FOR- 101 Introduction to Forestry (1+1)

LECTURE OUT LINE

Lecture Topic
No.
1 Introduction; definition, benefits and objectives of forestry
2-3 Salient features of National Forest policies
4 Define and types of locality factors; Succession of Forest
5 Types of forest in India and forest classification
6 Regeneration of forest; types of regeneration; Natural regeneration
from seeds and vegetative parts, coppicing, pollarding, root suckers;
7 Artificial regeneration; objectives, choice between natural and artificial
regeneration; crown classification.
8 Tending operations- weeding, cleaning, pruning
9 Thinning types; Mechanical, ordinary, crown and advance thinning
10 Forest mensuration- Objectives, dimension of tree measurement
11 Diameter measurement; Instruments used in diameter measurement
12 Tree height measurement; methods of height measurement- Ocular,
Non-instrumental methods- shadow and single pole method
13 Instrumental methods of tree height measurement- trigonometric
principles, types of instruments used in height measurement.
14 Mid term exam
15 Tree stem form; types of form factor and form quotient
16 Volume measurement for standing and felled trees; Age determination
of tree
17 Agroforestry- definition, advantages & disadvantages, criteria of
selection of trees in agroforestry.
18 Different types of Agroforestry system prevalent in the country;
shifting cultivation
19 Taungya; types of taungya, alley cropping; wind breaks; shelter belts
20 Cultivation practices of Teak and Mahogany species
21 Final exam

References

 Principles and practices of Agroforestry by A.P. Dwedi

 Hand book of forestry by S.S. Negi
 Agroforestry by P.K. Nair
 Forest Mensuration by L.S. Khanna
 Principles and practices of silviculture by L.S. Khanna
FORESTRY has been defined as, ‘the theory and practice of all that constitutes the creation,
conservation and scientific management of forests and the utilization of their resources.
Forest is derived from LATIN word Foris mean OUT SIDE
A forest is a large area where trees grow close together.
Based on aims or objectives, forestry may be classified
1. Protection or environmental forestry :
• protection of the land against wind and water erosion.
• regulation of the water cycle.
• wildlife conservation.
• moderation of climatic conditions
2. Commercial or Production forestry : -
• production of timber for saw mills, match factories and other wood based industries.
3. SOCIAL FORESTRY:
• This is the practice of raising forests outside traditional forests areas, usually with involvement
of large sections of the society. Social forestry has attained a high level of importance in India.
4. Non-commercial farm forestry :
• It involves the raising of trees by individual farmers for their own domestic needs. Such
programmes are mainly based on non-commercial incentives and are taken up in areas of severe
fuel wood or agricultural timber shortage.
5.Commercial farm forestry
• under which farmers grows trees on a commercial basis on farm lands. Usually taken up in
areas where there ready market for wood or other forest based product. FAQ (1980) has
described this as “turning peasant into entrepreneurs and producers”.
6. Community forestry
• Community forestry involves the raising of trees un public or community land rather than on
privately owned lands as in the case of farm forestry.
7.Urban forestry
• This type of forestry has been described as the management of public and privately owned lands
in and adjacent to urban centres. One distinguishing feature between rural and urban forestry is
that urban forests and trees have more aesthetic value than rural trees.
8. Extension Forestry :
• practice of forestry in areas devoid of tree growth and other vegetation and situated in places
away from the conventional forest areas with the object of increasing the area under tree
growth.
9. Intensive Forestry :defined as ‘the practice of forestry with the object of obtaining the maximum in
volume and quality of products per unit area through the application of the best techniques of
silviculture and management.
10. Farm Forestry :Itis the practice of forestry on farms in the farm of raising rows of trees on bunds
or boundaries of field and individual trees in private agriculture land

Direct benefits of forest

• They provide homes for indigenous wildlife
• They encourage the return of endangered species
• The roots reduce erosion in rain seasons and dry areas
• They replenish the ground with nutrients from the air such as nitrogen
• They retain groundwater supporting surrounding growths
• They rebuild worn soils and improve agricultural productivity
• They provide food, fodder, fuelwood, fertilizers, fibers, finance, fruit and medicinal products.
• They sustain eco-system balance and bio-diversity
• Wild life habitat
• Air filtering and removal of particulates
• Noise abatement
• Temperature amelioration in the cities
 • Green belt for moisture storage zone
• Effect on property value
• Nutrient cycling
• Social values and ecotorism
• Economic values
• They create microclimate conditions for life to flourish
• They have provided medicines for centuries including for; Malaria, heartburn, lung diseases,
rheumatism, flu and leprosy etc.,

BRANCHES OF FORESTRY

1) Silviculture defined as: It is that branch of forestry which deals with the establishment,
development, care, and reproduction of stands of Timber (Tourney and Korstian).

Silvics is ‘the study of life history and general characteristics of forest trees and crops with particular
reference to environmental factors.

2) Forest mensuration: It is branch of forestry which deals with ‘the determination of dimensions,
form, volume, age and increment of logs, single trees, stands or whole woods.

3) Forest utilization: It isconcerned with the harvesting, conversion, disposal and use of the forest
produce.’

4) Forest management: practical application of the scientific, technical and economic principles of
forestry.

5) Forest Economics It is deal with the forest as a productive asset and subject to economic laws.
forest economics works out the cost of production including rental of land and compound interest on
capital spent in raising the crop, and compares it with the sale proceeds to decide whether raising of the
crop is economically profitable or not.

6) Multiple use forestry pertains to the simultaneous use of forests for meeting two or more objects
which may often be of partly conflicting nature.

7) Recreational Forestry: the practice of forestry with the object of raising flowering trees and shrubs
mainly to serve as recreation forests for the urban and rural population.

Also known as Aesthetic forestry defined as ‘the practice of forestry with the object of developing or
maintaining a forest of high scenic value.’

8) Forest protection It is concerned with ‘the activities directed towards the prevention and control of
damage to forests by man, animals, fire, insects, disease or other injurious and destructive agencies

9) Forest biology &Tree Improvement. Application of forest genetics principles within a given
silvicultural system for the purpose of improving the genetic quality of the forest.
• Its goal is to improve the genetic value of the population while maintaining genetic diversity.
• Meeting this goal means that genetic improvement is aimed at the population level, rather than
improvement of breeds or inbred lines.
Forest biology diversity means the variability among forest living organisms and the ecological
processes of which they are part; this includes diversity in forestswithin species, between species and
of ecosystems and landscape
10) Natural resource management : refers to the management of natural resources such as land,
water, soil, plants and animals, with a particular focus on how management affects the quality of life
for both present and future generations.
It brings together land use planning, water management, biodiversity conservation, and the future
sustainability of industries like agriculture, mining, tourism, fisheries and forestry.

11) Forest productivity and Utilization :

Productivity of forest land is defined in terms of the maximum amount of volume that the land can
produce over a given amount of time.
Site quality is measured as an index related to this timber productivity
Productivity : rate of generation of biomass in an ecosystem. It is usually expressed in units of mass
per unit surface (or volume) per unit time, for instance grams per square metre per day (g m−2 d−1).

The per capita forest area in the country is 0.08 ha as compared to the world average of 0.64 ha.
The total removal of fuel-wood from forestland is estimated at 270 million tonnes annually.
• 59.79 m3/hectare (SFR 2005) with only 0.7 m3/hectare/year productivity against the world
average of 2.1 m3/hectare/year.
• The mean annual increment (MAI) of India's forests is assessed to be less than 0.5
• 2015 FSI released total forest and tree cover is 79.42 million hectare, which is 24.16 per cent.
•
• 2017 FSI - Forest and tree cover combined is 8,02,088 sq km or 24.39 per cent
Forest coverage in India is 21.54 per cent
• 2019 FSI - Forest and tree cover combined is 8,07,276 sq km or 24.60 per cent
 Total forest cover of the country is 712,249 square kilometres which is 21.67 percent of the
geographical area of the country.
 There has been an increase in forest cover in Karnataka, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Jammu and
Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh in the last two years.
 Forest Area-wise Madhya Pradesh has the largest forest cover in the country followed by
Arunachal Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha and Maharashtra.

HISTORY / FOREST POLICY DEVELOPMENT in India

In 1864: the foundation of scientific forestry laid during this period with creation of forest department
in Government of India and Sir Dietrich Brandis was appointed as First Inspector General of Forest
in India. He has trained in forestry at Nancy in France and awarded as Father of forestry.
He wrote a book High lights of central Indian & brandies flora of Indian trees.
In 1871 :Working plan was formulated and brought in different parts of country for demarcation of
forest area and treatment of forest on scientific management.
In 1894 : First National Forest Policy was an acted by German scientist Dr. Voelcker was invited to
study the problems Indian agriculture and to suggest measures of improvement. while he suggesting
various steps to improve the agricultural production in the country.
In 1914 : Lord Curzon opened a Forest research institution in Dehara dun.
In 1927 : Forest act was revised and continued till after in dependence.
1926: The first time training on IFS commenced at Indian forest college, FRI. at Deharadun on
1st November 1926. Again IFS training also recommended in 1938 as superior forest service of
states to replace the IFS in a two year academic Course.
In 1938 Forest Research laboratory (IWST) at Bangalore.
In 1950 Van-mahotsav adopted a National festival of tree planting between first week of July by
K.M.Munshi .Who was Union Minister of food and Agriculture.
In 1952: Govt. of India enacted a New Forest policy (A modified 1894) National Forest policy.
Mr Chaturvedi: who was appointed, Who was appointed as 1St Indian Inspector of General of forest
officer during this period.
-To advice major for Wild life conservation
-To place a soil conservation of work all Over India footing.
In 1972, Wild life act was formulated.
In 1976, National commission on Agriculture recommended as Farm forestry as a subject for B.Sc
(Agr) graduate.
In 1977 Sandelwood research center for aspects as Genetics, Silviculture, management of Sandal
a valuable tree in Karnataka.
1980 Forest conservation act formulated
1982 An Indian Institute of forest management established at Bhoopal to devote special attention to
various aspects of forest management
In 1986 : Indian council forestry research and education (ICFRE) was started at Deharadun.

FOREST POLICY
POLICY- Mean Certain guide lines which are set achievement for certain objectives
Forest policy:-It is branch of forestry which are deals with development of small formulates certain
guidelines for protection ,maintainceincludiong creation for purpose various benefits to be enjoyed by
society is called as Forest policy.
The first Indian Forest policy formed in year 1894 by Dr. Voelcker
Objectives
1.To promote general well being of the country
2. Maintenance of adequate forest area covered for preservation of climatic and physical condition of
the country.
3. To meet the needs of the people in several ways
4. The government forest were recommended to classified in to Forest protection, Commercial forest,
Minor forest and pasture forest land.
National forest policy of 1894 : Main features
1. The govt. owned forest such as i) Preservation forest ii) Commercial forest
(iii) Minor forest (iv) pasture forest
2. To promote general well being of the counntry
3. Agriculture should have precedence over forestry
4. Needs of local people should be given priority
5. Maintenance the adquate forest cover for preservation climate and physical condition of country.
6. Realization of maximum revenue from commercial area is main guiding principle
Draw back of 1894
1. Area not determined
2. Agriculture was given more importance than the forest
3. More than 40 % of forest area were under private control
4. There was no provision for forest management and controlled by department.
5. Forest land has not managed due to under lying in river catchment areas.
6. No protection regarding wild life.
7. Due to emphasis was not placed on forestry research, education and training.
8. Large forest area were cleared felled for agriculture
National forest policy of 1952
This NFP was Necessary due to following reasons.
1. India got independence in1947 and naturally a radical change in indian forest policy was reset.
2. Population had increased up to 40 % between 1894 to 1952 which result into lot of population
pressure on forest land converting for food grain cultivation.
3. After two world wars during 1914 and 1937 forest land had gone down.
4. Shifting cultivation had increased and was going as unchanged.
5. Rapid development of wood based industries also induced reorienting of NFP of 1894.
6. Less protection regarding Natural Wild life existing in forest.

MAIN FEATURES OF 1952 NFP

1. Forest were classified on Functional basis as i) Protection forest ii) National forest
(iii) Village forest and (iv) Tree land.
2. Balanced and complimentary land was proposed
3. Need for checking i) Denudation in mountain region ii)To check the erosion along tree tracks
iii)Invasion of sea sand on coastal track and shifting of sand dunes in desert areas.
4. Tree lands to be created whenever possible for amelioration of physical and climatic
condition and to promote the general well being of people.
5. Grazing was discouraged.
6. One third of the total geographical area to be under forest (33.33 %)
7. In discriminate extension of agricultural was opposed.
8. National forest to be managed on the basis of two principle of progressively increased and
eventually the highest and sustained yield basis.
9. Protection of nation’s Wild life was emphasized.
10. Schemes were launched to improve the condition of forest as follows
a) Afforestation and reforestation programmes, b)Survey demarcation and mapping of
forest areas, c)Preparation of working plane, d)reservation and settlement of forests
e)Improvement of forestry infrastructure like forest roads, organisation etc.,
f)Improvement forestry research and education facilities. g)Raw material supplies for
industries. h) Social forestry and farmforesrty.
Draw back of 1952 NFP
1.Though the forest policy of 1952 set a target of bringing about one third of geographical
area under forest, the action did not match the policy
2. Forest area become deforested and transferred to different other porpose.
3.There has been more thrust on afforestation o fdegraded forest areas and waste lands.

NATIONAL FOREST POLICY OF 1988

Government of india in 1988 announced its revised NFP vid no 3-1/86-EPDated 7th
December 1988.
Major principles of NFP of 1988
1. Highest priority to ensuring environmental stability & maintenance of ecological balance.
2. A minimum of one-third of the total land area of the country should under forest.
3. A massive need based on afforestation with particular emphasis on fire wood and fodder
development on all degraded and denuded lands in country.
4. It lays emphasis on meeting basic needs of local, rural people for fodder fuel & timber etc,
5. The policy stipulates full protection of existing forest and forest lands and improvement of
their productivity.
6. Maintaining the intrinsic relationship between forest and tribal poor people living in and
around forest by protecting their right.
7. Existing forest land and forest will be fully protected.
8. In order to conserve the biological diversity a network of sancturies, national parks,
biosphere reserve and other protected area managed.

National Forest Policy, 2016 (Draft)

• GOAL : Improve the health and vitality of forest ecosystems to meet the present and
future needs of ecological security and biodiversity conservation with empowered and
enabled communities.
 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
To have a minimum of one third of the total geographical area under forest or tree cover.
• Other ecosystems such as alpine forest, grasslands, deserts, marine and coastal areas etc.
should be protected and managed as well.
• Manage protected areas and other wildlife rich areas with the primary objective of
biodiversity conservation
• Integrate climate change mitigation and enhance by one third the carbon-dioxide
equivalent sequestered in forests and trees by the end of the next decade.
• Incentivize sustainability in community managed, community owned and private forests.
• Expand greening of urban spaces to enhance citizen wellbeing.
• Reduce threats : Damage to forests from encroachments, illegal tree felling, grazing,
firewood collection, use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides etc. should be discouraged.
• Promote agro-forestry and farm forestry
• Facilitate forest industry interface

LOCALITY FACTORS
It may be “the circumstances that affect the results of the prevailing biotic, climatic,
physiographic and the edaphic conditions of a site”.
Khanna (cf. Negi 1983) “The effective climatic, edaphic, topographic, and biotic conditions of a
site which influence the vegetation of the locality.”
Locality mean constitutes all biotic and abiotic factors of a site (Habitat or Site).
Factor- a circumstance that affects the results of some observations (BCFT 1953).
Four broad groups of locality factors
1. Climatic factors,
2. Physiographic factors,
3. Edaphic factors and,
4. Biotic factors.
1. CLIMATIC FACTORS : It is defined as “light, atmospheric temperature, pressure and
humidity, winds and other features of climate the regional, local and seasonal that influence the
vegetation”.
i. LIGHT :Light is very essential for life on this earth.Light requirement: Amount of light
necessary for the satisfactory development of a ‘species. Some species need light at the initial
stages for their good growth
Main natural resources of light are Sunlight, Moonlight, Starlight, and Luminescent organisms.
Tree Nature Based on Light
The trees are divided into two groups, viz.,
(1) Sciophilous called Heliophilous trees which prefer shade to sunlight
Eg: (fir) Abies pindrow, Ficus lacor, Morus alba
(2) Photophilous trees which prefer sunlight for their growth are known as photophilous trees,
example,
(a) Strong Light Demander e.g., khair (Acacia catechu), Acacia nilotica, Albizia lebbek etc.
(b) Moderate Light Demander. eg: Buteamonosperma, Celtisaustralis,Holopteleaintegrifolia
(c) Light Demander :Aegle marmelos, Bauhinia variegate & Diospyros melanoxylon

Effect of Sunlight on Vegetation

(1) Photosynthesis.
(2) Heating Effect. young seedlings are much affected in comparison to trees.
(3) Increase in transpiration.
(4) Effect on vegetation distribution.
(5) Effect on shape of plants.
(6) Stomatal activities are hastened.
Photoperiod the response of plants to changes in the photoperiod
Photo periodism : response in the ontogeny of an organism to the relative duration of the day
and night.
• Photosynthesis,
• Mineral nutrients,
• Reserve food in the plants, etc.
Classification of Plant based on Photoperiodism
1) Short-day plants : It flower when daylight is less than a critical length (14 hrs). They flower in
the late summer, fall, or early winter. Eg; Chrysanthemum, Datura stromonimum
2) Long day plants : Long-day plantsflower when daylight is increasing. They flower in the
spring and early summer. Eg: Jowar, radishes and many cereal varieties.
3) Day neutral plants: They flower when critical daylight is 14 hrs, Eg. Tobacco, Cotton
4. Intermediate plants: Flowering only when day is neither too long or shot :
Eg: Xanthium stumarium: 2- 3 hrsie 15.5 hrs Mikania seandens
5. Ambiphotoperiodism: Flowering occurs rapidly only when SD/LD is intermediate day length
Eg. Media elegans: 8 hrs or 18-24 hrs day

ii. TEMPERATURE (a) Minimum, (b) Maximum, and (c) Optimum.

(a) Minimum temperature. Lowest temperature at which any plant/tree can easily survive.
Eg. Marine algae -survive below the 0°C
Tropical plants retard the growth at about 20°C.
(b) Maximum temperature. plant/tree can survive only when maximum temperature effect varies
from species. Eg. Celtis australis and Acacia species
Minimum temperatures can be recorded just before the sunrise (5.30 AM).
The temperature also varies in accordance with altitude and latitude.
1°C fall in temperature for every 100 m rise in altitude.
Temperature decreases towards north or south, away from the equator.

Effects of Temperature on plants

(1) Injury to physiology.
(2) Dryness of plant : Abies pindrow and spruce (Picea smithiana) seedlings start to wilt beyond
the temperature of 36°C.
(3) Disturbance of vital activities. growth of the tree and susceptibility to attack by the bacteria.
(4) Excessive transpiration.
(5) Cracking of stems.

Vegetation classified in relation to Temperature

Vegetation type MAT 0C
1. Alpine forest ≤7
2. Temperate forest 7 -17
3. Sub tropical forest 17 - 25
4. Tropical forest ≥ 25

iii) FROST: It is due to lowering down of the temperature. The frost, occurs when there is
cooling of air temperatures below the freezing point. The temperature even goes below up to
(—ve) 24°C which is supposed to be extreme case.
Classification of Frost
(1)Radiation frost. Frost occurring in nights with a clear sky, produced by loss of heat by
radiation. At the time of this frost, a rapid cooling of air layers takes place just at the surface of
earth. Therefore, a rapid loss of heat by radiation may cause this frost.
(2) Advective frost. It is produced by cold air brought from elsewhere. It occurs usually in the
form of pockets.
(3) Pool frost. Accumulation to a considerable depth of heavy cold air flowing down into natural
depressions from the adjoining area region. Occurred in valley areas.
Damages due to Frost
 Young plants are affected and get killed.
 Lifting of seedlings above their normal soil levels as a result of the expansion of soil
mass & freezing of soil water.
 Cracking.
 Cankers. cankers are caused by the attack of certain fungi due to frost.
Characteristics of plant to Frost Resistance
 Moisture content. Higher moisture content of the soil / plant may resist the effect of frost.
 Temperature. higher the temperature, the cooling effect of frost will be reduced to a great
extent.
 Cell Size in Plant. small cell size may be free passage of the energy which reduces the
effect of frost.
Classification of tree Species due to Frost effect.
(i) Frost Hardy Species tree species which can tolerate the effect of frost and there is no damage
of any kind Acacia catechu, Anogeissus pendula
(ii) Partially Frost Hardy Species tolerate the frost to some extent but not fully resistant to frost.
Adina cordifolia, Anogeissus latifolia, Salix alba (Willow), Morus alba
(iii) Frost susceptible Acacia nilotica, Azadirachta indica Tectona grandis, Terminalia arjuna.
How to protect from Frost Injury ?
I) In Nurseries. (1) Provide Shade. (2) Smoke Screens. (3) Watering in Morning.
(4) Use of Mulch. (5) Covering with Sheet.
II) In Plantations. (1)Weeding
(2) Shelter wood. Uttaranchal about 40 trees per ha are kept as frost protection shelter wood.
(3) Nurse crop:it is a crop of trees or shrubs, which is introduced in a plantation of less hardy
species to help it to grow and therefore, as soon as the purpose is served, it is removed.
iv) RAINFALL: The rain is the water drops from the clouds. The process of falling of water
drops from the clouds to the ground is termed as rainfall.
Phase of Water circulation
1. Precipitation in the form of rain/snow.
2. Return to atmosphere by evaporation.
3. Evaporation from seas, oceans, rivers,
4. Transpiration in plants and animals.
5. Drainage due to underground channels, ponds, canals, etc.
Significance importance
 Water is vital to all life,
 Cell growth,
 photosynthesis
 Absorption of nutrients
 temporarily stored in living beings

The forest of tropics are classified according to zones of Rain fall

Zone Rain Fall Vegetation
1. Desert zone 0 – 10 cm Herbs & shrubs
2. Arid zone 10 – 40 cm Euphorbaceae & Cactacea
3. Dry Zone 40 -- 100 cm Acacia species
4.Moist zone 100- 200 cm Teak , D latofolia, Sandal, Terminelia spp,
5. Wet Zone Above 200 cm Michalia champaca Mesua fera,
calophyllum inophyllum
v) HUMIDITY :
“The amount of invisible water vapour present in the atmosphere in the gaseous form”.
1. Aabsolute humidity: The amount of water vapour per unit volume of space”.
2. Relative Humidity: The ratio of the amount of water vapour present in the air to the amount
required for saturation at the same temperature (BCFT 1953).

vi) WIND : The horizontal movement of air along the surface of earth is called wind.
Beneficial effect:
 Bring fresh carbon dioxide and helps in photosynthesis process
 Helps in pollination
 Seed dispersal.
Harmful effect:
1). Deforestation,
2) Dwarfnes
3) Fire in forest
4) Increase evaporation/transpiration

vii) DROUGHT. Drought is a deficiency of precipitation and higher temperature, hence affect
adversely agricultural production and economy.
Characteristics of drought hardy:
1. Resistance of protoplasm to dehydration,
2. Small leaf area,
3) Thick cutin,
4) Reduction in number of stomata
5) efficient conducting system,
6) Shedding of leaves etc. Acacia nilotica, A. sengal, Prosopis species, Neem, Tamarind and
Pongammia pinnata.

Drought sensitive: Teak and Sal

II. Physiographic / Topographic factors: It include the form and structure of the land surface. It
is irregularities in earth surface which affect climate and soil which affect the development of
vegetation.
Elements:
1) Configuration of land
2) Altitude/ Elevation
3) Slope in steepness,
4) Aspect/ Exposure
Eg: Northern side: Virgin forest hygrophilous ground vegetation.
Southern: xerophytes vegetation.
Length & Shape of slope: Outer Himalaya: luxuriant vegetation
Middle & Inner Himalaya: Dry with poor vegetation.

III) Edaphic factors: The ecological influences characteristic of soil, brought by its physical and
chemical characteristics.” parent material, soil composition, soil texture, structure, porosity, soil
moisture, soil reaction, drainage, humus soil, Soil temperature, CN ratio, Micro-organisms etc.,.
Plants classified according:
Psamophytes; plants grow on sand, Ex. Acacia sengal
Lithophytes ; plants found on Rocks. Linaria species.
Halophytes Brugariapolyrhiza.

IV) Biotic factors- It is an interactions with other organisms influence a species' success. All
organisms depend on others directly or indirectly for food, shelter, reproduction, or protection.
Symbiosis is nothing but mutualism or living together “interspecific &relationship between two
organisms in which both the partners are benefited”
Mutualism -both species benefit
Parasitism: one organism lives inside or on another organism and harms it.
 Tapeworms live in the intestines of mammals, where they absorb large amounts of their
hosts’ food.
 Fleas, ticks, lice, and leeches live on the bodies of mammals and feed on their blood and
skin.
 The parasite obtains all or part of its nutritional needs from the host organism.
 Generally, parasites weaken but do not kill their host, which is usually larger than the
parasite
Amensalism : Interspecific relationship between two organisms in which one partner is
benefited & another is strongly harmed
Commensalism - one organism benefits and the other is neither helped nor harmed.
Proto cooperation : Survival depends on each other but not essential for survival of each
Population. Eg: Sandal + Casuarina.
Competition: two individuals competing for the same resource
Predation: one individual feeds on another

FOREST TYPES:
A category of forest defined with reference to its geographical locations, climatic and
edifice factors composition and conditions.
Aims of Forest classification;
1. Purely for academic reasons.
2. To prescribe the correct silvicultural& management.
3. For better understanding of the forest ecosystem as a whole

Basis Characteristics for Forest classification:

1. Physiognomy : General appearance of forest community.
2. Structure : Alignment of different layers in a forest.
3. Floral composition: Used as a basis to bring out finer details.
4. Habitat condition: General environment of forest community, include climatic and
edaphic factors.
5. Physiography: Natural features of land on which forest grows.
6. Function : Morphological traits such as leaf, stem and root characters.

Different methods of FOREST classification:

1. Based on Botanical method: Group on bases of Physiography, structure, composition and
dynamic.
a) Age :1) Even age and 2) Uneven age
1. Even-aged stand is one in which the trees are within 80 percent of a given age, relative to the
rotation length. Trees within a stand as one or two age classes. In even-aged forests the upper
canopy will appear smooth because the trees are generally all in one height class. In a similar
way the diameters of the trees in an even-aged stand willwillbe uniformly grouped around an
average diameter.
2. Uneven-aged silviculture with three or more age classes.Conversely, in uneven-aged stands
trees will be distributed with many heights, so several canopy layers are present. Tree diameters
will vary greatly with many trees in the small diameters and continuous decreasing numbers of
trees in each successively larger diameter class.

b) forest based on method of regeneration :

1) High forest, 2) Coppice forest, 3) Plantation forest.
1) High forest: It is a type of forest originated from seed or from planted seedlings. a high forest
usually consists of large, tall mature trees with a closed canopy.
2) Coppice forest: It is in which the new crop originates mainly from shoot / stool coppice and
where the rotation of the coppice is short.
3) Plantation forest : are a type of managed forest in which the trees are planted of the same age
and generally of the same species, and are intended to maximize the production of wood fiber.

c) Composition of forest : 1) Pure forest 2) Mixed forest.

1) Pure forest:A forest in which one species makes up 80% or more of the total number of trees.
2) Mixed forest: species. It is forest composed of trees of two or more species intermingled in the
same canopy. Forest in which at least 20 percent of the trees are of the each species.

d) based on ownership of forest :1) Govt. forest

i) Reserved forest: Forests are owned by Government of India and natural habitat which has high
degree of protection from hunting, poaching and are often upgraded to status of wildlife
sanctuaries and national parks. National Parks are Wildlife sanctuaries are reserved forest areas
in India and home to a large number of wild animals and birds
ii) Protected forest: Protected Forest of India are natural areas where the habitat and resident
wild species have certain degree of protection. There are two types of protected forest in India,
demarcated and un-demarcated protected forest
iii) Village forest: Communal Forest also called as village forest which is governed by local
communities and used for Medicinal plantation, recreation and religious purposes. Maharashtra
and North East Indian states have most of the forest communal forest land, where local people
are managing forest for biodiversity.

2) Private forest:
Supreme Court in the order states "the principal question for consideration is whether the
mere issuance of a notice under the provisions of Section 35(3) of the Indian Forest Act, 1927 is
sufficient for any land being declared a “private forest” within the meaning of that expression as
defined in Section 2(f)(iii) of the Maharashtra Private Forests
3) Corporate forest: It is a forest or woodland area owned by a corporate body rather than a state
or individual.

e) forest based on growing Stock 1) Normal forest, 2) Abnormal forest.

i) Normal forest: It is an ideal forest with regard to growing stock, age class distribution and
increment and from which the annual or periodic removal of produce equals to the increment and
can be continued indefinitely without endangering future yields.
ii) Abnormal forest : A forest in which, as compared to an acceptable standard, the quantity of
material in the growing stock is in deficit or in-excess or in which the relative proportions of the
age or size classes are defective.

f) based on Management 1) Intensive forest 2) Extensive forest.

1) Intensive forest: Utilization of a wide variety of forest management and silvicultural
techniques in order to maximize the productivity of a unit of forest area.
2) Extensive forest: by the monetary investment per unit area of land, or by the number of stand
entries per rotation, or by a combination of those metrics.

g) based on Functions:
1) Production forest 2) Protection forest 3) Recreation forest/ Bioaesthetic forest.

h) Exploitation/ Logging. 1) Accessible & 2) Inaccessible forest.

i) based on Biotic interference. 1) Primary & 2) Secondary succession.

j) based on Ecology: 1) Climax forest 2) Riparian forest 3)Riverian forest.
ii) Riparian forest - woodlands along the banks of stream or river timberland, woodland,
forest, timber - land that is covered with trees and shrubs.
iii) Riverian forest: The riverine forests in the province of Sindh occur along both banks of
the Indus River. As a result, the riverine forest area is shrinking alarmingly while less salt
tolerant species have almost disappeared.

2. Based on Ecological methods :

Classification of Forest types : by Chamion & Seth (1964)
Forest type:-A unit of forest vegetation which possesses broad characteristics in physiognomy and
structure sufficiently pronounced to permit its differentiation from other such unit
I. Tropical Forest.
1. Wet evergreen forest: Dense tall forest, entirely evergreen, eg. Dipterocarpus spp (South), Shorea
robusta (North)
2. Semi evergreen forest: Dominants including deciduous species but evergreens predominate.
Eg.Terminelia spp, Artocarpus hirsuta
3. Moist deciduous forest: Dominants mainly deciduous but some dominants and lower storey largely
evergreen. Top canopy 25 Mts higher.eg Tectona grandis, Bombax spp, Bambo
4. Littoral and swamp forest: Mainly evergreen of varying density and height but always associated
predominantly with wetness. Eg.Casuarina spp, Xylocarpus spp
5. Dry deciduous forest: Entirely deciduous. Top canopy rather light and rarely over 25 Mt ht &
Generally 8 – 10 mt ht. Eg.,Acacia catechu, Red sandars & Embelica officinalis
6. Thorn forest :Deciduous with low thorny trees and xerophytes predominating. Canopy more or less
broken &Ht under 10 mt.Eg.,Acacia spp, Prosopis spp
7. Dry evergreen forest: Broad leaved evergreen trees predominate with some deciduous emergent
often dense but under 20 mt height. Eg.,Manilkora hexandra, Mabafuxi folia
II. Montane subtropical forest :
8. Subtropical broad leaved forest : Broad leaved largely evergreen. Eg.,Eugenia spp, Qurecus spp.
9. Subtropical pine forest: Pine association predominates. Eg. Pinus roxburghi & P.khasia
10. Subtropical dry evergreen forest: Low xerophytic forest & Scrub.
eg., Rhododendran spp, Maganolia spp.
III. Montane temperate forest:
11. Montane wet temperate forest: Evergreen forests with conifers. Eg. Rhododendran niligaricum,
Acacia modesta
12. Himalayan moist forest: Evergreen mainly temperate sclerophyllous oaks & coniferous.
Eg.,Cidurus deodar, Quercus spp
13. Himalayan dry forest: Open coniferous forest with spare temperate xerophytic under growth.
Eg.,Picea spp, Pinus spp
IV. 14) Sub-alpine forest:
Stunted deciduous or ever green forest usually in close formation, forest with or without conifers.
Eg.,.Rhododenron spp Abiesdusa spp.
V. Alpine scrub forest:
15. Moist alpine: Low but often dense scrub. Eg., Junifera spp & Rhododenron spp
16. Dry alpine : Xerophytic scrubs in open formation. eg., Caragana spp & Salix spp
FOREST SUCCESSION:
Defined as Replacement of one set of biotic community or biota by another set of different nature or
It deals with replacement of biota of an area by one of different nature or a series of changes that
takes place in plant community coincide with the changes in the habitat.
It was first used by “Thoreau”
“Caw1es” described the change in vegetation on Sand dunes
Pioneer species: A species that invades a bare area such as newly exposed soil or rock surface.
Properties of Pioneer:
 Very less exacting
  Tolerant to adverse climatic condition.
 Tolerant to adverse soil condition.
 Addition OM
 Arrest the more & more silt.
 Improvement of forest covers condition.
 Improvement in moisture retentively of the soil.
 Change in temperature condition for the better.
Theory of plant Succession:
Theory of plant succession was given by Clements (Mono climax theory)
Basic features of this theory is,
i. There is a continual change in the vegetation as a result of interaction of plant community and the
habitat factors.
ii. The succession is inherently and inevitably progressive and the end product is the climax.
iii. The succession is the progressive development of vegetation on the same site in course of time.
P1ant Succession: It is defined as “the gradual replacement of one community by her in the
development of vegetation towards a climax”. This is the culminating in plant succession for a given
environment.
Causes of plant Succession
1. Initial causes -
i) Primary succession:1. Erosion 2.Physiography 3. Elevation &Subsidence
ii) Secondary succession : 1. Climate 2. Physiography 3. Biotic factors
2. Continual causes : 1. Migration 2. Ecesis/Establishment 3. Grouping & aggregation
The causes of succession may be classified as
1. Initial causes: are those causes which provide the basis for succession to takes place. Thus in case
of primary succession they are responsible for creation of a new soil. while in case of secondary
succession. they are responsible for making the soil bare.
The initial causes of primary and secondary successions are listed below
1. Initial causes of primary succession
a. Erosion: Wind and water erosion erode the soil and deposit elsewhere, thus new soils are created.
e.g., Alluvial deposits, coastal sands, land slips and scree.
b. Physiography: The configuration of land surface helps the agents of the erosion i.e., wind, water
and gravity to create new soils.
c. Elevation and subsidence: Seismic disturbances result in elevation and subsidence of the soil
resulting in the formation of new soils. Due to this river beds are silted up or rivers change their
courses leaving original beds for starting primary succession.
Similarly, geological disturbances in the Himalayas result in the formation of new soil for primary
succession.

2. Initial causes of Secondary succession

a. Climate: Climate is the initial cause when the vegetation is destroyed by the action of drought.
wind, snow or frost. A fair portion of a forest may be killed by drought. Wind may lay bare an area by
uprooting the original crop. Snow may similarly, destroy forest by sliding.
b. Physiography: It is the initial cause when configuration of land surface is responsible for the
destruction of vegetation.
c. Biotic factor: is an initial cause when the forest is destroyed as a result of the activity of man, his
animals or even wild animals.
3. Continuing causes: are those causes of succession which help the development plant communities
and their replacement by other plant communities.
They consist of the following.
a. Migration: is defined as “the mass movement of plants from one place to another. It begins when
the germule (spore, seed, fruit, or plant” leaves the parent area an ends when it reaches the final resting
place”.
b. Ecesis or establishment: is defined as ‘the whole process by a plant establish itself in a new area
from germination or its equivalent (e.g. rooting of some detached portion) to reproduction whether
sexual or asexual.
c. Grouping and aggregation: is defined as “the grouping, following establishment of scattered
colonizing invaders as result of propagation”.The colonizers invade new areas gradually and in course
of time, the colonize:’ make a closed canopy.
d. Competition: is defined as “the struggle for available food, light and moisture which takes place
among species and individuals in an assemblage of plants”.
e. Reaction: is defined as “the effect of vegetation on the site”. It is the most important factor
responsible for succession. The effect of the vegetation on the site can he grouped into following two
classes;
i. Effect on climatic factors ii. Effect on soil
I. Effect on climatic factors
a. Alter the light conditions.
b. Decreasing the day air temperature and reducing the diurnal range.
c. Reduces the wind velocity.
d. Reduces the danger of radiation frost,
e. Increasing relative humidity.
ii. Effect on site
a. Addition of organic matter.
b. improve the structure of soil.
c. Improving the nutrient status of the soil.
d. Improvement of the stability of the soil.
e. Development of maturity of the soil.
Examples1 of Primary Succession:
Bare site Shrubs/GrassesPinusnwallichianaCedrusdeodara + Picectsmithiana +
PinuswallichianaAbiespindrow + Piceasmithiajia + Quercusaemicarpifolict

Types of Plant Succession .

I. On the basis of moisture condition of the place
1. Xerarch succession: is defined as “the succession initiated in extremely dry situations such as bare
rock, wind blown sand, rocky talus slopes etc’
Xeroseres: the different stages in a xerarch succession

Xerosere is further divided into

i. Lithosere: the xerosere which originates on rock surface.
ii. Psammosere: the xerosere which originates on sand.
2. Hydrarch succession: is defined as “the succession beginning in water, or very wet land as in
ponds, lakes, marshes etc”.Hydrosere: the different stages of hydrarch succession.

II. On the basis of presence or absence of vegetation in the place

1. Primary succession: defined as “the succession which takes place on sites which have previously
not borne vegetation”.
It is also called as Autogenic succession, because it takes place as a result of autogenic factors.
Autogenic factors are defined as “the dominant factors of change in which are due only to the
individuals in a plant community.
2. Secondary succession: is defined as “the succession which takes place on site after the destruction
of the whole or part of the original vegetation”.
also called as Allogenic succession, as it takes place due to allogenic factors. Allogenic factors are
“the factors which operate, independently of the plants themselves, to alter the habitat gradually and
thus cause changes in vegetation. Eg.. Clearing, burning, grazing, storm, erosion, deposition, landslide
3. Retrogression: is defined as “the reversion to some earlier stage of succession consequent on the
introduction of an adverse factor”. -
Generally retrogression stages are lower in height and more xerophytic in character . In extreme cases
e.g., fire, clearing etc, the entire vegetation may be destroyed.
4. Induced succession: Man tries to control the succession in such a way that a managed steady state
is maintained which is different from the natural steady state and where from a good amount of
community production is harvested. Eg.Agril done after clearing vegetation in the shifting.
5. Cyclic succession: it involves repeated occurrence of certain stages of succession when certain
specific conditions are created in a community. As soon as old trees die or removed, the juvenile plants
of the same species on getting adequate light and space suddenly show active growth and occupy the
upper storey.

Importance of the study of plant Succession

1. Classification of forests in to forest types.
2. Deciding silviculture system to be adopted for the management of the existing crop.
3. Deciding silviculture operations to maintain the forests at a desired successional stage..
4. Choice of species for artificial regeneration:
5. Determination of successional stage of economically most valuable crop and the method of
obtaining it.

FOREST REGENERATION:
It is defined as “the renewal of a forest crop by natural or artificial means”.
To regenerate: means “to renew a forest crop by natural or artificial means”.
Methods of Regeneration of forest crops are;
1. Natural regeneration
2. Artificial regeneration
3. Natural regeneration supplemented by artificial regeneration

I. Natural Regeneration: It is defined as “the renewal of a forest crop by self sown seed or by coppice
or root suckers”. It also refers to the crop so obtained,
Thus, the natural regeneration may he obtained from the following two main sources;
1. from seed
2. from vegetative parts
1. From seed : When regeneration is obtained from seed forms a crop, it is called Seedling crop. It is
defined as “a crop consisting of a seedlings neither planted nor of coppice or root sucker origin, but
originating in-situ from natural regeneration”. When this seedling crop grows in to a forest, it is called
a High Forest.
Natural regeneration from seed depends on
1. Seed production
II. Seed dispersal
III. Seed germination
IV. Seedling establishment
1. Seed production: It is most important factor for natural regeneration. The production of seed
depends upon;
i. Species: Some species produce seeds every year and others at intervals. So based on that seed years
are described as Good, Moderate and Poor, depending on the quantity of seed produced
Seed year: “A year in which a given species bear seed abundantly”. e.g., Teak, Babul, Khair, Sissoo
seed every year, deodar, fir spruce seed at an interval of years.
ii. Age of the trees: Age of the trees also affects the seed production. Middle aged trees produce
abundant quantities of fertile seeds
iii. Size of the crown: Bigger the crown, seed production is more.
II. Seed dispersal: The seed produced by the trees are dispersed by the agencies such as wind, water,
gravity, birds and animals.
a. By wind: Conifers, Salix, Casuarina, Pterocarpus marsupium.
b. By water:: Most of Mangroves, Dalbergia, Teak
c. By gravity : Oaks, Juglans regia,
d. By birds: Prumus, Mulbery, Terminelia spp, Diospyros melanoxylon
e. By animals: Acacia arabica, Prosopis julifora & Ziziphus jujuba,

III. Seed germination: After the seed dispersal a lot of seed is destroyed by insects, birds and rodents.
The others germinate, provided they are deposited on the suitable soil.
Seedling year: is defined as “a year in which a given species produces abundant first year seedlings ‘
It is also designate a year, in terms of the amount of natural seedling regeneration produced by a
particular species, as Good, Fair, Poor or Very Poor.

IV. Seedling establishment: Even if the germination is good, but large number of seedlings die at the
end of rains or as a result of frost during winter or drought during summer. In addition, other factors
such as weeds, grazing, burning, this may kill them.
Establishment is defined as the “development of a new crop, naturally or assisted, to a stage
when the young regeneration, natural or artificial, is considered safe from adverse influences such as
frost, drought or weeds and no longer needs special protection or tending operations other than
cleaning, thinning and pruning”.
The following factors affect establishment of seedlings
i. Climatic factors: Light, Temperature (High and low), Frost
ii. Edaphic factors: Moisture, Nutrients, Soil aeration, Soil structure, Texture
iii. Biotic factors: Grass and other competing Weed growth, Insects, Pathogens, Grazing, Fire, Wild
animals. and iv. Genetic factors
Natural Regeneration from VEGETATIVE PARTS
Vegetative reproduction is defined as “asexual reproduction in plants from some part of the plant
body, e.g., of trees by coppice or root suckers, stems or branch cuttings”.
When regeneration is obtained by coppice forms a crop. it is called Coppice crop and when it
develops in to a forest, it is called as Coppice forest.
Advantages of vegetative reproduction
1. One plant produces several plants.
2. This is useful when the plant is not capable of producing seed.
3. The plants obtained from vegetative parts grow faster than the seedlings and cost less.
4. The capacity can be used for genetically improvement of the species.

Methods of vegetative reproduction

1. Coppice: A shoot arising from an adventitious bud at the base of a woody plant that has been cut
near the ground or burnt back. Syn: Stool shoot
a. Seedling coppice: is defined as the “coppice shoots arising from the base of seedlings that have cut
or burnt back. eg., In Teak and Sal forests it is widely followed.
b. Stool coppice: is the “coppice arising from the stool or a living stump”.

Factors affecting the natural regeneration by coppice

i. Species :
Strong coppicers: Acacia catechu, Albizia sp. Neein, Anogeissus sp. Cassia fistula, Dalbergia sp.
Nelli, Eucalyptus globulus, Prosopis juliflora, Salix sp. Sal, Teak, Nerale
Fair coppicers: Hardwickia binnata, Quercus sp. Terininalia tomentosa, T. bellarica
Coppices badly: Adina cardifolia, Bombax ceiba, Casuarina equiseufolia, Madhuca latifolia,
Populus ciliata
Do not coppice: Pinus roxburghi, P. wallichiana
ii. Age of the tree: Younger saplings and poles coppice readily and profusely. Older trees have less
coppicing power.
iii. Season of coppicing: Best season is spring, before growth season starts.
iv. Height of the stump: It varies with species, but the stump height of 15 -25 cm is most suitable.
v. Rotation: the rotation should be short.
vi. Silviculture system: should he worked under Clear felling system, because the coppice shoots are
strong light demanders.
2. Root suckers: is that method of vegetative reproduction in which a root of a plant is partially or
wholly cut to produce a shoot called Root sucker.
Root sucker: A shoot arising from the root of a woody plant.
e.g., Butea monosperma, Dalbergia Sissoo, D. latifolia, Bombax ceiba, Prosopis cineraria
3. Root-Collar shoots: Shoots arise from the junction of the root and shoot. These produce better trees
than stool shoots.
Cutting: is that method of vegetative reproduction stem, branch or root is placed in the soil or other
medium.
Root-Shoot cutting: is a young plant with pruned tap root and severed stern used for planting
(Synonymously called as Stump). e.g., Teak
4. Layering: Inducing development of roots on branches while they are still attached to the trees is
called layering.
Mainly two types: i. Soil layering, ii. Air layering
5. Grafting: is the method of vegetative reproduction, in which a portion called Scion of one plant is
applied to Stock, usually rooted, which is another plant with the object of securing vegetative union
between the two, when the scion is detached from the parent plant and the shoot of the other plant is
severed, to produce a new plant to be planted.
Scion: Any un-rooted portion of a plant used for grafting or budding on a rooted stock. Stock: A
rooted plant on which a scion is grafted
6. Budding: is that method of vegetative reproduction in which a bud with some portion of the bark of
a genetically superior plant is grafted on an inferior plant, so that it may it may produce shoot when the
old shoot of the stock is cut off.
7. Pollarding; Pollard is defined as “a tree whose stein has been cut off in order to obtain a flush of
shoots, usually above the height to which the browsing animals can reach.
Example.1. Salix is pollarded in the Kashmir valley to produce shoots for wicker
2. Hardwickia binnata is pollarded in Andra Pradesh to produce shoots suitable for fibre extraction.

II. ARTIFICIAL REGENERATION

It is defined as “the renewal of a forest crop by sowing, planting or other artificial methods”.
Normally such crop is called by other name Plantation, which is defined as “a forest crop raised
artificially, either by sowing or planting”.
Wilding: is defined as “a naturally grown seedling used for forest planting”.
Objectives of Artificial regeneration: 1. Reforestation and 2. Afforestation
1. Afforestation: is defined as “the process of establishment of a forest by artificial means on an area
from which forest vegetation has always or long been absent”.
3. Reforestation: “restocking of felled or otherwise cleared woodland by artificial means”.
Objectives of Reforestation: Following are the main objectives of reforestation;
1. To supplement natural regeneration
2. To give up natural regeneration in favour of artificial regeneration. When the natural regeneration of
the desired species is slow, then artificial regeneration is adopted.
3. To restock forests destroyed by fire and other biotic factors
4. To change the composition of the crop
5. To introduce exotics

TENDING OPERATIONS
Tending is defined as operations carried for the benefit of a forest crop at any stage of its life
between the seedling and mature stage; it essentially covers operations both on the crop itself and on
the competing vegetation.
It includes following operations.
1) Weeding
2) Cleaning
3) Pruning
4) Thinning

1. Weeding
Weeding is removal of weed to reduces the competition for moisture, nutrient and light and
provides sufficient space for growing. “Any unwanted plant that interferes or tend to interfere with
the growth of the individuals of favored species is called weed.” Therefore removal of weeds is called
as weeding and it can be defined as “a tending operation done in the seedling stage in a forest crop,
that involves the removal or cutting back of all weeds.”

Objectives:
1. To reduce root competition and transpirational water loss.
2. To improve light conditions.

Season, number and duration of weeding

 As a general rule weeding must be done before weeds have started suppressing the seedlings
and seedlings have stopped growing
 Number of weeding to be done depends upon the intensity of weed growth and the rate of
growth of seedlings of the favoured species (3, 2, 1 for I, II, III year plantations respectively )
 The duration of weeding should be done also varies with species, the rate of growth, intensity
of weeds and local conditions
Number of weeding as follows
 I year plantation : 2 or 3 weeding (circular/ strip)
 II year plantation : 2 weeding (strip)
 III year plantation : 1 weeding (strip)

There are three types/pattern of weeding

1) Spot circular or square weeding
For fast growing species or if the intensity of weeds is less a circular or square weeding is fallowed. A
circular ring of 1 to 2m diameter is hoed around the plant.
2) Strip weeding -
Strip weeding lm to 1.5m wide is done where the plants are slow growing or intensity of weeds is
heavy. Strip weeding when done on hill slopes may become a cause of soil erosion and there fore
should be avoided. Strip or ‘patta’ weeding can be done in two perpendicular directions.
3) Complete weeding
Removing weeds entirely from the area is called complete weeding but it is very costly. The tools used
for weeding are sickles, brush hooks, showel, spade, khurpi etc.

Methods of weeding:
i) Mechanical method
The weeds are uprooted by mechanical means by using some implement. If the weeds are uprooted
there will be no chance to come up again.
ii) Biological method
Mechanical method of weeding is very costly operation in any planting programme. In biological
method diseased organism or insect is used which is harmless to the plants but eradicates weed. Use of
parasitic plants, browsing by livestock or rodents, use of suitable cover crop, use of fire etc. Are used
in biological control.
iii) Chemical method
The chemicals known as weedicide and herbicides are used to control weeds. Before using them its
correct doses should be determined the chemicals are- 2, 4 Dichioro-phenoxy acetic acid, 2, 4, 5-
trichloro phenoxy acetic acid, (2, 4, 5-T), ethyl esters etc. The chemicals are applied on the foliage of
plants.

2. CLEANING
Cleaning is carried out in the sapling crop and is defined as the cutting or lopping made in order
to free the best individuals from undesirable ones on the same as which inferior with the better grown
individuals of the favoured species. Cleanings are carried out to cut down light competition.
Eg: In conifer plantations, cleaning operation is done to remove Indigofera, Desmodium and Rubus
etc. In teak forest Lantana camera and bamboos are removed during cleaning operation
Objectives:
1.To improve light conditions.
2. To reduce root competition and transpiration water loss.
The cleaning is performed with the help of sharp instruments e.g. axe, spades, hackers etc. The extent
of cleaning operation depends on various factors such as growth rate of species, site conditions and
economic consideration. Cleaning should be carried out whenever it is noticed that the desired
individuals are threatened with overtopping. More cleaning is required for light demander species
whereas shade bearer species require less intensive cleaning.
Season, frequency and duration of cleaning
 Cleaning is usually done during rainy season,
 if it not possible it may be done during winter and summer.
 Frequency depends upon the density of shrubs and their growth after cutting
Methods of cleaning
1. Selective cleaning: cleaning is done selectively round the stems forming the future crop
2. Whole cleaning: over the whole area
Method depends upon silvicultural requirements of the species and cost considerations
Operations during cleaning
 Cutting back of shrubs and rank herbaceous growth interfering with the growth of saplings of
the desired species as well as its associates
 Cutting back of individuals of inferior species when interfering with the growth of saplings of
the desired species.
 Cutting back of malformed or diseased individuals of desired species
 Singling of coppice shoots of the favoured species
 Climber control
Indirect method of weeding and cleaning in plantations
 Burring
 Deep and thorough soil preparation
 Closer spacing
 Planting is preferred over sowing
Some of the species that are removed by cleaning are
Teak forests- Mainly bamboos
Sal forest- Mallotus, Clerodendron, kydia, Ardesia etc.
Deodar forests- Rubus, Indigofera, Bluepine, Oaks etc.

Singling :
 Should also be carried out as a part of cleaning operation in the early stages of the life of a tree
in which forked or multiple stems are reduced to a single stem to improve tree form.
 This also boosts up height growth.
 This operation is important for timber species e.g. teak, shisham etc.

Climber cutting or control

 The climbers are harmful when the trees are young. If not removed they do a lot of damage to
young plantations.
 In older trees also, the climbers constrict the stem and deteriorate the value of wood.
 The climbers should be cut near to the ground and care should be taken to check regrowth at
the cut end.
 All climbers should be cut during monsoon period.
 Moist deciduous forests- Bauhinia vahlii, Butea parviflora, Vitis spp, Mikania cordata etc.
 Conifer forests- - Dioscorea spp., Rose spp., Vitis spp., Hedera spp etc

PRUNING
It has been seen that trees in the early life are covered with branches. These branches grow
thicker with the pace of time, i.e., the age of the tree. The branch makes the wood of tree as knotty and
defective and also decreases the increment of height. To get a good timber, then knots are removed
from the branches well in time.
It is defined as, the removal of live or dead branches or multiple leaders from the standing
trees for the improvement of the trees or its timber”.

Classification: The following are the classes of pruning

(a) Dry Pruning - It is the pruning of dead branches;
(b) Green Pruning - It refers to the pruning of living branches.
(c) Natural Pruning. It is also known as Self-Pruning. It has been designated as a slow process and
can continue throughout the life span of a forest tree/forest crop. Due to the attack of several agents
like fungi, and insect-pests, the branches break and fall either render their own weight or due to wind
action.
It is usually defined as, “the natural death and falling of branches of standing trees from such causes as
deficiency of light, decay snow and the ice also.”
(d) Artificial Pruning. Like natural pruning, the artificial pruning is also important.
Definition “the pruning carried out by the forester without waiting for mature to do it in the dense
natural crop or where nature fails to do it due to artificially large spacing between stems in man made
forests / plantations to reduce the cost of formation and rotation.
How to reduce cost of artificial pruning ?
(i) Pruning must be restricted to the species which are used in industries where knot-free timber is the
requirement.
(ii) It must be carried out on the best stems which are supported to form the final crop.
(iii) The height upto which pruning is carried out must be as low us possible so that it is approachable
for operation.
(iv) The pruning must be started early in the life of crop so that thin type of branches are available for
pruning purposes.

How to Prune ?
Pruning should be carried out in such a manner that there should not he any damage to the bark of the
tree (any form of tree). Very good tools must be used. These tools can be, hand saw, long-handled
chisel, long-handled-saw pruning shears, or the axes. The best tool has been recognized as that hand
saw which is a low-cost tool and efficient also.

Bud-Pruning is also practised in the forest crops of various species.

Definition: the rubbing off the internal buds to prevent the growth of branches as a measure to
get knot-free timber.” If, the buds are removed, there will not be any branch and no need of pruning. It
is supposed to be the cheapest method to get knot-free timber.
Bud-pruning is applied to many species such as Salix alba, Populus spp., Morus spp and some Pines.
Rough cloth, gunny bags are used for this purpose. It is not practised on large scale.

Improvement felling
The improvement felling is defined as the removal or destruction of the less valuable trees in a crop in
the interest of the better growth of the more valuable individuals. This is carried out usually in a
mixed, uneven aged forest.
Salvage cuttings
The salvage cutting removes the trees that are injured or dead due to various factors such as fire,
fungi, insect, wind etc
Sanitation cuttings
They represent precautions to reduce the spread of damaging organisms to the residual stand

THINNING
Definition: As a felling made in an immature stand for the purpose of improving the growth and form
of the trees that remain, without permanently breaking the canopy
Objectives of thinning
i) To improve the hygienic condition
ii) To create best conditions of growth
iii) Salvage the anticipated losses of the merchantable volume
iv) To obtain desirable composition of crops
v) Retaining seed bearers
vi) Improvement in wood quality
vii) To obtain intermediate yield and increase net yield and financial out-turn
viii) Decomposition of raw humus
ix) To reduce risk of disease and pests.
 Thinning cycle: the planned interval which elapses between successive thinning in the same
area
 Thinning intensity: as an indication in numerical terms the extent to which the crop is thinned
 Thinning regime: as the whole set of thinning carried out in a crop from the earliest stage to
maturity
Methods of thinning
1. Mechanical thinning.
2. Ordinary or low thinning.
3. Crown thinning
4. Free thinning
5. Advance thinning
6. Maximum/numerical thinning.
1. Mechanical thinning: In this type of thinning the trees are removed by some thumb rule. eg.
removal of alternate rows, removal of alternate diagonals, or removal of every second, third, fourth
line etc.

Two types of Mechanical thinning:

1. Row thinning: In which trees are removed in lines or rows.
2. Spacing thinning:
• This mechanical thinning method is well suited to plantations having uniform productivity.
• In teak plantations at a spacing of 2m X 2m (2500 trees/ha).
• The alternate diagonals are removed in first thinning (5th year)
• The alternate rows are removed in second thinning (10th year).
• The number of trees after first and second thinning would become 1250 and 625 per ha.
2. Low or ordinary thinning
This is also known as ‘german thinning’ or thinning from the below and consists of the removal of
inferior individuals starting from the suppressed class, and then taking the dominated class and
ultimately some of the dominant class
Grades of ordinary thinning
i. A grade: Light thinning: Removal of dead and diseased tree.
ii. B grade: Moderate thinning: In addition to trees in A grade further removal of defective
dominated stems and whips.
iii. C grade: Heavy thinning: It includes trees in grade A and B and all remaining dominated,
defective co dominants that may be removed without making lasting gaps in canopy.
iv. D grade: Very heavy thinning: This includes trees of all above grades and some good
dominants. The left over trees are with good boles and crowns, well spaced and evenly
distributed over the site for future development.
Advantages of ordinary thinning:
1. Market demands for small timber
2. Suited for light demander species e.g. teak, sal, chirpine, sissoo, semal,, shivani etc.
3. Simple to apply and even a less trained staff can mark the trees for felling.
4. improves the hygienic condition due to diseased and insect infected trees are removed.
5. It preferred where climber infestation is a problem but not be carried out where in soil erosion.
6. Vigorous trees are retained for fast growth.
7. Removal of lower crown classes help in the natural regeneration of the species.
Disadvantages of ordinary thinning:
1. In several areas where the thorny bushes, undesirable trees and climber infestation is heavy, the
removal of trees of lower crown classes is troublesome and expensive.
2. Thinning is carried out after the trees have remained in competition. Due to this the whole crop
including dominants is already affected due to adverse effect of competition.
3. In a situation where the predominant and dominants are not able to utilize the site perfectly, the
lower class may be useful.
4. In absence of the demand or market of small thinning poles, the thinning material can not be utilized
economically.
5. There is always danger of exposure of the soil. Many of these trees may therefore be retained as soil
cover and as in insurance against causalities among the larger trees.

3. Crown thinning:
This is also known as “thinning from above”. This is a kind of selective thinning in which thinning is
primarily directed to the dominant trees in a regular crop, the less promising ones being removed in the
interest of the best available individuals;
Types pf crown thinning:
i. Light crown thinning: This consist in the removal of dead, dying, diseased and wolf trees with such
of the defective and after them the better dominates, as are necessary to leave room for further
development of the best available trees evenly distributed over the area.
ii) Heavy crown thinning: The final crop is targeted to achieve certain stockings e.g. 500 to 600 trees
per ha. The dominated and suppressed trees are not removed.
Advantages of crown thinning:
1. Checks soil erosion and damage due to frost, snow, wind etc. is reduced. Shade bearing trees are
also protected.
2. Side branches are pruned in a better way due to the presence of trees of lower crown classes.
3. Lower crown classes help in controlling weeds and shrub growth,
4. removal of some dominant trees provide light and shelter for some co-dominated trees to develop,
many of which may later take their place among the dominants
Disadvantages of crown thinning:
1. The dominant are adversely affected when growth factors are limited and there is tough root
competition for moisture and nutrients.
2. The lower tree classes make difficult various operations e.g. marking, felling, logging and extraction
of the thinned material.
3. It requires experience and skill.
4. The diseased and insect infested trees of lower crown classes are always sources of inspection for
the crop.

4. Free thinning:
 This is also called HECK’S free thinning and is a modification of crown thinning. It is also
called “Elite thinning” or “single stem Silvicultural”.
 The emphasis is made on freeing the selection of most promising stems called “elite or alpha
stems” from the competition of their less promising neighbors

5. Advance thinning
 It differs from all other methods described above as thinning is carried out before the
competition among individual trees has set in.
 The surplus individuals are taken out regularly for the advantage of the residual ones.
 This may cause loss of total volume production but should ensure maximum growth of the elite
trees.
 Advance thinning was tried for Sal, teak and Chirpine stands in India.

6. Maximum / Numerical thinning

 Where the yield table exists, it can be used as standard of reference.
 During thinning the number of stems per unit area, diameter and height serve as a guiding
factor for the optimum density of the crop.
AGROFORESTRY:
It is a collective word for all land use systems and technology in which woody perennials are
deliberately grown on same land management unit as agriculture crops and/or animals either in form
of spatial arrangement or temporal in sequence.

Advantages of Agroforestry:
1.Increase food and fodder production by exploiting complimentary effect of trees on crops/pasture
and taking advantage of border rows.
2. Produce firewood, small timber for use in agriculture, quality timber for construction purpose etc.,
3. Conserve soil and water.
4. Increase the fertility level of land.
5. Maintain ecological balance.
6. Increase natural predators – birds, small mammals, and reptiles, which prey upon the numerous
insect pests.
7. Break the wind which accelerates the evapo transpiration to desiccation, withering etc., in low
rainfall areas reducing the yields per unit area.
8. Change the yields per unit area.
9. Provide shade for there life of management and animals working in the field.
10. Reclaim waste lands through agroforestry which is called as biological reclamation.
11. Encourage honey bee keeping underneath trees and fish culture in farm ponds by conserving
water.
12. Provide recreation to the farm families.
13. Provide employment during off-season.

Disadvantages of AF:
1. Competition of trees with food crops for space, sunlight, moisture and nutrients which may
reduce crop yield.
2. Damage to food crop during tree harvest operation.
3. Potential of trees to serve as host to insects, pests which harmful to crop,
4. Rapid regeneration by prolific tress, may take over entire field.
5. Required more labour inputs and higher shade exposer.
6. Longer period required for trees to grow to maturity.
7. More complex les well under stood and more difficult to apply compared to single crop forms.

Important Criteria for tree selection in AF:

1. Non interference with main crop.
2. Easy establishment and fast elongation.
3. Ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen.
4. Easy to decomposition of litter.
5. Non toxic effect on soil nutrient and crops with chemicals.
6. Multiple uses and high yield.
7. Possibility to regulate the shade easily.
8. Deep thrusting tap rooted species.
9. Select legume trees have light crowns.
10. Reduce their competitive effects on food crops.
11. Adoptability to local climatic condition.
 AGRO-FORESTRY SYSTEM CLASSIFICATION.

AGROFORESTRY SYSTEM CLASSIFICATION

According to Nair (1987) Agroforestry system can be classified as following criteria
I. STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION
. Structure of components : Defined as“In-terms of its components and expected role of each.”
i. Composition of components
a. Agri-silviculture b. Silvi-pasture c. Agri-silvi-pastsure system
d. Agri – Silvi – Horticulture system
a. Agri- Silviculture
Agri silvilcuture covers all systems in which land is used to produce both forest trees and
agricultural crops, either simultaneously or alternatively.
Agri Silviculture also includes growing agricultural crops with forest trees. Tree crops include
Eg: Teak/Melia dubea / citrus/ rubber + Soya bean /Maize/ sunflower.
b. Agri – Silvi- Pasture system:
If a unit of land is managed under crop rotations or practices, which may include production of food
grains, fodder and wood has provision for grazing cattle, system called as Agri-Silvi-pasture system.
Eg: Teak + Safflower+ Ginny grass
c. Silvi – Pasture System
The Silvi-Pasture-System means a land management system in which forests are managed for
production of wood as well as for rearing of domesticated animals. The trees may include both wood
yielding trees and fodder yielding trees. Eg: Sesbenia grandiflora, Subabul, Albizia lebbeck
d. Agri – Silvi-Horticulture System
In this system, 1-2 rows of horticulture plants are planted in a strip along the contour line at a
distance of 15-30 meters. The inter strip space can be utilized for planting quick growing tree species
like, Casurina/ Subabul/ Dalbergia sissoo + Soyabean / maize+ Sapota with a view to obtain biomass
production.
e. Horti – silvi – Pasture System
The selection of multipurpose tree, fruit tree and grasses entirely depends upon soil and climatic
conditions of the particular place. Eg: Banana + Hardwickia binata /Teak + Ginny grass
f. Apiculture with trees : Trees for honey production
g. Aquaforestry : Trees lining fish ponds, tree leaves being used as 'forage' for fish
ii. Arrangement of components
a. Spatial : i. Mixed dense ii. mixed sparse iii. Strip/zonal iv. Boundary
b.Temporal: i. Coincident ii. Concomitant iii. Intermittant iv. Interpoloted v. Separate

iii. Stratification of components

a. Single layered b. Double layered c. Multiplelayered

II. FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION:

This implies that agroforestry systems have a productive function yielding one or more products that
usually meet basic needs, as well as a service role (i.e., protecting and maintaining the production
degree of commercialization, can systems)
a. Productive agroforestry system
b. Protective agroforestry system
c. Mulipurpose agroforestry system

1) SHELTER BELTS:
These are belts / block consisting of several rows of trees established at right angle to the
prevailing wind” is called as Shelter Belts.
Merits:
1. To deflect air currents.
2. To reduce the velocity of prevailing winds.
3. Protecting to leeward area against effects of wind erosion.
4. To provide food, fodder and timber for farmers.
Demerits:
1. Main crop major land is occupied from trees.
2. They impact shading effects on agriculture crop.
3. If trench is not made their roots may complete with near by plants of crop for soil moisture &
nutrient.
Types of Shelter belts:
1. Wind proof: It is dense rows of trees and shrubs are planted.
2. Permeable: It is filtering and breaking the force of the wind. Which allow some wind to pass
through are most suitable.
3. Porus : It having some gaps in planting.
Shape & composition: It is “Triangular shape”& raising tall trees in centre.
Orientation : depends on direction and velocity of prevailing wind. It is raised in Quadrangles.

2) WIND BREAK:
Defined as “Rows of tall quick growing trees planted around the garden / field which helps in
breaking the force of wind” is called as Wind break.
Merits:
1. To protect livestock from clod wind.
2. To protect crops & pasture from hot drying wind.
3. To prevent soil erosion.
4. To provide habitat for wild life.
5. To reduce evaporation from farm land.
6. To improve the microclimate for growing crops. To shelter people and live stock.
Demerits wind break:
a. Main crop major land is occupied from trees.
b. They impact shading effects on agriculture crop.
c. If trench is not made their roots may complete with near by plants of crop for soil moisture &
nutrient
3) Shifting Cultivation: Fallows are crop land left without crops for period ranging from one season to
several years. To recover depleted soil nutrients. It is called as Jhum.
Merits:
• 1) All crops are grown in estimate mixture ie.,8 – 13 crops, on same land.
• 2) Tools are used for digging soil for dibbling/ sowing seeds.
• 3) Abandoned land is gives higher crop slopes.
• 4) Jhuming is done only on hills slopes.
Demerits:
• 1 Faulty land use system
• 2. More skilled labour required.
• 3. Denudation flora become weak and grows sparsely.
• 4. Cause on Environmental degrading.

III) Ecological classification

Agroforestry system characterizations pertain to specific ecological conditions of different
geographical regions. It is thus easy to find several descriptions of agroforestry systems in, say, the
highland, subhumid tropics (or the tropical highlands, as they are popularly known).
For example, in the tropical highlands, one of the main considerations would be the protective role
(soil conservation potential) of agroforestry, whereas in sparsely-populated, semiarid savannas,
silvopastoral systems producing livestock and fuelwood would be more common.

IV) Classification based on socioeconomic criteria

Socioeconomic criteria such as scale of production and level of technology input and management,
have also been used as a basis for classifying agroforestry systems. for example, grouped systems into
1) commercial, 2) intermediate and 3) subsistence systems.
1) Commercial is used when the major aim of the system is production of the output for sale.
Eg: plantation crops such as rubber, oil palm, and coconut, with permanent understories of food
crops, or integration of pasture and animals;
2) Intermediate" agroforestry systems are those that are intermediate between commercial and
subsistence scales of production and management, i.e., production of perennial cash crops and
subsistence crops undertaken on medium-to-small-sized farms where the cash crops satisfy
cash needs, and the food crops meet the family's food needs. The main features distinguishing
the intermediate system from the commercial system at one end and from the subsistence
system on the other, are holding size and level of economic prosperity.
Eg: Intermediate systems, plantation crops such as coffee, cacao, and coconut.

Suitable species for Agroforestry:

a) Suitable tree species for agroforestry system:
• Leucaena leucoephala (subabul) Cassia siamea
• Dalbagia Sissoo Sesbanea grandiflcra
• Gravellea robusta Acacia nilotica
• Tectona grandis Albizzia lebbeck
• Azadirachta indica Hardwickia binata
b) Suitable grass species for agroforestry system.
• Stylosanthus hamate, Stylosanthus scabra, Cenchrus ciliaris
• Cenchrus setigerus, Dichanthium annalatum, Pannicum maximum

ALLEY CROPPING (Hedge row inter cropping)

Growing of Agricultural crops in between alleys of woody species in hedges is called as Alley
cropping. Or Intercropping system in which selected species of trees/shrubs are planted in rows in
association with food crops (Alleys). Ex: Subabul / Gliricidia + Jowar crops.
Benefits of alley cropping are
• to reduce evaporation and soil erosion
• Protect crops
 • Enhance wildlife habitat
• suppressed weeds,
• add nutrients and organic matter to top soil and helps in nitrogen fixation

Taungya system: Defined: It is combined stand of woody and agricultural species during early stages
of establishment of plantations.
taung= hill, Ya= cultivation. it is Burmese word coined in burma in the 1850. it is introduced in India
in 1890 by Brandis.
It is modified name of shifting Cultivation. In which the labour is permitted to raise crops in an area
but only side by side with the forest species planted by it. The practice consist of land preparation, tree
planting, growing agricultural crops for 1-3 years, until shade becomes too dense and then moving on
to repeat the cycle in a different area.

Merits of taungya system:

1. Weed & climber growth is suppressed.
2. Regeneration of forest species are in cheap.
3. Increase forest wealth of the country.
4. Full utilization of available land for food production.
Demerits:
1. Land exposes for erosion and loss of soil fertility.
2. More exploitation of human labour.
3. Forest trees are not adequately carried by cultivators if once settled.
4. Insecure land tenure.

Types of Taungya systems:

1. Departmental taungya: Agricultural crops & tress plantation are raised by the Forest department
by employing a number of laborers on daily wages. To keep suppress weed growth.
2. Leased taungya : Plantation is given on lease to the person who offer the highest money for raising
crops stipulate number of years and ensure care of tree plantation.
3. Village taungya: It is most successful system, crops are raised by the people who have settled down
in a village inside forest for this purpose. Land allotted is 0.8 to 1.7 Ha per family for 3 – 4 years.

FOREST MENSURATION
It is the branch of forestry, which deals with the determination of dimensions (diameter, height,
volume) form, volume, age and increment of single trees, stands or whole woods, either standing or
after felling.
The word derived from Latin word “Mensura” meaning “Measure”.
Objectives of Forest Mensuration
• 1. Basis for sale
• 2. Basis of management
• 3. Measurement for research
• 4. Measurement for planning
SCOPE OF Forest Mensuration
• Has a wide scope.
• involves all stakeholders i.e. Labors, buyers, sellers, contractors, planners, managers/foresters
and researchers.
• applicable to any forest measurement problems of wildlife management, watershed
management, insect and disease incidence, recreation, tourism and in fact, many of the
mensuration aspects of multiple use forestry.
Accuracy of forest Mensuration:
• is the closeness of a measurement to the true value
• refers to the size of the deviation of a simple estimate from the true population
Measurement of tree dimensions
 Diameter growth
 Height growth
 Basel area
 Farm factor
 Form or shape crown
 Bark thickness
 Crown width
 Volume
 Biomass growth
Systems of Measurement:
(a) British system or F.P.S. System and
(b) French or metric system or C.G.S. system.
a) In the F.P.S. or British system, foot is the unit of length
12 inches = 1 foot
1 yard = 3 foot
3 feet = 1 yard
UNITS OF AREA
In the British system, square foot is the unit of area
144 Square inches (sq in) = 1 Square foot
3 foot = 1 yard
9 Square feet (sq ft) =1 Square yard
1 gunt = 16 anna
40 gunta = 1 Acre
1 anna = 68.06 square foot
1 hectare = 2.47105 acres
1 acre = 0.40468 hectares
1 pound = 0.454 kg
1 kilogram = 2.205pounds
UNITS OF VOLUME
1 cubic meter = 35.315 cu ft
1 cft = 0.0283 cu m
b) In the C.G.S. or metric system, metre related to other measurements of this system
10 millimetres (mm) = 1 centimetre (cm)
100 centimetres = 1 metre (m)

Measurement of tree dimension :

1) Tree Diameter and its significance
 DBH is defined as the average stem diameter outside bark, at a point 1.3 m above ground as
measured
 Breast-height (B.H. or b.h.) is defined as almost universally adopted standard height for
measuring girth, diameters and basal area of standing trees. In India, Burma, America, Union
of South Africa, Malaya and some other former British Colonies it is taken as 1.37m (4ft 6
inch) above ground level
 A diameter is a straight line passing through the center of a circle or sphere and meeting at each
end of circumference or surface.
 The most common diameter measurements taken in forestry are of the main stem of standing
trees, cut portions of trees and branches.
  Diameter measurement is important because it is one of the directly measurable dimensions
from which tree cross sectional area, surface area and volume can be computed.
DBH has been accepted as the standard height for diameter measurement because
 It is a convenient height for taking measurements and therefore avoids the fatigue
 unnecessarily caused in taking large number of measurement at any other lower or higher point
STANDARD RULES GOVERNING BREAST-HEIGHT MEASUREMENTS
1. Breast height (BH) should be by means of a measuring stick on standing trees at 1.37 m above
the ground level.
2. BH point should be marked by intersecting vertical and horizontal lines 12 cm long, painted
with white paint.
3. On sloping land, the diameter at BH should be measured on the uphill side.
4. In case of the tree is leaning, dbh is measured along the tree stem and not vertically, on the side
of the lean for trees growing on flat ground and on the uphill side, for trees growing on sloping
ground.
5. The dbh should not be measured at 1.37 m if the stem is abnormal at the level. BH mark should
be shifted up or down as little as possible to a more normal position of the stem and then dia.
Measured.
6. BH should be taken at the lowest point above which the buttress formation is not likely to
extend.
7. When the tree is forked above the BH, it is counted as one tree, but when it is forked below
BH, each fork should be treated as though it were a separate tree.

Types of Instruments used to diameter or girth measurement

(i) Wooden scale
(ii) Tree Callipers and
(iii) Tape.
1. Wooden scale: It is a flat wooden piece marked in centimetres and millimetres. It is available in two
sizes, viz., 30cm and 60cm,
2. Callipers: Callipers are used to measure diameter of standing trees and logs.
The types of foreign-made callipers which find use for accurate measurements are
(i) Flury Callipers: Graduated arm wooden and brass-bound; fixed and movable arms of aluminium;
available in lengths 80cm (32 in), 60 cm (24 in) and 35 cm(14 in).
(ii) Fromme Callipers: All aluminium; available in the same lengths as Flury Callipers.
Advantages of callipers:
(i) Diameters can be read directly in centimetres and millimetres, thus making the instrument
applicable for precise scientific work.
(ii) The points of arms touching the tree are always in sight and irregularities, if any, can be avoided.
(iii) By firmly pressing the arms against the tree bole, the loose swollen bark is crushed out and
irregularity from this source is avoided.
(iv)It is adaptable for use by unskilled labour.
Disadvantages of callipers
(i) They are not accurate when not in adjustment.
(ii) Callipers sufficient in size to measure large trees are very awkward to carry and handle.
(iii) Movable arm often sticks when the scale is wet or dirty, thus wasting a lot of time.
3) Tape : It is a band of cloth, reinforced cloth, plastic or steel about 1.5 cm wide and of varying
length and is used to measure girths of trees and logs. It is usually graduated on one side in centimetres
and millimetres but sometimes it is graduated on both sides to give measurements in metric system on
one side and those in British system on the other.
 Measuring Standing Trees Diameter
Measuring girth of Trees
Tree Calipers
Tree girth Girth tape

Basal area m2= πd2/4 Where: d – diameter Basal area m2= g2/π4 g-girth.

Comparison between Tape and Calliper

1. While using the tape and calliper for measuring girths and diameters of logs and trees, the cross-
section of the tree is assumed to be circular while it is not so.
2. Though the basal area calculated from the callipered diameters by the formula it attains the closest
approach to the real basal area, the actual measurement of diamensions a and b by means of a calliper
is usually incorrect because of (i) the difficulty in locating the major axis and minor axis, (ii) the
sliding arm not being at right angles to the scale arm, (iii) the scale arm

2) TREE HEIGHTS MEASUREMENT:

TREE HEIGHT (definition): Total height of a standing tree is the straight line distance from the tip
of the leading shoot (or from the highest point of the crown where tree is no leader) to the ground
level, usually measured on slopes from the uphill side of the tree.
Object of Height Measurement
 After diameter or girth, the other important measurement of a tree is its height.
 Height of a standing tree is measured to find out its volume because height is one of the
important components of tree volume.
 Heights of selected trees in a forest are also required to read volume tables, form factor tables,
yield tables, etc.
i) Bole height. It is the distance between ground level and crown point. The crown point is the position
of the first crown forming living or dead branch. Bole height expresses the height or length of the clear
main stem of a tree.
ii) Commercial bole height. It is the height of bole that is usually fit for utilization as timber.
iii) Height of standard timber bole. It is the height of the bole from the ground level up to the point
where average diameter over bark is 20 cm.
iv) Stump height. It is the height of the top of the stump above ground. It gives the height of the tree
stem which is left attached to the ground after felling.
v) Crown length. It is the vertical measurement of the crown of a tree from the tip to the point half way
between the lowest green branches forming green crown all round and the lowest green branch on the
bole.
vi) Crown height. It is the height of the crown as measured vertically from the ground level to the
point half way between the lowest green branch and the green branches forming green crown all
round.
Different methods of height measurement:
 In the case of small trees, height can be directly measured with a pole or a rod.
 For taller trees measured from Ravi altimeter, Haga altimeter and sliding poles made of wood,

Types of Methods for tree height

measurement

1) Ocular,
2) Non-instrumental and
3) Instrumental methods

Methods of tree height measurement

1. Ocular estimate (eye estimate) :
1. In estimating height of trees by eye, a height scale has to be fixed in mind & this is usually done by
actually measuring the height of few trees with the instrument. However, this is not reliable as
serious errors may be involved.
a) Staff placed against tree: A pencil may be held in stretched out hand in such a manner that a
portion of the pencil sticking out of hand covers the 3 m pole placed against the tree.
Example : If stick is 3 m length and division of tree is total 6.5 what is tree Ht ?
b) Rotate the pencil 90 degrees and align your thumb with the edge of the tree. Record the end of the
pencil in line with the tree. The distance from the tree to stake is the height of the tree.

2. NON – INSTRUMENTAL
i. Shadow method: In this method a pole of convenient height is fixed upright in the ground & its
height above the ground is measured. The shadows of the pole & tree are also measured. Height of the
tree can be calculated by simple equation as.
AB = BD : AB = BD x ab.
ab bd bd
Where AB – The tree height
ab - The portion of the pole above ground level. BD – Length of the shadow of the tree. A
bd - Shadow of pole.
a

Tree
P
o
l
e
d Shadow b D Shadow
B

but this method can be applied only on clear sunny days & it gives accurate results. It is applied in the
early in the morning & late in the evening avoiding the time (at 11 am – 2 pm) when the tree will cast
long shadow. This method is also difficult to be applied in a well stocked forest, where it may be
difficult to get shadow of the tree on ground.
Advantages
1. No surveying equipment
2. Easy math
Disadvantages
1. Requires sunny day
2. Must have clear space to see shadows.
3. Low precision
4. Difficult between 11 AM to 2 PM
ii. Single pole method: observer holds a pole of about 1.5 m length vertically at an arms length in one
hand in such a way that the portion of the pole above the hand is equal in length to the distance of the
pole from the eye without changing the position of hand with reference to the eye. The observer should
move slowly forward & backward till the line of sight to the tip of the tree passes through the tip of the
pole & that base of the tree through the point where the pole is held by hand. This means that the
portion of the pole above the hand covers the tree completely. The height of the tree is then equal to
the distance of the observer eye from the base of the tree as shown below.
Let AB be the tree & AC be a pole of 1.5m held at B’ such that the distance from observer eye E to B’
is equal to A’B’ then

A Tree
1 e

E B B
1

C C
1

AB = EB Therefore AB = EB x A1B1
A1B1 EB1 EB1
Since EB = AB → AB = EB.
1 1

Advantages:
1. Low tech
2. Doesn’t require sunny day
3. Adaptable to many different objects
4. Easy math
Disadvantages:
1. Difficulty establishing line of sight accurately.
2. Low precision
3. Precision is reduced if stake is not at same elevation as base of the object.

3. INSTRUMENTAL METHOD:
By using a instruments like hypsometer, clinometer, Ravi altimeters, Haga altimeter, abneys level etc.
All these instruments are based either on geometric principle of similar triangles or on trigonometric
principles.
a. Similar triangle- Geometric
b. Trigonometric: i) Tangent. ii) Sine method iii) Logarithmic
i) Tangent method: Height of tree is calculated with help of tangents of angles to top and base of tree
and distance of observer from tree. On level ground Let AB be the tree which is being observed by the
observer CD, standing on the same horizontal plane as the tree. Let the angle to the top of the tree be 
& CB1 the horizontal line of sight making a right angle on the tree at B1.
In a triangle AB1C, tan  = AB Therefore AB= Tan  x CB
CB
Thus AB = AB1 + B1B
Where BB1 is the value of the observer eye which is known.

Height of
tree

C  B
1
Adjacent
D B
side

ii) Sine method: Applicable to non right angle triangle is useful in deriving tree height in difficult
conditions. Sines of angles are proportional to the opposite sides.

TREE STEM FORM :

Stem form is defined as the rate of taper of a log or stem. Taper is the decrease in diameter of a stem
of a tree or of a log from base upwards. The taper varies not only with species, age, site and crop
density but also in the different parts of the same tree.
For instance, the basal portion of the tree corresponds to the frustum of a neiloid, the middle portion to
the frustum of a paraboloid, and the top portion to a cone;

METHODS OF STEM FORM

(1) Form factor and (2) Form quotient
1) FORM FACIOR
Form factor is defined as the ratio between the volume of a standing tree and the volume of a
certain cylinder Or In other words, form factor is the ratio between the volume of a tree to the product
of basal area and height.
Three Types of form factors
(i) Artificial form factor: also known as Breast-height form factor. For this form factor, the basal area
is measured at breast-height and the volume refers to the whole tree both above and below the point of
measurement.
(ii) Absolute form factor: its basal area is measure at any convenient height and the volume refers
only to that part of the tree above the point of measurement.
(iii) Normal (or true) form factor - In this form factor basal area is measured at a constant proportion
of the total height of the tree, e.g., 1/10th, 1/20th, etc., of the total height and the volume refers to the
whole tree above ground level.
FF =V/Sh
Where, F = is the form factor,
V = is the tree volume in cubic units,
S = is the basal area at breast height in area units and
h =is the height of the tree in linear units.
Uses of form factors
(i) To estimate volume of standing trees :
(ii) To study laws of growth:
Specific breast height FORM FACTORS suggests general stem shapes:
• 0.25 neiloid ,
• 0.33 conoid
• 0.50 quadratic paraboloid
• 0.60 cubic paraboloid and 1.00 cylinder

2) FORM QUOTIENT
Defined : form quotient as the ratio between the mid-diameter and the d.b.h.
FQ. = mid diameter
dbh
Types of Form quotient
1) Normal form quotient is defined as the ratio of mid-diameter or mid girth of a tree to its diameter or
girth at breast-height (defined by A. Schiffel).
2) Absolute form quotient is defined as the ratio of diameter or girth of a stem at one half its height
above the breast-height to the diameter or girth at brews-height (Tor Jonson, a Sweedish forester,
redefined form quotient).
Use of Form quotient is the third independent variable of volume table that can be used to predict the
volume of a tree stem.

VOLUME
Volume is a measure of quantity of wood in a tree or in a forest. Volume estimation may be
made most accurately when the logs are separated and accessible to the measurer. A tree, therefore,
could be separated into stem wood, which may be further divided into timber and small-wood, crown
and branch wood. Stem wood may be measured after division into sections for obtaining real volume.
Objectives of volume
 Volume is needed for sale and purchase of wood.
 It is also required to compare rate of growth of wood, as affected by a treatment given to the
soil or the crop.
 Also required to predict the future growth or
 Yield or returns from a piece of land.
Determination of Volume of Individual Trees
A) Determination of Volume of Logs
For calculation of logs (portion of trees which had been cut to different sizes depending upon taper or
the need of length) following formulas are in use:
i) If the log is almost cylindrical

V = Sxl
That the section of the tree is seldom a circle; it approaches sometimes to an ellipse and therefore
calculation of sectional area requires the measurement of two diameters corresponding to the major
and minor axes of the elliptical section.
AGE OF TREES: Determination
Aim of Determining Age
1. Age determination is necessary to calculate the rate of growth of the species or individual tree.
2. It is required to compare financial outturn of particular land use
3. Age is also important for determining harvesting time.
Methods of Age determination S
A) Non-Destructive Methods
i) Plantation Book / Records
When the trees are raised by sowing or planting, the date and year of plantation is mentioned in the
plantation book. Difference between the year at which age is to be determined and plantation year
gives accurate age (even days and months) of the tree.
Eg; If planting year is 1st July, 1990 and in the year 2013 we want to know its age in the year 15th
December, 2003.The tree age will be 13 years 5 months and 15 days.
ii) General Appearance of the trees
Taper of stem, shape of crown, colour of bark etc are sometimes used in determining the age of tree.
(a) The size and relative taper of the stem
(b) The size and shape of the crown – chir (Pinus roxburghii) has a conical crown in early ages and it
becomes rounded as tree grows older.
(c) The colour and condition of bark —smooth and light coloured bark while the younger trees have
rough, fairly cracked and darker coloured bark as in case of sal (Shorea robusta).
iii) Whorls of branches:
Count the number of branch whorls above the section. In species which produces one whorls of
branches each year, the age can be determined by counting number of whorls and adding proportionate
number of years for portion in which such whorls are not visible.
Eg. Bombax ceiba, Aeuracaria columanaris also gives a rough idea about the age of tree.
iv) Boring of stem : By means of Pressler’s increment borer
Each year rings are produced in the wood of tree due to variation in growth rate of tree during lean
period (winter). Buy counting these numbers of rings we can get the age of tree.
v) Circumference method : If you prefer to use metric measurements, measure the height on the tree
up to 1.5 meters, and divide the circumference of the tree at this height by 2.5 cm to get the age (so a
tree with a 45 cm circumference is 18 years old).
Eg; Age of tree = 45 ÷ 2.5 = 18 years

B) Destructive Methods
1. Cut down the tree: Count the number of rings.
2. Count the number of rings. Keep in mind that most trees produce a two-colored ring per year,
i) light spring portion and ii) dark summer portion.
3) Calculating a circle's diameter and radius of a circle is a basic mathematical technique that finds
the distance from the centre of the circle to the circumference.
Eg: Diameter = Circumference divided by pi (approximately 3.14)
Radius = Diameter divided by 2
Age of tree = Radius ÷ width of one annual growth ring
This will give you the approximate age of the tree in years.
Cultivation practices of Teak and Mahagony species
1. Teak : Tectona grandis Family : Verbenaceae

Distribution Native to Southeast Asia (India, Myanmar, Thailand and Western Laos), its strength
properties make Teak a paragon of timber. Since 1840 it is raised in plantations in India.
Physiognomy :
Teak usually grows in the 800-2500 mm rainfall regime and from sea level to an altitude of about
1,200 m. A large, deciduous tree, it may reach a height of 30 to 40 m under favorable conditions. On
good sites, clean boles of 15 to 30 m length are obtained. Flowering generally occurs during June -
July. Fruits attain full size and mature in about four months during October- November for 1000-3500
fruits/kg.
Silvicultural Characters
 Teak seedlings are sensitive to frost and drought.
 It is a strong light-demander, intolerant
 of suppression and weeds.
 It is a fire resistant; seedlings and saplings killed back by fire and frost.
 It coppices and pollards vigorously, up to about middle age.
Nursery technique
 use of seeds of fresh year is necessitated they before sowing are subjected to a process of
alternate wetting and drying of 24 hr duration each for 7 days.
 Large size seeds more than 14 mm in diameter gives better germination.
 Seeds are sown on raised nursery beds with 10 m long X 1 m wide and 0.3m in height and
covered with soil to a depth equivalent to the fruit diameter. To prevent soil erosion beds are
reinforced on the sides with bamboo splits or other such material.
 Germination commences in about 15 days, accelerates during the next 15 days, majority of
germinates will have appeared in 40 days, when the germinability is around 40 per cent.
 The beds are watered twice daily for the first two months,
 Stumps are prepared by cutting away from seedling everything except 2.5 cm of shoot and 5
cm of the root.
 The stumps should preferably be planted within 2 to 3 days in pot mixture of 2:1:1 (soil: FYM:
Sand) poly-thine containers.
Planting
 Seedlings of 12 months old are chosen for planting at a spacing of 2 x 2 m in pits of 2 cft size
in field during July- August month. The initial plant density of 2500 per ha, is reduced in a
phased manner to an ultimate 80 to 100 teak tree per ha by an operation called thinning. A
total of four thinning is given in the 5th year, 10th, 18th and 28th years and at each thinning the
existing population is reduced by half.
 The first two thinning are mechanical and are done according to a rule of thumb,
 first thinning alternate diagonal rows are removed during 5th year;
 second thinning alternate rows are felled during 10th.
 The 3rd thinning during 18th year and 4th in 28th year are silvicultural thinning in that they are
restricted only to diseased and malformed trees. Trees possessing clean bole, cylindrical bole,
straight bole, less taper, small crown and less fluting are retained.
 Final felling is done at the end of 50 or 60 years. A single tree will yield 1.5 m3 of timber.
 Its rotation is 40-60 years'; its yield is about 6500 cu.ft of stem wood per acre.
Utilization
Teak wood is globally renowned for its strength, durability, dimensional stability, working quality
and non-corrosive property when in contact with metal. The durability is attributable to the
deposition of polyphenols in its heartwood. On account of these outstanding properties, Teak is
sometimes hailed as the Queen of timbers.
 3) Swietenia macrophylla (Family- Meliaceae) Mahogany trees
 Distribution: In India, mahogany has established in 1795, when it introduced from West
Indies to Royal Botanical Garden, Culcutta (Troup,1921) while S. macrophylla and S.
mahagony was initiated in South Malabar in 1872. Mahogany is distributed in elevations
range from 50 to 1400 m with annual precipitation 1500 to 4000 mm, temperatures of 23
to 36 0C and can grow in a range of soil types, but avoid planting them in alkaline soils.
 Phenology Evergreen tree with well shape crown and the leaves unipinnate, paripinnate;
leaflets 3-4, falcately lanceolate, very oblique at base, acute, glabrous, shinning above,
paler beneath; secondary nerves 6-12 on each side. Flowers nice smelling, in narrow, supra-
axillary panicles.

 Silvicultural Characters
 It is a strong light-demander, intolerant of suppression and weeds.
 It is a fire resistant; seedlings and saplings killed back by fire and frost.

Nursery technique
 The beds are watered twice daily for the first two months,
 Seed is orthodox in nature in and possess intermediate seed storage behavior and the seeds
viability could be maintain up to 24 month in polyethene bags at 10 0C seeds are hypogeal
and gave about 82.33% germination.
 The seedling should preferably be shifted after 2 to 3 leaves appeared in pot mixture of 2:1:1
(soil: FYM: Sand) poly-thine containers.
Planting
 Seedlings of 10 months old are chosen for planting at a spacing of 5 m x 5 m in pits of 2 cft
size in field during July- August month. The initial plant density of 400 per ha, is reduced in a
phased manner to an ultimate 100 tree per ha by an operation called thinning. one thinning is
given in the 15th year, years and the existing population is reduced by half.
 It is promising important timber species for agroforestry due to less competition of root due
to deeper rooting nature, multipurpose tree, moderate fast growth, adoptability, remarkable
wood qualities, better form and higher sown out turn, amenability to stand management
practices etc. are some of the features.