PHYSICAL &

CHEMICAL
CHANGE

1
Introduction

Change occurs in matter every day. Iron rusts, a pool of water evaporates, meat is
roasted and milk turns sour. Which of these changes are physical? And which are
due to chemical reactions taking place?

Before we can understand these changes we must know the Kinetic Theory of
Matter

• Matter consists of particles (atoms, molecules or ions) which are in constant

motion.
• The particles possess kinetic energy due to their constant motion.
• The particles possess potential energy because they stay separate despite
the attractive forces between them.
• The temperature of a substance is a measure of the average kinetic energy
of its particles.
• Empty spaces exist between the particles.
• Both attractive and repulsive forces exist between particles.
• Particles of matter collide with each other and against the sides of the
container.

Physical Change

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Physical Change in terms of Microscopic Properties

A physical change occurs when a substance changes phase. No new substances

form during physical changes. A rearrangement of the molecules of a substance
occurs during physical change.

When matter undergoes physical change:

• a phase change occurs and particles of the substance either separate or
come closer together;
• if a substance melts, evaporates, or sublimes, disordering of molecules
occurs due to the intermolecular forces of the substance being overcome;
• the energy change is small (because only intermolecular forces are formed
or overcome) in relation to energy changes associated with the chemical
change of a substance (because in this case intramolecular bonds break or
form);
• the mass and numbers of atoms and molecules of a substance is conserved.

Line Graph showing the change in temperature during a phase change for any given
substance

boiling
point

melting
point

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If energy is transferred to a substance as heat, this causes the molecules to move
more vigorously. In solids, for example, the vibration of the atoms increases as a
result. In liquids and gases, the transferred heat increases the kinetic energy and
thus the speed of the molecules. Since the temperature of a substance is a measure
of the average kinetic energy of the molecules, this explains the generally
observable increase in temperature when heat is supplied to a substance.

During a phase change, the supplied energy is not used to increase/decrease the
kinetic energy of the molecules and so it is observed that the temperature remains
constant during a phase change. The energy that is changing during a phase
change is potential energy. During a phase change, the heat added (potential energy
of the molecules increases) or released (potential energy of the molecules
decreases) will allow the molecules to move apart or come together. Heat absorbed
causes the molecules to move farther apart by overcoming the intermolecular forces
of attraction. Heat released causes the molecules to come closer together thus
allowing for intermolecular forces of attraction to become more significant.

Boiling point is defined as the temperature at which the vapour pressure of a

substance equals the atmospheric pressure. More simply stated; the temperature at
which a substance boils.

Since atmospheric pressure changes with an increase in altitude, the boiling point of
a substance will change with an increase in altitude too and thus the boiling points of
substances are given for the atmospheric pressure at sea level which is called
standard atmospheric pressure and has a value of 101,325 kPa (1 atmosphere = 1
bar = 760 mm Hg).

Melting point is defined as the temperature at which a solid substance melts,

especially under a pressure of 1 atmosphere; fusing point.

Different substances have different melting points. Tungsten has the highest melting
point of all metallic substances. This property has made tungsten useful as the
filament of incandescent bulbs.

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 Chemical Change

New substances are formed during chemical changes.

Chemical bonds exist between the atoms or ions of molecules / pure substances.
When a chemical change takes place, the bonds between the atoms of the reacting
molecules / substances must be broken. A large energy change occurs.

Let’s look at the energy changes that occur in reaction between hydrogen gas and
oxygen gas to produce a new substance, namely water: 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O

activated complex –
H and O atoms

activation energy (EA) =

energy absorbed to break
covalent bond (intramolecular
bond) between O atoms in energy released when H
the O2 molecule and O atoms bond
+ covalently to form an
energy absorbed to break H2O molecule
covalent bond (intramolecular
bond) between H atoms in the
H2 molecule
H2 and O2 molecules
Reacting
molecules
(reactants)

∆H (heat of the reaction / energy change / enthalpy) =

total energy absorbed – total energy released OR
potential energy of products – potential energy of reactants H2O molecules
(products)

Activation energy is defined as the minimum energy required to start a chemical

reaction OR the energy required to form the activated complex.

The activated complex is defined as a high energy, unstable, temporary transition

state between the reactants and the products

Note:

• The original substances of a chemical change which were added together in

the beginning are called reactants.

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 • The new substance/s formed are called the product/s.

• The chemical change is called a chemical reaction.

(In the above example: 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O )

• When a chemical change takes place, mass and atoms are conserved but the
number of molecules are not.

Let’s look at the energy changes that occur in reaction where mercuric oxide
undergoes thermal decomposition to form mercury metal and oxygen gas:
2HgO → 2Hg + O2

activated complex – Hg Hg
O O
Hg and O atoms

energy released when Hg

atoms undergo metallic
activation energy (EA) =
bonding to form Hg
energy absorbed to break
metal and O atoms bond
ionic bond (intramolecular
covalently to form O2 gas
bond) between Hg atoms and
O atoms in the HgO molecule
Hg
O
Hg
O

Hg metal and O2 gas

(products)

∆H (heat of the reaction / energy change / enthalpy) =

HgO molecules
total energy absorbed – total energy released OR
Reacting Hg O Hg O potential energy of products – potential energy of reactants
molecules
(reactants)

CONSERVATION OF ENERGY DURING CHEMICAL CHANGES

• Energy cannot be created or destroyed but may be transferred or converted

from one form to another.

• The energy change during a chemical reaction is the difference between the
energy input required to break the chemical bonds and the energy transferred
to the surroundings when the bonds of the product molecules form.

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• Heat of reaction (H) is defined as the net change of chemical potential
energy of the system.

• If during the reaction energy is released (the potential energy of the products
is less than the potential energy of the reactants), the reaction is described as
exothermic. There is an increase in the temperature of the reaction mixture.
H < 0 (−H)

• Exothermic reactions are defined as reactions which transform chemical

potential energy into thermal energy

• If during the reaction energy is absorbed (the potential energy of the products
is greater than the potential energy of the reactants), the reaction is described
as endothermic. There is a decrease in the temperature of the reaction
mixture. H > 0 (+H)

• Endothermic reactions are defined as reactions which transform thermal

energy into chemical potential energy

• Bond breaking is an endothermic process and bond formation is an

exothermic process.

• A stronger bond requires more energy to break and releases more energy
when formed.

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The two reactions that we have looked at may be represented graphically as shown
below:

Potential Energy vs Course of reaction Graph for

the reaction:
2H2 + O2 → 2H2O

activated complex: H + H + H + H + O + O

EA (activation energy)

Ep
2H2 + O2
H

2H2O

Course of reaction

Potential Energy vs Course of reaction Graph for

the reaction:
2HgO → 2Hg + O2

activated complex: Hg + Hg + O + O

EA (activation energy)

2Hg + O2
Ep
H

2HgO

Course of reaction

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EXAMPLES OF CHEMICAL CHANGES

SYNTHESIS REACTIONS

Synthesis means “putting together”.

A synthesis reaction is the formation of a compound from simpler compounds

or from its elements.

Examples:

When magnesium is burned in oxygen the compound magnesium oxide is

synthesised. Energy is released in the form of heat and an intense white light during
the burning.

2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s) (exothermic reaction)

Synthesis reactions are not all necessarily exothermic reactions.

Photosynthesis, for example, in which carbon dioxide and water molecules combine
to synthesise glucose (natural plant “food”) molecules, is an endothermic reaction
which uses sunlight as its source of energy. The simplified equation for the
photosynthesis reaction is:

6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2 (endothermic reaction)

DECOMPOSITION REACTIONS

A decomposition reaction is the breaking down of a chemical compound into

simpler compounds or elements.

Examples:

Many decomposition reactions are endothermic. For example, when strongly heated,
potassium chlorate breaks down into potassium chloride and oxygen gas. This
reaction may be catalysed (sped up) using manganese dioxide (MnO 2).

MnO2
2KCℓO3(s) → 2KCℓ(s) + 3O2(g) (endothermic reaction)
∆

Not all decomposition reactions are endothermic. For example, when the catalyst
potassium iodide is added to hydrogen peroxide, the hydrogen peroxide breaks
down into water and oxygen gas in an exothermic reaction. The equation for the
reaction is:

KI
2H2O2(ℓ) → 2H2O(ℓ) + O2(g) (exothermic reaction)

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REVERSIBILITY OF CHEMICAL CHANGE

Chemical changes are reversible but because of the large amounts of energy
involved, the reversal of a reaction is often difficult to achieve practically in the
laboratory (but is often achieved in industrial chemical reactors) − unlike the reversal
of a physical change.

CONSERVATION OF ATOMS AND MASS, BUT NOT OF MOLECULES, DURING

CHEMICAL CHANGE

CONSERVATION OF ATOMS

In any chemical reaction atoms can neither be created nor destroyed. The total
number of atoms in the reaction remains constant. i.e. The number of atoms is
conserved in any chemical reaction.

Example:

2Mg + O2 → 2MgO
2 atoms of Mg + 2 atoms of O → 2 atoms of Mg + 2 atoms of O
4 atoms → 4 atoms

CONSERVATION OF MASS

The Law of Conservation of Mass: In any chemical reaction mass can neither be
created nor destroyed. i.e. The total mass in the reaction remains constant.

Example:

2Mg + O2 → 2MgO

Substituting relative atomic masses:

2 x (24,3) + 2 x (16) → 2(24,3 + 16)

80,3 → 80,3

NON-CONSERVATION OF MOLECULES

The numbers of molecules in a chemical reaction are often not conserved. i.e. The
total number of molecules of reactants may differ from the total number of molecules
of products.

Examples:

3H2 + N2 → 2NH3
3 molecules of H2 + 1 molecule of N2 → 2 molecules of ammonia
4 molecules → 2 molecules

2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
2 molecules of H2 + 1 molecule of O2 → 2 molecules of water
3 molecules → 2 molecules

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WORKSHEET ON PHYSICAL & CHEMICAL CHANGE

1) Outline the kinetic theory of matter.

2) What can be deduced from the temperature of a substance?

3) Briefly explain the following physical changes on a microscopic level (explain in terms
of the movement of the particles):

3.1) the melting of ice;

3.2) the boiling of water.

4) Naphthalene is the fragrant crystalline solid used as an insect repellent in mothballs.

A small amount of naphthalene is melted in a test tube, and its temperature is taken
at 1 minute intervals as it cools for 16 minutes. The results are shown below.

Time
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
(minutes)
Temperature
96 89 85 82 81 80 80 80 80 80 79 79 76 72 69 65 60
(0C)

4.1) The melting point of a substance is that steady temperature at which the
substance changes state from solid to liquid or vice versa. What is the melting
point of naphthalene (in 0C)?

4.2) How long does it take (to the nearest minute) for this sample of naphthalene
to freeze (solidify)?

4.3) What changes take place in the motion of the particles as naphthalene fuses
to form its solid?

4.4) What changes take place in the position of the particles as naphthalene fuses
to form its solid?

4.5) Is heat energy transferred to the surroundings when a liquid changes to its
solid? Explain briefly.

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5) Distinguish between an exothermic and an endothermic reaction.

6) Are the following reactions (or changes) exothermic or endothermic?

6.1) Magnesium ribbon burns in oxygen.

6.2) Perfume that evaporates from your skin.
6.3) Plaster mixes with water.
6.4) Water is boiled to make coffee.
6.5) An acid neutralizes a base.

7) Zinc reacts spontaneously with copper(II) sulphate to produce copper metal and
zinc(II) sulphate solution.

7.1) Write a balanced chemical equation for this reaction.

7.2) Is this an endo- or exothermic reaction? Give a reason for your answer.
7.3) Draw a Potential Energy vs Course of Reaction graph for this reaction. Labe
the following on your graph:
• Axis
• Reactants
• Products
• Activation energy (EA)
• Activated complex
• Energy change (H)

8) Hydrogen gas reacts with chlorine gas to produce hydrogen chloride gas. The
equation for the chemical change (chemical reaction) which takes place, is shown
using Couper notation as:

H)H + Cl)Cl → H)Cl + H)Cl

8.1) In the abovementioned equation, what are the substances on the left hand
side of the arrow, ie: that were added together to react, called?

8.2) In the abovementioned equation, what are the substances on the right hand
side of the arrow, ie: the newly formed substances, called?

8.3) What is the meaning of the arrow (→) in the equation?

8.4) Rewrite the equation and circle the bond(s) that is/are broken during the
chemical change. Name this/these bond(s).

8.5) Rewrite the equation and circle the bond(s) that is/are formed during the
chemical change. Name this/these bond(s).

8.6) What happens in terms of energy when bonds are broken?

8.7) What happens in terms of energy when bonds are formed?

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9) Copper carbonate is strongly heated
until it undergoes thermal
decomposition to form copper oxide
and carbon dioxide.

9.1) Write a balanced chemical equation for the abovementioned reaction.

9.2) Is this reaction endo- or exothermic? Give a reason for your answer.
9.3) Draw a Potential Energy vs Course of Reaction graph for this reaction. Label
the following on your graph:
• Axis
• Reactants
• Products
• Activation energy (EA)
• Activated complex
• Energy change (H)

10) Compared to chemical changes, in general, how easily are physical changes
reversed?

11) Methane gas (often found in coal mines), if ignited, burns in the oxygen of the air
according to the following reaction equation:
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)

11.1) Are the surroundings heated up or cooled down by this reaction?

11.2) Which type of net energy transfer occurs during the reaction: a net energy
absorption or a net energy release?

11.3) Which type of reaction is this: exothermic or endothermic?

12) Potassium nitrate may be used to prepare a sample of oxygen in the laboratory by
strongly heating the potassium nitrate. The reaction equation is:
2KNO3(s) → 2KNO2(s) + O2(g)

12.1) Name the product that is a potassium compound.

12.2) Which type of net energy transfer occurs during the reaction: a net energy
absorption or a net energy release?

12.3) Which type of reaction is this: exothermic or endothermic?

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 12.4) What is the sign (positive or negative) of the energy absorbed minus the
energy released during the reaction?

12.5) Which type of reaction is this: synthesis or decomposition?

13) Balance the following chemical reaction equations. Name the substances printed in
bold type and state whether each reaction is a decomposition or a synthesis
reaction.

13.1) NH3 + H2SO4 → (NH4)2SO4

13.2) SO2 + O2 → SO3

13.3) H2S2O7 + H2O → H2SO4

13.4) C12H22O11 → C + H2O

13.5) NO + O2 → NO2

14) Plants use sunlight, carbon dioxide and water to synthesise their “food”.

14.1) Write down a balanced equation for the photosynthesis reaction.

14.2) Which type of reaction is this: exothermic or endothermic?

14.3) What is the sign (positive or negative) of the energy absorbed minus the
energy released during the reaction?

14.4) Name the plant “food” synthesised in this reaction.

15) Which form does the energy released in an exothermic reaction usually take?

A) light energy B) heat energy C) sound energy D) electrical energy

16) For the reaction between the two gases, ammonia and oxygen, the equation is:
4NH3(g) + 5O2(g) → 4NO(g) + 6H2O(g)

Use this equation to show that:

16.1) atoms are conserved in the reaction;

16.2) mass is conserved in the reaction (use values of relative atomic mass in the

Periodic Table at the end of this book);

16.3) molecules are not conserved in the reaction.

17) State the Law of Constant Composition.

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18) Ammonium nitrate-based explosives are used to blast through rock in mining
operations.

18.1) Write a balanced equation for the explosion of solid ammonium nitrate into

nitrous oxide gas (N2O) and water vapour.

18.2) Which type of reaction is this: synthesis or decomposition?

18.3) Which type of reaction is this: exothermic or endothermic?

18.4) Other than the rapid rise in temperature that accompanies this explosion,
what additional reason can be found for the rapid increase in pressure?

19) When a metal burns in oxygen gas it produces a metal oxide.

METAL + OXYGEN GAS → METAL OXIDE

Write a balanced equation for each of the following metals burning in

oxygen gas:

19.1) calcium
19.2) zinc
19.3) aluminium
19.4) sodium
19.5) potassium

20) Which type of reactions are those in 19) above: exothermic or endothermic?

21) Which type of reactions are those in 19) above: synthesis or decomposition?

22) During a laboratory experiment 5,01 g of calcium metal was burnt in oxygen and
7,01 g of calcium oxide was formed.

In a second experiment 6,02 g of calcium metal was burnt in oxygen and 8,42 g of
calcium oxide was formed.

Show how the values in these experiments verify the Law of Constant Composition.

Page 15 of 27
THE DISSOLUTION OF IONS IN AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS

When any substance dissolves in a liquid, the liquid is called the solvent, the
substance being dissolved is called the solute, and the resulting liquid containing the
dissolved substance, is called the solution. If the solvent is water the solution is said
to be an aqueous solution.

Ionic solutes are made up of positively charged ions (cations) and negatively
charged ions (anions).

In simple ionic compounds the cation is the ion of a metal and the anion is the ion of
a non-metal.

In sodium chloride (NaCℓ), for example, the cations are sodium ions (Na +) and the
anions are chloride ions (Cℓ−).

And, in ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3), the cation is the ammonium ion (NH4+) and the
anion is the nitrate ion (NO3−).

Ionic substances are mostly soluble (can be dissolved) in water. When an ionic
solute dissolves it undergoes a dissociation reaction with the water, wherein the
cations dissociate (separate) from the anions.
+
The water molecule (H2O) is polar. On the O-side of the molecule
there is a slight build up of negative charge (−) and on the H-side
there is a slight build up of positive charge (+). −

Water molecules passing by the edges of an ionic crystal “pluck” ions from the
crystal by the attraction of the negative side of a water molecule to a positive ion and
by the attraction of the positive side of a water molecule to a negative ion.

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Water Molecules (H2O) pass by the edges of an Ionic Crystal (NaCℓ) and “pluck” ions from the Crystal.

The ions which thus dissociate from the crystal are immediately surrounded by water
molecules, a process called hydration, and are transported through the solution as
dissolved (hydrated) ions.

Dissolved Ions are transported through an Aqueous Solution as Hydrated Ions.

This process, of dissolved ions becoming surrounded with water molecules, is
known as HYDRATION.

The dissociation reaction discussed above may be represented in an equation as

follows:

NaCℓ(s) → Na+(aq) + Cℓ−(aq)

If the dissociation reaction of a dissolving substance is exothermic then the

temperature of the solution increases as the dissociation proceeds.

If the dissociation is endothermic then the temperature of the solution decreases as

the dissociation proceeds.

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CONCENTRATED, DILUTE AND SATURATED SOLUTIONS

A solution is said to be concentrated if a large quantity of solute is dissolved in the

solvent.

A solution is said to be dilute if only a small quantity of solute is dissolved in the

solvent.

A saturated solution is one in which no additional solute can be dissolved.

ELECTROLYTES AND THE EXTENT OF IONIZATION AS MEASURED BY

CONDUCTIVITY

Electrolyte - a substance that can conduct electricity by forming free ions when
molten or dissolved in solution

Electrolysis - Chemical change, especially decomposition, produced in an

electrolyte by an electric current.

An electrolytic cell is described as

• A cell in which electrode reactions are sustained by a supply of electrical energy
• A cell in which electrical energy is converted into chemical energy

Electrode - A solid electric conductor through which an electric current enters or

leaves an electrolytic cell or other medium.

The conductivity of electrolytes can be tested using simple laboratory apparatus as

sketched below, known as an electrolytic cell. A battery is connected in series with
an ammeter and two graphite rods (known as electrodes) which dip into the
electrolyte. In this case the electrolyte is a solution of copper chloride in water.

copper chloride
solution

Cu+ ions (cations) Cℓ− ions (anions)

are attracted to are attracted to
the negative the positive
electrode electrode

Cations are attracted towards the negative electrode.

Anions are attracted to the positive electrode.

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As the ions travel towards their respective electrodes, they carry electrical current.
The amount of the current is recorded by the ammeter in the circuit.

The conductivity of various electrolytes may be tested in the manner above. Highly
soluble solutes will result in electrolytes with a greater concentration of ions in
solution and will carry greater currents.

Some aqueous solutions do not have dissolved ions and as such are not
electrolytes. They do not conduct electricity. When sugar (C12H22O11), for example,
dissolves in water, the change is a physical one which only involves the separation
of molecules from one another, not the breaking up of the molecules themselves. No
chemical bonds are broken when sugar dissolves in water and no ions are formed. A
sugar solution does not conduct electricity.

Bulb doesn’t Bulb glows

glow, showing showing that a
that a sugar salt solution is
solution is not an electrolyte –
an electrolyte – it can conduct
it cannot electricity
conduct
electricity

Thus the electrical conductivity of a solution is not always a measure of the

solubility of the solute.

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PRECIPITATION REACTIONS – also known as ION-EXCHANGE REACTIONS

Ionic substances are salts. As mentioned above, most ionic substances are soluble
in water. If however, an insoluble salt is formed in an aqueous reaction, the insoluble
salt will show itself as a precipitate. A precipitate is observed as an undissolved
solid.

Example:
All of the salts in the
reaction alongside
are soluble except
silver chloride (AgCℓ)
AgNO3(aq) + NaCℓ(aq) → NaNO3(aq) + AgCℓ(s)
which immediately
forms a precipitate.

The formation of a precipitate is often indicated by the symbol “”.

SOLUBILITY RULES
By systematically mixing hundreds of salt solutions, scientists have been able to develop a
set of rules for which ionic substances are soluble in water and which are insoluble.

A simplified summary of the solubility rules is provided below.

Name of Salts Soluble? Exceptions to the rule

All salts of Group 1 Yes
Ammonium (NH4+) Yes
Nitrates Yes
Chlorides Yes AgCl; PbCl2; HgCl
Bromides Yes AgBr; PbBr2; HgBr
Iodides Yes AgI; PbI2; HgI
Sulphates Yes BaSO4; PbSO4; Hg2SO4; Ag2SO4; CaSO4
Carbonates No (NH4)2CO3; and those of Grp 1
Phosphates No (NH4)3PO4; and those of Grp 1
Sulphites No (NH4)2SO3; and those of Grp 1
Slightly soluble /
Hydroxides Grp 1; NH4OH
Insoluble

The colours of some of the precipitates which form in accordance with this rule are tabulated
below:

AgCℓ white PbCℓ 2 white

AgBr pale cream PbBr2 light yellow
AgI pale yellow PbI2 yellow

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USING PRECIPITATION REACTIONS TO TEST UNIDENTIFIED SUBSTANCES

Precipitation reactions may be used to perform chemical tests for certain

substances or ions.

TEST FOR CHLORIDE (Cℓ−), BROMIDE (Br−) OR IODIDE (I−) IONS

• If some silver nitrate (AgNO3) solution is added to a solution containing chloride

ions (Cℓ−), a white precipitate will form.

Example:

AgNO3(aq) + NaCℓ(aq) → AgCℓ(s) + NaNO3(aq)

white

A small quantity of nitric acid (HNO3) should then be added to solution. If the
precipitate is AgCℓ then no change will be observed when the HNO3 is added.

AgCℓ(s) + HNO3(aq) → no reaction

white

• If some silver nitrate (AgNO3) solution is added to a solution containing bromide

ions (Br−), a pale cream precipitate will form.

Example:

AgNO3(aq) + NaBr(aq) → AgBr(s) + NaNO3(aq)

pale cream

A small quantity of nitric acid (HNO3) should then be added to solution. If the
precipitate is AgBr then no change will be observed when the HNO3 is added.

AgBr(s) + HNO3(aq) → no reaction

pale cream

• If some silver nitrate (AgNO3) solution is added to a solution containing iodide

ions (I−), a pale yellow precipitate will form.

Example:

AgNO3(aq) + NaI(aq) → AgI(s) + NaNO3(aq)

pale yellow

A small quantity of nitric acid (HNO3) should then be added to solution. If the
precipitate is AgI then no change will be observed when the HNO3 is added.

AgI(s) + HNO3(aq) → no reaction

pale yellow

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TEST FOR SULPHATE (SO42−) OR CARBONATE (CO32−) IONS

A clear barium chloride (BaCℓ2) solution is added to the unidentified solution

thought to be a sulphate or a carbonate.

If a white precipitate forms then there is a possibility that the unidentified solution is a
sulphate or a carbonate, such as sodium sulphate or sodium carbonate, because a
barium sulphate precipitate is white and so a barium carbonate precipitate white.

The reactions which produced the white precipitates might have been:

BaCℓ2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) → BaSO4(s) + 2NaCℓ(aq)

white

BaCℓ2(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) → BaCO3(s) + 2NaCℓ(aq)

white

A small quantity of dilute hydrochloric acid (HCℓ ) should be added to each

solution.

If the precipitate doesn’t disappear then it is BaSO4 and the unidentified solution is a
sulphate.

BaSO4(s) + HCℓ(aq) → no reaction

white

If the precipitate disappears then it is BaCO3 and the unidentified solution is a

carbonate.

BaCO3(s) + 2HCℓ(aq) → BaCℓ2(aq) + H2O(ℓ) + CO2(g)

white (soluble)

The release of CO2 gas in the reaction above is further confirmation that the
precipitate is a carbonate.

Page 22 of 27
OTHER CHEMICAL REACTION TYPES IN WATER SOLUTION

Acid-Base Reactions

These reactions are said to be protolytic reactions because they involve a transfer
of protons (namely the H+ ion). An acid is said to be a proton donor.

The two different types of acid base reactions are:

• acid + hydroxide OR oxide base → salt + water

eg1: HCℓ + NaOH → NaCℓ + H2O

eg2: H2SO4 + MgO → MgSO4 + H2O

• acid + carbonate OR hydrogen carbonate base → salt + water + carbon dioxide

eg1: 2HNO3 + K2CO3 → 2KNO3 + H2O + CO2

eg2: H3PO4 + 3NaHCO3 → Na3PO4 + 3H2O + 3CO2

The salt in each of the above acid base reactions is formed from the positive ion of
the base and the negative ion of the acid.

Redox Reactions

These reactions are said to be electron transfer reactions and this is shown by a
change in the charge of certain reacting species.

Charge decreased showing that electrons were gained

0 2+ 2+ 0
eg1: Zn + CuSO4 → ZnSO4 + Cu

Charge increased showing that electrons were “lost”

Charge decreased showing that electrons were gained

0 2+ 1+ 0
eg2: 2Na + FeCl2 → 2NaCl + Fe

Charge increased showing that electrons were “lost”

The above two reactions may also be known as displacement reactions - A more
reactive metal is able to displace the ion of a less reactive metal in a compound.

Page 23 of 27
 The reactivity series is given below:

potassium sodium lithium calcium magnesium zinc iron lead hydrogen copper mercury
K Na Li Ca Mg Zn Fe Pb H Cu Hg
most reactive least reactive

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WORKSHEET ON REACTIONS IN AQUEOUS SOLUTION

1) Distinguish between the terms: solute, solvent and solution.

2) Consider the reaction represented by the equation below.

NH4NO3(s) → NH4+(aq) + NO3−(aq) (endothermic)

2.1) Name the type of reaction represented here.

2.2) Identify the solvent.

2.3) Identify the solute.

2.4) Name the ions in solution.

2.5) Briefly explain how the solvent is able to dissolve the solute in terms of the
forces between the particles of the solvent and solute.

2.6) Does the equation give any indication of the concentration of the aqueous
solution?

2.7) As the solute dissolves does the temperature of the solution increase or
decrease? Briefly explain.

3) Which of the following should be regarded as electrolytes? Briefly explain your choice
of each electrolyte.

• pure water
• an aqueous solution of potassium fluoride
• a crystal of sodium chloride;
• sugar water
• a copper rod
• sea water
• hydrochloric acid
• a solution of sodium hydroxide

4) Why is the electrical conductivity of an aqueous solution not always a measure of the
solubility of the solute in water?

5) Write equations for the dissolution of each of the following salts in water:

5.1) potassium sulphate

5.2) ammonium phosphate

6) Use the solubility rules, outlined earlier, to establish which of the following salts are
soluble in water and which are insoluble.

KNO3, AgCℓ, HgBr, CaCℓ2, (NH4)2CO3, K2SO4, CaSO4

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7) Show, in equations, the precipitation reactions which occur when aqueous solutions
of the following substances are mixed together. Identify the precipitate, in each case,
with a downward-pointing arrow ().

7.1) silver nitrate and sodium sulphate

7.2) zinc bromide and potassium hydroxide
7.3) ammonium sulphite and magnesium chloride
7.4) sodium carbonate and zinc iodide

8) Describe the test for chloride ions in a solution.

9) What is the colour of the following precipitates?

9.1) silver bromide

9.2) barium sulphate
9.3) silver iodide
9.4) silver carbonate
9.5) lead iodide (PbI2)

10) A clear solution of a silver salt is added to a clear solution of a sodium salt. A pale
yellow precipitate forms immediately.

10.1) Identify the anion in the sodium salt. Explain.

10.2) Suggest the identity of the anion in the silver salt. Explain.
10.3) Write an equation for the reaction between the two solutions.

11) A learner is asked to identify an unknown white salt. The learner performs a flame
test with the unknown salt and observes that the salt imparts a lilac colour to the
flame. The learner then dissolves the unknown salt in water and adds some silver
nitrate solution to the unknown salt solution. A white precipitate forms immediately.
The white precipitate does not disappear when nitric acid is added. Identify the
unknown salt.

12) Clear solution, A, is mixed with clear solution, B, and a thick white precipitate forms
immediately. One of the solutions (A or B) is sulphuric acid (H2SO4) and the other (A
or B) is barium chloride.

12.1) Describe a simple test that would enable you to establish which is A and
which is B, before mixing the two solutions together.

12.2) Write an equation for the reaction between the two solutions.

12.3) Name the precipitate.

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13) Consider the substances represented by the following formulae:
Be(OH)2; H2SO4; HCℓ; Li2CO3; Ca(HCO3)2; KOH; HNO3.

13.1) Classify each substance as an acid or as a base.

13.2) Name each substance.

14) Complete and balance each acid-base reaction equation below.

14.1) HCℓ + NaOH →

14.2) H2SO3 + LiOH →
14.3) CH3COOH + K2O →
14.4) HNO3 + Mg(HCO3)2 →
14.5) H2SO4 + K2CO3 →

15) Some aluminium powder is stirred into a solution of copper(II) sulphate. A

displacement reaction occurs and after a while the blue colour of the solution fades
and a reddish deposit appears in the vessel.

15.1) Briefly explain why a displacement reaction occurs.

15.2) Write the equation for the reaction.
15.3) Why does the blue colour fade?
15.4) What is responsible for the reddish colour?
15.5) Would it be correct to call the reaction an “electron transfer reaction”?
15.6) Would it be correct to call the reaction a synthesis reaction? Explain

16) For each reaction equation below, state whether the reaction is:
a redox reaction; or
an acid-base reaction; or
a precipitation reaction.

16.1) 2HCℓ + Be(OH)2 → BeCℓ2 + 2H2O

16.2) 3Mg + 2Aℓ3+ → 3Mg2+ + 2Aℓ

16.3) NaCℓ + AgNO3 → AgCℓ + NaNO3

16.4) ZnSO4 + Mg → MgSO4 + Zn

16.5) Na2CO3 + H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + H2O + CO2

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