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Lecture 1
Data Acquisition and Sensor
Characteristics

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Contents
• Sensor, Signals and Systems
• Sensor classification
• Sensor Characteristics

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Sensors, Signals and Systems

• Sensor is device that receives a stimulus and responds with
an electrical signal.
• The stimulus is the quantity, property or condition that is
received and converted into an electrical signal.
• Sensor is a translator of a generally nonelectrical value into an
electrical value.
• The sensor’s output signal is in terms of voltage, current or
charge and further described in terms of amplitude, polarity,
frequency, phase or digital code (output signal format).
• Transducer is a converter of any one type of energy into
another while sensor converts any type of energy into
electrical energy.

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Sensors, Signals and Systems

• Example of transducer is a loud speaker, which converts an
electrical signal into a variable magnetic field and
subsequently into acoustic waves.
• Another example is actuator (motor), which converts
electrical signal into non-electrical energy (mechanical).
• Two types of sensor: direct and complex.
• A direct sensor converts a stimulus into an electrical signal
whereas a complex sensor in addition needs one or more
transducers of energy before a direct sensor can be employed
to generate an electrical output.

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Sensors, Signals and Systems

• A sensor may incorporate several transducers. s1, s2, and so

on are various types of energy.
• The last part is a direct sensor producing electrical output e

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Sensors, Signals and Systems

Positions of sensors in a data acquisition system. Sensor 1 is

noncontact (e.g. radiation sensor), sensors 2 and 3 are passive,
sensor 4 is active, and sensor 5 is internal to a data acquisition
system KII4005 - Sensors in Healthcare 9

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Sensors, Signals and Systems

• Passive sensors generate electric signals without energy
consumption from the electronic circuits.
• Active sensor requires an operating signal, which is provided
by an excitation circuit. This signal is modified by the sensor
in accordance with the converted information.
• An example of an active sensor is a thermistor, which is a
temperature-sensitive resistor.
• It needs a constant current source, which is an excitation
circuit.
• Electrical signals from the sensors are fed into a multiplexer
(MUX), which is a switch or a gate.

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Sensors, Signals and Systems

• Its function is to connect sensors one at a time to an analog-
to-digital converter (A/D or ADC) if a sensor produces an
analog signal, or directly to a computer if a sensor produces
signals in a digital format.
• The computer controls a multiplexer and an A/D converter for
the appropriate timing.
• The computer may send control signals to the actuator, which
acts on the object.
• Examples of the actuators are an electric motor, a solenoid, a
relay, and a pneumatic valve.

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Sensors, Signals and Systems

• The system contains some peripheral devices (for instance, a
data recorder, a display, an alarm, etc.) and a number of
components that are not shown in the block diagram.
• These may be filters, sample-and-hold circuits, amplifiers, and
so forth.
• An example of a system is an anesthetic vapor delivery
system.
• It is intended to control the level of anesthetic drugs delivered
to a patient by means of inhalation during surgical
procedures.
• The system employs several active and passive sensors.

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Sensors, Signals and Systems

• The vapor concentration of anesthetic agents (such as
halothane, isoflurane, or enflurane) is selectively monitored
by an active piezoelectric sensor installed into a ventilation
tube.

https://www.howequipmentworks.com/vaporisers/

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Sensors, Signals and Systems

• Molecules of anesthetic vapors add mass to the oscillating
crystal in the sensor and change its natural frequency, which is
a measure of vapor concentration.
• Several other sensors monitor the concentration of CO2 to
distinguish exhale from inhale, and temperature and
pressure, to compensate for additional variables.
• All of these data are multiplexed, digitized, and fed into the
microprocessor, which calculates the actual vapor
concentration.
• An anesthesiologist presets a desired delivery level and the
processor adjusts the actuators (the valves) to maintain
anesthetics at the correct concentration.
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Sensor Classification
(1) Active and passive sensors
– A passive sensor does not need any additional energy
source and directly generates an electric signal in
response to an external stimulus.
– The input stimulus energy is converted by the sensor
into the output signal.
– The examples are a thermocouple, a photodiode, and
a piezoelectric sensor.
– Most of passive sensors are direct sensors as we
defined them earlier.

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Sensor Classification
(1) Active and passive sensors
– The active sensors require external power for
their operation, which is called an excitation
signal.
– That signal is modified by the sensor to produce
the output signal.
– For example, a thermistor is a temperature
sensitive resistor. Its resistance changes
according to the temperature.
– It does not generate any electric signal, but by
passing an electric current through it (excitation
signal), its resistance can be measured by
detecting variations in current and/or voltage
across the thermistor.
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Sensor Classification
(2)Absolute and relative
– An absolute sensor detects a stimulus in reference to
an absolute physical scale that is independent of the
measurement conditions, whereas a relative sensor
produces a signal that relates to some special case.
– An example of an absolute sensor is a thermistor, a
temperature-sensitive resistor.
– Its electrical resistance directly relates to the absolute
temperature scale of Kelvin.

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Sensor Classification
(2)Absolute and relative
– Another very popular temperature sensor thermocouple is
a relative sensor.
– It produces an electric voltage, which is a function of a
temperature gradient across the thermocouple wires.
– Thus, a thermocouple output signal cannot be related to
any particular temperature without referencing to a known
baseline.

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Sensor Classification
(3)Specific properties

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Sensor Classification
(3)Specific properties

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Sensor Classification
(3)Specific properties

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Sensor Characteristics
(1) Transfer function
– The transfer function represents the relation between
stimulus, s and response electrical signal, S produced by
the sensor.
– This relation can be written as S = f(s).
– An inverse f-1(S) of F(S) of the transfer function is required
to compute the stimulus from the sensor’s response S.

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Sensor Characteristics
(1) Transfer function

Thermo-anemometer is a sensor that measures mass flow of gas. The output is in

terms of volts or digital count from the ADC.

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Sensor Characteristics
(1) Transfer function
– The simplest transfer function is linear.
– We represent it by the following equation: S = A + Bs,
corresponding to the straight line with intercept A, that is,
the output signal at zero input signal s=0, and slope B,
which is sometimes called sensitivity.
– Very few sensors are truly linear.
– At least a small nonlinearity is always present, especially
for a broad input range of the stimuli.

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Sensor Characteristics
(1) Transfer function
Examples of nonlinear functions:

A and B are the

parameters,
k is the power
factor

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Sensor Characteristics
(2) Sensitivity
– For a nonlinear transfer function, sensitivity B is not a fixed
number, as would be the case in a linear transfer function.
– A nonlinear transfer function exhibits different sensitivities
at different points in intervals of stimuli. In case of
nonlinear transfer functions, the sensitivity is defined as a
first derivative of the transfer function:

– where, traditionally ∆ is a small increment of the input

i

stimulus and ∆ is the corresponding change in the output S of

i

the transfer function.

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Sensor Characteristics
(3) Calibration
– If sensor’s manufacturer tolerances and tolerances of the
interface (signal conditioning) circuit are broader than the
required system accuracy, a calibration of the sensor or a
combination of a sensor and an interface circuit is required to
minimize errors.
– For example, if one needs to measure temperature with
accuracy ±0.1°C, and the available sensor is rated as having
accuracy of ±1°C, it does not mean that the sensor cannot be
used.
– Rather this particular sensor needs calibration.
– That is, its unique transfer function should be found to fit the
real sensor’s response or the specific transfer function
parameters should be adjusted to allow for a more accurate
computation of the stimulus from the sensor’s response.

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Sensor Characteristics
(3) Calibration
– Ways of calibrations:
1. Calculation of the transfer function or its approximation
to fit the selected calibration points (curve fitting by
computing coefficients of a selected approximation).
2. Adjustment of the data acquisition system to trim
(modify) the measured data by making them to fit into a
normalized or “ideal” transfer function. An example is
scaling of the acquired data.
3. Modification (trimming) of the sensor’ properties to fit
the predetermined transfer function.
4. Creating a sensor-specific reference device with
matching properties at particular calibrating points.
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Sensor Characteristics
(3) Calibration

(a): Method 3, (b): Method 4, (c): Method 1

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Sensor Characteristics
(4) Span (Full scale Input)
– A dynamic range of stimuli that may be converted by a
sensor is called a span or an input full scale (FS).
– It represents the highest possible input value, which can
be applied to the sensor without causing unacceptably
large inaccuracy.
– For the sensors with a very broad and nonlinear response
characteristic, a dynamic range of the input stimuli is often
expressed in decibels, which is a logarithmic measure of
ratios of either power or force (voltage).

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Sensor Characteristics
(4) Span (Full scale Input)

– By definition, decibels are equal to ten times the log of the

ratio of powers

– In a similar manner, decibels are equal to 20 times the log

of the force, or current, or voltage:

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Sensor Characteristics
(5) Full scale Output
– Full-scale output (FSO) is the algebraic difference between
the electrical output signals measured with maximum
input stimulus and the lowest input stimulus applied.
– This must include all deviations from the ideal transfer
function.

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Sensor Characteristics
(6) Accuracy
– A very important characteristic of a sensor is accuracy,
which really means inaccuracy.
– Inaccuracy is measured as a highest deviation of a value
represented by the sensor from the ideal or true value of a
stimulus at its input.
– The deviation can be described as a difference between
the value, which is computed from the output voltage, and
the actual input value.

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Sensor Characteristics
(6) Accuracy
– For example, a linear displacement sensor ideally should
generate 1 mV per 1 mm displacement.
– However, in the experiment, a reference displacement of s
= 10 mm produced an output of S = 10.5 mV.
– This extra 0.5 mm is an erroneous deviation in the
measurement, or error.
– Therefore, in a 10 mm range the sensor’s absolute
inaccuracy is 0.5 mm, or in relative terms the inaccuracy is
0.5 mm/10 mm times 100% = 5%.

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Sensor Characteristics
(7) Calibration Error
– Calibration error is inaccuracy permitted by a
manufacturer when a sensor is calibrated in the factory.
– This error is of a systematic nature, meaning that it is
added to all possible real transfer functions.
– It shifts the accuracy of transduction for each stimulus
point by a constant.
– This error is not necessarily uniform over the range and
may change depending on the type of error in calibration.

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Sensor Characteristics
(8) Hysteresis
– A hysteresis error is a deviation of the sensor’s output at a
specified point of the input signal when it is approached
from the opposite directions (Fig. 2.11).
– For example, a displacement sensor when the object
moves from left to right at a certain point produces
voltage, which differs by 20 mV from that when the object
moves from right to left.
– If sensitivity of the sensor is 10 mV/mm, the hysteresis
error in terms of displacement units is 2 mm.
– Typical causes for hysteresis are geometry of design,
friction, and structural changes in the materials.
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Sensor Characteristics

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Sensor Characteristics
(9) Saturation
– Every sensor has its operating limits.
– Even if it is considered linear, at some levels of the input
stimuli, its output signal no longer will be responsive.
– Further increase in stimulus does not produce a desirable
output.
– It is said that the sensor exhibits a span-end nonlinearity
or saturation

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Sensor Characteristics
(9) Saturation

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(10) Repeatability
– Repeatability (reproducibility) error is caused by the
inability of a sensor to represent the same value under
presumably identical conditions.
– The repeatability is expressed as a maximum difference
between the output readings as determined by two
calibrating cycles (Fig. 2.14a), unless otherwise specified.
– It is usually represented as % of FS:

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Sensor Characteristics
(10) Repeatability

Fig. 2.14a

– The same output signal S1 corresponds to two different

input
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Sensor Characteristics
(11) Dead Band
– Dead band is insensitivity of a sensor in a specific range of
the input signals (Fig. 2.14b).
– In that range, the output may remain near a certain value
(often zero) over an entire dead band zone.

Fig. 2.14b
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Sensor Characteristics
(12) Resolution
– Resolution describes smallest increments of stimulus,
which can be sensed.
– For wire-wound potentiometric angular sensors, resolution
may be specified as “a minimum angle of 0.5.”
– Sometimes, it may be specified as percents of full scale
(FS).
– For instance, for the angular sensor having 270 FS, the 0.5
resolution may be specified as 0.181% of FS.
– The resolution of digital output format sensors is given by
the number of bits in the data word, e.g. 8 bit, 10 bit

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Sensor Characteristics
(13) Output Impedance
– The output impedance, Zout (of sensor) is connected to the
input impedance Zin of the circuit either in series (voltage
connection) or in parallel (current connection).
– Figure 2.15 shows these two connections.
– The output and input impedances generally should be
represented in a complex form, as they may include active
and reactive components.
– To minimize the output signal distortions, a current
generating sensor (B) should have an output impedance as
high as possible while the circuit’s input impedance
should be low.
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Sensor Characteristics
(13) Output Impedance
– For the voltage connection (A), a sensor is preferable with
lower Zout while the circuit should have Zin as high as
practical.

Low Zout High Zin High Zout Low Zin

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(14) Output Format
– Output format is a set of the output electrical
characteristics that is produced by the sensor alone or
together with the excitation circuit.
– The characteristics may include voltage, current, charge,
frequency, amplitude, phase, polarity, shape of a signal,
time delay, and digital code.
– Figure 2.16 shows examples of the output electrical signals
in form of current or voltage.
– A sensor manufacturer should provide sufficient
information on the output format to allow for efficient
applications.
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Sensor Characteristics
(14) Output Format

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(15) Excitation
– Excitation is the electrical signal needed for operation of
an active sensor.
– Excitation is specified as a range of voltage and/or current.
– For some sensors, the frequency and shape of the
excitation signal and its stability must also be specified.
– Spurious variations in the excitation may alter the sensor
transfer function and cause output errors.
– An example of excitation signal specification is as follows:

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Sensor Characteristics
(16) Dynamic Characteristics
– Under static conditions (a very slow changing input
stimulus) a sensor is fully described by its transfer
function, span, calibration, etc.
– However, when an input stimulus varies with an
appreciable rate, a sensor response generally does not
follow with perfect fidelity.
– The reason is that both the sensor and its coupling with
the source of stimulus cannot always respond instantly.
– In other words, a sensor may be characterized with a time-
dependent characteristic, which is called a dynamic
characteristic.
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(16) Dynamic Characteristics
– If a sensor does not respond instantly, it may represent the
stimulus as somewhat different from the real, that is, the
sensor responds with a dynamic error.
– A difference between a static and dynamic error is that the
latter is always time-dependent.
– If a sensor is part of a control system, which has its own
dynamic characteristics, the combination may cause at
best a delay in representing a true value of a stimulus or
at worst-cause spurious oscillations.

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Sensor Characteristics
(17) Environmental Factors
– Storage conditions are non-operating environmental limits
to which a sensor may be subjected during a specified
period without permanently altering its performance
under normal operating conditions.
– Usually, storage conditions include the highest and the
lowest storage temperatures and maximum relative
humidity at these temperatures.
– Short- and long-term stabilities (drift) are parts of the
accuracy specification.
– The short-term stability is manifested as changes in the
sensor’s performance within minutes, hours, or even days.
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(17) Environmental Factors
– The long-term stability may be related to aging of the
sensor materials, which is an irreversible change in the
material’s electrical, mechanical, chemical, or thermal
properties.
– Environmental conditions to which a sensor is subjected
do not include variables that the sensor measures.
– For instance, an air pressure sensor usually is subjected
not just to air pressure, but to other influences as well,
such as temperatures of air and surrounding components,
humidity, vibration, ionizing radiation, electromagnetic
fields, gravitational forces, etc.
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Sensor Characteristics
(17) Environmental Factors
– All these factors may and usually do affect the sensor’s
performance.
– Environmental stability is quite broad and usually a very
important requirement.
– Both the sensor designer and the application engineer
should consider all possible external factors, which may
affect the sensor’s performance.
– A piezoelectric accelerometer may generate spurious
signals if affected by a sudden change in ambient
temperature, electrostatic discharge, formation of
electrical charges (triboelectric effect), vibration of a
connecting cable, electromagnetic
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Sensor Characteristics
(17) Environmental Factors
– Temperature factors are very important for sensor
performance, they must be known, and accounted for.
– The operating temperature range is the span of ambient
temperatures given by their upper and lower extremes
(e.g., “–20 to +100°C”) within which the sensor maintains
its specified accuracy.

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Sensor Characteristics
(18) Reliability
– Reliability is the ability of a sensor to perform a required
function under stated conditions for a stated period.
– It is expressed in statistical terms as a probability that the
device will function without failure over a specified time or
a number of uses.
– It specifies a failure, that is, temporary or permanent,
exceeding the limits of a sensor’s performance under
normal operating conditions.

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(18) Reliability
– A few tests to ensure the reliability:
1. High temperature/high humidity: A sensor may be
subjected to its maximum allowable temperature at 85–
90% relative humidity (RH) and kept under these
conditions during 500 hour.
2. Mechanical shocks and vibrations: A sensor may be
dropped to generate high level accelerations (up to
3000g of force)
3. Extreme storage conditions may be simulated, for
instance at +100°C and –40°C while maintaining a sensor
for at least 1,000 hour under these conditions.
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Sensor Characteristics
(18) Reliability
4. Thermal shock or temperature cycling (TC): For example,
it may be dwelled for 30 min at –40°C, then rapidly
moved to +100°C for 30 min, and then back to cold. The
method must specify total number of cycling, like 100 or
1,000.

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(19) Uncertainty
– Uncertainty due to
• All components experience drifts related to the
environment and their aging
• External interferences may enter the system and alter
its performance and modify the output signal
• Workers are not consistent and the human factor is
nearly always present
• Every part of product produced is never ideal and
carries an uncertainty

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Sensor Characteristics
(19) Uncertainty
– No matter how accurate the measurement is, it’s only an
approximation or estimate of the true value of the
specific quantity subject to measurement, that is the
stimulus or measurand.
– The result of measurement should be considered complete
only when accompanied by a quantitative statement of its
uncertainty.
– We simply never can be 100% sure of the measured value.

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(19) Uncertainty
– The International Committee for Weight and Measures
(CIPM) considers that uncertainty consists of many factors
that can be grouped into two classes or types [1, 2]:
A: those, which are evaluated by statistical methods;
B: those, which are evaluated by other means.
– Evaluation of a Type A standard uncertainty may be based
on any valid statistical method for treating data.
– Evaluation of a Type B of standard uncertainty is usually
based on scientific judgment using all the relevant
information available such as previous measurement data
and manufacturer’s specifications.
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Sensor Characteristics
(19) Uncertainty
– Table 2.4 shows an example of the uncertainty budget for
an electronic thermometer with a thermistor sensor, which
measures temperature of a water bath.
– Standard uncertainty not only in a sensor, but also in the
interface instrument, experimental setup, and the object
of measurement.
– This shall be done for various environmental conditions,
which may include temperature, humidity, atmospheric
pressure, power supply variations, transmitted noise,
aging, and many other factors.

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(19) Uncertainty
– The combined standard uncertainty of 0.068°C does not
mean that error of measurement is no greater than
0.068°C.
– That value is just a standard deviation.

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Sensor Characteristics

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