x4y + 640x3y2 - 160x2y3 + 20xy4 - y5
18. (a) 81x4 + 216x3y + 216x2y2 + 96xy 3 + 16y4 (b) 81x4 - 216x3y + 216x2y2 - 96xy 3 + 16?
19. (a) 15 625x6 + 18 750x5y + 9 375xy2 + 2 500x3y3 + 375x2y4 + 30xy5 + y6
(b) 15 625x6 - 18 750x5y + 9 375xy - 2 500x3? + 375x2y4 - 30xy5 +
20. (a) 1296x4 +4320x3y+5400x2y2 +3000xy3 +625 (b) 1296x 4 -4320xy+5400x2y2 -3000xy3 +625
21. (a) 1 + 14x + 84x2 + 280x3 + 560x4 + 672x5 + 448x6 + 128x7
(b) 1 - 14x + 84x2 - 280x3 + 560x4 - 672x5 + 448x6 - 128x7
22. (a) 1 + 18x + 135x2 + 540x3 + 1 215x4 + 1 458x5 + 729x6
(b) 1 - 18x + 135x2 - 540x3 + 1 215x4 - 1 458x5 - 729x6
23. (a) 1 + 20x + 150x2 + 500x3 + 625x4 (b) 1 - 20x + 150x2 - 500x3 + 625x4
24. (a) 1+40x+640x2 +5120x+20480x4 +32768x5 (b) 1-40x+640x2 -5120x+20480x4 -32768x5
25. (a) 1+40x+600x2 +4000x3 +10000x4 (b) 1-40x+600x2 -4000x3 +10000x4
562881 4 2 562881
26. (a) x8+8x6 +28x4 +56x2 +70+--+—+X X4 --+-- (b) x -8x8 6
+28x -56x
xx x x x x

27. (a) 729x 6 +1 458x4+1215x2+540+++4 (b)

28. (a) 1024x+1280x+640x+++-- (b) 1024x5 -1280x3 +640x-+--4

x x x x x x
160 16
29. (a)625x 4 + 1 00OX2 +600+ (b)
756 81
30. (a) 2 401x 4 +4 116x2 +2 646++--
X2 X4 (b) 2 401x 4 -4 116x2+2646- X2 + --
560 280 84 14 1
31. (a) 128x7 +448x -
X8 x
X2 x x
560 280 84 14 1
(b) 128x 7 -448x
540 135 18 1
32. (a)729x 6 + 1 458x 3 +1215+ (b)
500x +150+20+ + - 20 + 1
33. (a) 625x4 + X2 X5
- X8
- (b)(b) 625x4 - 500x

864 432 81 864 432 81

34. (a) 256x + 768x + X-2 + + - (b) 256x 4 - 768x + - - - + -
x5 x8 x2 x5 x8
20480 5120 640 32 5 2 20480 5120 640 32
35. (a) 32 768x 5 + 40 960x 2 + + + - + (b) 32 768x -40 960x + - + - - 10
x x4 x7 x 10 x x4 x7
36. (a) (1) 1 - 12x + 66x2 - 220x3 +... (ii) + °
x12 - 12x11 66x1 - 220x9 +...
(b) (i) 1 - 15x + 105x2 - 455x3 +... (ii) -x15 + 15x 4 - 105x13 + 455x12 +...
37. (a) (i) 1 + lOx + 45x2 + 120x3 +... (ii) X'° + 10x + 45x8 + 120x7 +...
(b) (1) 1 + 13x + 78x2 + 286x3 +... (ii) x13 + 13x12 + 78x'1 + 286x1 ° +...
38. (a) (i) 1 - 22x + 220x2 - 1 320x3 +... (ii) -2 048x11 + 11 264x'° - 28 160x9 + 42 240x8 +...
(b) (1) 1 - 28x + 364x2 - 2 912x3 +... (ii) 16 384x14 - 114 688x13 + 372 736x12 - 745 472x11 +...
39. (a) (i) 1 + 27x + 324x2 + 2 268x3 +... (ii) 19 683x9 + 59 049x8 + 78 732x7 + 61 236x6 +...
(b) (i) 1 + 36x + 594x2 +5 940x3 +... (ii) 531 441x12 +2125 764x11 +3897 234x1 ° +4330 260x9 +...
 Answers

40. (a) (i) 1 - 42x + 756x2 - 7 560x +... (ii) -279 936x7 + 326 592x6 - 163 296x5 + 45 360x +...
(b) (i) 1 - 60x + 1 620x2 - 25 920x3 +...
°
(ii) 60 466 176x1 - 100 776 960x9 + 75 582 720x8 - 33 592 320x7 +...
41. (a) (i) 787 500 (ii) 1 (b) (i) 512 (ii) 489 888
42. (a) (i) 435 456 (ii) 1 (b) (i) -2916 (ii) 2 160
43. (a) (i) 302 526 (ii) 1 (b) (i) 5 120 (ii) 1 750 000
44. (a) (i) -3 306 744 (ii) 1 (b) (i) 1 451 520 (ii) 870 912
45. (a) (i) 350 000 (ii) 1 (b) (i) 729 (ii) 30 375
46. (a) (1) -414720 (ii) 59 049 (b) (i) -768 (ii) 15 360
47. (a) (i) 870 912 (ii) 6 561 (b) (i) 256 (ii) 48 384
48. (a) (i) -175000 (ii) -128 (b) (i) 4 096 (ii) 160 000
49. (a) (1) 54432 000 (ii) 390 625 (1,) (1) -8 (ii) 60
50. (a) (i) -439040 (ii) 4 096 (b) (i) 1 280 000 (ii) 600 000
688 6224 2 30104 30104
51. (a) W 32- x+ x - x3 +••• (ii) -______
3 9 27 27
3321 9855 2 33255 33255
(1) (1) 243------x+-------x - x -_____
2 2 4 4
55075 x 2 120755
52. (a) (i) 625-3 250x + - x +•
8 16
8451 2 19761 19761
(b) 81-459x+ x - x +•• (ii) -_____
8 16 16
1552 14812 2 68299 68299
53. (a) W 64------x+ x - x +•• (ii) -
5 25 125 125
14601 2_ 2351 2351
(1,) W 25-99x+ x x + (ii) -
100 25 25
98 287 112
54. (a) W
3 27 27
1107 119
(b) U) (ii) 336 (iii) --
2 16
19365
55. (a) G) 11 680 () 11 820 (iii)
4
5115 4579 1023
(b) (i) (ii) (iii) -
16 64 64
51 3057
56. (a) W 207 (ii) - (iii) -
2 64
4528 17711
(b) (i) 3 048 (ii) (iii) -______
9 81
57. (a) (i) 1 + 7x + 14x2 - 7x3 +... (ii) -7
(b) (i) 1 + 5x + 15x2 + 30x3 +... (ii) 30
58. (a) (i) 1 + 8x + 16x2 - 16x3 (ii) -16
(b) (i) 1 + 12x + 72x2 + 280x3 +... (ii) 280
59. (a) (i) 1 + 15x + 120x2 + 630x3 (ii) 630
(b) (i) 1 - 12x + 30x2 + 108x3 +... (ii) 108
60. (a) (i) 1 - 48x + 936x2 - 9 280x3 (ii) -9280
(b) (i) 1 + 45x + 795x2 + 6 750x3 (ii) 6 750
 Answers ED
61. (a) (i) 1 - 141 - 84 + 280i + 560 - 672i - 448 + 128i = 28 - 2781
(ii) Re(1 - 2i) 7 = 28 (iii) Im(1 - 2i)7 = — 278
(b) (i) 1 + 121 - 60 - 1601 + 240 + 192i - 64 = 117 + 44i
(ii) Re(1 + 2i)6 = 117 (iii) Im(1 + 21)6 = 44
62. (a) (1) 1+18i-135-540i+1215+14581-729=352+936i
(ii) Re(1 + 3i)6 = 352 (iii) Im(1 + 31)6 = 936
(b) (i) 1 - 151 - 90 + 2701 + 405 - 243i = 316 + 12i
(ii) Re(1 - 3i)5 = 316 (iii) Im(1 - 3i)5 = 12
63. (a) (1) 1-20i-160+640i+1280-1024i=1121-404i
(ii) Re(1 - 4i)5 = 1 121 (iii) Im(1 - 4i) 5 = — 404
(b) (i) 1 + 16i - 96 - 2561 + 256 = 161 - 2401
(ii) Re(1 + Q4 = 161 (iii) Im(1 + Q 4 = — 240
64. (a) (i) 1 + 30i — 375 — 2 500i + 9 375 + 18 750i — 15 625 = —6 624 + 16 280i
(ii) Re(1 + 5i)6 = —6 624 (iii) Im(1 + 5i)6 = 16280
(b) (i) 1 - 251 - 250 + 1 250i + 3 125 - 3 1251 = 2 876 - 1 900i
(ii) Re(1 - 5i) 5 = 2 876 (iii) Im(1 - 51) = —1900
65 (a) (i) 1+28i-294-1372i+2401=2108-1344i
(ii) Re(1 + 7i) 4 = 2 108 (iii) Im(1 + 71) = —1344
(b) (i) 1 - 40i - 640 + 5 120i + 20 480 - 32 7681 = 19 841 - 27 688i
(ii) Re(1 - 8i) 5 = 19 841 (iii) Im(1 - 81) = —27 688

Exercise 6c

1. (a) (b) —1 <x <1 (c) 0.97468

2 8 16
2. (a) (b) —1<x<1 (c) 0.98346
5 25 125
3. (a) (b) —1 <x < 1 (c) 1.013 16
3 9 81
4. (a) (b) —1 <x < 1 (c) 1.017 059
4 32 128
5. (a) 1 —8x + 40x2 - 160x3 +... (b) — 1 <X< (c) 0.792

6. (a) 1 - 15x + 135x2 - 945x3 +... (b) --<X<- (c) 0.65

7. (a) 1 + 8x + 48x2 + 256x3 +... (b) - <X< (c) 1.085 1

8. (a) 1 + 15x + 150x2 + 1 250x3 +... (b) _2 <X<- (c) 1.1663

9. (a) (b) —8<x<8 (c) 1.9958

12 288
10. (a) 3 + x - --- x 2 +.. (b) —9<x<9 (c) 3.006 659
6 216
-
11. (a) 2— --- x x2 +.-- (b) —16 <x < 16 (c) 2.001 561
32 4096
12. (a) 2- - X - x2 +• (b) —32 <x <32 (c) 1.999 249 4
80 6400
 Answers

1 8 8
13. (a) 2- 1-x---x 2 (b) --<x<--
4 32 3 3
2 2 2 4 9 9
14. (a) 3--x- —x - ----x3+... (b) --<x<--
3 27 243 4 4
27 2 16 16
15. (a) 2- —x-
3 x +•• (b) --<x<----
32 4096 3 3
1 1 2 3
16. (a) 2-----x--- ---x - x3+••• (b) -16<x<16
40 1600 128000
3 9 27 7 7
17. (a) fi +—x- x2 + (b) ---<x<-
2,f7- 56,[7- 784fi 3 3
1 1
18. (a) h + —x- x2 +•• (b) --<x<-
6,53 72 2 2
1_2 4 8 16 3 3
19. (a) W -- -x+ ---x2 --x +—x + (ii) --<x<-
3 9 27 81 243 2 2
1 3 9 2 27 81 4 4
(b) (i) -+— x+----- x +— x +— x +... (ii) --<x<--
4 16 64 256 1024 3 3
1 2 4 2 8 16 5 5
20. (a) W+ — x +—x +•• (ii) ----<x<-
5 25 125 625 3 125 2 2
1 5 25 2 125 625 4 6 6
(b) (i) ------x+—x -------x + x + (ii) --<x<-
6 36 216 1296 7776
1 3 27 2 135
21 (a) — - --x+ - x (b) <X< (c) 0.691
• ,r2- 4h 32h x 128ñ
1 5 75 625
22 (a) -+—x+—x 2 + x 3 +••. (b) -j <X< (c) 0.506
2 16 256 2048
23. (a) 3 + 7x + 11x2 + 15x3 + 19x4 + 23x5 +... (b) 4+7x+10x2 +13x3 +16x4 +19x5 +...
24. (a) -1+3x-5x2 +7x3 -9x4 +11x5 +... (b) -5 + lix - 17x2 + 23x3 - 29x4 + 35x5 +...
25. (a) -2-5x-9x2 -14x3 -20x4 -27x5 (b) 7 - 20x + 39x2 - 64x3 + 95x4 - 132x5 +...
17 17 15 1 1
26. (a) 1 + 4x + 7x2 + 8x3 + 8x4 + 8x5+... (b) -+-x+—x 2+—x +—x --x +•..
2 4 8 16 32 64
1--11 43 65 3 16 4 16 5 19 31 2 49 3 31 1
27. (a) --x+—x - (b) ---x+—x x + — x --x +...
2 9 27 81 243 729 2 4 8 16 32 64

28. (a) (i) 1+x+ -x 2 + -x +•••

3
(ii) -1<x<1
2 2
• 3 1551 1 1
(b) (i) 1+-x+—x +—x (ii) - -<x< -
2 8 16 2 2
29. (a) (i)• 1-x+ -x 2 - -x 3+•• -1<x<1
2 2
1 72253 1 1
(b) (i) 1- -x+-x --x +•• (ii) --<x<-
2 8 16 2 2
1
3 2 +—x
7 3 +•
30. (a) 1+-x---x (b) (1) 2.03 (ii) 1.97
4 32 128
1 125 3
31. (a) 1+-x--x +—x +•• (b) (i) 3.036 589 (ii) 2.962 496
3 9 81
1 12 1 3
32. (a) 1---x----x --x +• (b) 0.711 (3 d. p.) (c) 7.1 (1 d. p.)
2 8 16
 Answers

1 5 3 1 13
33. (a) 1- -x- 1-x2 - —x +•• 46. (a) U) –x– —x3 2 + —x +.•.
3 9 81 4 16 64
(b) 0.888 (3 d. p.) (ii) -1<x<1
(c) 8.88 (2 d. p.) 1 2 21 +..
(b) U) -x--x +—x
5 25 125
34. (a) 1_x+x2_1x3+... -1<x<1
1 7 3
35. (a) 1_x+x2_x3+... 47. (a) U) –x+ –x2 2 + —x +...
3 9 27
-1<x<1
36. (a) 1+x+x2+x3+...
2 2 1 5 31
2 22 3 (1,) U) -x+ --x2+—x +••
37. (a) 1- -x+ 2
-x2 - —x +•.. 6 36 216
3 9 81 (ii) -1<x<1
38. (a) 1 57
4 64 48. (a) (1) –x– —x 8 2 + — x3+••
7 49 343
(b) -2<x<2 (ii) -1<x<1
39. (a) 2_x2_X4+ 1 9 73
8 256 (b) U) -x--x 2 +—x 3 +•.
8 64 512
(b) -21<x<2.j -1<x<1
40. (a) 1 3 2+–x 7 3+...
10 200 49. (a) U) –x-- –x
2 4 8
(b) -/<x</ -1<x<l
41. (a) 1 5
(b) U) -x--x +—x +•.•
8 256 4 16 64
(b) -2<x<2 (ii) -1<x<1
42. (a) (i) 1+2x+7x2 +20x3 -i-... 7 7x+1
50 (a) (')
1
(11) – –<x< –
1 10(3-x) + 10(1+x2 )
3 3 17 22563
(b) (i) 1 + 3x + 13x2 + 51x3 +...
1 1 3 9 27 81
(11) --<x<– -1<x<1
4 4
43. (a) (i) 1 - 4x + 21x2 - 104x3 +... 5 5x-14
(b) W 17(4_x)17(1+x2)
1 1
(ii) - -<x< -
5 5 3 5 53 2 753
(b) (i) 1 - 5x + 31x2 — 185x3 +... 4 16 64 256
1 1
(ii) — –<x< – -1 <x < 1
6 6
44. (a) (i) 1 + 5x + 19x2 + 65x3 + 17 17x+7
51. (a) U) + -
1 1 ZbI–X) 261+x)
(ii) — –<x< –
3 3 2 17 33 408
(b) (i) 1 + lix + 93x2 + 715x3 +... (ii)–+—x----x2 - ---x +..
5 25 125 625
--1<x< 1–
(ii) (iii) -1<x<5
7 7
45. (a) (1) 1 - 7x + 39x2 - 203x3 +... 13x+i 13
1 1 (b) (j) 10(l+x2)10(3+x)
--<x<–
5 5 113 4 2 104 3
(b) (i) 1 - lix + 97x2 — 803x3 +... 3 9 27 81
1 1
(11) ---<x<– (iii) -1<x<1
8 8
 Answers

llx+3 11 i[s 1 fl
52. (a) G) (iii) --+11 - (2fl+ 1 )]
5(1+x2 ) 5(2+x) 5)
9oL2
1 11 7 2 _x3 +...
(ii) __+ (iv) -2 <x <2
24 8
-1 <x < 1 6 - 11
(b) M ___________
19x+26 19 7(x-2) 7(3x+1)
(b) W17(1+x2)17(4+x) 9 57 339 3
(ii) -2+-x--x +-x +•••
+x_x2_x3+... 2 4 8
(ii)
164 64 256 -[3 + 11(-6)1
(iii) -1 <x < 1 (iii)
3 1 7x2
53. (a) W 1 1
5(x-2) 2(2x+1) (iv) - --<x< --
3 3
1 1 ix2+x3+...
(ii) - --+-x 17 3
2 4 8 6 55. (a) (i) -
8(3x-2) 8(x+2)
_[(_2)n+3x2(11+1)]
(iii) 53 39 57 3
(ii) ------x----x --x +•••
42 16 16
(iv)
2 2 (iii) - (2-(n + 4) ) [3 (-i) + 17(3 n)]
5 1
(b) (i) 2 2
7(2x - 1) 7(x + 3) (iv) - -<x-< -
3 3
213 77 463 3
_X 2_ - j_X +... 17 1
3 9 (b) (i) -______
13(4x + 1) 13(x -3)
1 [( 1 4 47 565 6779
(iii)
21
-) _15x2fl]
3 (ii) ---x+-x 2- -----x +•••
3 9 27 81
(iv) -<x< (iii) 39 [51(-4)n
5l(-4) +3 -n]
2 2
11 1 1 1
54. (a) (1) (iv) ----<x<-
9(2x+5)9(x-2) 4 4
3 7 53 2 87
(ii) - - --xX+
10 100 10000

Revision exercise 6
1. (d)60 11. (a) 1 (n)... (n) 1 22. (c) 1120
2. (c)500 12. (a) 18 28 56 70 56 8 1 23. (b) 160
3. (d)21 13. (b) 9 24. (d) 35
4. (a)1 14. (b) x5 + 5x4 + lOx3 + lOx2 + 5x+1 25. (c) 70
5. (b)1 15. (d) -x5 + 5x4 - 1Ox3 + lOx2 - 5x + 1 26. (i)
6. (c)'2C7 16. (c) x3 + 6x2y + 12xy2 + 16
(ii) 5.9999
(10 17. (d) x3 -6x2y+12xy2 --8y3
7. (d) 7) 27. 43 750
18. (a) 16x4 + 96x3y + 216x2y2 + 216xy3 + 81y4
28. 5376
8. (1') 1 19. (c) 16x4 - 96x3y + 216x2y2 - 216xy3 + 81y4
29. (b) (1) 462
9. (b) 2n 20. (a) 1 +3(0.01) + 3(0.01)2 + (0.01)
(ii) 6 435
10. (b) 1 024 21. (d) 1 - 3(0.01) + 3(0.01)2 - (0.01)
 Answers IM

30. (b) (1) 1 716 (ii) 455 1 14 3

1 1
34. (a) 1- -x+ -x 2 2 - -x
31. (a) 1_x_1x2_x3+... <X< -
-- 39 81
2 2 2 2 1 1253
(b) 1--x--x --x +
32. (a) n=12 3 9 81
and 7 35. (a) 55 050 240
(b)
(b) (i) 243+(243p-405)x+(270-405p)x2 +...
(ii) '=
33.
(a) 9!6!
(b) 394.843 1

7 Roots of equations
Exercise 7a

1. (a) x -5.19 (b) x 0.193 19. (b) x 1.35 [1,2]

2. (a) x -1.19 (b) x = 4.19 20. (b) x 0.497 [0, 1]
3. (a) x -1.84 (b) x -0.407 21. (1') x = 0.026 0 and x 2.84 [-1, 1] and [2,3]
4. (a) x -2.12 (b) x 0.786 22. (b) x z 3.29 [3,4]
6. x=1 23. (b) x1.63 [1,2]
8. x5.11 [ 1
9. x 6.11 24. (b) x z 0.224 [0
10. x=1
11.
12.
13.
x -3.51, x = -1.57 and x 1.09
x-1.07,x1.39 and x"4.68
x=-1 and x=2
25. (b) x = 0

26. (b) x -1.995 and x 0.639

1-2 2
[-2,1] and [0,1]
14. x -0.618, x = 1 and x z 1.62 27. (b) x -1.41 and x 0.284 [-1. 5, -11 and [0, 11
15. x-0.791,x=1 and x'3.79 28. (b) x±1.92 [-2,-1] and [ 1, 2]
16. (b) [0, 11 x 0.529 29. (b) x = 3.60 [3,4]
17. (b) x -3.50 and x = 1.11 [-4, -31 and [1, 21 30. (b) x z 0.667 [0, 1]
18. (b) x 0.532 [0, 1]

Exercise 7b

1. (b) (i) x = 0.4, 1.6 (ii) x = 0.42,1-58 6. (c) (i) x = -1.4,0.2 (ii) x = -1.42, 0.21
2. (b) (i) x = -0.6, 0.4, 2.2 (ii) x = -0.61, 0.37, 2.24 7. (c) (i) x = 0.6 (ii) X = 0.56

3. (b) (i) x = -2, 0.3 (ii) x = -1.98,0.31 8. (c) (i) x = 1.4 (ii) x = 1.44
4. (b) (i) x = 0.3, 5.0 (ii) x = 0.29, 5.02 9. (c) (i) x = 1.1 (ii) x = 1.13
5. (b) (i) x = 1.9 (ii) x = 1.95 10. (c) (i) x = 0.4 (ii) x = 0.38

Exercise 7c

1. (b) (i) x = 0.2, 1.6 (ii) x = 0.16, 1.59 4. (b) (i) x = 1.2 (ii) x = 1.21
2. (b) (i) x = -1.7 (ii) x = -1.67 5. (b) (i) x = 2.6 (ii) x = 2.65
3. (b) (I) x = -2.5 (ii) x = -2.54 6. (b) (i) x = -1.6, 0.4 (ii) x = -1.61, 0.36
 Answers

7. (b) (i) x = 1.9 (ii) x = 1.92 9. (b) (i) x = 1.4 (ii) x = 1.39
8. (b) (i) x = 1.9 (ii) x = 1.90 10. (b) (i) x = 0.2 (ii) x = 0.24

Exercise 7d

1. (b) (i) a= 0.724 076 (6 d.p.) 10. (b) a= 0.419 664 (6 s.f.)
(ii) a = 0.724 076 (6 d.p.) 11. (b) (i) a= -2.632 12 (5 d.p.)
(iii) a= 0.724 076 (6 d.p.) (ii) a= 1.53532 (5 d.p.)
2. a = -2.094 6 (5 d.p.) 12. a= -2.23865 (5 d.p.) and a= 1.06 009 (5 d.p.)
3. (a) [1, 1.5] 13. (a) [0, 1]
(c) a= 1.34025 (5 d.p.) (c) a= 0.561 796
4. a = 4.3670 (5 s.f.) 14. a= -1.130 29 (6 s.f.)
5. (b) a= -1.4260 (5 s.f.) 15. (b) a = 1.049 91 (6 s.f.)
6. (b) (i) a= 0.354 002 (6 d.p.) 16. (b) a=0.197423 (6 s.f.) and a= 1.48519(6 s.f.)
(ii) a = 0.354 002 (6 d.p.) 17. a= 2.513 16 (5 d.p.)
(iii) a= 0.354 002 (6 d.p.) 18. (a) [2, 3]
7. a= 1.06307(5 d.p.) (c) a= 2.488 81 (6 s.f.)
8. (a) [-2, -1] 19. a= 0.784 136 (6 s.f.) and a= 15.800 1 (6 s.f.)
(c) a= -1.49936 (5 d.p.) 20. [4,5]
9. a = 0.746 776 (6 s.f.) (b) a=4.97063

Exercise 7e

1. (c) a= 0.167 449 (6 s.f.) 11. (c) a=-0.614815

2. (c) a= 0.72408 (5 s.f.) 12. (c) a= -0.165 (3 s.f.)
3. (c) a= -0.289 17 (5 d.p.) 13. (c) a= 0.32670 (5 d.p.)
4. (a) [1, 1.5] 14. (a) [0, 11

(b) Ly =_(x+6x2) (b) = -(9 + e-x)

dx dx
(c) x1 =1.25 (c) a= 0.511 093 (6 s.f.)
a= 1.352 1(5 s.f.) 15. (c) a= 0.356 (3 d.p.)
5. (c) a=3.3 16. (c) a= 1.475 (4 s.f.)
6. a= 0.935 (3 s.f.) 17. (c) a = 2.07058 (6 s.f.)
(c)
7. a= 0.568 538
18. (c) a= 2.065 78 (5 d.p.)
(c)
a= 0. 143 4 (4 d.p.) 19. (a) [2,3]
8. (c)
9. (a) [0, 1] (b)
dx x
(b) Ly
dx
=3-sin2x (c) x1 =2.5
(c) a= 0.470 2(4 s.f.) a= 2.98439
10. (c) a= -0.167 (3 d.p.) 20. (c) a= 2812 (4 d.p.)
 Answers IM

Revision exercise 7
1 (d) urn f(x) = f(a) +1= COS n Xri
20. (b) Xn _
2. (c) A hole exists in the line joining A to B. -smx-1
3. (d) There exists a jump in the graph of f(x). 21. (a) X+1/OSX
4. (c) f(a) .f(b) > 0 cosx
5. (c) The intermediate value theorem can tell us 22. (c) X+1
xn
that C does not exist in the interval [a, b].
6. (b) The intermediate value theorem will tell us 23. (b) x 1 =cos'x
how many times a function take on a given
value. x-cosx
24. (d) ;1=x-
7. (c) The root is then situated in the regionf(x) > 0. 3x+smx
8. (c) The root is then located in the regionf(x) <0.
cosx+x+x
9. (c) If (a + b) > c, then the root is not found and 25. (a)
the level of desired accuracy is not reached, so x+xn +1
repeat the previous steps. dy
10. (c) 26. (a) (1) = 3x2 +2
dx
1.25 1.375 1.5 -0.296 875 -0.724 609 1.875
(ii)
dx
11. (a)
b-a' f(b) (b) a= 1.18 (3 s.f.)
dy
27. (a) Q)-=-(4 + 3x 2 )
12. (c) dx
f(a) f(b)

= aJf(b)J+bJf(a)J
(ii)
13. (b) dx
f(a)j + lf(b) 28. (c) [0, 1]
14. (a) (1,2) (d) a= 0.824 (3 d.p.)
11.1
31. (c) a= 0.18 (2 d.p.)
32. (b) x2 = 0.655 (3 s.f.)
0 33. (b) a= 0.8149 (4 d.p.)
34. (b) -,-
5 2.875 2.9375 2.9063 0.5483
(0,-3) 6 2.875 2.9063 2.8907 0.1551
7 2.875 2.8907 2.8829 -0.0399
15. (d) 8 2.8829 2.8907 2.8868 0.0575
a 3
9 2.8829 2.8868 2.8849 0.0100
-7
16. (a) x +1 =x-
2x
10 1 2.8829 1 2.8849 1 2.8839 0.0150

17. (d) ±2.645 75 x=W=2.88(2d.p.)

18. (c) [0, 1]
19. (c) 1 35. (a) e-x=0
IM Answers

MODULE 3
Counting, Matrices and Differential Equations

8 Counting
Exercise 8a

1. 57 ways 6. 210 ways

2. 28 ways 7. 28 ways
3. 25 ways 8. 40 ways
4. (a) 8 ways (b) 16 ways 9. (a) 36 ways (b) 33 ways
(c) 28 ways (d) 39 ways 10. 980 ways
5. 184 ways

Exercise Sb

1. (a) 120 (b) 120 15. (a) 1 000 000 000

(c) 60 (d) 20 (b) 3 628 800
2. (a) 24 (li) 5 040 16. (a) 30 240
(c) 720 (ci) 362880 (b) 100000
3. 40320 17. 34650
4. 479 001 600 18. 70 396 470 140 000
5. (a) 360 19. 5 040
(b) 720 20. 1 663 200
(c) 720 21. 1 441 440
6. (a) 210 22. 2 454 021 570
(b) 2520 23. (a) 39 916 800
(c) 5 040 (b) 3 628 800
7. 840 24. (a) 16!
8. 6720 (b) 28 .8!
9. 7893600 25. 1344
10. 336 26. 1 680
11. 59 280 27. (a) 13! = 6 227 020 800
12. 13850 (b) 6!•8!=29030400
13. (a) 480 (c) 6 197 990 440
(b) (1) 420 (ii) 60 (d) 7! 6! = 3 628 800
14. (a) 360 28. (a) 9! = 362 880
(b) (1) 120 (ii) 300 (b) 4! . 6! = 17 280
(iii) 60 (c) 345 600
(d) 5!•4!=2880
 Answers U3
29. (a) 978 44. (a) 1 693 440 (b) 2 721 600
(b) 168 45. (a) 8 467 210 (b) 101 606 400
30. (a) 978 46. (a) 20 321 280 (b) 2438 553 600
(b)120 47.48
31. (a) 1 680 48. 1 440
(b) 840 49. 30240
(c) 24 50. 152 409 600
32. (a) 15 120 51. (a) 1 663 200 (b) 60 480
(b) (i) 8 400 (ii) 120 (C) 30 240
33. 1920 (a) 59 875 200 (b) 1 814 400
34. 11 232 000 (c) 907 200
35. 720 53. (a) 720 (b) 240
36. 5 040 (c) 480
37. (a) 172 972 800 (b) 39 916 800 54. (a) 40320 (b) 10 080
38. (a) 908 107 200 (c) 30 240
(b) 194594400 55. 2880
39. 240 56. 3628800
40. 240 57. 35
41. 725 760 58. 252
42. 10 886 400 59. (a) 2520 (b) 40 320
43. (a) 99 792 000 (b) 99 792 000 60. (a) 20 160 (b) 362 880

Exercise 8c

1. (a) 6435 (b) 2 520 14. (a) 293 930

(c) 4 005 (d) 540 (b) 116 396 280
2. (a) 3 003 (b) 280 (c) 3.422 050 632 x 1010
(c) 491 (d) 1 281 15. 2002
3. 36036 16. 24310
4. (a) 1 568 (b) 1 568 17. (a) 120 (b) 210
5. 480 480 (c) 252
6. (a) 1 (b) 21 18. (a) 495 (b) 792
(c) 596 (d) 546 (c) 924
• 7. (a) 462 (b) 792 19. 4
8. (a) 1 716 (b) 2002 20. 35
9. 19 21. 63
10. 18 22. 13
11. 8 820 23. (a) 22 (b) 17
12. 1 890 24. (a) 39 (b) 32
13. (a) 43 758 (b) 183 783 600 25. (a) 5 (b) 10
(c) 514 594 080 (c) 10
M Answers

Exercise Sd

19. (a) (i) P(G r M n F) = 0.15

1. P(vowel) =1 (i) P(G u M u E)'= 0.725
(iii) P(M n G' n E') = 0.067
2. (iv) P(M n E n C') = 0.208
(b) P(GuMuE)'-0.275
3. P(court card) = 20. (a) (i) P(D n G n C) =
13 75
4. (a) (ii) P(D u G u C) =1
® ®H®A I ®I®T ®I (iii)P(DnG'nC')=
H A I T I
(iv) P(G n C n D') =
(b) n(S) = 10 (b) P(DuGuC)'=0
(c) (i) P(head and an A) = -
10
21. P(AnBnC)=--
23
(ii) P(tail and a vowel) = 3-
10
22. P(KnLc)M)=--
5. (a) 16
15
H HI H2 H3 H4 H5H6 H7
23. P(a diamond or a black Queen) = -
T I
TI T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7
24. P(student travelled to school by bicycle or bus) =
(b) u(S) = 14 25. (a) Mutually exclusive
2
(c) (i) P(H and odd number) = - (b) Not mutually exclusive
26. (a) C and T are mutually exclusive. C n T =
2 B and T are mutually exclusive. B T = {
(ii) P(T and prime number) =
(1) (1) P(C u I) = (ii) P(B u T) =
6. P(both cards are diamonds) =I 45 45
27. (a) (b) 1
7. P (both cards are court cards) = 3 3
221 28. (a) 1 (b) 0
5
8. P(both fruits are mandarins) = - 29. (a) P(S u C) = (b) P(A u B U H) =
138 = 12 = 12
9. P(all three beads are red) 30. (a) P(R u B) P(Y u G u
152
10. P(it will not rain) = 0.35 31. P(R n non-court card) = -
11. P(at least one queen) = 0.166
12. P(at least one fruit is a portugal) = 0.511
32. (a) P(W n B) (b) P(W n
13. P(SnC)= 1 = 100 = 100
4
(c) P(B n W) = - (d) P(W n ) =2
14. 50 50
19
33. P(HnFnE)=---
15. (a) (b) (c)
8 8 8
34. (a) P(L L n L)=
16. (a) 1 (b) (c) I
4 4 8 I
17. (a) P(S u D) = 0.78 (b) P(L' n L' n L') =
64
(b) (i) P(S n D') = 0.24 (ii) P(D n S') = 0.39
18. (a) P(M u S) = 0.84 (b) P(M u S)' = 0.16
 Answers

(c) P(LnLnL')+P(LnL'nL)+
27
P(LrmLnL)=-
64
(d) P(L r) L' r-) L') + P(L' r) L n L') +

P(L'nL'nL)=

35. (a) P(A n D n M) = 0.246 45 = 0.246 (3 s.f.)

(b) P[(A n D' n M') u (A' r-) D n M') u
(A' r) D' r M)} = 0.257 15 = 0.257 (3 s.f.)
36. (a) P(K n N n S) = 0.26767 = 0.268 (3 s.f.)
(b) P[(KnNnS')u(K'nNnS)u(KnN'rS)]=0.417130.417(3s.f.)
37. (a) MP(K/]) = (ii) P(f/K) =

(b) (i) P(K/J) = 1 (ii) P(f/K) =

(c) (1) P(K/J) = 0 (ii) P(f/K) = 0
37 37
38. (a) W P(C/M) = 0 (ii) P(M/C) = 0 (b) (i) P(C/M) = (ii) P(M/C)
52 49
(c) M P(C/M) = (ii) P(M/C) = 1

39. (a) P(A/P) = (b) P(student like to eat all three foods/student like to eat two foods) =
2 53

(c) P(P n VIA') =

56
53 14
40. (a) P(P/B) = (b) P(chef makes all three foods/chief makes two foods) =
87 53

(c)P(B n CIF)

41. (a) P(S1 n S2) = .2- (b) P(S 1 n S) =

25 95
4 62
42. (a) P(C1 n C) (b) P(C1 m C)
25 = 395
43. (a) P(W1 n W2 n W3) --
1728
= 1309
(b) P(W1 m W 2 n W3)
6844
44. P(2 tails/tails) =
=
45. (a) P(01M)

(b) P(O'/F) =

46. (a) P(D/F) =

(b) P(P/M) =
110
IM Answers

47. (a) First Second Outcome (b) Probability

draw draw
5 5 25
S SnS

5 4 20
- -4
< C Sr-)C = sT
9 -
S CnS 4 5 20
=81

<
) -
C C nC
4 4 16

(c) Total probability = 1

48. (a) First Second Outcome (b) Probability

draw draw
Al
S SnS 51
7 78 5

S 5 1 5
C Sn C g

i i IIIIIIII S CnS 4 5 20

4 3 12
CnS
(c) Total probability = 1

49. (a) First Second Outcome (b) Probability

spin spin

R RnR

<
RB Rn B
P R) _-7 X
zEEIIIIII
= T
RBnR 11 1
Pro) ,,

B<
/6~)7 BnB
1 1 1

(c) Total probability = 1

 Answers IM
50. (a) First Second Outcome (b) Probability
spin spin

yfly

YnG X 25

G =

GnG
5 5 25
(c) Total probability = 1

51. (a) Route Late/Not late Outcome Probability

L AnL 0.65 X 0.07 = 0.0455

A
L' AnL' 0.65X0.93=0.6045

...-o 139 L Br-)L 0.35 X 0.09 = 0.0315

<
P(o, 0 B
PQ
L' BnL' 0.35 X 0.91 = 0.3185
Total probability =

(b) P(L) = 0.077

(c) P(B/L) = 0.409
(d) P(L') = 0.923
(e) P(A/L') = 0.655
 Answers

52. (a) Route Late/Not late Outcome Probability

L AnL 0.4X0.08=0.032

L' AnL' 0.4 X 0.92 = 0.368

L Br-)L 0.35 X 0.06 = 0.021

<
Q 91 L' BnL' 0.35 x0.940.329

L CnL 0.25 X 0.04 = 0.010

a /C)
0.96 L' CnL' 0.25 X 0.96 = 0.240

Total probability = 1

(b) P(L1) = 0.937

(c) P(C/L') = 0.256
53. (a) (ii) First Second Outcome Probability
draw draw
4 7 28
C CnC
T3 T1

~IC _ < -(3 r

C EnC
CnE
4 6 24

3 5 15
cI x
Ib 41 <

E <

8 3 24
En E
13
Total probability = 1

24
(b) (1) P(CnE)= —
91
39
(ii) P(CnE)+P(EnC)=—
91
52
(iii) P(CnC)+P(EnE)=—
91
 Answers

54. (a) First Second Outcome Probability

patient patient

• 5C 3 6 18
(C, C) x =
7H 5 13 65
oxy

6C
z r6C 3
• X =
7 21

Box
P(i/C)7 6 H (C, B)
T3 T5
•-1 13Box

6C .- 4C 2 5 2
4H (H,C)
8H X T3
Box 2 5C Box
8H
Box Y 8 5C
(H,I-1)
2 8 16
13 7H
Box y Total probability =1

(b) (i) P(C, C)+P(H, H) =

65

(ii) P(C,H)+P(H,H)=--
65

Third trial Outcome Probability

55. (a) First trial Second trial (card)
(coin) (spinner) •
1 2
(K) H,E,K

1 2 12 12
(K) H,EK'
E
P(K)
13 131 3
(K) H2 O,K
1 3 12 36
\ (K') H2 O,K 2 13 130
5 '. 13-. 1 2
2 T,E,K
13
p 1 2 12 12
(K) T,E,K
I
1 3 1 3
(K) T,O,K
X U3 T3-0
1 3 12 18
T,O,K'
13 Total probability = 1

(b) P(H,E,K)=-1-
65

P(T, 0, K') =
65
 Answers

Exercise Se

I. P(A) 6. P(vowels are fixed) =

360 120
2
7. (a) P(the Os are always together) =
2. P(A I) = 0.9999(4 s.f.)
1S 190
(b) P(the vowels are always together) =
3. (a) P(digits of code is 0 or a multiple of 3)
8. (a) P(the Os are always together) =
(b) P(first digit is 7) =

(c) P(first digit is an odd number and last (b) P(all the vowels are together) = 1
digit is an even number) = 9. (a) P(male student sits at the ends and no
two male students or female students
(d) P(code is 0768) = 5040 sit together) =
126
4. (a) P(digit of code is 0 or a multiple of 2) = (b) P(the male students sit together and the

(b) P(first digit is 8) = female students sit together) =

126
10. (a) P(a female sits at the ends and no two female
(c) P(first digit is an even number and last
students or male students sit together) = ---
digit is an odd numbers) = 462
(b) P(the female students sit together and the
(d) P(code is 23579) = ______ male students sit together) =
30 240

5. P(vowels are fixed)

30

Exercise 8f
1
I. P(both cards are hearts) =--- (c) P(3 aces and 4 kings) = 33 446 140

2. P(all three cards are red) = 1

17 6. (a) P(4 kings and a queen) = 649
740
3. (a) P(the black grape is in urn A) =
(b) P(an ace and 4 court cards) = 33

(b) P(the black grape is in urn B) 33

(c) P(5 court cards) =
108 290
4. (a) P(the two green grapes are in urn X) =
7. (a) P(3 men and 2 women) = 100
-
231
(b) P(the two green grapes are in urn Y) =
(b) P(2 men and 3 women) = 25-
5. (a) P(all 4 aces) = 77
8. (a) P(4 teachers, 2 male students and 1 female
1 student) =
(b) P(4 aces and 3 kings) = 44
33446140
 Answers

(b) P(3 teachers, 2 male students and 2 female 10. P(5 persons chosen comprising of
students) = no male students) = 1567
22 11 628
9. P(4 persons chosen comprising of no female = 0.135
715
students) = 3 876
= 0.184

Revision exercise 8
1. (d) 360 2
120 23. (b)
2. (c)
-

21
3. (d) 17576000 2
24. (c) -
4. (a) 14 196 000 5
5. (d) 48 3
25. (b) -

6. (d) 720 5
7. (a) 420 70
26. (c)
8. (b) 2880 221
9. (a) 14400 44
27. (b)
10. (c) 1404000 7917
11. (c) 142506 4
28. (a)
12. (b) 105 50025
13. (a) 1001 4 c2 • C2
29. (a) 52
14. (c) 2118760 C5

15 (d) 3246320 4 c3 . C4
30. (b)
16 (c)
31. (a) First morse
code
17. (a)

18. (c)
9
19 (c) 03
20 (b)
40
21. (b)

22 (b)
 Answers

(1) (i) (jj) First morse Second morse Third morse

code code code

1
-- a (a,a,a)

a
2
p (a, a,/3)
P(fl)

(a,,6, a)
a pE a
6 (a, 8, /3)
14
1 —- _ (/3,a,a)

/3 (/3,a,/3)

a (/3,/3,a)
q

(p,p,p)

2 1 2 13 1 1
(c) (i) P(a, aM+P( 6 a')+P(/i, a, a')=–x –x –+
2 –x –x
2 –+–x –x –

533534543
411
=—+—+-
45 15 20
- 37
- 180
211333
(ii) P(a',a,a')+P(flfi,/i=–x–x–+–x–x-
533544
2 27
= —+---
45 80
55
- 144
32. (a) _—P

35% 13% (25% 12%

(b) (i) P(L n C) + P(P n C) = 0.4

(ii) P(L n C) + P(P n C') = 0.47
(iii) P(C - L') + P(C sm P') = 0.13

33. (a) 72 numbers (b)

34. (a) 0.5 (b) 0.57

(c) 0.27 (d) 0.55
 Answers IM

35 ..z
80
36. (a) 1 281 ways
(b) 1 260 ways
37. 41 ways
38. (a) (i) 90 720 (ii) 42
(b) (I) P(A n B) = 0.28
(ii) a) Events A and B are not mutually exclusive, since P(A r' B)
b) Events A and B are not independent, since P(A) . P(B) = 0.351, so P(A n B) P(A) P(B).
39. (a) ---
408
(b) 2121
40. First Second Third Outcomes
selection selection selection

C3 V (VI V,V)

- (V. V. C)
P(C) = 1

) 2
C (CI C,V)
C V

C (CCC)

9 Matrices and systems of linear equations

Exercise 9a
(1 1)
1. x=-4,y=8,p=-1andq= 4 (a) W
3 (1 7)
2. x=6,y=-5,p=5andq=11
3+2b i —15'\ (-11 15
3.(a) (b)(i) (ii)
4
(3a- 4) 1-1 7J
(b)
 Answers

(c)
(12 —14"
(ii) 2
1 ] 6. (a)
16
(b)
0 8J 1-0 () ()
(13 3) (_3 11]
(d) ) (-25 40
5 15
(ii) 3
[.. 1
—2-
3
7. (a)
—2 —8)
(b)
—8 —8
-- —lj
8. (a) (b)
(8 —5) (8 7 4) Li 6
(e) U) (ii)
2 18 l8J 0')
(4 —6 12
1) (c) (d)
13 —19-f) L3 (8 10) ij
(f) U) 2 (ii) 2
LO
1-2

(5 5)
—4)

22 _30)
—2

(e)
(6 —6') 1-i
I
_1!2 1
(g) (1)
5 35
(ii)
(-2 14 7 10
1
-J 3 2 2J
6
(_8 —6) —9\
5. (a) W 1I (ii) 1 (g) (h)
14 8) (243 18
I2J t2)
(-13 (13" (_21 3) (_12 18
—9 —5) 2 —14)
(b) (i) 71 (ii) 1-7
2J —2) 38 —16 —1)

(_151 (2fl
2
(k)
( —12 34 31
(1) N otpossible

(c) (j) 12 21 0)
6 ) 1-21
I-1)
(m)
(-21 1)
(n) Not possible

(d) (i)
1 32 —12
0
1 (ii)
II '
9. (a)

(c)
( —16 _)

-
(26 _11)
9
(b)

(d)
(_9 7)
3428

i
5)

0) 8 12 i5— —4 ,
2 4
(30'\ (30') (-37 27) (-30 67)
(e) (i) I —7 (ii) I —7 I 10. (a)
4 12
(b)
6 5
4) 4)

(I —25 -'
4 I
(I ) 25 (c)
(-18
2
13
2) (d)
(15
I(-3
33
2
2 6 _2. )
(f) W I 10 (ii) I I 10 2
ii I 2.1ii (36 _70) (33 —16)
'. 2) L (e)
0 16 —2 17
(9) (-52)
1
(h) M I I (ii) I 28 I 54\ 1 27
6J 8J (g) 1 2 —1
(h)
i - 2
1
2
 Answers E3
(-4 0 2 -20
(23 14. (a) (-47 -1) (b) (61 -7 70)
11. (a) (b)
t12 8 o 33
60 280 (-43 -22 (c) (d)
(d) (-22)
(
-140 125 \ 100 250 [ ]

(-43 -22 (45 66 -44 18 32

(e) (e) 16 (f) -3 2
250 1240 162
46 8 76
(-20 -15 (-20 -15
12. (a) (i) 28 -10 -7 3 30 41 72
28 9 9
(g) 18 -27 47 (h) 34 22 18
(-40 55 (-40 55
16 -34 79 49 40 64
(b) j
1. 8 -29
(U) I
8 -29
H 15. (a) W
(3 4_'\ (3 4
(-34 11 (-34 11 9) 1 9
(c) (1)
18 18 18 18
(is -4 (15 -4
(54 -81 (54 -81 (b) W
9 7) 9 7
(d) (1)
2 20 20
-5 3
(9 -4
24 -13 10 (c) G) 1 0 '
13. (a)
28 -16
(b) 16 24 -40 72
1,0 8
16
(- 40
16 -18 20
(-15 3 21 15
(- 1 3 21
(d) (1) (a)
[-72 39 -30 9 0 6) 9 0 6
56 -32
(c) (d) -48 -72 120
32 80 0 (-36 0
(
-48 54 -60 (e) () (-36
1 16 -32) 16 -32
9 5. 4 f) (-70 32 (-70 32
5 5
(-7 4 41 8) 41 8
(e) I (f) 6 9 -16
-10 5 5
6 -7 8
5 5

Exercise 9b

1. (a) IAI=-14 (b) IBI=22 (c) ICI=-2 (d) IDI=54

2. (a) (i) M11 = -42 (ii) M 1 = 24 (iii) M13 = 46
(b) (1) A 11 = -42 (ii) A 2 = -24 (iii) A 13 = 46
(c) Al= -54
3. (a) (i) M11 = -10 (ii) M21 = -32 (iii) M3 = 12
(b) (i) A 11 = -10 (ii) A 1 = 32 (iii) A 3 = 12
(c) IAI=198
4. (a) I A I = 738 (b) I B I = -26 (c) I C 1 = -258 (d) IDI=207
5. (a) 170 (b) 380 (c) -20 (d) 280
go Answers

Exercise 9c

1. (a) IAI=0 (b) IBI=O (c) ICI=0 (d) IDI=O

2. (a) x = —5 (b) x = —2 (c) x=7 (d) x=

3. (a) x=Oor4 (b) x=Oor-3 (c) x=Oor±2 (d) x=Oor±3

4. (a) x = 8 (b) x = 7 (c) x = 15 (d) x = 12
5. (a) 2xy 2 (b) 2xyz (c) (x3 - 1)2 (d) x3(1 - 2x3 + x6 )

Exercise 9d

el
4 12
37 37 -1 33
1. (a) A' (b) B
— 2 9 = 2 7
37 37

4 5
= " ' 47 47
(c) c (d) D' =
11 3 8
147 4747
_ (-3 —5) 1 (-7 —2)
2. (a) (i) A1 (ii) B1
= =
1(3 —7 1(2 —3
(iii) C1 (iv) D1
= 30I6 4) = i1 6

3 13 1 38 12 —6
3. (a) A' = --- —2 24 —17 (b) B' = —23 6 15
40 72
9 —10 3 14 12 —6

—420 8 2223
(c) C = 12 0 —24 (d) D1 = 19 8 12
60 69
—1 5 17 24 21 —3

—6 —21 —8 19 —9 —11
4. (a) (i) A' =2: —10 —28 —11 (ii) B 1 = --- 8 32 24
7 136
—3 —7 —4 —6 10 —18

—1 —2 5 10 5 —2
(iii) C- ' = 4 8 1 (iv) D' = 8 46 32
21 84
—1 —23 5 4 2 16

30 —16 5 —18 13 17
5. (a) (i) A 1 = 24 —20 13 (ii) B 1= 12 —7 —8
54 15
—6 14 —1 15 —5 —10
 Answers IM

3-12 231
(iii) (A') 1 = 1 0 5 (iv) (B 1 ) 1 = 0 -5 4
-464 37-2

12 28 -5 5 4 23
(b) (i) AB = 17 38 -9 (ii) BA = -21 24 -9
4 -14 12 24 -15 33

11 133 31 73 53 98
27 405 405 90 90 135
-1 8 82 23 53 43 73
(iii) (AB) = - -- ---- (iv) (BA) = -- - -
27 405 810 90 90 135
13 28 2 29 19 34
27 81 81 90 90 135
11 133 31 73 53 98
27 405 405 90 90 135
23 -93 43 73
(v) B 1A' = --
97
-- -
itflc Rlfl
A'B' = - on on i larz

1'(a) x=-1,y=2 (b) x=1,y=-3 (c) x=2,y=-5 (d) x1,y=-3

2. (a) x=2,y=1 (b) x=-3,y=2 (c) x=2,y=-1 (d) x=-1,y=2
3. (a) x=4,y=-3,z=1 (b) x=-3,y=-2,z=2 (c) x=1,y=1,z=2 (d) x=2,y=1,z=2
4. (a) x=2,y=-1,z=5 (b) x=1,y=3,z=-2 (c) x=1,y=1,z=1 (d) x=2,y=2,z=1
5. (a) x=3,y=-1,z=2 (b) x=2,y=-1,z=3 (c) x=3,y=1,z=2 (d) x=5,y=1,z=0

Exercise 9f

1. (ii) x=5,y=-2 (iii) x=2,y=1 (iv) x=-1,y=3

2. (a) x=-2,y=5 (b) x=2,y=-3 (c) x=3,y=-4 (d) x=-4,y=1
3. (c) (i) x=1,y=-2,z=3 (ii) x=2,y=-1,z=4 (iii) x=4,y=-3,z=1 (iv) x=3,y=-2,z=2
4.(a) x=1,y=1,z=2 (b)x=2,y=1,z=2 (c) x=1,y=2,z=2 (d) x=1,y=1,z=1
5. (a) x=-3,y=-1,z=4 (b) x=-4,y=2,z=3 (c) x=-5,y=3,z=-2 (d) x=7,y=-5,z=6

I Exercise 9g

1. (a) 8x+3y=-7 3. (a) 4x + + 5z 11

y= 3 y-18z=-29
(b) x=-2,y=3 z=2
2. (b) (i) x = 3, y = -4 (II) x=1,y=3 (b) x=-5,y=7,z=2
(iii)x=-1,y=2 (iv) x = -2, y = 1
LIllil Answers

4. (i) (a) x+y+z=1 (ii) (a) x-y-z=-1

-y - 3z =2 y - 2z = -6
z = -1 Z =
27
-

(b) x=1,y=1,z=-1 10
(ii) (a) x+3y+27.=8 11 3 27
,
(b) x=—y=--,z=—
-2y-3z=--11 10 5 10
Z=5 1 1 11
(iii)(a) x+-y--z=--
(b) x=4,y=-2,z=5
(iii)(a) x-2y+z=-2 Y --
11 Z= -
85
7'y -42=3 26 26
y=l z = -3
(1') x=-1,y=1,z=1 (b) x=1,y=2,z=-3
(iv)(a) x+2y+z=2 3 2 21
(iv) (a) x- ---y+ -z= —
-3y - z = 0
y= -1 23 1
(b) x=1,y=-1,z=3 y --z=_-
19 19
5. (1) (a) x+y-z=1 = -1
y
y - 5z =3 (b) x=2,y=-1,z=4
Z= 1 --

(b)

Exercise 9h

1. (a) A - '
= (_ :j (b) B1

= [- 29 29 ]
23 2 3
(c)
c-1
- (d) D1 -
37 37
3_
- 46 37 37
1 5

c:
3
=[7 2 -3)-1 —
14 -—
14
2. (a) (b)
(-6 ;]

(-1 _2_1 ( 6
1_1
(c) (d)
8) = 5) = _2.
4 16 9 9
 Answers

1417 42 3
27 27 29 17 17 17
47 14 10 5 6 9
3. (a) A' = -- - (b) B 1= -- -- ----
81 81 81 17 17 17

27 27 27 34 34 34,

4 7 34 8 2 7
2987 87 39 3939
(c) C-1 = - (d) D 1= - -
29 87 87 3 3 3
6 4 7 5 11 19
2987 87 3939 39

45 18 7 14 17 41
187 187 187 5 15 15
4. (a) --
187
--n-
187
---

187
(b)
5 15 15
40 16 27 24 32 71
187 187 187 5 15 15

1 31
17 34 2 128 256 256
4 6 3 53 27
17 17 1 28 256 256
10 13 1 _J_ _Z 2.
51 102 2 16 32 32

5. (a) x=3,y=2 (b) x=5,y=2 (c) x=2,y=-1 (d) x=2,y=-4

6. (a) x=12,y=2 (b) x=2,y=5 (c) x=12,y=2 (d) x=4,y=1
7. (a) x=2,y=-1,z=5 (b) x=4,y=2,z=1 (c) x=-1,y=3,z=-2 (d) x=-2,y=-3,z=4
8. (a) x=3,y=-1,z=4 (b) x=2,y=-2,z=3 (c) x=-1,y=5,z=-2 (d) x=-2,y=3,z=6
9. (a) x=1,y=-1,z=2 (b) x=-1,y=1,z=-2 (c) x=2,y=-1,z=5 (d) x=-2,y=3,z=-1
10. (a) x=-3,y=2,z=4 (b) x=5,y=-2,z=3 (c) x=4,y=-3,z=2 (d) x=-4,y=3,z=-5

Exercise 9i

4 3 (10 2
1. (a) -~ -- 3. (a)
1 -4
(b) Yes (b) Yes
(c) x=5,y=-2 (c) x=2,y=-4

2. (a) =7#0 4. (a)

(b) Yes (b) Yes
(c) x=-3,y=5
LII}'l Answers

3 5 12. (a) x — 3z = —5
y+2z=4
7 0=0
(ii) x=—,y=2 (b) Yes
(c) (i) x=3X-5,y=4-2?.,z=X
6 —3
5. (a) M =0 (ii) X = - 2,y = 2, z
—12 6
1 1 —1
(ii) 6x - 3y 7
13. (a) (i) 2 1 1 =0

(b) (ii)x=3-2X,y=3X+7,z=X
5 (b) x=3,y=7,z=0
x=,y=1
1 0 3 4

6.(a)
1
_
3
_ 71
9
14. (a) 0 1 —2 9
00 00
0 0 0 (b) (i) x=4-3,y=2?+9,z=X
1 7 (ii) x=1,y=11,z=1
(b) (i) x=X—,y=X
1 —2 3 4
2 15.(a) 0 000
(ii) x=—,y=3
0 0 0 0
—1 1 8 1 x=4+2y-3z
7. (a) —=--;-- # ~ -8
4 —4 —1 4 (b) x=0,y=1,z=2
- (b) No. Inconsistent 2 19
1 0
19 3 9
1 1
8. 16. (a)
0 0 1
00 89 3
0 00 1
9. (a) x—y+z=13
(b) Yes
5 39
1 0 14 1
z=5 17. 0 1 —18 1
(b) Yes 00 03
(c) x=6,y=-2,z=5
103 4
2 4 18. 0 1 0 —8
10. (a) 1 2 -—13 =7 #0 0 0 0 4
3 —1 1
Inconsistent
(b) Yes
5
(c) x=5,y=-2,z=3 1 0 0
1 0 0 —1 19. 5
11.(a) 010 0 0112
0014 0000
(b) Yes
(c) x=-1,y=0,z=4 2 2
20. x=-3,y=11,z=11
 Answers

Exercise 9j )

1. (a) 1 unit2 (b) 191 units2

451
2 2 (b) (5 0 21) 1 3 6
(c) 19 units2 (d) 8 units2 523
2. (a) No (b) Yes (c) No (d) Yes
(c) (32.5 30 12.5)

3 (a) 1 0
9
119
8
1 3225);$5985
]I 150901=(2760 5. (a) (j) 2 4 15
1 3 2 8
or
90 100 4
(19 19 19) 150 = (5 985) 0 1 0 -2
75 001 5

90 80 (iii) (4, -2, 5)

(b) (i) lOx + 30y + 20z = 210
(b) (10 11 9) 150(9- 8 10) 125 = (905); $905
20x + 50y + 60z = 490
75 60
40x + by + 30z = 260
pcv 10 30 20 x 210
W4 51
4. (a) 20 50 60 y = 490
L 1 3 6
40 10 30 z 260
D523
(iii)x= 2, y= 3, z =5

Revision exercise 9
11. (d) Fundamental theorem of algebra
1. (d) 12. (b) parallel lines
5
2. (b) 48 13. (a) (1, -2,3)
3. (c) 42 2 18
x- -y =--
93 14. (c) 5 5
4.(a) 37
55 15. (a)
-16 -3
5. (d) 5 -11
-5 12
6. (c) -31
16. (c) 1x") = i( 3 4
32 -48 -8 y) 11-2 3)-1
7. (b) -12 18 3
2 -3 11-5
20 -30 -5
17. (a) I 2 -1 7
8. (c) l and il
1 4 -5 3
9. (c) I and IV
18. (d) x+y-z=1
10. (b) x-y+z=2
(11 -34
2x -z=4
On Answers

(1 -1 -lLr\ 3. 4 3
19. (b) 2 4 1151 5 5 .5
ti 3 218) 23. (a) (i) A -' = 0 -1 -1
212
20 (c)129 19 63 \
555
30 65 130
328
10 (ii) 44 -1 3
21. (a) System is inconsistent. 0 1

100 1
00
-
33
4 10
33
0 1
11 1
(b) W2 0 -3
-2-13
-45 -4 -7

1 x
y = -16
z
3

15
(b) 0 1 0 2
(iii)x= -2,y= 1,z=4
0 0 1 -1
(c) (ii) x=6-jt-X,y=ji,z=X
System has a unique solution. There is
no row of zeroes. 11 10
x = 1, y = 2, z = -1. 24. (a) 3 1 -1 8
306 2 0 -2 k
22. (a) B= 9 3 -3 111 0
3 -3 3 (b) 0 1 2 -4
[_8 0 0\ 0 0 0 k-8
(b) AB = 0 -8 01 (c) k=8
0 0 -8) (d) x=1,y=2,z=-3

(3 0 6" 1±
(c) A_1=_j9 3 _3 J 25. (a) x=1,
2
8t3 -3 3)
4100
(d) (b) 5 625; $41.00, $56.25, $74.50
7 450
(c) x=30,y=20,z=25

10 Differential equations and modelling

Exercise lOa

Y_=ln(x2+8)+A 2 (a) 5s2 7t3

1. (a) —=--4t+A (I')
2 3 2i
y =±-J,jln(x2 + 8)±A 1
3. (a) y =
3ex+A
(b) L = 2e x 3 + 1 + A
4
(b)
2 x 4. (a) y=lnL—i+A (b) x + in — + A
2 x+3j 1x+21
y =±(7')
 Answers

5. (a) r2 = 10 sec 0 + A A 1 1
(b) In r = -20 cos 28 + sin 20 + A e3 - e 3/ - e
8. y = A 1 = -
or r = e_28c0s2ø1t28+A I
e 3 +e3 x 36+e3t
3x2 3
= Ae 2 x = ex2_1)x 9. y = A sec2 x y = sec x
6. y y
-(x+1nx) -secx -(secx-1)
7. y=Ae 8 y 8 10. y=Ae 2 -1 y=2e 2 -1

Exercise lOb

3ex+ A 6. (a) 3e 2x A (b) 3e 2x +2-3e

1. (a) y = (b) y +A sec x y =__—
= 4x+— x 4x

2e x + A] 1 3
A 7. (a) y = - x cos ec x + A cos ec x
2. (a) y (b) y = 3
1 (8_ 3 ]
A
1 4 (b) y= -x cosecx+I
--ix +A 3 24
3. (a) y=4±— 1-j (b)
1+x 1n+e
Inx+A
_1(41nlsecxl+A 8. (a) y= (b) y=
4. (a) y =tari ex e
- cos x +
9. (a) y=tan'(
2x )
(b) y = _x+In(.e2x +A)
2n -1-cosx\
,

(b) y=tan1t 2x
5. (a) y=e4x+8-i-- )
5x A
5x3+91n8-5
10. (a) y = e 9 (b) y = e
(b) y = x(-4 cos x + A) 9x2

Exercise lOc

(2- x2 ) cos + 2x sin x + A

1. (a) y=x2 (Ax-4) (b) y 3eX±A
e 2x 5. (a) y=
X

(b) y=cosx(A - lnlcosxl)

1 A 3 2x 2 +A
2. (a) y=---+— +- (b) y= -cosx(A+1nsecx)
X x2 2 x+1

2x2 +A t3 A
3. (a) y= e 2x 11. s = —+—
16 t
t3 1
S=—+-
(b) y =A-x+.x1nIxI+1nIxI 16 t
A-2cosO
= sinx+A 12. r =
4. (a) y (b) y = e8 [-e +A] 0
2(ic-1-2cos0)
r=
9
L'IIIi Answers

t3 -3t +3t+A
13. r=02 (A- COS O) 14. s= 15. y=Atant-sect
(t-1) 2
2(36+it_ - 27t 2 -cosO y = (Jsint-1)sect
r=0I t3 -3t2 +3t+3
2ic 2 S=
(t-1) 2

Exercise lOd

1. (a) L=k(80_N) (1,) N =80- A e_kt (c) N=80(1_e_t4)

dt
4
2. (a) XikV5 (b) v=(ktA)5 (c) v=(t +iO5
dt )

3. 4x2 -7y2 =-3

4. (a) I = ---cos t + -'-sint +

50 50 e 4- (b) I = I(3 cost + sin
50
- 3e-3t ) (c) I=
50
(
-3 e 2
)
amperes

1= e7+A I__e_5t(e7t -1)

5. (a) (b) (c) I=(e1° -e 25 )amperes
e 5t
=22.OkA

Exercise lOe

1 3
1. (a) y = Aex + Be 3x (b) y = Ae_5x + Be -2x
(c) y = (A + Bx)e ' (d) y = (A + Bx)e '
(c) y = Ae_X + Be 4x (d) y = Ae_6x + Be 2x
2 1 2 1 6. (a) y (A + Bx)e (b) y = (A + Bx)e
2. (a) y Ae 3 + Be (b) y = Ae 5 + Be3 12
-x -x
3 1 2 1 (c) y -_(A ~ Bx)e (d) y
(c) y = Ae4X + Be 2 (d) y = Ae 5 + Be4
7. (a) y =Ae 2 ' +Be 2 '
(--_-11x 1-_-11x = e 2' (P cos x + Q sin x)
3. (a) y - Ae' '' " +Be" -
(b) y = +
J(J+5)x 1(,j5)x
(b) y = Ae 8 +Be8 = e _x(P COS x+Q sin x )

2.(ji4)x 1(,jTh+4)x (3+Ji )X

(c) y = Ae 3 + Be 3 (c) y=Ae 2 +Be ( 2

3
(2j-3)x 2-(2+3)x -x
(d) y = Ae 5 +Be5 =e 2 sm—
PCOS —x+Q 2 x
( )

4. (a) y=(A+Bx)ex (b) y=(A+Bx)e2x ( )X

()
(d) y=Ae 2 +Be 2
(c) y = (A + Bx) e5x (d) y = (A + B x )e8X
2 e2 P COS x+Qsin—xJ
= 2 2
5. (a) y = (A + Bx)e 2 (b) y = (A + Bx)e 3 (
 Answers 'I

(3+fij'
(3_,fii
_____ )x
1. 1.
1x (c) y = Ae2 + Be 2
8. (a) y=Ae' +Be -'

3
-x /
= p cos x + Q sin 1x
=e4 P Cos x+Qsm—xI 2 2
( 4 4)
5. 5.

x x (d) y = Ae" + Be"

(b) y=Ae ) +Be
2/ =Pcos=x+Qsin=x
=e 3 Pcos x+Qsm—xI
3 3) (5+w (-i,J
5
)X X
(Ei) 10. (a) y = Ae + Be
(c) y = Ae 6 +Be 6

7/ =e4 Icos—x+sin---x
=e 6 Pcos x+Qsm—x
6 6,
(flx ()x
(b) y=Ae +Be
( ± F) ( 1-41-4 Jx
(d) y=Ae +Be 2J+5)x 2,j)x
(c) y = Ae 4 +Be4
[14 44
=e5 Pcos x+Qsm—xI
( 5 5) (_5+iix) (5-iJx
1+L
Be 4
(d) y = Ae ~
9. (a) y = Ae2 + Be_21r
= P cos 2x + Q sin 2x =e Pcos—x+Qsin------x
(b) 3 ix
= P cos 3x + Q sin 3x

Exercise lOf
8. y=Pcos2x+Qsin2x y=cOs2x - 3sinxcosx
• 1. y=Ae -4x
+ Be2x y=e(2e6x+1)
3
9. y=e 2 x 1Pcos--x+Qsm--x
-

3e4+e3x
2. y=Ae_x+Be3x
1+3e
= e e 7x - e 4 y = e 2 cos - x+ sin - x
3. y = A e & + Bex
• e-1
10.
4. y = A e3x+ Bxe3x y = e3x(3 - 5x)

=e3_2)[e3(1_3x)+x_1] y = ex- cosJ(x — it)

'

5. y =Ae3' + Bxe3' y

6. y = A eSx + BxeSx y = e5x(1 - 5x)

7. y=eX(P cos J x +Q sin Jx)

/

LIiJ:I Answers

Exercise log

1
1. (a) y=2 (b) y= 6. (a) y = - - cos x (b) y = -(13 cos x -18 sin x)
2 17

(c) y=-3 (d) (c) y=.-(19 cos 2x-58 sin 2x)

149
7 1 8 47 49 13
2. (a) y=---—x— -- (b) y =—x+--- (d) y=- ---cos 5x- —sin5x
10 100 222 74
5 3 7. (a) y = -cosx
(c) y=---x— — (d) y=-3x+4
1
(b) y=- (19 cos x - 25 sin x)
17 89 34
3
3. (a) y=--x (b) y=x2 +5x+23
-- 1
(c)
1 2 16 83 70 =13
(c) y=—x --x+--- (d) y 2x2 +—x+-
13
5 25 125 3 9
(d) y=(14cos4x+73sin4x)

1 2.
4. (a) y=. (sin x- cos x) (b) y=(smx+3 cos x) 8. (a) y= - e 2,(b) y=_xe_2x

5
(c) (c) y = .xe5x (d) y =
=149 7 15

(d) y= j (cos 3x+ sin 3x) 9. (a) y=x2e2x (b) y = _2 x2e3x

5. (a) y = ---- (cos 3x + 5 sin x) (b) y= -(cos x+ sin x) (c) y = x2e_X (d) y=_x2e
26 8
1 5x (b) yr_xe2
(c) y=-(7cos3x+18sin3x) 10. (a) y=- -xe

2 .j 1
(d) y=(5 cos 4x+7 sin 4x) (c) y=7=xe (d) y=-7=xe 'Ix

Exercise lOh

y=Ae_2x+Be7x 26
hx)_K x+—
1. (a) (c) y=e_x(P cos jx+Q sin
2 3 9
3(
(b) y=(A+Bx)e4X_2 -x JJ .JTi]613
(d) y=e 2 IPcos—x+Qsm x
1 2 2 525
(c) y=ex(Pcosfix+Qsinfix)
4 1 2 - 18 7
3. (a) y__Ae_5x+Bex_ _x —x- —
(d) y=Ae_5x+Be_x+3 5 25 125
1 47 12 8 1
2. (a) y=Ae_7x+Be2x_ _x_ _ (b) y=(A+Bx)e3x+ _x — —x— —
14 196 9 27 9

1
(b) y=(A+Bx)e2X+ _x_ 3
_
24
 Answers al
1 (
/jj 12 7 13
(c) y=e 21
X Pcos—x+Qsm-- x l- - x + -x+—
2 2 ) 4 8 32
3(
J1 1 6 192
(d) yze 21 Pcos—x+Qsm---x l--x +—x+—
2 )7 49 343

4. (a) y = Ae + Be 2x + -(3 cos x + sin x) (b)

(c) y=(A+Bx)ex+(3cos3x_4sin2x) (d) y = e 2 Pcos--x+Qsm----xj-- cos 2x

5. (a) y =Ae' +Be3x + (cos x-2 sin x) (b) y=(A+Bx)e_3x+j(5cos2x+12sin2x)

3x
F7 F7 5
(c) y = e2 Pcos----x+Qsm----x--smxcosx
2 2 ) 3

(d) y =e_X(Pcos2x+Qsin2x)+(2cos3x_3sin3x)

6. (a) y = A e_3 x +Be2 ' --1-(4cosx+3sinx) (b)

338

(c) y =e'(Pcos2x+Qsin2x)(2cos2x9sin2x) (d)

7. (a) y = eX (P cos 2x + Q sin x) - (cos x -3 sin x) (b) y = Ae Ax +BeX +---(7cosx-11sinx)

(c) y _A e_3 x + B e x +-( 4 cos 3x_7 sin 3 x ) (d) y=(A+Bx)e+-(cos4x-8sin4x)

8. (a) y=Aex+Be7x+xe7 (b) y = Ae_6X + B e _X - xe

3 2x
(c) y=Ae+Be2x_ _xe (d) y = Ae_3x + Be5x + xe 3'
8

9. (a) y = (A +Bx ) e _x + 3x 2e _x (b) y=(A+Bx)e2x_x2e2

(c) y = (A + Bx) e_3X +2x 2e -3x (d) y = (A + Bx) e_5 X - x 2e _5 X

10. (a) y A e x + Be _x - 2xe _x (b) y = Ae3X + Be 3 ' - xe3X

(c) y = Ae' + Be - xe" (d) y = Ae' + Be" - fgxe

Im Answers

Exercise lOi

1 x (8
-
14. 8
1. (a) y = e 2 I COS X+ sin +- (b) y=_2ex+.e3x4
2 Tr
3 23
)

5
(c) y=.(5+14x)e_2 (d) y = _ 1e 2 x _e2x+ 3
—

4 4 2

y= 2(3x _4)e x + 3x+ 8 (b) y=e_3x+i-e3x 1 1

2. (a)
27 3 9
1(1 1(5
-x 11.
(c) y=e 2 I -cos---x+---sin—x I-2x- 1
-x 'fi sin
15
(d) y=e2 I4—cos—x+-----
5x 1
—x I----
1 2fi 2 2 2 4,fi 2 ) 2 4

3 - 37 2x 124 59 (b) y=(x_3)e_x+x2_4x+4

3. (a) y=-e +—e --x +-x--
2 54 3 9 27
_(2s 25
(c) y= -e I —cos'ix+---sin -'.hx 1x2+-x+—
4
27 27 9 27

hx _ 7
(d) y = e ' sin..Jx]_x2_4
-X+—
27 cos 9 27

1 X-n 7 3x-3n 3 3 12 16
4. (a) y = -e +—e +-cosx+—smx (b) y = + — cos x - sin x
4 20 5 10 25 5 25 25

1 x--it 12 9
(c) y = (24 + 5 ic)eX 2 --Xe 2 +— COS 2x sin 2x
50 5 25 25
9 x-i
(d) y - X+lC+ e +'cos3x+---sin3x
10 15 15

5. (a) y=_4(m_x)ex_x+2sinx 9
(b) y =e2 x_2 Th _ex_x - —
3 cos X + — Sin X
2 10 10

7c 6 6 24
(c) y = —ex-2 I — cos 2x - 10 sin 2x + cos 2x - — sin 2x
17 17 ) 17 17

(d)
17 289 289 289
1
6. (a) y = 4e -x+it - ----e -2x-i-2x --cosx+-smx
5 5 5
9
(b) y = (99- 565)e 33 + 113 xe33 - 1 — cos x + — sin x
10 50 25
1 3
-x+- 1I( 7 1
(c) y= -e I —cosx+----sinx)--- cos2x sin2x
5 lo 10

11 x-1t 17 2x_llt 31 53
(d) y=j-e 6 +—cos3x--sin 3x
13 130 130
 Answers

1
4 1 . 1 x It x-1t
-x+it e4_4it +—cosx--sinx (b) y=-(4-9ic)e 2 +—xe 2 +—cosx+smx
7. (a) y=e 4 2 2
85 17 17
6 17
(c) y i(31_90 7t)e _x +2-xe_X - — cos 2x - — sin 2x
25 5 25 25

5 23 6 22
(d) y=—e 6 +—e 6 +—cos3x+—sin3x
39 15 65 65
11 -& 203 2x 3 -6x (b) y = -15e + 19e_3 x + 2xe_3 x
8. (a) y= -- e + — e --xe
64 64 8
1 5x
5 2x 34x 5 4x (d) 4X
v=-e5 X -- e - --xe
(c) y= — e + — e --Xe 9 9 3
4 4 2

9. (a) y 3(1 + x)ex + x 2eX (b) y = (1 + 5x)e_2x + 2x2e_5 x

2

(c) y = 2(1 - x)e3x - x2e3X (d) y = (3 + 13x)e --x 2e

2
3 11 5 13 -2x +35
- e2x
10. (a) Y =--e -x +—e x - - xe_X (b) y = -e
16 16 4
xe
4 4 2
(s,j -3 + + 2xe
(c) = e e
6 ] 6,r3 +

Exercise 1Oj -

1. y=x(1-lnx-A)
9. (b) W = Ae +B cos3x+sth3x
--
2. y = x tan (in x + A) 15 15
1 3it72 4
3. Y
x(51nx+A) (ii) y= -- e 3 +—+ — cos3x+ — sin 3x
5 3 15 15
( 2
-it
4. y=jx-A) ii
-- 9e 3 -2cos3x-4sin3x-35
5. (b) W y = Ax 2 + Bx + 2x3 15 ]
(ii) y_--x2+x+2x3 4 8
-in 11= --fl+- 2 --x
5 25
6. (b) (i) y = Ax + Bx' - x 2 1584 2 8
33-5x+—+-x --x
(ii) y=--e
125 125 5 25
y= 2 -x +x1 _x2 =(x -x 2 +7x) = i_ (1ox 2 - 40x - 33e -5x + 158)
125
7. (b) (i) y = Ax 3 + Bx 3 In x + 5x2
(ii) y = -3x3 + 5x2

8. (1) (i) y = Ae2x + B - cos 4x - sin 4x

1 2x1it 3 1 1
(ii) y=—e 2 +---cos4x--sin4x
4 24 8
 Answers

Exercise 10k

1. (a) h -PcosJt+Qsins/t (b)

2. (a) 0 = A e_t + Be 4t (b) 0 = _2 e_t + 2e"

3. (a) T = e_t(P cos 2t + Q sin t) + 300
(b) (i) 300°C
(ii) T = _e_t (270 cos 2t + 110 sin 2t) + 300
7 16
4. (a) x=Ae_3t+Be_t+t_2 (b) x = e_ 3t + lOe_t +-t-- --

5. (a) (b)
160 80 160 80
1 (-1-5 000t)el0000t 1 -5 00 0t
6. (a) q = ( A+Bt)(e_100t + 25000e -5000t (b) q= +
) 25000 25000

7. (a) h = P cos 6t + Q sin 6t (b) h=cos6x+ sin 6x

8. (a) h = A e t + Bet (b) h = _--e _3t +iet = .-e_3t(e4t 1)

9. (a) i = (A + Bt)e_t + 8 (b) i = (-8 - 800t) e _t + 8

10. (a) i = e _bOOt(P cos 300t + Q sin 300t) + 3 cos 200t + 2 sin 200t

(b) i = e _lOt (-_3 cos 300t - sin 300t) + 3 cos 200t + 2 sin 200t

Revision exercise 10

dV - 11
x+--

1. (d) —= k 10. (c) y=e2 2

dt
1n3 11. (b) y__(x+A)e_5X
2. (b)
3
12. (a) y = 2x(x2 +13 )
3. (a) y = 8e 2
4. (c) 7et 13. (d) y = Ae_5x + Be'

- 14. (b) y = (A + Bx) e

5. (b)
4
15. (a) y = e_2x (A 2x + B sin 2x)
6. (a) M =3(2 2 )
16. (d) = (37e10x +33)
y
7. (b)
1n2
17. (a) y=Ae+Be_x+cosx+2sinx
8. (c) 6000

9. (d) -1n2 18. (b) y = A e2 x +Be -2x +-xe 2x

4
 Answers

19. (c) y=1e3(2x+e2x+3)

20. (a) y e_X_2 [2e 2X+2 - x + 3e2 (x +2)]

432
21. (a) y=A sin x+x 2 sin x (b) A =—
16

22. (a) (1) y =e_t(Pcos2t+Qsin2t) (ii) yp =-- sin 2t— cos 2t

17 17
12 _(46 . H2 cos 2t + sin 2t
(b) y =e_t(Pcos2t+Qsin2t)__cos 2t___sin 2t (c) y = e - cos 2t + sin 2t
17 17 17 17 7 17

23. (a) m = 2(2 000— 5t) + C(2 000— 5t) 1° (b) 1757.4 kg

= 2(2 000-5t)-3 80012 000-5t'°

2000 )
1957.4 kg

1 lnx
24. (a) y=Ax— -- ---
4x 2x
(b) (i) y = —2cosx—sinx; m = —2 and n = —1 (ii) y= A e_+Be3 c_2 cos x_ sin x

1e 3x 1 3
25. (a) W y = Ae' + - (ii) y = Ae' + - e
2 4

(b) (i) y = A ex + B e_x —3x-1 (ii) y= Pcosx-i-Qsinx+3x+1

(c) (i) y= A ex + B e__3 x 2 _7 (ii) y=Pcosx+Qsinx+3x2 -5

(d) (i) y= A ex + B e_x —2x3 —12x-1 (ii) y =Pcosx+Qsinx+2x3 —12x+1

. 1
3x
(e) (1) y = A ex +Be_x+e3x (ii) y = Pcosx+Q sin x + - e
8 10

1 sin x . 1
(f) (i) y = A e X + Be _X (ii) y = P cos x + Q Sm x - - x cos x
2 2

= A ex + Be' -
1
(g) W cos x (ii) y = P cos x + Q Sin X + - X sm x
2 2
1 1 2 1
(h) (i) y=Aex+Be_x_ _cosx_ _
1 x sin x (ii) y—P cos x+Q sin x— —x cosx+ —xsinx
2 2 4 4

1 1 1 12.
(i) (1) y=Ae'-i- Be ` --xcosx+—sinx (ii) y—P cos x+Q sin x+— xcosx+— x smx
2 2 4 4
1 2 1 1
y = Ae' + Be_x - x cos x - - x sm x + 1 sin x (ii)
1 2sinx
y=Pcosx+Qsmx--x cosx+—xcosx+—x
(j) (I) 6 4 4
2 2
12 1 .
(k) (i) y=Ae+Be_x_ _1 x 2cosx+ 1
—cosx+xsinx (ii) y=Pcosx+Qsinx+—x cosx+ —x
1 3 sin x— —xsmx
2 2 4 6 4
 Index
A coefficient of given term, 410-412
Addition of complex numbers, 14 complex number, 415
Addition principles of counting constant term, 410-412
definition, 511 partial fractions, 435-443
examples, 512 validity of, 419-429
extended, 513 Binomial series expansion, 417-418
Addition rule for probability, 563 Binomial theorem
Adjoint of matrix, 640 principle of mathematical induction,
Approximations 405-406
binomial expansion, 419-429 product expansion, 413-414
irrational number, 429-435 statement of, 403-404
Argand diagram trinomial expansion, 414-415
addition of vectors, 40-42 Boundary value problems
Cartesian form, 24-25 exact differential equation, 716-717
conjugates, 26-38 first order linear ordinary differential equation,
definition, 24 723-725
division of vectors, 48-51 second order differential equation, 743-747
inequalities, 74-78 Box method, permutations, 517
multiplication of vectors, 43-45
polar form, 25-26 C
product of complex numbers, polar form, 45-48 Cartesian form
quotient of complex numbers, polar form, Argand diagram, 24-25
48-51 Chain rule
subtraction of vectors, 42-43 definition, 113
Arithmetic progression, 339 extended, 147-150
Arithmetic sequence Circular permutations
example of, 339-340 definition, 537
inductive definition of, 338-339 examples, 537-539
Arithmetic series Cofactor, 634
definition, 339 Combination
divergence of, 341-342 definition, 543
example of, 340-341 examples, 544-550
Augumented matrix probability and, 590-592
inverse of matrix, 662 Combinations of functions, 150-152
row reduction, 666-671 extended chain rule, 147-150
Commutative property, partial derivatives, 183
B Complement rule, probability, 556
Binomial expansion, 403 Complex coefficients, quadratic equation,
approximations of, 419-429 21-22
LJ[i Index

Complex conjugates D
complex roots, 9-10 Decomposing partial fractions, 204
product of pair, 16-17 De Moivre's theorem
Complex numbers examples, 84-90
addition of, 14 integration by parts, 264-265
algebraic operations, 14-22 proof, 83-84
binomial expansion, 415 statement, 83
conjugate pairs of complex roots, 9-10 Dependent events, 566-571
definition, 7 Determinants
discriminant, 8-9 of matrix, 631-633
division of, 18-20 cofactor, 634
equality of, 13 minors, 633
Euler's formula, 92-94 properties, 631-632
exponential form of, 94-96 system of linear equations
multiplication of, 15-17 three unknowns, 650-653
as point, Cartesian form, 24-25 two unknowns, 648-650
quadratic equation, complex coefficients, Differential equation
21-22 definition of, 709
set of, 7 degree of, 709
square roots of, 20-21 example of, 710
subtraction of, 14-15 first order linear ordinary
sums and product of roots, quadratic equation, applications, 731-734
11-13 boundary value problem, 723-725
as vector, polar form, 25-26 examples of, 722-723
Compound event, 553 general form of, 710, 719
Conditional probability separable differential equation, 727-731
definition, 567 solving, 720-722
examples, 567-571 substitution method, 775-776
possible outcomes, 571 order of, 709
Constant function ordinary, 709
non-homogeneous linear equations, 757-758 second order linear ordinary
particular integral of differential equation, applications, 782-787
748-749 boundary value problems, 743-747
Constant term, binomial expansion, 410-412 with conditions, 765-772
Convergence of geometric series, 344-345 general form of, 710, 735
Convergent sequence, 312-313 homogeneous linear equations,
Counting 735-736
addition principles initial value problems, 743-747
definition, 511 substitution method, 777-780
examples, 512 two complex roots, 739-741
extended addition principles, 513 two real and distinct roots, 736-737
extended multiplication principle two real and equal roots, 738-739
definition, 514 separable, 710-712
examples, 515 substitution
multiplication principle first order ordinary differential equation,
definition, 513 775-776
examples, 513-514 second order ordinary differential equation,
Cramer's rule, 648, 651 777-780
 cyn z 917 H

Differentiation Explicit formula and recurrence relations, 321-322

combinations of functions, 150-152 Explicity function, 139
extended chain rule, 147-150 Exponential form, complex numbers, 94-96
exponential function, 111-120 Exponential functions
first partial derivatives derivative of, 111-112
continuous function, 179 differentiation, 111-120
first principles, 179 integration, 238-239
limit, 179 non-homogeneous linear equations, 761-763
partial derivatives, 180-181 particular integral of differential equation,
implicit, 139-144 752-755
inverse trigonometric functions, 154-162 second derivative of functions, 167-168
logarithmic function, 121-130 Extended addition principles, 513
parametric equations, 132-133 Extended chain rule, 147-150
second derivative of functions Extended multiplication principle
exponential functions, 167-168 definition, 514
higher derivatives, 164 examples, 515
implicit functions, 170-174
logarithmic functions, 168 F
parametric functions, 169-170 Factorial n
polynomial functions, 164-165 examples of, 394-395
trigonometric functions, 165-167 mathematical induction applications, 379-383
second partial derivatives, 183-189 meaning and properties, 393
Discriminant, 8-9 Finitely oscillating sequence, 315
Distinct linear factors, 204-210 Finite sequence, 309
Distinct quadratic factors, 212-215, 270-273 Finite series, 331-332
Divergence First order linear ordinary differential equation
of arithmetic series, 341-342 applications, 731-734
of geometric series, 344-345 boundary value problem, 723-725
of sequence, 313-314 examples of, 722-723
Division of complex numbers, 18-20 general form of, 710, 719
separable differential equation, 727-731
E solving, 720-722
Elementary row operations, 665-666 substitution method, 775-776
Eulers formula, 92-94 First partial derivatives
Event, probability continuous function, 179
compound, 553 first principles, 179
dependent, 566-571 limit, 179
does not happen, 556 partial derivatives, 180-181
independent, 564-566 Fixed point iteration
mutually exclusive, 562-564 description, 491
non-mutually exclusive, 557-561 examples, 492-496
simple, 553 Fundamental counting principle, 513
Exact differential equation
boundary value problem, 716-717 G
example of, 716 Gaussian elimination
general solution, 715-716 system of linear equations, 658-661
Expansion of product, 413-414 Geometric progression, 342
Experiment, 552 Geometric sequence, 342-344
LH:I Index

Geometric series trigonometric functions

convergence of, 344-345 basic functions, 229-230
definition of, 342 even powers of sin x, cos x and tan x, 230-231
divergence of, 344-345 integrals of tan x, sec x, cot x and cosec x, 234
examples of, 342-344 odd powers of sin x, cos x and tan x, 231-233
infinite, 345-347 product of the form sin mx cos nx, 233
Intermediate value theorem (IVT)
H definition of, 455
Higher derivatives, 164 fixed point iteration
Homogeneous linear equations, 735-736 description, 491
examples, 492-496
I interval bisection
Imaginary numbers examples, 463-468
definition, 3-4 statement, 463
properties and operations, 5-6 linear interpolation, 469-475
Imaginary unit (i), powers of, 4-5 derivation, 469-470
Implicit differentiation, 139-144 examples, 470-475
Implicit function, 139 statement, 469
Improper fraction, 203-204 locating root of equation, 455-461
Independent events, 564-566 Newton-Raphson method
Inductive definition, sequence, 310 examples, 478-489
Inequalities, 74-78 formula, 477
Infinite geometric series, 345-347 statement, 476
Infinitely oscillating sequence, 316-317 Intersecting loci, 69-74
Infinite sequence, 310 Interval bisection
Infinite series, 332 examples, 463-468
Integration statement, 463
exponential function, 238-239 Inverse of matrix
inverse trigonometric functions, non-singular, 639, 642-646
273-275 adjoint of matrix, 640
integrals involving, 266-270 multiplicative, 640-641
partial fractions, distinct quadratic factors, properties, 646
270-273 row reduction, 662-665
repeated quadratic factors, partial fractions, augumented matrix, 662
275-276 elementary row operations, 665-666
logarithmic function, 240-242 system of linear equations, 654-656
by parts Inverse trigonometric functions
examples, 256-264 differentiation, 154-162
explanation, 255 integration, 273-275
using De Moivre's theorem, 264-265 integrals involving, 266-270
rational function partial fractions, distinct quadratic factors,
description, 221-222 270-273
examples, 222-225 repeated quadratic factors, partial fractions,
repeated linear factors, 226-227 275-276
reduction formula Irrational number, approximate value, 429-435
definition, 278 Iterative method
examples, 279-286 fixed point iteration, 491-496
by substitution, 243-251 Newton-Raphson method, 476-489
trapezium rule, 288-291 IVT. See Intermediate value theorem
 Index

L Method of differences, 352-359

Limit of sequence, 312 Method of substitution, 243-251
Linear equations Method of undetermined coefficients, 758
homogeneous, 735-736 Minors, 633
non-homogeneous Multiplication of complex numbers, 15-17
constant function, 757-758 Multiplication principle of counting
exponential function, 761-763 definition, 513
general solution, 757 examples, 513-514
polynomial function, 758-760 extended, 514-515
trigonometric function, 760-761 tree diagram, 514
Linear factors Multiplicative inverse of non-singular matrix,
distinct, 204-210 640-641
repeated, 210-212 Mutually exclusive event, 562-564
Linear interpolation
derivation, 469-470 N
examples, 470-475 Newton-Raphson method
statement, 469 examples, 478-489
Loci, complex plane, 56-68 formula, 477
intersecting, 69-74 statement, 476
Logarithmic functions n Factorials
derivative of, 121-123 examples of, 394-395
differentiation, 121-130 mathematical inductionapplications, 379-383
integration, 240-242 meaning and properties, 393
second derivative of functions, 168 Non-convergent sequence, 313
Non-homogeneous linear equations
M constant function, 757-758
Maclaurin series, 374-377 exponential function, 761-763
Mathematical induction general solution, 757
applications polynomial function, 758-760
factorials, 379-383 trigonometric function, 760-761
series, 379-383 Non-mutually exclusive event, 57-561
sequence, 319-322 Non-singular matrix
Matrix definition, 637
applications examples, 638
area of triangle, 690 inverse, 639, 642-646
collinear points, 690-691 adjoint of matrix, 640
total cost, 691 multiplicative, 640-641
augumented, 662 properties, 646
determinant of, 631-633
0
cofactor, 634
Oscillating sequence
minors, 633
finitely, 315
properties, 631-632
finitely, 316-317
infinitely,
Outcomes, 552-553
definition, 637
examples, 638 P
singular Parametric equations
definition, 637 differentiation, 132-133
examples, 638 equations of normals, 135-138
transpose of, 625-627 equations of tangents, 135-138
M1 Index

Parametric functions, second derivative of Polynomial functions

functions, 169-170 non-homogeneous linear equations, 758-760
Partial fractions particular integral of differential equation,
and binomial expansion, 435-443 749-750
decomposing, 204 second derivative of functions, 164-165
distinct linear factors, 204-210 Probability
distinct quadratic factors, 212-215, addition rule for, 563
270-273 and combinations, 590-592
improper fraction, 203-204 complement rule, 556
inverse trigonometric functions, conditional
270-273 definition, 567
proper fraction, 203-204 examples, 567-571
rational function, 203 possible outcomes, 571
repeated linear factors, 210-212 dependent events, 566-571
repeated quadratic factors, 216-219, event does not happen, 556
275-276 experiment, 552
Partial sum of series, 332-333 independent events, 564-566
Particular integral of differential equation mutually exclusive event, 562-564
constant function, 748-749 non-mutually exclusive event, 557-561
exponential function, 752-755 outcomes, 552-553
polynomial function, 749-750 and permutations, 586-589
trigonometric function, 750-752 sample space, 552
Pascal's triangle, 400-402 simple event, 553
Periodic sequence, 314-315 theoretical, 553-555
Permutations total, 555-556
box method, 517 tree diagram, 571-578
circular Probability scale, 553
definition, 537 Product expansion, 413-414
examples, 537-539 Proper fraction, 203-204
definition, 516
distinct objects taken n at a time, Q
518-519 Quadratic equation
distinct objects taken r at a time with no complex coefficients, 21-22
repetitions, 519-522 sums and product of roots, 11-13
distinct objects taken r at a time with Quadratic factors
repetitions, 522-523 distinct, 212-215
examples, 516-518 repeated, 216-219
identical objects, 523-524
identical objects and restrictions R
objects kept apart, 531-535 Random experiments. See Statistical experiments
objects kept together, 529-530 Rational function
objects restricted to ends, 535-537 definition, 203
and probability, 586-589 integration
restrictions, 524-529 description, 221-222
tree diagram, 517 examples, 222-225
Polar form repeated linear factors, 226-227
Argand diagram, 25-26 Recurrence relations
product of complex numbers, 45-48 and explicit formula, 321-322
quotient of complex numbers, 48-51 sequence, 310-312
 Index

Reduction formula definition, 309

definition, 278 divergent, 313-314
examples, 279-286 finite, 309
Repeated linear factors geometric, 342-344
integration of rational function, 226-227 inductive definition, 310
partial fractions, 210-212 infinite, 310
Repeated quadratic factors, 216-219, 275-276 limit of, 312
Roots of equation, locating, 455-461 mathematical induction applications, 319-322
Row echelon form, 658-661 non-convergent, 313
Row reduction oscillating, 315-317
augumented matrix, 666-671 periodic, 314-315
inverse of matrix, 662-665 recurrence relations, 310-312
augumented matrix, 662 sum of n terms, 319-321
elementary row operations, 665-666 Series. See also Arithmetic series; Geometric series
definition of, 331
S examples of, 333-336
Sample space, 552 finite, 331-332
Second derivative of functions infinite, 332
exponential functions, 167-168 Maclaurin, 374-377
higher derivatives, 164 mathematical induction applications, 379-383
implicit functions, 170-174 method of differences, 352-359
logarithmic functions, 168 partial sum of, 332-333
parametric functions, 169-170 Taylor, 361-372
polynomial functions, 164-165 Simple event, 553
trigonometric functions, 165-167 Singular matrix
Second order linear ordinary differential equation definition, 637
applications, 782-787 examples, 638
boundary value problems, 743-747 Statistical experiments, 552
with conditions, 765-772 Substitution method
general form of, 710, 735 differential equation
homogeneous linear equations, 735-736 first order ordinary, 775-776
initial value problems, 743-747 second order ordinary, 777-780
substitution method, 777-780 integration, 243-251
two complex roots, 739-741 Subtraction of complex numbers, 14-15
two real and distinct roots, 736-737 Summation notation, 331
two real and equal roots, 738-739 System of linear equations
Second order nonhomogeneous linear ordinary consistency, three linear equations in three
differential equation, 735 unknowns, 679
Second partial derivatives, 183-189 infinite number of solutions, 683-686
Separable differential equation no solutions, 686-687
examples of, 711-712 one solutions, 679-682
first order linear differential equation, 727-731 consistency, two linear equations in two
general solution, 710 unknowns, 673
variables initial value problem, 712-714 infinite number of solution, 675-678
Sequence no solutions, 678-679
arithmetic one solution, 673-675
example, 339-340 determinants
inductive definition, 338-339 three unknowns, 650-653
convergent, 312-313 two unknowns, 648-650
L?I Index

Gaussian elimination, 658-661 integrals of tan x, sec x, cot x and cosec x,

inverse, 654-656 234
row echelon form, 658-661 odd powers of sin x, cos x and tan x,
row reduction, augumented matrix, 666-671 231-233
product of the form sin mx cos nx, 233
T inverse, 154-162
Taylor series, 361-372 non-homogeneous linear equations,
Taylor's theorem, 361-372 760-761
Theoretical probability. 553-555 particular integral of differential equation,
Total probability. 555 750-752
Trapezium rule, 288-291 second derivative of functions,
Tree diagram 165-167
multiplication principle of counting, 514 Trinomial expansion, 414-415
permutations, 517
probability, 571-578 U
Trigonometric functions Undetermined coefficients, 758
integration
basic functions, 229-230 V
even powers of sin x, cos x and tan x, 230-231 Validity, binomial expansion, 419-429