Department of Electronics &

Communication Engineering

Introduction
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What is signal ?

 A Signal is the function of one or more independent variables that

carries some information to represent a physical phenomenon.

 For example : music, speech, still photos, heart beat etc.

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Classification of signals

Signals

Continuous time Discrete time

Digital signals
signals signals
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Continuous time signals

The signals that are defined for every instant of time are known as
continuous time signals

Amplitude
(volt)
(Sec)
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Discrete time signals
The signals that are defined at discrete instants of time are known as
discrete time signal. The discrete –time signals are continuous in amplitude
but discrete in time.

Amplitude
(volt)
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Digital Signal

The signals that are discrete in time and quantized in amplitude are digital
signal
(Volts)

(Sec)
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Elementary continuous time signals

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Unit step signal

1 for t  0
ut  
0 for t  0

Amplitude
(volt)

(Sec)
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Unit ramp signal

t for t  0
rt   r(t)
0 for t  0

Amplitude
(volt)

t (Sec)
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Unit ramp signal (contd.)

The unit ramp signal can be obtained by applying unit step signal to
an integrator
t t
r t    u   d   d  t
 0
Conversely, the unit step signal can be obtained by differentiating the
unit ramp signal
dr(t)
u(t) 
dt
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Unit impulse signal

The unit impulse is a signal with infinite
magnitude and zero duration, but with unit
area
 for t  0
t  
0 for t  0


 (t)dt  1

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Sinusoidal signal
The sinusoidal signal is defined as
x(t) = A sin (2πfot+ θ)
= A sin (ωot+ θ)

ωo = 2 π fo = 2 π /To

To = Time period of the sinusoidal signal

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Real exponential signal
The real exponential signal is defined as

x(t) = Aebt b>1

Where A and b are real A

A = amplitude of the exponential signal

b<1

A
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Complex exponential signal
The complex exponential signal is defined as

x(t)  Ae  Ae
zt  b  j  t bt jt
 Ae e Where, z  b  j

 x(t)  Ae bt  cos(t )  j sin (t ) 

 x(t)  Ae cos(t )  jAe sin (t )
bt bt
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Complex exponential sinusoidal signal
The complex exponential sinusoidal signal is defined as
x(t )  jAe bt sin (t ) ω = 2 π f = 2 π /T
T = Time period of the sinusoidal signal

A A

b = negative
b = positive
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Discrete Time Signal

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Representation of Discrete time signal

There are different types of representations for discrete time signals:

1. Graphical representation
2. Functional representation
3. Tabular representation
4. Sequence representation
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Functional representation
 
Assume, x(n)  0.5,1.0, 1.0,0.6,1.2,1.5

be a discrete time signal
where

x(n) = -0.5, for n = -2

x(n) = 1.0, for n = -1
x(n) = -1.0, for n = 0
x(n) = 0.6, for n = 1
x(n) = 1.2, for n = 2
x(n) = 1.5, for n = 3
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Graphical representation

 
x(n)  0.5,1.0, 1.0,0.6,1.2,1.5

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Tabular representation

 
x(n)  0.5,1.0, 1.0,0.6,1.2,1.5


n …. -2 -1 0 1 2 3 …..

x(n) …. -0.5 1.0 -1.0 0.6 1.2 1.5 ….

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Sequence representation
A finite duration sequence with time origin n=0 indicated by the symbol ↑
is represented as

x ( n)  0.5,1, 1, 0.6,1.2,1.5


An infinite duration sequence can be represented as


x ( n)  .....  0.5,1, 1, 0.6,1.2,1.5.....


A finite duration sequence that satisfies the condition x(n) = 0 for n < 0
can be represented as
x ( n)  1, 0.6,1.2,1.5,
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Operations of the discrete time signals

The mathematical transformation from one signal to another is
represented
y ( n)  T  x ( n) 

The basic set of operations are

Time shifting
Time scaling
Time reversal
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Time shifting operation
Mathematically, the shifting operation of an input x(n) can be
represented as
y(n)  x(n  k)

 If k is positive, the input signal is shifted to the right side by k

units of time.

 If k is negative, the input signal is shifted to the left side by k units

of time.
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Contd.
Input signal x(n)
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Contd.
Delayed signal x(n-3) = x[n-(+3)]
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Contd.
Advanced signal x(n+2) = x[n-(-2)]
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Time reversal operation
The time reversal of sequence x(n) can be obtained by folding the
sequence about n = 0. It is denoted as x(-n)
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Problem

Find the following sequences:

(i) x(-n-2)

(ii) x(-n+2)
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Solution (i)
x(-n-2) = x{-(n+2)}
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Solution (ii)
x(-n+2) = x{-(n-2)}
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Time scaling operation

This is accomplished by replacing n by λn in the sequence x(n)

 
x(n)  1, 2,3, 4,5, 4,3, 2,1

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Contd.
If λ = 2 we get a new sequence y(n)  x(2n)
So,
n  2; y(2)  x(4)  1
n  1; y(1)  x(2)  3
n  0; y(0)  x(0)  5
n  1; y(1)  x(2)  3
n  2; y(2)  x(4)  1
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Contd.
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Contd.
If λ = 0.5 we get a new sequence y(n)  x(n/ 2)

So, n  8; y(8)  x(4)  1

n  6; y(6)  x(3)  2
n  4; y(4)  x(2)  3
n  2; y(2)  x(1)  4
n  0; y(0)  x(0)  5
n  2; y(2)  x(1)  4
n  4; y(4)  x(2)  3
n  6; y(6)  x(3)  2
n  8; y(8)  x(4)  1
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Problems.
Find the following output signals of the input
 
x(n)  5,1, 2, 2,3, 4,5, 4,3, 2,1,5, 2 .


(i) y(n) = x(3n)

(ii) y(n) = x(n/3)

(iii) y(n) = x(2n)

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Elementary Discrete Time Signal

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Unit step signal

1 for n  0
u n  
0 for n  0

Amplitude
(volt)

n
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Unit ramp signal

n for n  0
r n   r(n)
0 for n  0

Amplitude
(volt)

n
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Unit impulse signal

1 for n  0
n  
0 for n  0

Amplitude
(volt)

n
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Unit impulse signal (contd.)

(n)  u(n)  u(n  1)

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Sinusoidal signal
The sinusoidal signal is defined as
x(n) =A sin (ωon+ θ)

ωo = 2 π fo = 2 π /To

To = Time period of the sinusoidal signal

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Real exponential signal
The real exponential signal is
a>1 a < -1
defined as

x(n)  a n

0<a<1 -1 < a <0

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Complex exponential signal
The complex exponential signal is defined as

x(n)  a n e j( 0n )

 x(n)  a  cos(0 n  )  j sin (0n  ) 
n

 x(n)  a cos(0 n  )  ja sin (0 n  )

n n
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Complex exponential signal (contd.)
******Exponentially Decaying Sine Wave********
1

0.5
amplitude-->>

-0.5

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
time-->>
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Classification of discrete time

signals
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Classification of discrete time signals

The discrete time signals are classified into following category:
1. Deterministic and Non Deterministic Signals
2. Periodic and A periodic Signals
3. Even and Odd Signals
4. Energy and Power Signals
5. Causal and Non-causal Signals
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Deterministic & Non Deterministic Signals

Deterministic signals

 The signals are completely specified at time.

 The signal exhibits no uncertainty of value at any given instant of
time.

For example,
2 for n  0
x n   an
x n  
for n  0
0 for n  0 0 for n  0
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Contd.
Non-deterministic signals

 The signal is random in nature.

 It can’t be predicted beforehand.
 Its behavior is probabilistic in nature.
 It can be analyzed only stochastically.

Thermal noise in electric circuit is an example of non-deterministic signal.

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Periodic and Aperiodic Signals
A discrete time signal x(n) is said to be periodic with period N if and
only if
x(n+N) = x(n) for all n
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Contd.
Periodic signal
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Contd.
Aperiodic signal
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Contd.
Consider a discrete time signal is given by x(n)  Asin(0n  )
Now this discrete time signal is periodic if it satisfies the condition

x(n  N)  x(n) ………. (a)

 x(n  N)  Asin  0 (n  N)     Asin(0n  0 N  )

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Contd.
For x(n), Equation (a) satisfies if and only if ω0N is an integer
multiple of 2π, i.e.
0 N  2 m

m
So, 0  2  
N
m
 N  2  
 0 
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Example 1.
Determine whether the following signal is periodic or aperiodic? If
periodic signal, then find fundamental period.
 5 
x(n)  cos  n  1
 9 
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Solution:  5  5
x(n)  cos  n  1 , 0 
 9  9
The fundamental frequency is multiple of π. Therefore, the signal is
periodic.
m
The fundamental period is N  2  
 0 
9 18m
 N  2  m  
5 5
Here N is an integer if m = 5,10,15.. Therefore, when m =5, N=18

So, the fundamental period is 18

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Example 2.
Determine whether the following signal is periodic or aperiodic? If
periodic signal, then find fundamental period.
n 
x(n)  cos    
9 
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Solution:

n  1
x(n)  cos     , 0 
9  9

The fundamental frequency is not a multiple of π. Therefore, the signal

is aperiodic.
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Problems.
Determine whether the following signals are periodic or aperiodic? If
periodic signal, then find fundamental period.
 
1. x(n)  sin  n 2 
8 

2. x ( n)  e j 2n

n
3. x(n)  sin  
 4 
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Even and Odd Signals
A discrete time signal x(n) is said to be a even signal if

x  n   x  n  For all n

A discrete time signal x(n) is said to be a odd signal if

x  n    x  n  For all n
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Contd.
A signal x(n) can be expressed as the sum of even and odd
components. That is,
x(n)  xe (n)  x 0 (n)
Now, the even part of the signal x(n) is
x  n   x  n 
xe  n 
2
The odd part of the signal x(n) is
x  n   x  n 
xo  n 
2
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Contd.

Even signal
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Contd.

Odd signal
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Example 1.
Determine even and odd parts of the following signal

x ( n)  3 n
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Solution:
x ( n)  3 n

n
 x(n)  3
1 1 n n
Even part of the signal x(n) is xe (n)   x(n)  x(n)   3  3 
2 2
1 1 n n
Odd part of the signal x(n) is xo (n)   x(n)  x(n)   3  3 
2 2
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Problem.
Determine even and odd parts of the following signal

x(n)  2, 2,6, 2

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Energy Signal
For a discrete time signal x(n) the energy E is defined as


 x n
2
E
n 

A signal is energy signal if and only if the total energy of the signal
is finite. For an energy signal P=0
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Power signal
The average power of a discrete time signal x(n) is defined as
N
1
 x n
2
P  lim
N  2 N  1
n  N

The signal is said to be power signal if and only if the average

power of the signal is finite. For an power signal E = ∞
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Example 1.
Determine whether the following signal is energy or power signal.
n
1
x ( n)    u ( n)
4
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Solution
n
1
Given x ( n)    u ( n)  x(n)  0.25n u (n)
4
The energy of the signal

E 
2
x ( n)
n 

1 for n  0
  0.25 n 2 u n  
for n  0
0
n 0
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Contd.
 
 E   (0.25 )  (0.0625)
2 n n

n 0 n 0

1

n 0
C 
n

1 C

1
E   1.067 J
1  0.0625
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Contd.
N
1
P  Lt 
2
The power x (n)
N  2 N  1
n  N

1 N
 Lt
N  2 N  1

n 0
0.25 n 2

1 N
 Lt 
n
0.0625
N  2 N  1
n 0
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Contd.
N 1
N
C 1

n 0
C 
n

C 1

1  0.0625 
N 1
1
 P  Lt  0
N  2 N  1 0.0625  1 
The energy is finite and power is zero. Therefore, the signal is an energy
signal.
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Example 2.
Determine whether the following signal is energy or power signal.

 
x(n)  sin  n 
4 
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Solution
 
Given x(n)  sin  n 
4 
The energy of the signal

E 
2
x ( n)
n    
 
1  cos  n  
 
 

   2
  sin  n 
2  
n  4  n   2 
 
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Contd.
N
1
P  Lt 
2
The power x (n)
N  2 N  1
n  N

2
N
1 
 Lt
N  2 N  1

n  N
sin  n 
4 
  
N 
1  cos  n  
1  2 
 Lt
N  2 N  1
 
n  N  2


 
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Contd.
N
1 1
 P  Lt 
2 N  2 N  1 n N
1

1  N

 

 1  2 N  1

2 n  N

The energy is infinite and power is finite. Therefore, the signal is an

power signal.
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Problems.
Determine whether the following signal is energy or power signal.
n
1
1. x ( n)    u ( n)
3

2. x ( n )  e 2 nu ( n )

3. x ( n)  u ( n)
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Causal and Non-causal signals
A signal x(n) is said to be causal if its value is zero for n < 0.
Otherwise the signal is non-causal


x(n)  1,2, 3, 1,5

 Causal signal


x(n)  1, 2,3,1,2, 3, 1,5

 Non-causal signal
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Anti-causal signal
A signal that is zero for all n ≥ 0 is called an anti-causal signal.


x(n)  1, 2,3, 5,0,

