Page 1 of 20

CHAPTER-1 • The magnitudes of the electric fields due

ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS to the two charges +q and –q are equal
and given by
Electric field due to a dipole
Axial point

• The components normal to the dipole axis

cancel away.
• The components along the dipole axis add
• The field at the point P due to positive
up.
charge is
• Thus total electric field is

• The field due to negative charge is • Substituting cos  =

a
and
1

(r 2
+a )
2 2

simplifying we get
• Thus the total electric field at P is → − q  2a 
E= 3
p
4 0 ( r 2 + a 2 ) 2
→ − q  2a 
• For r >> a, we get E= p
q  (r + a) − (r − a)  
2 2
→ 4 0r 3
E=  p
4 0  ( r + a )2  ( r − a )2  • Using p= q x2a
→ −p 
• Simplifying E= p
→   4 0r 3
q  4ar  
E= p Relation connecting axial field and equatorial
4 0  ( r 2 − a 2 ) 2  field of dipole
 
• We have axial field
→ 1  4qa  
• For r >> a, we get E = p → 1 2p 
4 0  r 3  E= p
• Using p= q x2a 4 0  r 3 
• Equatorial field
→ 1 2p 
→ −p 
E= p E= p
4 0  r 3  4 0r 3

Equatorial point • Thus

Torque on a dipole in a uniform electric field

 Page 2 of 20

• Torque = force X perpendicular distance →  

 = qE  2a sin  ,  = pE sin  • In vector form E = n
2 0
Or  = p  E Electric field due to a charged spherical shell
Applications of Gauss’s law Points outside the shell
Electric field due to a straight charged wire

• Total flux enclosed by the Gaussian

surface is  = E  (4 r 2 ) , r- radius of
Gaussian surface.
• Total charge enclosed is
• Total flux through the Gaussian surface is q =   (4 R 2 ) , R –radius of shell
 = E  2 rl • Using Gauss’s law
• Total charge enclosed is   4 R 2
q =   l , λ- charge per unit length E  (4 r ) =
2

0
• Using Gauss’s law
l R 2

E  2 rl = • Thus E =
0  0r 2
1 q
 • Or E=
• Thus E= 4 0 r 2
2 0 r → 1 q 
→   • In vector form E = r
• In vector form E = n 4 0 r 2
2 0r Points on the shell

• 
Where n - radial unit vector • On the surface r=R, therefore E =
0
Electric field due to a plane sheet of charge Points inside the shell

•
Total charge enclosed =0
E  4 r 2 = 0
• Total flux enclosed by the Gaussian Chapter Two
surface is  = E  (2 A) , A- area of cross ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL AND CAPACITANCE
section. POTENTIAL DUE TO A POINT CHARGE
• Total charge enclosed is q =  A ,
σ – surface charge density.
A
• Using Gauss’s law E  (2 A) =
0 • The force acting on a unit positive charge

• Thus E = (+1 C) at A , is
2 0
 Page 3 of 20

1 q 1 1 q
F= =
4 0 x 2
4 0 x 2
• Thus the work done to move a unit
positive charge from A to B through a • Neglecting the higher order terms we get
displacement dx is
 2a cos  
dW = −
1 q
dx r12  r 2 1 − 
4 0 x 2  r 
• The negative sign shows that the work is  2a cos  
• Similarly r2 2  r 2 1 + 
done against electrostatic force.  r 
• Thus the total work done to bring unit −
1
1 1  2a cos   2
charge from infinity to the point P is • Thus   1 −  and
r1 r  r 
r r
 1 q 
W =  dW =   −
1
dx  −
 
 4 0 x
2

1 1  2a cos   2
 1 + 
r2 r  r 
1 
r
q
W =−   2 dx  • Using the Binomial theorem and retaining
4 0  x
 
terms up to the first order in a/r,
• Integrating
q 1 1  q
W=  − =
4 0  r   4 0 r
• Therefore electrostatic potential is given
by
1 q • Thus the potential is
V=
4 0 r

POTENTIAL DUE TO AN ELECTRIC DIPOLE • Using p=q x2a, we get

1 p cos 
V=
4 0 r 2
Special cases
• Potential at point on the axial line
At the axial point θ=0, therefore
1 p
V=
4 0 r 2
The potential due to the dipole at P is the sum • Potential at point on the equatorial line
of potentials due to the charges q and –q At the equatorial line θ=900, thus , V=0.

POTENTIAL DUE TO A SYSTEM OF CHARGES

• By the superposition principle, the
• Using cosine law potential at a point due to a system of
charges is the algebraic sum of the
potentials due to the individual charges.
• For r >> a
 Page 4 of 20

• As there is no external field work done in

bringing q1 from infinity to r1 is zero.
• The potential due to the charge q 1 is

• Thus V = V1 + V2 + .......Vn • The work done in bringing charge q2 from

infinity to the point r2 is

Potential due to a uniformly charged spherical

shell • This work gets stored in the form of
• For a uniformly charged spherical shell, potential energy of the system.
the electric field outside the shell is as if • Thus, the potential energy of a system of
the entire charge is concentrated at the two charges q1 and q2 is
centre
• Thus potential at a distance r, from the
shell is
1 q For a system of three charges
V=
4 0 r
• Where r  R , radius of the shell
• Inside the shell, the potential is a constant
and has the same value as on its surface.
1 q
V= • The work done to bring q1 from infinity to
4 0 R
the point is zero.
Relation between electric field and potential
• The work done to bring q2 is

• The charges q1 and q2 produce a potential,

which at any point P is given by

• The work done to move a unit positive

charge from B to A is • Work done in bringing q3 from infinity to
Work = Edr the point r3 is
• This work equals the potential difference
VA–VB.
• Thus Edr = V − (V + dV ) = −dV • The total work done in assembling the
dV charges
• That is E=−
dr
POTENTIAL ENERGY OF A SYSTEM OF CHARGES
For a system of two charges
 Page 5 of 20

Potential energy of a dipole in an external field

• At the inner region

• The direction of electric field is from the

positive to the negative plate.
• For a uniform electric field the potential
• The torque experienced by the dipole is
difference is
• The amount of work done by the external
torque will be given by
• The capacitance C of the parallel plate
capacitor is then

• This work is stored as the potential energy 0 A

of the system. • Thus C =
d
• Thus Combination of capacitors
Capacitors in series

• Therefore
U = − pE cos  ,
• Where p- dipole moment , E – electric field
Capacitance of parallel plate capacitor
• Let A be the area of each plate and d the
separation between them. • In series charge is same and potential is
• The two plates have charges Q and –Q. different on each capacitors.
• Plate 1 has surface charge density σ = Q/A • The total potential drop V across the
and plate 2 has a surface charge density – combination is
σ. V = V1 + V2
• Considering the combination as an
effective capacitor with charge Q and
potential difference V, we get
Q Q Q
= +
C C1 C2
• Therefore effective capacitance is
1 1 1
= +
C C1 C2
• For n capacitors in series
1 1 1 1
= + + ....... +
• At the region I and II, E=0 C C1 C2 Cn
 Page 6 of 20

Capacitors in parallel u1 + a 1 + u2 + a 2 + ...... + uN + a N

v=
N
u + u + ...... + uN a ( 1 +  2 + ...... +  N )
v= 1 2 +
N N
v = 0 + a = a
• Therefore the drift velocity is given by
eE
v=−
m
• In parallel the charge is different, • Where , τ – relaxation time
potential is same on each capacitor. Relation connecting drift velocity and current
• The charge on the equivalent capacitor is
Q = Q1 + Q2
• Thus CV = C1V + C2V
• Therefore C = C1 + C2
• In general , for n capacitors
C = C1 + C2 + .............. + Cn
CHAPTER -3 • The number of electrons in the length l of
CURRENT ELECTRICITY the conductor = nAl
Relation connecting drift velocity and relaxation • Where n- electron density (number of
Time electrons per unit volume) , A – area of
• The force experienced by the electron in cross section.
an electric field is • Thus total charge q = nAle , e – charge
F = −eE , where E – electric field of electron
• From Newton’s second law F = ma , • The electron which enter the conductor at
a- acceleration, m- mass the right end will pass through the
• Thus, ma = −eE conductor at left end in time
• Therefore acceleration of electron is l
− eE t = , v- drift velocity of electrons
a= v
m q nAle
• If an electron accelerates, the velocity • Thus the current, I = = = nAve
t l
attained is given by v
v1 = u1 + a 1 , u1- initial velocity, τ1- time • That is
• Similarly I = nAve
v2 = u2 + a 2 n-electron density, A –area, v- drift velocity,
e- electron charge
v3 = u3 + a 2
I nAve
.................. • The current density J = = = nve
A A
vN = uN + a N
• Thus the average velocity (drift velocity) Mobility (μ)
is given by • Ratio of magnitude of drift velocity to the
v1 + v2 + ...... + v N electric field.
v= eE
N
e
= m =
E m
• SI unit of mobility is CmN s-1
-1
 Page 7 of 20

Vector form of ohm’s law • From ohm’s law, V=IR, therefore

• We have V = El  −V
r=
I l
• From ohm’s law, V = IR = I
A • The potential is given by
I l V =  − Ir
• Thus El = Combination of cells
A
I Cells in series
• That is E = = J
A
→ → → →
• Therefore E =  J or J =  E
Relation connecting resistivity and relaxation
time
• In series connection current is same; the
eE
• We have the drift velocity v = potential difference across the cells is
m different.
V •
• Using E = , we get The potential difference across the first
l cell is VAB = 1 − Ir1
eV 
v= • Similarly VBC =  2 − Ir2
ml
• Thus total potential across AC is
• Substituting v in I = nAve
VAC = VAB + VBC
nAe 2V
I= • That is VAC = 1 − Ir1 +  2 − Ir2
ml
V ml VAC = (1 +  2 ) − I ( r1 + r2 )
• That is = • If the two cells are replaced with a single
I nAe 2
V cell of emf  eq and internal resistance req,
• From ohm’s law R =
I we have , VAC =  eq − Ireq
ml • Comparing the equations we get
• Therefore R =
nAe 2  eq = (1 +  2 )
l
• Comparing with the equation R =
A req = ( r1 + r2 )
m
• Resistivity ,  = 2 • For n cells in series
ne 
 eq = 1 +  2 + ..... +  n
Relation connecting emf and internal resistance
req = r1 + r2 + ...... + rn
• If the negatives of the cells are connected
together
 eq = 1 −  2 (1   2 )

Cells in parallel

• Effective resistance = R+r


• Thus the current is I =
R+r
• Where  –emf, R- external resistance,
r- internal resistance.
• That is I ( R + r ) =   IR + Ir = 
 Page 8 of 20

• In parallel connection current is different

and potential is same.
• For the first cell , V = 1 − I1r1
 −V
• Thus I1 = 1
r1
• Similarly for the second cell, V =  2 − I 2 r2
 −V
I2 = 2
r2
• The total current is given by
I = I1 + I 2
1 − V 2 −V
I= + Derivation of balancing condition
r1 r2 • Applying voltage rule to the loop ABDA
• That is I1P + I gG − I 2 R = 0
   1 1
I =  1 + 2  −V  +  • For the loop BCDB
 r1 r2   r1 r2  ( ) ( )
I1 − I g Q − I 2 + I g S − I gG = 0
 r + r    r +  2 r1 
V 1 2= 12 −I • When the bridge is balanced Ig=0.
 r1r2   r1r2  • Thus I1P − I 2 R = 0 and I1Q − I 2 S = 0
 r + r   rr  • Or , I1P = I 2 R and I1Q = I 2 S
• Thus V =  1 2 2 1  − I  1 2 
 r1 + r2   r1 + r2  • Thus P R
=
• Comparing this with the equation Q S

V =  eq − Ireq , we get • This is the balancing condition of a

Wheatstone bridge.
 r + r  CHAPTER 5
 eq =  1 2 2 1 
 r1 + r2 
MAGNETISM AND MATTER
 rr 
req =  1 2 
 r1 + r2  Relation connecting B , M and H
• Or
• The total magnetic field B is written as ,
B = μ0 (H + M)
Relation connecting M and H

• The dependence of M on H is given by

• If the negative terminal of the second is M= χH, Where χ – Magnetic susceptibility
connected to positive terminal of the first,
the equations are valid with ( 2 → − 2 ) Relation connecting B , μ and H
• For n cells in parallel • We have B = μ0 (H + M)
• Substituting M= χH , we get
B = μ0 (H + χH) = μ0H(1+χ) ,

Wheatstone’ s bridge
• Thus
 Page 9 of 20

CHAPTER 4 Magnetic Field on the Axis of a Circular Current

MOVING CHARGES AND MAGNETISM Loop
Force on a current carrying wire in a magnetic
field
• The total number of charge carriers in the
conductor = n Al
• Where, n-number of charges per unit
volume, A-area of cross section, l-length
of the conductor.
• If e is the charge of each carrier , the total
charge is Q = enAl
• The magnetic force is F = Q (v  B )
• The magnetic field at P due to the current
• Where v – drift velocity element dl , at A is
• Thus F = enAl (v  B ) = nAve(l  B )
 Idl sin 900 0 Idl
• Thus dB = 0 =
4 r2 4 r 2
F = IlB sin  • The component dB sinθ is cancelled by
• Since I = nAve the diametrically opposite component.
• When θ=0 , F=0 • Thus magnetic field at P ,due to the
• When θ=900, F = IlB current element is the x- component of
Frequency of circular motion dB.
• We have centripetal force mv2/r = qvB • Therefore dBx = dB cos 
• The radius of the circle described by the  Idl
particle. dBx = 0 2 cos 
4 r
mv
r= But we have r = ( x 2 + R 2 )
1
• 2
and
qB
R
• The time period of rotation is cos  =
(x + R2 )
1
2 r 2 mv 2 m 2 2
T= = =
v qBv qB • Therefore
• Thus the frequency 0 Idl R
dBx =
1 qB 4 ( x + R ) ( x 2 + R 2 ) 12
2 2
f = =
T 2 m 0 IRdl
dBx =
• This frequency is called cyclotron 4 ( x + R 2 ) 3 2
2

frequency.
• The summation of the current elements dl
• The angular frequency is given by over the loop gives , the circumference
2 qB qB
 = 2 f = = 2πR.
2 m m • Thus the total magnetic field at P due to
the circular coil is
0 IR(2 R) 0 IR 2
B= =
4 ( x 2 + R 2 ) 3 2 2( x 2 + R 2 ) 3 2
• Therefore
0 IR 2
B= 3
2( x + R )
2 2 2

• At the centre of the loop x=0, thus,

 Page 10 of 20

0 I • The total number of turns of the solenoid

B0 =
2R is N = nh , where n – number of turns
Relation Connecting Velocity of Light , per unit length, h –length of the amperian
Permittivity and Permeability loop.
• We have • Therefore the total current enclosed by
4 0  0  10−7 1 the loop is I e = nhI ,
 0 0 =   = =
1  4  9  10 9
9  1016 • where, I –current in the solenoid
• Thus  0 0 =
1
= 2
1 • Using Ampere’s circuital law
( 3  108 ) c
2

 B.dl = Bh =  I
0 e
• Where c – speed of light in vacuum. Bh = 0nhI
• Therefore the speed of light is given by
• Therefore , the magnetic field inside the
1
c= solenoid is
 0 0
B = 0nI
1
• In general , v = •The direction of the field is given by Right
 Hand Rule.
Magnetic field due to a straight wire Force between two parallel wires

• Over the Amperian loop B and dl are

along the same direction.
• Thus  B.dl =  Bdl cos 0 =B  dl
l l l

• That is  B.dl =B(2 r )

l
• Magnetic Field on RS due to current in PQ
is
• From ampere’s circuital law , B  2 r = 0 I I
I B1 = 0 1 (Acts into the plane of diagram)
• Thus B = 0 2 r
2 r • B1 acts perpendicular and into the plane
Expression for magnetic field inside a solenoid of the diagram by Right Hand Thumb Rule
• Magnetic Field on PQ due to current in RS
is
I
B2 = 0 2 (Acts out to the plane of diagram)
2 r
• Force acting on PQ due to current I1
through it is
I  I Il
F12 = 0 2 I1l sin 900 = 0 2 1
2 r 2 r
 I Il
F12 = 0 2 1
• Consider an amperian loop abcda 2 r
• The magnetic field is zero along cd,bc and • Force acting on RS due to current I2
da. through it is
 Page 11 of 20

0 I 1 IIl • Also  = mB , where m = IA , magnetic

F21 = I 2l sin 900 = 0 1 2
2 r 2 r moment.
0 I 1 I 2 l • When magnetic field makes an angle
F21 = with the plane of the loop
2 r
IIl
• Thus F12 = F21 = F = 0 1 2
2 r
• Force per unit length of the conductor is
F 0 I 1 I 2
=
l 2 r

Torque on a rectangular current loop in a

uniform magnetic field
❖ When magnetic field is in the plane of
the loop
• The forces on the arms BC and DA are
equal, opposite, and act along the axis of
the coil, and hence cancel each other.
• The forces on AB and CD are
F1 = F2 = IbB

• Thus the torque is

a a
•  = IbB sin  + IbB sin  = I (ab) B sin 
• We have, the force acting on a conductor 2 2
kept in a magnetic field or  = IAB sin 
F = IlB sin   = mB sin , m- magnetic moment
• The field exerts no force on the two arms • Thus  = mB
AD and BC of the loop. CHAPTER 6
• The force on the arm AB is
F1 = IbB ( into the plane of loop)
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
Expression of motional emf
• The force on the arm CD is
F2 = IbB ( out of the plane of loop)
• Thus the net force on the loop is zero.
• The torque on the loop is

a a
 = IbB + IbB = I (ab) B
2 2
• Or  = IAB , where A = ab – area
 Page 12 of 20

• The magnetic flux ΦB enclosed by the Total number of turns-N2

loop PQRS is
• Flux linkage with solenoid S1 is
ΦB = Blx , where B – magnetic field

• Since x is changing with time, the rate of

• Where Φ1 is the magnetic flux through S1
change of flux Φ B will induce an emf
due to the current I2 through S2 and M12 is
given by
called the mutual inductance (coefficient
of mutual induction) of solenoid S1 with
respect to solenoid S2.
• Also flux linkage with solenoid S 2 when a
current I1 is passed through the solenoid
S1 is
• The induced emf Blv is called motional
emf.
• Where Φ2 is the magnetic flux through
Mutual induction
S2 due to the current I1 through S1 and
• When current through a coil changes an M21 is called the mutual inductance of
e.m.f. is induced in the neighboring coil. solenoid S2 with respect to solenoid S1
This is called mutual induction. Equation of M12

• The magnetic field due to the current I 2 in

S 2 is
B2 = μ 0n 2 I 2
• The resulting flux linkage with coil S 1 is

• We have

• For the inner solenoid S1 • Comparing the two equations we get

Radius - r1

Number of turns per unit length- n1

Equation of M21
Total number of turns – N1
• The magnetic field due to the current I 1 in
• For the outer solenoid S2 S 1 is
Radius – r2 B1 = μ 0n 1 I 1
• The resulting flux linkage with coil S 2 is
Number of turns per unit length- n2
 Page 13 of 20

• The magnitude of the induced emf

depends upon the rate of change of
current and mutual inductance of the two
• We have coils.

Equation of self inductance

• Comparing two equations
• The magnetic field due to a current I
flowing in the solenoid is B = μ0n I.

• The total flux linked with the solenoid is

General equation of mutual inductance

• We have

• We have NφB= L I
• Thus
• Thus

• Therefore the mutual inductance is

• In general
• The mutual inductance of a pair of coils,
solenoids, etc., depends on their
separation as well as their relative
orientation. Relation connecting self inductance and induced
emf
Relation connecting induced emf and mutual
inductance • We have

• We have

• For currents varying with time • When the current is varied, the flux linked
with the coil also changes and an emf is
induced in the coil.
• Thus

• From Faraday’s law

• Thus
• The self-induced emf always opposes any
change (increase or decrease) of current
in the coil.
 Page 14 of 20

Energy stored in an inductor

• The work to be done against the back emf

in an inductor is stored as magnetic
potential energy.
• For the current I at an instant in a circuit,
the rate of work done is

• Thus from the diagram

• But

• Therefore
• For small θ, tan θ ≈ θ, tan 2θ ≈ 2θ.

• Total amount of work done in establishing

the current I is,
• For small θ, the point D is very close to the
point P.

• Therefore, FD = f and CD = R.

• Thus, the energy required to build up the

current I is The mirror equation
Derivation

CHAPTER 9

RAY OPTICS AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

Relation between focal length and radius of • In the diagram the two right-angled
curvature of a spherical mirror triangles A′B′F and MPF are similar.

• Consider a ray parallel to the principal axis • Therefore,

striking the mirror at M.
 Page 15 of 20

• Since ∠ APB = ∠ A′PB′, the right angled • Therefore the linear magnification is given
triangles A′B′P and ABP are also similar. by
v
• Therefore, m=−
u
• The expression for magnification is same
for concave and convex mirror.
• Comparing Equations :
Relation connecting refractive index and critical
angle

• Using sign conventions

• We get

• By Snell’s law
sin i n
= 1
• Therefore the mirror equation is given by sin r n2
• Here the ray goes from denser to rarer
medium
• When i = iC , r =900, thus
• The same equation can be derived for a sin ic n
convex mirror too. = 1
sin 90 n2
Linear Magnification
n1
• Linear magnification (m) is the ratio of the sin ic =
height of the image (h′) to the height of n2
the object (h). 1 n
= 2
sin ic n1
• If the rarer medium is air , n1= 1, and let
n2= n, then
• In triangles A′B′P and ABP, we have,
1
n=
sin ic
• With the sign convention, this becomes
 Page 16 of 20

Expression for refraction at a convex surface

• Substituting for I and r,

• Or

• Thus
• For small angles , tan θ ≈ θ, thus
• From triangle OMP ,

• Therefore
• From triangle PCM,

• By Cartesian sign convention

• From triangle PMI, PO = -u , PI = v , PC =R

• Thus equation(3) becomes

• From triangle OMC,

Exterior angle = sum of interior angles
• Thus
•This is the equation of refraction at
convex surface.
Refraction by a lens - Lens maker’s formula
• From triangle IMC

• By Snell’s law

• If I and r are small,

• The image formation has two steps:

 Page 17 of 20

•
The first refracting surface forms the
image I1 of the object O.
• The image formed by the first refracting
surface acts as the virtual object for the
second refracting surface and the final
image is formed at I.
• We have the curved surface formula
• If the object is at infinity, the image is
formed at the principal focus.
• Thus if u=∞, v=f, equation 4 becomes

For refraction at the surface ABC

• Light ray travels from n1 to n2 and O is the

object and I1 is the image. • Thus the lens maker’s formula is given by
• And

• Here R1 is the radius of curvature of ABC.

• Thus Thin lens formula
• We have from eqn 4,

For refraction at the surface ADC

• Light ray travels from n2 to n1. • And the lens maker’s formula
• Here I1 is the object and I is the image and

• Here R2 is the radius of curvature of ADC • If the first medium is air n1 = 1 and ,let
n2=n, then

• Thus

• Adding equation 1 and 2, we get

• Therefore

• Dividing by n1 • This equation is the thin lens formula.

 Page 18 of 20

Combination of thin lenses in contact

• Thus the power is given by

• The total magnification

REFRACTION THROUGH A PRISM

• For the first lens, object is at O and image

is at I1.

• Thus

• For the second lens object is I1 and image

is at I. Prism Formula ( Eqn. for refractive index)

• In the quadrilateral AQNR, two of the

angles (at the vertices Q and R) are right
• Therefore angles.

• Therefore, the sum of the other angles of

the quadrilateral is 1800.

• Adding Equations
• From the triangle QNR

• Comparing these two equations

• If the two lens-system is regarded as
equivalent to a single lens of focal length
f, we have • We know ,exterior angle = sum of interior
angles, thus
d = (i - r1) + (e - r2)
• That is
• Therefore d = (i + e - A)
• Thus, the angle of deviation depends on
the angle of incidence.

• If several thin lenses of focal length f1, f2, • At the minimum deviation, d=D, i=e,
f3,... are in contact, the effective focal r1=r2, therefore
length of their combination is given by
 Page 19 of 20

• If c represents the speed of light in

vacuum, then,
• Thus using Snell’s law, the refractive index
of the prism is given by
• Therefore
( A + D)
sin
n21 = 2
A • This is the Snell’s law of refraction.
sin
2 • If λ1 and λ 2 denote the wavelengths of
light in medium 1 and medium 2,
Prism formula for a small angled prism
respectively, then
• For a small angled prism
( A + D)
n21 = 2
A • That is
2
• Therefore
D = (n21 − 1) A

Chapter Ten
Refraction at a rarer medium
WAVE OPTICS

Refraction of a plane wave

• The angle of refraction will be greater

than angle of incidence.

• Thus, if i = ic then sin r = 1 and r = 90°.

• Let τ be the time taken by the wavefront
to travel the distance BC.
• Therefore
• Thus
• From the triangle ABC we get Reflection of a plane wave by a plane surface

• Also from triangle AEC

• Thus

• If v represents the speed of the wave in

the medium and if τ represents the time
 Page 20 of 20

taken by the wavefront to advance from Potential energy

• The electrostatic potential energy of an
the point B to C then orbital electron is given by
• Also e2
• U =−
The triangles EAC and BAC are congruent
4 0r
• Therefore the angles i and r would be
equal. This is the law of reflection. Total energy
• Total energy is given by
Chapter Twelve e2 e2
E = K +U = −
ATOMS 8 0r 4 0r
Velocity of electrons in an orbit
• That is
• We have

• But , we have
• But

• Thus
• Therefore

• That is • In general

• In general
• Substituting the values we get

Total energy of an orbiting electron

Kinetic energy
• For an orbiting electron , we have ******

• Or

• Thus the kinetic energy is given by

1 2 e2
K = mv =
2 8 0r