Software Technology Several new operating systems like the MS-DOS and MSWindows developed

during this time. This generation of computers supported Graphical User Interface (GUI). GUI is a user-
friendly interface that allows user to interact with the computer via menus and icons. High-level
programming languages are used for the writing of programs.  Computing Characteristics The
computation time is in picoseconds.  Physical Appearance They are smaller than the computers of the
previous generation. Some can even fit into the palm of the hand.  Application They became widely
available for commercial purposes. Personal computers became available to the home user.  Examples
The Intel 4004 chip was the first microprocessor. The components of the computer like Central
Processing Unit (CPU) and memory were located on a single chip. In 1981, IBM introduced the first
computer for home use. In 1984, Apple introduced the Macintosh. The microprocessor has resulted in
the fourth generation computers being smaller and cheaper than their predecessors. The fourth
generation computers are also portable and more reliable. They generate much lesser heat and require
less maintenance compared to their predecessors. GUI and pointing devices facilitate easy use and
learning on the computer. Networking has resulted in resource sharing and communication among
different computers. 1.5.5 Fifth Generation (Present and Next): Using Artificial Intelligence The goal of
fifth generation computing is to develop computers that are capable of learning and self-organization.
The fifth generation computers use Super Large Scale Integrated (SLSI) chips that are able to store
millions of components on a single chip. These computers have large memory requirements. This
generation of computers uses parallel processing that allows several instructions to be executed in
parallel, instead of serial execution. Parallel processing results in faster processing speed. The Intel
dualcore microprocessor uses parallel processing. The fifth generation computers are based on Artificial
Intelligence (AI). They try to simulate the human way of thinking and reasoning. Artificial Intelligence
includes areas like Expert System (ES), Natural Language Processing (NLP), speech recognition, voice
recognition, robotics, etc. 1.6 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTER The digital computers that are available
nowadays vary in their sizes and types. The computers are broadly classified into four categories (Figure
1.8) based on their size and type—(1) Microcomputers, (2) Minicomputers, (3) Mainframe computers,
and (4) Supercomputer. Figure 1.8 Classification of computers based on size and type 1.6.1
Microcomputers Microcomputers are small, low-cost and single-user digital computer. They consist of
CPU, input unit, output unit, storage unit and the software. Although microcomputers are stand-alone
machines, they can be connected together to create a network of computers that can serve more than
one user. IBM PC based on Pentium microprocessor and Apple Macintosh are some examples of
microcomputers. Microcomputers include desktop computers, notebook computers or laptop, tablet
computer, handheld computer, smart phones and netbook, as shown in Figure 1.9. Figure 1.9
Microcomputers  Desktop Computer or Personal Computer (PC) is the most common type of
microcomputer. It is a stand-alone machine that can be placed on the desk. Externally, it consists of
three units—keyboard, monitor, and a system unit containing the CPU, memory, hard disk drive, etc. It
is not very expensive and is suited to the needs of a single user at home, small business units, and
organizations. Apple, Microsoft, HP, Dell and Lenovo are some of the PC manufacturers.  Notebook
Computers or Laptop resemble a notebook. They are portable and have allthe features of a desktop
computer. The advantage of the laptop is that it is small in size (can be put inside a briefcase), can be
carried anywhere, has a battery backup and has all the functionality of the desktop. Laptops can be
placed on the lap while working (hence the name). Laptops are costlier than the desktop machines. 
Netbook These are smaller notebooks optimized for low weight and low cost, and are designed for
accessing web-based applications. Starting with the earliest netbook in late 2007, they have gained
significant popularity now. Netbooks deliver the performance needed to enjoy popular activities like
streaming videos or music, emailing, Websurfing or instant messaging. The word netbook was created
as a blend of Internet and notebook.  Tablet Computer has features of the notebook computer but it
can accept input froma stylus or a pen instead of the keyboard or mouse. It is a portable computer.
Tablet computer are the new kind of PCs.  Handheld Computer or Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) is a
small computer that can be held on the top of the palm. It is small in size. Instead of the keyboard, PDA
uses a pen or a stylus for input. PDAs do not have a disk drive. They have a limited memory and are less
powerful. PDAs can be connected to the Internet via a wireless connection. Casio and Apple are some of
the manufacturers of PDA. Over the last few years, PDAs have merged into mobile phones to create
smart phones.  Smart Phones are cellular phones that function both as a phone and as a small PC. They
may use a stylus or a pen, or may have a small keyboard. They can be connected to the Internet
wirelessly. They are used to access the electronic-mail, download music, play games, etc. Blackberry,
Apple, HTC, Nokia and LG are some of the manufacturers of smart phones. 1.6.2 Minicomputers
Minicomputers (Figure 1.10) are digital computers, generally used in multi-user systems. They have high
processing speed and high storage capacity than the microcomputers. Minicomputers can support 4–
200 users simultaneously. The users can access the minicomputer through their PCs or terminal. They
are used for real-time applications in industries, research centers, etc. PDP 11, IBM (8000 series) are
some of the widely used minicomputers. Figure 1.10 Minicomputer 1.6.3 Mainframe Computers
Mainframe computers (Figure 1.11) are multi-user, multi-programming and high performance
computers. They operate at a very high speed, have very large storage capacity and can handle the
workload of many users. Mainframe computers are large and powerful systems generally used in
centralized databases. The user accesses the mainframe computer via a terminal that may be a dumb
terminal, an intelligent terminal or a PC. A dumb terminal cannot store data or do processing of its own.
It has the input and output device only. An intelligent terminal has the input and output device, can do
processing, but, cannot store data of its own. The dumb and the intelligent terminal use the processing
power and the storage facility of the mainframe computer. Mainframe computers are used in
organizations like banks or companies, where many people require frequent access to the same data.
Some examples of mainframes are CDC 6600 and IBM ES000 series. Figure 1.11 Mainframe computer
1.6.4 Supercomputers Supercomputers (Figure 1.12) are the fastest and the most expensive machines.
They have high processing speed compared to other computers. The speed of a supercomputer is
generally measured in FLOPS (FLoating point Operations Per Second). Some of the faster
supercomputers can perform trillions of calculations per second. Supercomputers are built by
interconnecting thousands of processors that can work in parallel. Supercomputers are used for highly
calculation-intensive tasks, such as, weather forecasting, climate research (global warming), molecular
research, biological research, nuclear research and aircraft design. They are also used in major
universities, military agencies and scientific research laboratories. Some examples of supercomputers
are IBM Roadrunner, IBM Blue gene and Intel ASCI red. PARAM is a series of supercomputer assembled
in India by C-DAC (Center f