DEMONSTRATE AN UNDERSTANDING OF THE USE OF DIFFERENT NUMBER BASES

AND MEASUREMENT UNITS AND AN AWARENESS OF ERROR IN THE CONTEXT OF

RELEVANT CALCULATIONS
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NQF LEVEL: 3
CREDITS: 2
NATIONAL HOURS 20

LEARNER GUIDE

Name
Contact Address
Telephone (H)
Telephone (W)
Facsimile
Cellular
E-mail
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
HOW TO USE THIS GUIDE............................................................................................................... 3
ICONS................................................................................................................................................. 3
TAKE NOTE........................................................................................................................................ 3
PROGRAMME OVERVIEW................................................................................................................ 4
LEARNING ASSUMPTIONS............................................................................................................... 4
HOW YOU WILL LEARN..................................................................................................................... 4
HOW YOU WILL BE ASSESSED........................................................................................................ 4

SECTION 1: BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM ………...................................................................... 6

INTRODUCTION TO BINARY NUMBERS................................................................................. ........... 6
CONVERSION BETWEEN BINARY AND DECIMAL NUMBERS ...................................................... 7
BINARY ARITHMETIC………………………………………………………………………………….…14

SECTION 2: SIZE AND MAGNITUDE OF NUMBERS …………………………………... 19

USE SCIENTIFIC NOTATION FOR SMALL AND LARGE NUMBERS.................................. 20
PREFIXES: FROM GIGA TO PICA (109 TO 10-12)…………………………........................... 23
CONVERSIONS: SI TO IMPERIAL; DEGREES F TO DEGREES C……….………………… 23

SECTION 3: THE EFFECT OF ERROR IN CALCULATION..........................................................26

RATIONAL AND IRRATIONAL NUMBERS…………………………………………………… ………27
REPEATING DECIMALS………………………………………………………………………………….29
SYMBOLS FOR IRRATIONAL NUMBERS ARE LEFT AS IS………………………………………..32
ROUNDING PREMATURELY IN CALCULATIONS…………………………………………………...33
ACCURACY AND BEING PRACTICAL………………………………………………………………...35
THE FINAL VALUE OF A CALCULATION IS EXPRESSED IN TERMS OF THE REQUIRED
UNIT……………………………………….………………………………………………………………..36

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HOW TO USE THIS GUIDE
This workbook belongs to you. It is designed to serve as a guide for the duration of your training
programme and as a resource for after the time. It contains readings, activities, and application
aids that will assist you in developing the knowledge and skills stipulated in the specific outcomes
and assessment criteria. Follow along in the guide as the facilitator takes you through the
material, and feel free to make notes and diagrams that will help you to clarify or retain
information. Jot down things that work well or ideas that come from the group. Also, note any
points you would like to explore further. Participate actively in the skill practice activities, as they
will give you an opportunity to gain insights from other people’s experiences and to practice the
skills. Do not forget to share your own experiences so that others can learn from you too.

ICONS
For ease of reference, an icon will indicate different activities. The following icons indicate
different activities in the manual.

Outcomes Learning Activities

Take note
Assessment Criteria Note!

Stop and Think!

Course Material Reflection

Notes (Blank) References

Definition Summaries

Example

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PROGRAMME OVERVIEW

PURPOSE
The essential purposes of the mathematical literacy requirements are that, as the learner
progresses with confidence through the levels, the learner will grow in:

 An insightful use of mathematics in the management of the needs of everyday living to

become a self-managing person
 An understanding of mathematical applications that provides insight into the learner `s
present and future occupational experiences and so develop into a contributing worker
 The ability to voice a critical sensitivity to the role of mathematics in a democratic society
and so become a participating citizen.

People credited with this unit standard are able to:

 Convert numbers between the decimal number system and binary number system
 Work with numbers in different ways to express size/magnitude.
 Demonstrate the effect of error in calculations.

LEARNING ASSUMPTIONS

The credit value is based on the assumption that people starting to learn towards this unit
standard are competent in Mathematical Literacy and Communications at NQF level 2.
HOW YOU WILL LEARN
The programme methodology includes facilitator presentations, readings, individual activities,
group discussions, and skill application exercises.

HOW YOU WILL BE ASSESSED

This programme has been aligned to registered unit standards. You will be assessed against the
outcomes of the unit standards by completing a knowledge assignment that covers the essential
embedded knowledge stipulated in the unit standards, and by doing a practical assessment to
apply the learning to your work situation. When you are assessed as competent against the unit
standards, you will receive a certificate of competence and be awarded 6 credits towards a
National Qualification.

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SECTION 1: BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM.

Specific Outcome
On completion of this section you will be able to;
 Perform addition and subtraction of positive whole numbers in
binary up to 100002 (16 in decimal).
 Demonstrate understanding of the mathematical relationships and
principles involved in the computations.

Assessment Criteria
On completion of this section you will be able to:
 Conversion between binary and decimal numbers is done correctly.
(SO1 AC1)
 Basic addition and subtraction calculations in the binary number
system are done correctly(SO1 AC2)
 Practical applications of the decimal and binary system are
explained correctly. (SO1 AC3)

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1.1 INTRODUCTION TO BINARY NUMBERS

To understand binary numbers, begin by recalling elementary school math. When we first learned
about numbers, we were taught that, in the decimal system, things are organized into columns:
H|T|O
1|9|3
Such that "H" is the hundreds column, "T" is the tens column, and "O" is the ones column. So the
number "193" is 1-hundreds plus 9-tens plus 3-ones.

Years later, we learned that the ones column meant 10^0, the tens column meant 10^1, the
hundreds column 10^2 and so on, such that

10^ 2 |10^1|10^0
1|9| 3
the number 193 is really {(1*10^2)+(9*10^1)+(3*10^0)}.

As you know, the decimal system uses the digits 0-9 to represent numbers. If we wanted to put a
larger number in column 10^n (e.g.,10), we would have to multiply10*10^n, which would give
10^(n+1), and be carried a column to the left. For example, putting ten in the 10^0 column is
impossible, so we put a 1 in the 10^1 column, and a 0 in the 10^0 column, thus using two columns.
Twelve would be 12*10^0, or 10^0(10+2), or 10^1+2*10^0, which also uses an additional column to
the left (12).

The binary system works under the exact same principles as the decimal system, only it operates
in base 2 rather than base 10. In other words, instead of columns being

10^2|10^1|10^0
they are
2^2|21|2^0

Instead of using the digits 0-9, we only use 0-1 (again, if we used anything larger it would be like
multiplying 2*2^n and getting 2^n+1, which would not fit in the 2^n column. Therefore, it would shift
you one column to the left. For example, "3" in binary cannot be put into one column. The first
column we fill is the right-most column, which is 2^0, or 1. Since 3>1, we need to use an extra
column to the left, and indicate it as "11" in binary (1*2^1) + (1*2^0).

The binary system can be defined as the numeration system based on powers of 2, in contrast to
the familiar decimal system, which is based on powers of 10.Thus, the first ten numbers in binary

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notation, corresponding to the numbers 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8, and 9 in decimal notation, are
0,1,10,11,100,101,110,111,1000, and 1001.
Binary numbers are sometimes written with a subscript ―b‖ or ―2‖ (eg.11101.012) to distinguish
them from decimal numbers having the same digits. As with the decimal system, fractions can be
represented by digits to the right of the binary point (analogous to the decimal point).

A binary number is generally much longer than the decimal equivalent; e.g., the number above,
1011010b, contains seven digits while its decimal counterpart, 90, contains only two. This is a
disadvantage for most ordinary applications but is offset by the greater simplicity of the binary
system in computer applications. Since only two digits are used, any binary digit, or bit, can be
transmitted and recorded electronically simply by the presence or absence of an electrical pulse or
current. The great speed of such devices more than compensates for the fact that a given number
may contain a large number of digits.

1.2 CONVERSION BETWEEN BINARY AND DECIMAL NUMBERS

The base of any number system is determined by the number of digits in the system. For example,
we know that binary is a base-2 number system since it uses two digits and decimal is a base-10
system since it uses ten digits.
As mentioned before, we will also distinguish between various number systems by putting a small
subscript after the number to indicate the base.
For example, a typical decimal number would be written like 46210 (note, normally the subscript is
not used) and a typical binary number would be written like 1102.

1.2.1 Decimal to binary conversion

To convert from decimal to binary we use repeated division on the integer part. Take the decimal
number 111.
The steps below show how to convert the number 1110 number to binary using repeated division.
The 'R' stands for the remainder of the division.
First, we divide 11 by 2 to find the least significant digit (the rightmost digit). Since 1 is our
remainder, the least significant digit in our answer is 1.
11 / 2 = 5 R 1
Answer:
???1
Next, we take the result of the previous division (5) and divide by 2 again. Since 5 divided by 2
leaves a remainder of 1, the next digit of our answer is 1.
5/2=2R1

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Answer:
??11
Again we take the result of the previous division (2) and divide by 2. This time our division does
not have a remainder, so we write a 0 as the next digit of our answer.
2/2=1R0
Answer:
?011
One more division by 2 gives us the most significant digit (the leftmost digit) of our answer. Since 2
will not divide 1, our result is 0 with a remainder of 1. We know we are done when we get 0 as the
result of our division.
1/2=0R1
Answer:
1011
A good way to organise this conversion is to list the divisions in table form as below.
11 / 2 = 5 R of 1 (rightmost digit)
5 / 2 = 2 R of 1
2 / 2 = 1 R of 0
1 / 2 = 0 R of 1 (leftmost digit)
Reading from bottom to top, the final answer is 10112. Remember that the first division gives us
the least significant digit of our answer, and the final division gives us the most significant digit of
our answer. Also, the result of the final division is always 0.

1.2.2 Binary to decimal conversion

However, this is not the only approach possible. We can start at the right, rather than the left.

All binary numbers are in the form

a[n]*2^n + a[n-1]*2^(n-1)+...+a[1]*2^1 + a[0]*2^0

Where each a[i] is either a 1 or a 0 (the only possible digits for the binary system). The only way a
number can be odd is if it has a 1 in the 2^0 columns, because all powers of two greater than 0 are
even numbers (2, 4, 8, 16...). This gives us the rightmost digit as a starting point.

Now we need to do the remaining digits. One idea is to "shift" them. It is also easy to see that
multiplying and dividing by 2 shifts everything by one column: two in binary is 10, or (1*2^1).
Dividing (1*2^1) by 2 gives us (1*2^0), or just a 1 in binary. Similarly, multiplying by 2 shifts in the
other direction: (1*2^1)*2=(1*2^2) or 10 in binary. Therefore
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{a[n]*2^n + a[n-1]*2^(n-1) + ... + a[1]*2^1 + a[0]*2^0}/2

is equal to a[n]*2^(n-1) + a[n-1]*2^(n-2) + ... + a[1]2^0

Let's look at how this can help us convert from decimal to binary. Take the number 163. We know
that since it is odd, there must be a 1 in the 2^0 column (a[0]=1). We also know that it equals
162+1. If we put the 1 in the 2^0 column, we have 162 left, and have to decide how to translate the
remaining digits.

Two's column: Dividing 162 by 2 gives 81. The number 81 in binary would also have a 1 in the 2^0
column. Since we divided the number by two, we "took out" one power of two. Similarly, the
statement a[n-1]*2^(n-1) + a[n-2]*2^(n-2) + ... + a[1]*2^0 has a power of two removed. Our "new"
2^0 column now contains a1. We learned earlier that there is a 1 in the 2^0 column if the number
is odd. Since 81 is odd, a[1]=1. Practically, we can simply keep a "running total", which now stands
at 11 (a[1]=1 and a[0]=1). Also note that a1 is essentially "re-multiplied" by two just by putting it in
front of a[0], so it is automatically fit into the correct column.

Four's column: Now we can subtract 1 from 81 to see what remainder we still must place (80).
Dividing 80 by 2 gives 40 therefore, there must be a 0 in the 4's column, (because what we are
actually placing is a 2^0 column, and the number is not odd).

Eight's column: We can divide by two again to get 20. This is even, so we put a 0 in the 8's
column. Our running total now stands at a[3]=0, a[2]=0, a[1]=1, and a[0]=1.

We can continue in this manner until there is no remainder to place.

Let's formalize this algorithm:

1. Let D= the number we wish to convert from decimal to binary.

2. Repeat until D=0:

a) If D is odd, put "1" in the leftmost open column, and subtract 1 from D.

b) If D is even, put "0" in the leftmost open column.

c) Divide D by 2.

End Repeat

For the number 163, this works as follows:

1. Let D=163

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Step 2 b) D is odd, put a 1 in the 2^0 column.

Subtract 1 from D to get 162.

c) Divide D=162 by 2.

Temporary Result: 01

New D=81

D does not equal 0, so we repeat step 2.

Step 2 b) D is odd, put a 1 in the 2^1 column.

Subtract 1 from D to get 80.

c) Divide D=80 by 2.

Temporary Result: 11

New D=40

D does not equal 0, so we repeat step 2.

Step 2 b) D is even, put a 0 in the 2^2 column.

c) Divide D by 2.

Temporary Result: 011

New D=20

Step 2 b) D is even, put a 0 in the 2^3 column.

c) Divide D by 2.

Temporary Result: 0011

New D=10

Step 2 b) D is even, put a 0 in the 2^4 column.

c) Divide D by 2.

Temporary Result: 00011

New D=5

Step 2 a) D is odd, put a 1 in the 2^5 column.

Subtract 1 from D to get 4.

c) Divide D by 2.

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Temporary Result: 100011

New D=2

Step 2 b) D is even, put a 0 in the 2^6 column.

c) Divide D by 2.

Temporary Result: 0100011 New

D=1

Step 2a) D is odd, put a 1 in the 27 column.

Subtract 1 from D to get D=0.

c) Divide D by 2.

Temporary Result: 10100011 New D=0

D=0, so we are done, and the decimal number 163 is equivalent to the binary number 10100011.

Since we already knew how to convert from binary to decimal, we can easily verify our result.
10100011=(1*2^0)+(1*2^1)+(1*2^5)+(1*2^7)=1+2+32+128= 163.

Examples

i. Try converting these numbers from binary to decimal:

 10
 111
 10101
 11110

Answer

 10=(1*2^1) + (0*2^0) = 2+0 = 2

 111 = (1*2^2) + (1*2^1) + (1*2^0) = 4+2+1=7
 10101= (1*2^4) + (0*2^3) + (1*2^2) + (0*2^1) + (1*2^0)=16+0+4+0+1=21
 11110= (1*2^4) + (1*2^3) + (1*2^2) + (1*2^1) + (0*2^0)=16+8+4+2+0=30
ii. What would the binary number 1011 be in decimal notation?
Answer
1011= (1*2^3)+(0*2^2)+(1*2^1)+(1*2^0)
= (1*8) + (0*4) + (1*2) + (1*1)

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 = 11 (in decimal notation)

1.2.3 Decimal vs. Binary

Here are some equivalent values:

Decimal: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Binary: 0 1 10 11 100 101 110 111 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111

Here are some larger equivalent values:

Decimal: 20 25 30 40 50 100 200 500

Binary: 10100 11001 11110 101000 110010 1100100 11001000 111110100

"Binary is as easy as 1, 10, 11."

Position

In the Decimal System there are the Units, Tens, Hundreds, etc

In Binary, there are Units, Twos, Fours, etc, like this:

This is 1×8 + 1×4 + 0×2 + 1 + 1×(1/2) + 0×(1/4) + 1×(1/8) = 13.625 in Decimal

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Numbers can be placed to the left or right of the point, to indicate values greater than one or less
than one.

10.1

The number to the left of the point is a whole number (10 for example) As we move further left,
every number place gets 2 times bigger. The first digit on the right means halves (1/2). As we
move further right, every number place gets 2 times smaller (half as big).

Using: 10.1

 The "10" means 2 in decimal,

 The ".1" means half,
 So "10.1" in binary is 2.5 in decimal

The word binary comes from "Bi-" meaning two. We see "bi-" in words such as "bicycle" (two
wheels) or "binocular" (two eyes). When you say a binary number, pronounce each digit (example,
the binary number "101" is spoken as "one zero one", or sometimes "one-oh-one").This way
people don't get confused with the decimal number. A single binary digit (like "0" or "1") is called a
"bit". For example 11010 is five bits long. The word bit is made up from the words "binary digit"

Exercise
Introduction to the binary number system
1. We mean the following when we use the term ―binary number system‖:
2. The decimal system is based on powers of (the base to the power of):
3. In the binary system, only the digits ________ and _______ are used.
4. Write three even numbers (between zero and ten) in binary notation and give the
decimal equivalent.
5. Write in binary notation the five first uneven numbers
6. The number 453 means (indicate what each position means – multiplied by 10 to the
power of the position)
7. As with the decimal system, fractions can be represented by digits to the right of the
______________(analogous to the decimal point).
8. A binary number is generally much longer than the decimal equivalent; e.g., 1011010b,
contains seven digits while its _____________________ counterpart which is
________________ contains only two.

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1.3 BINARY ARITHMETIC
Arithmetic in binary is much like arithmetic in other numeral systems. Addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division can be performed on binary numerals.
1.3.1 Addition
The simplest arithmetic operation in binary is addition. Adding two single-digit binary numbers is
relatively simple, using a form of carrying:
0+0→0
0+1→1
1+0→1
1 + 1 → 0, carry 1 (since 1 + 1 = 0 + 1 × binary 10)

Adding two "1" digits produces a digit "0", while 1 will have to be added to the next column. This is
similar to what happens in decimal when certain single-digit numbers are added together; if the
result equals or exceeds the value of the radix (10), the digit to the left is incremented:

5 + 5 → 0, carry 1 (since 5 + 5 = 10 carry 1)

7 + 9 → 6, carry 1 (since 7 + 9 = 16 carry 1)
This is known as carrying. When the result of an addition exceeds the value of a digit, the
procedure is to "carry" the excess amount divided by the radix (that is, 10/10) to the left,
adding it to the next positional value. This is correct since the next position has a weight
that is higher by a factor equal to the radix. Carrying works the same way in binary:

Example

11111 (carried digits)

01101

+ 10111

-------------

= 1 0 0 1 0 0 = 36

In this example, two numerals are being added together: 011012 (1310) and 101112 (2310). The top
row shows the carry bits used. Starting in the rightmost column 1 + 1 = 102. The 1 is carried to the
left, and the 0 is written at the bottom of the rightmost column. The second column from the right is
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added: 1 + 0 + 1 = 102 again; the 1 is carried, and 0 is written at the bottom. The third column: 1 +
1 + 1 = 112. This time, a 1 is carried, and a 1 is written in the bottom row. Proceeding like this
gives the final answer 1001002 (36 decimal).

A simplification for many binary addition problems is the Long Carry Method or Brook house
Method of Binary Addition. This method is generally useful in any binary addition where one of the
numbers has a long string of ―1‖ digits. For example the following large binary numbers can be
added in two simple steps without multiple carries from one place to the next.

Example
111 11111 (carried digits) (Long Carry Method)
1110111110 1110111110
+ 1010110011 versus: + 1010110011 add crossed out digits first
----------------------- + 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 = sum of crossed out digits
=11001110001 ----------------------- now add remaining digits
11001110001

In this example, two numerals are being added together: 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 02 (95810) and 1 0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 12 (69110). The top row shows the carry bits used. Instead of the standard carry from one
column to the next, the lowest place-valued "1" with a "1" in the corresponding place value
beneath it may be added and a "1" may be carried to one digit past the end of the series. These
numbers must be crossed off since they are already added. Then simply add that result to the
uncanceled digits in the second row. Proceeding like this gives the final answer 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0
12 (164910).

1.3.2 Subtraction
Subtraction works in much the same way:
0−0→0
0 − 1 → 1, borrow 1
1−0→1
1−1→0

Subtracting a "1" digit from a "0" digit produces the digit "1", while 1 will have to be subtracted from
the next column. This is known as borrowing. The principle is the same as for carrying. When the
result of a subtraction is less than 0, the least possible value of a digit, the procedure is to "borrow"
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the deficit divided by the radix (that is, 10/10) from the left, subtracting it from the next positional
value. * * * * (starred columns are borrowed from)

Example

1101110
− 10111
----------------
= 1010111

Subtracting a positive number is equivalent to adding a negative number of equal absolute value;
computers typically use two's complement notation to represent negative values. This notation
eliminates the need for a separate "subtract" operation. Using two's complement notation
subtraction can be summarized by the following formula:

A − B = A + not B + 1.

1.3.3 Multiplication

Multiplication in binary is similar to its decimal counterpart. Two numbers A and B can be
multiplied by partial products: for each digit in B, the product of that digit in A is calculated and
written on a new line, shifted leftward so that its rightmost digit lines up with the digit in B that was
used. The sum of all these partial products gives the final result.

Since there are only two digits in binary, there are only two possible outcomes of each partial
multiplication:

 If the digit in B is 0, the partial product is also 0

 If the digit in B is 1, the partial product is equal to A

Example

The binary numbers 1011 and 1010 are multiplied as follows:

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 1 0 1 1 (A)

× 1 0 1 0 (B)

---------

0 0 0 0 ← Corresponds to a zero in B

+ 1011 ← Corresponds to a one in B

+ 0000

+1011

---------------

=1101110

Binary numbers can also be multiplied with bits after a binary point:

1 0 1.1 0 1 (A) (5.625 in decimal)

× 1 1 0.0 1 (B) (6.25 in decimal)

-------------

1.0 1 1 0 1 ← Corresponds to a one in B

+ 0 0.0 0 0 0 ← Corresponds to a zero in B

+ 0 0 0.0 0 0

+ 1 0 1 1.0 1

+ 1 0 1 1 0.1

-----------------------

= 1 0 0 0 1 1.0 0 1 0 1 (35.15625 in decimal)

See also Booth's multiplication algorithm.

1.3.4 Division

Binary division is again similar to its decimal counterpart:

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Here, the divisor is 1012, or 5 decimal, while the dividend is 110112, or 27 decimal. The procedure
is the same as that of decimal long division; here, the divisor 1012 goes into the first three digits
1102 of the dividend one time, so a "1" is written on the top line. This result is multiplied by the
divisor, and subtracted from the first three digits of the dividend; the next digit (a "1") is included to
obtain a new three-digit sequence:

1
___________
101 )11011
−101
-----
011

The procedure is then repeated with the new sequence, continuing until the digits in the dividend
have been exhausted:

101
___________
101 )11011
−101
-----
011
−000
-----
111
−101
-----
10

Thus, the quotient of 110112 divided by 1012 is 1012, as shown on the top line, while the
remainder, shown on the bottom line, is 102. In decimal, 27 divided by 5 is 5, with a remainder of 2.

Exercise
1.Adding two binary numbers
Add the binary numbers 11102 and 1112
What are the above numbers in decimal numbers and what is the total

2.Adding multiple binary numbers

a. An easy way to calculate the correct number of carries is to _____________________ and
mark a carry in the next column for each pair.
b. Demonstrate how to add the numbers 1112, 1102, 11002, 1012, and 11112. Check your
answer by calculating the decimal numbers for the above.
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SECTION 2: SIZE AND MAGNITUDE OF NUMBERS

Specific Outcome
On completion of this section you will be able to Use scientific
notation for small and large numbers.

Assessment Criteria
On completion of this section you will be able to:
 The prefixes indicating magnitude in measurements are
correctly related to the decimal system. (SO2 AC1)
 Conversions between related units in different
measurement systems are correctly applied in real-life
contexts.(SO2 AC2)

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2.1 USE SCIENTIFIC NOTATION FOR SMALL AND LARGE NUMBERS
Sometimes, especially when you are using a calculator, you may come up with a very long
number. It might be a big number, like 2,890,000,000. Or it might be a small number, like
0.0000073.
Scientific notation is a way to make these numbers easier to work with. In scientific notation, you
move the decimal place until you have a number between 1 and 10. Then you add a power of ten
that tells how many places you moved the decimal.

In scientific notation, 2,890,000,000 becomes 2.89 x 109. How?

 Remember that any whole number can be written with a decimal point. For example:
2,890,000,000 = 2,890,000,000.0
 Now, move the decimal place until you have a number between 1 and 10. If you keep
moving the decimal point to the left in 2,890,000,000 you will get 2.89.
 Next, count how many places you moved the decimal point. You had to move it 9 places to
the left to change 2,890,000,000 to 2.89. You can show that you moved it 9 places to the
left by noting that the number should be multiplied by 109.

2.89 x 109 = 2.89 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10

2.89 x 109 = 2,890,000,000

Scientific notation can be used to turn 0.0000073 into 7.3 x 10-6.

 First, move the decimal place until you have a number between 1 and 10. If you keep
moving the decimal point to the right in 0.0000073 you will get 7.3.
 Next, count how many places you moved the decimal point. You had to move it 6 places to
the right to change 0.0000073 to 7.3. You can show that you moved it 6 places to the right
by noting that the number should be multiplied by 10-6.

7.3 x 10-6 = 0.0000073

Remember: in a power of ten, the exponent—the small number above and to the right of the 10—
tells which way you moved the decimal point.

 A power of ten with a positive exponent, such as 105, means the decimal was moved to the
left.
 A power of ten with a negative exponent, such as 10-5, means the decimal was moved to
the right.

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2.1.1 Powers of Ten

billions
109 = 1,000,000,000
10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 = 1,000,000,000

millions
106 = 1,000,000
10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 = 1,000,000

hundred thousands
105 = 100,000
10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 = 100,000

ten thousands
104 = 10,000
10 x 10 x 10 x 10 = 10,000

thousands
103 = 1,000
10 x 10 x 10 = 1,000

hundreds
102 = 100
10 x 10 = 100

tens
101 = 10

ones
100 = 1

tenths
10–1 = 1/10
1/10 = 0.1

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hundredths
10–2 = 1/102
1/102 = 0.01

thousandths
10–3 = 1/103
1/103 = 0.001

ten thousandths
10–4 = 1/104
1/104 = 0.0001

hundred thousandths
10–5 = 1/105
1/105 = 0.00001

millionths
10–6 = 1/106
1/106 = 0.000001

billionths
10–9 = 1/109
1/109 = 0.000000001

Example:
4.0 x 102 = 400 (2 places to the right of 4);
While 4.0 x 10-2 = 0.04 (2 places to the left of 4).

Note that Scientific Notation is also sometimes expressed as E (for exponent), as in 4 E 2

(meaning 4.0 x 10 raised to 2). Similarly 4 E -2 means 4 times 10 raised to -2, or = 4 x 10-2 = 0.04.
This method of expression makes it easier to type in scientific notation
Exercise

a) At the end of 1994 the US Department of Energy's (DOE) inventory of high level

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 radioactive waste was approximately 378,400 cubic meters. Write this number in scientific
notation.
b) A bacterium affecting a farmer’s crop is 0,000005m in diameter. Write this size in scientific
notation.
c) The total yield of mealies in a particular farming area was 176 543 000 kg. Write this
number in scientific notation

2.2 PREFIXES: FROM GIGA TO PICA (109 TO 10-12)

Giga (symbol: G) is a prefix in the SI system of units denoting 109, or 1 000 000 000.Confirmed in
1960, it comes from the Greek γίγας, meaning giant. In computing, giga can sometimes mean
1 073 741 824 (230) for information units, eg gigabit or gigabyte, but can also denote 1 000 000
000 of other quantities e.g. transfer rates: 1 gigabit/s = 1 000 000 000 bit/s. (The binary prefix gibi
has been suggested for 230, to resolve this ambiguity, but had yet to achieve widespread usage).
In speech, gigabyte is often abbreviated to gig, as in "This is a ten-gig hard drive". The initial G in
giga- is usually pronounced hard as in geek, not soft as in giant
SI prefixes 10n Prefix Symbol scale Decimal Equivalent
109 giga G Billion 1 000 000 000
106 mega M Million 1 000 000
103 kilo k Thousand 1 000
2
10 hecto h Hundred 100
101 deca, deka da Ten 10
−1
10 deci d Tenth 0.1
−2
10 centi c Hundredth 0.01
10−3 milli m Thousandth 0.001
10−6 micro Millionth 0.000 001
−9
10 nano n Billionth Milliardth 0.000 000 001
−12
10 pico p Billionth 0.000 000 000 001

2.3 CONVERSIONS: SI TO IMPERIAL; DEGREES F TO DEGREES C

2.3.1 Metric to Imperial conversion factors

SI / Imperial conversion Imperial (Column 3) times the conversion factor (Column 4) gives you one
of the SI units (Column 1)
1.SI Unit 2.SI Symbol 3. Imperial Unit 4. Conversion Factor
Millimeter mm inch 0.03937
Centimeter cm inch 0.3937

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Metre m yard 0.9144
Square metre m2 yd2 0.8361
Litre l pint 0.5682
*Kilogram Kg lb (pounds) 0.4536
*gram g ounce 0.035274
*tone t ton (long) 0.9842
micrometre um 1/1000i n 0.03937

Example
To convert Pounds to kilograms, multiply by 0.453
Kilograms to pounds, multiply by 2.2046 (1/.453)
Ounces to grams, multiply by28.349 (1/.035)
Grams to ounces, multiply by .035
Long tons (2240 lbs.) to tones, multiply by 1.016
Tones to long tons, multiply by 0.98 (1/1.016)

Exercise
In computing giga can mean two things, what are these?

2.3.2 Temperature conversions

The Fahrenheit scale is in general usage in English-speaking countries.
Chemists usually use the Celcius scale, established by Anders Celcius (1701-1744), which
assigns zero degrees to the freezing point of air saturated water and 100 degrees to boiling water
at one atmosphere. In the Fahrenheit scale water freezes at 32 degrees and boils at 212 degrees.

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So a temperature difference of 100° C is 180° F. The ratio 100/180 can be reduced to 5/9. To
convert from degrees F to degrees C we have to subtract 32 and multiply by 5/9. To convert from
degrees C to degrees F we have to multiply by 9/5 (which gives you Fahrenheit sized degrees)
and then add 32 (which adjusts for the offset).

Let's convert the boiling temperature of water as 212° F to Celsius.

212 - 32 = 180. 180 x 5/9 = 100.
A comfortable room temperature is 72° F. Let's convert that to Celsius.
72 - 32 = 40. 40 x 5/9 = 22.2.
25° C is used as a "standard" temperature. Let's convert that to Fahrenheit.
25 x 9/5 = 45. 45 + 32 = 77.
The 32 that we add or subtract is in degrees Fahrenheit, so we always add
or subtract to the temperature in Fahrenheit sized degrees.
Fahrenheit to Celsius, subtracts 32, divide by 1.8 Celsius to Fahrenheit, multiply by1.8, add 32
Exercise
Convert the following
a) -10 °C =? °F
b) 0 °C =? °F
c) 10 °C =? °F
d) 5, 6 g =? Ounces
e) 1000 pounds =? kg

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SECTION 3: THE EFFECT OF ERROR IN
CALCULATIONS.

Specific Outcome
On completion of this section you will be able
 Work with rational and irrational numbers.
 Explore repeating decimals and convert them to common fraction
form
 Use scientific notation for small and large numbers.

Assessment Criteria
On completion of this section you will be able to:
 Symbols for irrational numbers such as 7c and 42 are left in
formulae or steps to calculations except where approximations are
required. (SO3 AC1)
 Descriptions are provided of the effect of rounding prematurely in
calculations.(SO3 AC2)
 The desired degree of accuracy is determined in relation to the
practical context.(SO3 AC3)
 The final value of a calculation is expressed in terms of the required
unit.(SO3 AC4)

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3.1 RATIONAL AND IRRATIONAL NUMBERS

3.1.1 Rational Numbers

A rational number is a number that can be written as a ratio. That means it can be written as a
fraction, in which both the numerator (the number on top) and the denominator (the number on the
bottom) are whole numbers.

 The number 8 is a rational number because it can be written as the fraction 8/1.
 Likewise, 3/4 is a rational number because it can be written as a fraction.
 Even a big, clunky fraction like 7,324,908/56,003,492 is rational, simply because it can be
written as a fraction.

Every whole number is a rational number, because any whole number can be written as a fraction.
For example, 4 can be written as 4/1, 65 can be written as 65/1, and 3,867 can be written as
3,867/1.

3.1.2 Irrational Numbers

All numbers that are not rational are considered irrational. An irrational number can be written as a
decimal, but not as a fraction.
An irrational number has endless non-repeating digits to the right of the decimal point. Here are
some irrational numbers:
π = 3.141592…

= 1.414213…
Although irrational numbers are not often used in daily life, they do exist on the number line. In
fact, between 0 and 1 on the number line, there are an infinite number of irrational numbers!
Example
Which of the following numbers are rational?
1; −6; 3½; − 2; 3; 0; 7.38609
Answer: All of them!

A rational number can always be written as a fraction a/b, where a and b are integers (b not equal
to 0).
So when a and b are positive, that is, when they are natural numbers, then their ratio can always
be named. Hence the term rational number.

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Now a fraction can always be expressed as a decimal. Either the decimal will terminate -- as 1/4 =
0.25; or the decimal will have a predictable pattern -- as 1/11 = 0.090909. . .
A rational number, then, can always be expressed as such a decimal.At this point, you might
wonder, what is a number that is not rational?
("Square root of 2") is not rational. There is no whole number, no fraction, and no decimal whose
square is 2.

Try it – do you get 1.414? How would one know that this is not a rational number? Because
(1.414)² = 1.999396 -- which is approximately 2. No decimal squared will ever produce exactly 2
because if the decimal ends in the digit 1, then its square will also end in 1. If the decimal ends in
2, its square will end in 4. And so on. There is no decimal -- no rational number -- whose square is
exactly 2.000000000. We call √2 an irrational number.

By recalling the Pythagorean Theorem, we can see that these irrational numbers are necessary.
For if the sides of an isosceles right triangle are called 1, and then we will have 1² + 1² = 2, so that
the hypotenuse is √2.
There really is a length that logically deserves the name, ―√2." Insofar as numbers name the length
of lines, then√2 is a number. Which numbers have rational square roots? Only the square roots
of the square numbers.
Thus, √1 = 1, which is rational. , √2, √3 are irrational. √4 = 2 --rational. , √5, √6, √7, √8, are
irrational. We then come to√9 = 3, which is rational. And so on. Only the square roots of the
square numbers are rational.

When the ancient Greeks first realized the fact of irrationals, they called them unnamable or
speechless. For if we ask, "In the isosceles right triangle, what ratio has the hypotenuse to the
side?" -- we cannot say. We can name it only as "Square root of 2."
The decimal representation of irrationals
When a rational number is expressed as a decimal, then either the decimal will terminate, or there
will be a predictable pattern of digits. But when an irrational number is expressed as a decimal,
then, clearly, the decimal cannot terminate (for if it did, the number would be rational), and there
will not be a predictable pattern of digits.

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Famous Irrational Numbers
Pi is a famous irrational number. People have calculated Pi to over
one million decimal places and still there is no pattern. The first few
digits look like this:

3.1415926535897932384626433832795 (and more ...)

The number e (Euler's Number) is another famous irrational
number. People have also calculated e to lots of decimal places
without any pattern showing. The first few digits look like this:

2.7182818284590452353602874713527 (and more ...)

The Golden Ratio is an irrational number. The first few digits look
like this:

1.61803398874989484820... (and more ...)

√3 1.7320508075688772935274463415..
√99 9.94987437106619954734479821001
But √4 = 2 (rational), and √9 = 3 (rational)
... So not all roots are irrational.

Now, with rational numbers you sometimes see

1/11 = .090909. . .
Here, the three dots (ellipsis) mean "And so on, according to the indicated pattern."
But if we write ellipsis for an irrational number --
= 1.41421356237. . .then here the three dots mean "And so on, according to the rule for
calculating the next digit.", but there is no pattern!

3.2 REPEATING DECIMALS

The problem that you will be confronted with is the following: ―Convert 0.757575 to a common
fraction‖.
0.757575... =?
If you need to solve the problem, consider the following method:
x = 0.757575... Equate x to the decimal fraction
100x = 75.757575... Multiply the equation with 100. (see below for a detailed explanation)
100x - x = 75 Subtract x, or the value of x from both sides of the equation.

(75.75757575 - .75757575 = 75 on the right hand side)

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99x = 75 Simplify the left hand side.
x = 75/99 Divide the equation with the resultant number (99) to get the value of x
Does that make sense?
Here is some more detail:
As you may already know, every fraction (technically, a fraction is called a rational number) either
terminates - ends with a string of 0's - or is a repeating decimal (of course, you could think of the
string of zeros as just a special kind of repeating decimal).As we have seen above, the decimals
neither terminate nor repeat cannot be represented by fractions (with integers on the top and
bottom), and are called "irrational" numbers (see the section on irrational numbers). So the
question that occurs is how to find out what fraction that repeating decimal is equal to. There is a
trick to it. Here's the trick.

Suppose that you have a repeating decimal, and it looks like

(a)(a)(a)...where (a) is some sequence of repeating digits (technically, (a) is called the "repeated,"
i.e., "the thing which is repeated").
Example
1/3 = .3333333..., (a) is 3
1/11 = 0.09090909..., (a) is 09
1/7 = o.142857142857.... (a) is 142857

3.2.1 Converting repeating decimals to common fraction.

First, you have to count the number of digits in the repeated. When (a) is 3, the number of digits is
1, when (a) is 09, the number of digits is 2, and when (a) is 142857, the number of digits is 6.

Now, multiply your repeating decimal by a power of 10, namely, the power of 10 which is a 1
followed by a number of zeros equal to the number of digits in the repeated. That's a mouthful, so
let's see how it works in the examples above:
For 0.33333..., the repeated is 3, and that has *one* digit, so multiply by a 1 followed by *one*
zero, i.e., by 10 For 0.090909..., the repeated is 09, which has *two* digits, so multiply by a 1
followed by *two* zeros, i.e., by 100 For 0.142857142857..., the repeated is 142857, which has
*six*digits, so multiply by a 1 followed by *six* zeros, i.e., by 1,000,000 (one million).
If we multiply the repeating decimal by a power of 10 in this way, we end up with a decimal which
has the repeated to the LEFT of the decimal point, and the same repeating decimal we started out
with to the RIGHT of the decimal point:
Multiply 0.33333... by 10, and we get 3.33333...
Multiply 0.090909... by 100, and we get 9.090909...

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Multiply 0.142857142857... by 1000000, and we get 142857.142857...
But now note that after we multiply by this appropriate power of 10, we get the sum of an integer
(which is numerically equal to whatever the repeated was) and the repeating decimal we started
out with. If we let x be the repeating decimal we started out with, we find:
If x = .333.., then 10x = 3.333... = 3 + .333... = 3 + x.
That is, we get 10x = 3 + x.
If you remember your algebra, subtracting x from both sides of this equation gives us 9x = 3, so
that x = 3/9 = 1/3, after we reduce the fraction to lowest terms.
If x = .0909..., I hope you can see that we get 100x = 9 + x, or 99x = 9, or x = 9/99 = 1/11.
And if x = .142857142857..., do you see that 1000000x = 142857 + x?
Solve that for x, and you get x = 142857/999999 = 1/7 (though the reduction to lowest terms takes
a little longer here if you forget that we know that this better be the reduction, since that's how we
got the repeating decimal in the first place!).
If you have followed this argument, then maybe you can see that in general, if the repeating
decimal has (a) as the repeated, then the fraction that is represented by that repeating decimal is
just (a)/R where R is a number with the same number of digits as (a), but all the digits are 9's.
Thus,
0.567567... = 567/999 (= 21/37 after reduction)
0.42014201... = 4201/9999 (is already reduced to lowest terms) and so on.
So now that you feel you understand this, let’s look at an interesting case.
If we looked at 0.333333..., who said the repented was 3? Couldn't it just as well be 33, or 333, or
even 333333333333333333333?
The answer is that it could, but (and this takes a little more work) it ends up giving you the same
fraction after reduction to lowest terms.
Exercise
1. Identify the rational numbers by saying the name of each number: Say whether the number is
rational or irrational.
a) √3
b) √5
c) √4
d) √3/5
e) √4/9
2. Convert the following repeating decimal to the common fraction form
0.090909

3. Convert 0, 123123123… to a common fraction

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Exercise
3.3 SYMBOLS FOR IRRATIONAL NUMBERS ARE LEFT AS IS

3.3.1 Integer
Integers are like whole numbers, but they also include negative numbers ... but still no fractions
allowed!

Integers are all the positive whole numbers, negative whole numbers, and zero. For example,
43434235; 28; 2; 0; -28; and -3 030 are integers, but numbers like 1/2, 4.00032, 2.5, Pi, and -9.90
are not. We can say that an integer is in the set: {...3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,...} (the three dots mean you
keep going in both directions.) It is often useful to think of the integers as points along a 'number
line.
The terms even and odd only apply to integers; 2.5 is neither even nor odd. Zero, on the other
hand, is even since it is 2 times some integer: it's 2 times 0. To check whether a number is odd,
see whether it's one more than some even number: 7 is odd since it's one more than 6, which is
even. Another way to say this is that zero is even since it can be written in the form 2*n, where n is
an integer. Odd numbers can be written in the form 2*n + 1. Again, this lets us talk about whether
negative numbers are even and odd: -9 is odd since it's one more than -10, which is even.
Every positive integer can be factored into the product of prime numbers, and there's only one way
to do it for every number. For instance, 280 = 2x2x2x5x7, and there's only one way to factor 280
into prime numbers. This is an important theorem: the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic.
Rational Numbers 5/1, 1/2, 1.75, -97/3

A rational number is any number that can be written as a ratio of two integers (hence the name!
Ratio - nal). In other words, a number is rational if we can write it as a fraction where the
numerator and denominator are both integers.
Rational The term "rational" comes from the word "ratio," because the rational numbers are the
ones that can be written in the ratio form p/q where p and q are integers. Irrational, then, just
means all the numbers that aren't rational.
Every integer is a rational number, since each integer n can be written in the form n/1. For
example 5 = 5/1 and thus 5 is a rational number. However, numbers like 1/2, 45454737/2424242,
and -3/7 are also rational; since they are fractions whose numerator and denominator are integers.

So the set of all rational numbers will contain any of the following numbers 4/5, -8, 1.75 (which is
7/4), -97/3, and so on. Is 0,999 repeating a rational number? Well, a number is rational if it can be
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written as A/B (A over B): 0,3 = 3/10 and 0,55555..... = 5/9, so these are both rational numbers. In
fact all repeating decimals like 0,575757575757... , all integers like 46, and all finite decimals like
.472 are rational.

Irrational Numbers √2 , π (pi), e, the Golden Ratio

Irrational numbers are numbers that can be written as approximate decimals but not as fractions.
An irrational number is any real number that is not rational. By real number we mean, loosely, a
number that we can conceive of in this world, one with no square roots of negative numbers (such
a number is called complex.)

A real number is a number that is somewhere on a number line, so any number on a number line
that isn't a rational number is irrational. The square root of 2 is an irrational number because it
can't be written as a ratio of two integers. Other irrational numbers include the square root of 3, the
square root of 5, pi, e, and the golden ratio.

π (pi) is an irrational number because it cannot be expressed as a ratio (fraction) of two integers: it
has no exact decimal equivalent, although 3.1415926 is good enough for many applications. The
square root of 2 is another irrational number that cannot be written as a fraction.

In mathematics, a name can be used with a very precise meaning that may have little to do with
the meaning of the English word. ("Irrational" numbers are NOT numbers that can't argue
logically!)
Exercise
Symbols for irrational numbers are left as is
Define what is meant by an irrational number and give one example

3.4 ROUNDING PREMATURELY IN CALCULATIONS

When a number is rounded (or rounded off), it is approximated by eliminating the least significant
digits. When rounding, you are finding the closest multiple of ten (or one hundred, or other place
value) to your number. For example, the number 42 can be rounded down to 40 (this number was
rounded to the tens place). Similarly, 285 can be rounded up to 300 (this number was rounded to
the hundreds place).

Rounding is used to make a number easier to work with. For example, if you know that there are
496 students in your school, you can say that there are approximately 500 students in your school.

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On a number line, you can see how rounding a number approximates its value.

Whole numbers can be rounded to the tens place, hundreds place, thousands place, and so on.
When a number is rounded to the tens place, the final form has a zero for the ones digit. When a
number is rounded to the hundreds place, the final form has a zero for both the tens digit and the
ones digit.

Decimal numbers can also be rounded; this approximates the number to the nearest tenth,
hundredth, thousandth, or other decimal place. When a decimal number is rounded to the tenths
place, the final form has no digit in the hundredths place (or any places to the right of that). When
a decimal number is rounded to the hundredths place, the final form has no digit in the
thousandths place (or any places to the right of that).

When you work out long sums on your calculator, it is very important that you do not round off the
numbers in the middle of the sum. You must carry as many digits throughout your calculation as
you can. This may seem ridiculous because you have to write down such long numbers.
Example
That we measure the weight of an object as 3.28 g on a balance believed to be accurate to within
±0.05 gram. The resulting value of 3.28±.05 gram tells us that the true weight of the object could
be anywhere between 3.23 g and 3.33 g. The absolute uncertainty here is 0.1 g (±0.05 g), and the
relative uncertainty is 1 part in 32.8, or about 3 percent.

How many significant digits should there be in the reported measurement? Since only the leftmost
―3‖ in ―3.28‖ is certain, you would probably elect to round the value to 3.3 g. So far so good. But
what is someone else supposed to make of this figure when they see it in your report? The value
―3.3 g‖ suggests an implied uncertainty of 3.3±0.05 g, meaning that the true value is likely between
3.25 g and 3.35 g. This range is 0.02 g below that associated with the original measurement, and
so rounding off has introduced a bias of this amount into the result. Since this is less than half of
the ±0.05 g uncertainty in the weighing, it is not a very serious matter in itself. However, if several

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values that were rounded in this way are combined in a calculation, the rounding-off errors could
become significant.

Exercise
Descriptions are provided of the effect of rounding prematurely in calculations
If you need 36 m of copper wire to wind an alternator and you have to produce 19 500 of these –
what will happen if you round of prematurely by saying 40 m for 20 000 alternators (at R 17 per
meter)

3.5 ACCURACY AND BEING PRACTICAL

Here one needs to consider to what level of accuracy one wants to solve a problem.
Example
If you are a warden in a jail block and you have 23 inmates currently incarcerated and 8 more are
allocated to you, you will then have 31 persons. If you do your evening roll-call it will not be good
enough if your assistant says that there about 30 people there. It will be good enough however if
you were organising a bus to transport them and you told the bus company that you needed a bus
that can take about thirty to thirty five people.

Exercise
The desired degree of accuracy is determined in relation to the practical context:
a. If you were a nurse and the doctor said you have to insert the needle deep into the person’s
thigh – would you want to be accurate to the nearest mm, cm, or dm?
b. If you are recording the mass of maize produced by your farm would you record your answer to
the nearest ton, kg or g?
c. If you have bollworm infecting your cotton crop, would you want to know the approximate size of
the worm in km, m cm or mm?

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3.6 THE FINAL VALUE OF A CALCULATION IS EXPRESSED IN TERMS OF THE REQUIRED
UNIT

If a calculation needs to be done to determine how many cc of adrenalin needs to be injected into
a patient – the result should be in cc, not ml or cl.
Another situation that one needs to consider when expressing the final value of a calculation in
terms of the required unit occurs when after calculating something you land up with a fraction of an
integer.
Example
You are a security guard at a gate and record the following traffic:
08h00 – 09h00 14 cars
09h00 – 10h00 17 cars
10h00 – 11h00 10 cars
Your supervisor now asks you ―On average, how many cars came through per hour in the past
three hours. You pull out your calculator and find that 41 divided by three is 13,6667. Now we all
know that 2/3 of a car cannot drive through the gate! So the answer you need to give is 14.

Exercise
The final value of a calculation is expressed in terms of the required unit:
a) Given the following formula ―1cc for every 50kg’s of body mass (or pro rata)‖ plus
0,1cc for men and 0.85cc for women, for every 5 years the person is over 40. How
many cc’s would you administer in each of the following cases:
A 35 year old male B 200 kg 4cc
A 60 year old women 80kg 1,6cc + (4 x .85cc) = 5cc
A 15 year old boy 60 kg
b) Add 1m; 1cm and 1 mm – express your answer in cm
Concept (SO 3) I understand this concept

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