CE 772 Pavement Materials

Module 19: Asphalt/Bituminous Materials

Prof. Solomon Debbarma, [email protected] Phone: 8837237899 (M); 7131 (O)

Some images are taken from the internet and used for educational purposes only
 What are we going to learn
❖Bitumen – A binding agent
❖Production of bitumen
❖Chemistry of bitumen
❖Physical properties of bitumen
❖Introduction to viscoelasticity
❖Rheological properties
❖Grading of Bitumen
❖Modified bitumen
❖Bitumen Emulsion
❖Cutback Bitumen

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 Introduction of Bitumen as a Binding Agent

❖ Bitumen or asphalt is well known and used since ancient times

❖ Used since 6000 BC as a waterproofing and binder materials of great quality

❖ Prominent example is cited in the Old Testament: used as a coating for Noah’s Ark.

❖ The Babylonians used it as a binder in the mixture for the production for castle
construction (Babel Tower).

❖ Egyptians also used asphalt to mummify the dead bodies and to waterproof tanks.

❖ Around 3000 BC, the Persians also used bitumen for road construction.

❖ Finally, Herodotus and Plinius describe bitumen’s export and use as

❖ The Greek word asphaltos, was used during Homeric times, which means a stable or
solid substance

❖ Afterwards, it was used by the Romans (asphaltus); hence, the term asphaltic, or
even its root, exists until now in all modern languages

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 Introduction of Bitumen as a Binding Agent

Asphalt is a material that is made of predominantly hydrocarbons; small amounts of sulfur,

nitrogen, and oxygen; and trace amounts of metals such as vanadium, nickel, iron,
magnesium, and calcium.

Typical asphalt consists of: carbon, 82% - 88%; hydrogen, 8%-11%, sulfur, 0%-6%; oxygen,
0%-1.5%; and nitrogen, 0%-1%

Traditionally “penetration,” “viscosity,” and “shear modulus” tests have been used to
characterize asphalts.
While discussing different types of asphalt, results from one of these tests are provided to
make a relative comparison of the “softness/hardness” or “stiffness” of the material.
In layman’s language, the higher the penetration or the lower the viscosity/modulus, the
“softer” the asphalt binder is, and vice versa

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 Introduction to Bitumen as a Binding Agent
❖ Naturally Occurring Asphalts

▪ Lake Asphalt:
▪ Natural/Lake Bitumen: Trinidad lake
asphalt
▪ Around 13th to 14th century AD, the largest
surface deposits of natural asphalt in the
world were discovered in Trinidad island
(Lake Asphalt of Trinidad).
▪ Excavated material is heated to 160 C and
vaporizing the water.
▪ Refined product has about 54% binder,
36% mineral material and 10% organic
matter.
▪ Rock Asphalt:
▪ Obtained from rocks impregnated with
asphalts.
▪ Formed by entrapment of asphalt in
impervious rock formations.
▪ Binder content about 7% to 13%.
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 Introduction to Bitumen as a Binding Agent
❖ Naturally Occuring Asphalts

▪ Gilsonite:
▪ Found in Utah in the United States.
▪ It has a penetration of zero with a
softening point of 115 C – 190 C.
▪ Used in combination with regular asphalt
to alter its characteristics to reduce the
penetration and increase its softening
point.
▪ Its use is mostly limited to bridge and
waterproofing applications and high-
stiffness asphalt mixes.

Apart from Trinidad and Venezuela asphalt, all other natural asphalt sources were used only
occasionally in pavement construction. Today, only a few of the abovementioned deposits are
currently exploited (mainly deposits of Albania, Romania and Kazakhstan). The reason is the
high cost of recovering the asphalt from the rock.

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 Introduction to Bitumen as a Binding Agent
❖ Other binders:

▪ Tar:

• Tar is a product of fractional distillation of

primary tar produced by carbonation of natural
organic matters, such as coal or wood.
• When the primary tar is derived from coal, the
product is called pitch tar. Similarly, when it is
derived from wood, it is called wood tar.
• The pitch tar is further mixed with oil distillates,
to produce the processed tar, commonly
known as tar.
• The tar differs in chemical composition and
odour to bitumen.
• Tars consist of variable mixtures of phenols,
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and
heterocyclic compounds, and their odour is
characteristically more aromatic than the
odour of the asphalt.

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 Introduction to Bitumen as a Binding Agent
❖ Mixtures of Bitumen
▪ Cutback bitumen: ▪ Bitumen emulsion:

Viscosity of bitumen is reduced by adding Bitumen particles dispersed in aqueous

a solvent, normally derived from medium.
petroleum, example: kerosene, gas oil,
Two-phase systems consisting of
naptha etc.
immiscible liquids, bitumen and water.
Reduce penetration
The bitumen phase can be dispersed in the
Sprayed on different layers of road in a aqueous phase by mechanically shearing it
notably lower temperature.

▪ Modified Bitumen: To change performance properties of straight run of bitumen

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 Introduction to Bitumen as a Binding Agent
❖ Artificial/Manufactured Asphalt

▪ Apart from the natural asphalt, there is also the ‘artificial

asphalt’, which is a residue of fractional distillation of crude
oil (petroleum oil), simply called bitumen or asphalt
nowadays.
▪ Bitumen (or asphalt), apart from being used in the
production of bituminous mixtures for road construction,
also has a wide range of applications, such as
waterproofing, protective coatings and a range of industrial
products (more than 250; Asphalt Institute MS-4 1989).
▪ Use of bitumen as a binding agent and engineering product
took a leap after the beginning of 20th century

❖ Definition: “A tar like mixture of hydrocarbons derived from petroleum, naturally or by

distillation, and used for road surfacing and roofing” (Oxford Press, 1996)
❖ Bitumen is a crude oil product: Most places where you find crude oil are sea beds
❖ Mankind’s one of the oldest engineering material
❖ Bitumen/Asphalt binder used in this lecture will be referred to the residual product obtained
from fractional distillation of crude oil in petroleum refinery.

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 Terminology today

What is the meaning of bitumen, asphalt, bituminous and bituminous binder?

❖ Nowadays, the above terms have different meanings, certainly among European and
American specifications and practising engineers.

In Europe and according to CEN EN 12597 (2000),

• bitumen is virtually an involatile, adhesive and
waterproofing material derived from crude petroleum or
present in natural asphalt, which is completely or
almost completely soluble in toluene and very viscous
or almost solid at ambient temperatures.

• Asphalt is a mixture of mineral aggregate and

bituminous binder.

• In addition, bituminous is the adjective applicable to

binders and mixtures of binders and aggregates
containing bitumen. Hence, bituminous binder is the
adhesive material containing bitumen.

• Furthermore, natural asphalt is a relatively hard

bitumen found in natural deposits, often mixed with fine
or very fine mineral matter, which is virtually solid at
25°C and viscous fluid at 175°C at the same time.
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 Terminology today
What is the meaning of bitumen, asphalt, bituminous and bituminous binder?

In American English and according to American specifications, more often the term asphalt is
used rather than the term bitumen.

According to ASTM D 8 (2013),

• asphalt or bitumen is a ‘dark brown cement-like residuum obtained from the distillation of
suitable crude oils’

• In North America, the term asphalt cement is also used for asphalt.

• In Superpave mix design method, the term ‘asphalt binder’ is used to classify the grade
of asphalt cement used in an asphalt mix based on expected performance under
specific environmental conditions and anticipated traffic loading.

• According to ASTM D 8 (2013), asphalt binder is an ‘asphalt which may or may not
contain an asphalt modifier’.

• In American Specifications, the term native asphalt (naturally occurring in nature) is used
instead of the term natural asphalt used in European standards.

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Crude Oil Distillation Process

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Crude Oil Distillation Process

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 Chemical Composition of Bitumen

Bitumen (asphalt) is a complex chemical compound composed predominately of

carbon and hydrogen (hydrocarbon), with a small amount of heterocyclic compounds
containing sulfur, nitrogen and oxygen (Traxler 1936).

Also contains traces of metals including nickel, magnesium, iron, vanadium and
calcium in the form of inorganic salts and oxides

Typical asphalt consists of: carbon, 82% - 88%; hydrogen, 8%-11%, sulfur, 0%-6%;
oxygen, 0%-1.5%; and nitrogen, 0%-1%

The exact composition of bitumen differs, and it depends on both the source of the
crude oil and the modification during its fractional distillation. It also depends on the
oncoming ageing in service (Shell Bitumen 2003)

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 Chemical Composition of Bitumen

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 Chemical Composition of Bitumen

❖ Asphaltenes
▪ Asphaltenes are complex polar
aromatic compounds, black or
dark brown solids, insoluble in n-
heptane, of high molecular
weight, containing in addition to
carbon and hydrogen some
nitrogen, sulfur and oxygen.
▪ The asphaltene content directly
affects the rheological properties
of the bitumen.
▪ When asphaltene content
increases, the bitumen is harder
(low penetration and high
softening point) and more
viscous (high viscosity).
▪ The percentage of asphaltenes
in bitumen usually ranges from
5% to 28%.

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 Chemical Composition of Bitumen

❖ Maltenes
▪ Resins
• Resins have similar
components to asphaltenes
but they are soluble in n-
heptane.
• They are solid or semi-solid,
dark brown in colour and
strongly adhesive.
• Resins are dispersing agents
to asphaltenes and their
proportion to asphaltenes
control the gel/sol type of
character of bitumen.
• Their molecular weight is
lower than asphaltenes.

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 Chemical Composition of Bitumen

❖ Maltenes
▪ Aromatics
• Aromatics are naphthenic
aromatic hydrocarbons, have
the lowest molecular weight of
the compounds in the bitumen
and represent the main
dispersion medium of
asphaltenes.
• They are viscous fluids of
dark brown colour and they
can be found at 40% to 65%
in bitumen.

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 Chemical Composition of Bitumen

❖ Maltenes
▪ Saturates
• Saturates are aliphatic
hydrocarbons together with
alkyl naphthenes and alkyl
aromatics.
• Their molecular weight is
similar to the molecular
weight of aromatics and their
components contain both
waxy and non-waxy
saturates.
• Saturates are light yellow to
white in colour and its content
ranges from 5% to 20% in
bitumens.

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 Changes in bitumen composition during distillation, mixing, laying and time
in service

▪ During fractional distillations (atmospheric or with vacuum), the lightest volatile ingredients of
the bitumen are removed, which results in an increase in asphaltene concentration.
▪ Asphaltene concentration also increases during the oxidation (air-blowing) process.
▪ This fact makes the bitumen harder and less susceptible to temperature variations (increase
of the penetration index value).
▪ The observed change in bitumen composition during distillation and air-blowing is
demonstrated in Shell Bitumen (2003).

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 Changes in bitumen composition during distillation, mixing, laying and time
in service
▪ The chemical composition of the bitumen also
changes during its usage, namely, from the very
moment it is mixed with aggregates until the end
of the pavement’s service life.

▪ In engineering terminology, this change is

known as ageing and results in hardening of the
bitumen.

▪ Typical changes in composition with respect to

mixing, laying and time in service are presented
in Figure on right.

▪ the major changes take place during the mixing

and compaction stages. Consequently, great
attention should be given to the recommended
temperatures during these stages.

▪ After compaction of the bituminous mixture,

natural hardening of the bitumen takes place
owing to temperature drop.

▪ From this moment, chemical hardening

gradually starts to occur.

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 Changes in bitumen composition during distillation, mixing, laying and time
in service
▪ Chemical hardening of the bitumen with time in service is also known as ageing of the bitumen. It occurs
because of the oxidation of organic compounds and because of further volatilisation of volatile ingredients
of the bitumen. This stage is also called bitumen oxidation.

▪ Oxidation or ageing of the bitumen affects the mechanical behaviour of the bitumen and usually reduces
the pavement’s service life. The changes that occur are as follows: reduction of penetration, increase of
softening point, reduction of elasticity and adhesion ability and increase of friability. Oxidation and ageing
can be decelerated with the use of chemical additives

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 Changes in bitumen composition during distillation, mixing, laying and time
in service
▪ Oxidation and, consequently, ageing of bitumen after construction are affected by climatic
conditions (ambient temperatures and periods of sunshine) and voids in the bituminous
mixture. Greater oxidation of bitumen is expected in geographical locations where ambient
temperatures are high and sunshine periods are longer in a year. A similar result is expected
between open and dense graded bituminous mixtures

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 Changes in bitumen composition during distillation, mixing, laying and time
in service
❖ Oxidation of asphalt/bitumen

▪ Bitumen oxidation is the chemical reaction between oxygen and active

components in bitumen.
▪ Oxidation results in bitumen hardening and brittleness and the deterioration of
its relaxation properties, which are manifested in the field by increased
propensity of cracking and pavement failures.
▪ The reaction process in bitumen is essentially dependent on the process of
oxygen diffusion into pavements, namely the reaction kinetics with temperature,
the reaction rate, the concentration of reactants and the oxygen interaction with
active chemical groups.

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 Changes in bitumen composition during distillation, mixing, laying and time
in service
❖ Oxidation of asphalt/bitumen

▪ Asphalt is a mixture of hydrocarbons and when exposed to an open environment, the

formation of ketone and sulfoxide chemical functional groups occurs. These ketone and
sulfoxide functional group has been recognized to form asphaltene on oxidation, which
increases the viscosity of the asphalt binder ageing.

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 Changes in bitumen composition during distillation, mixing, laying and time
in service
❖ Oxidation of asphalt/bitumen

▪ Various types of bitumen overall exhibit similar kinetics with ketones and sulfoxides formed at
different rates as shown below.
▪ The oxidation of bitumen can be regarded as the sum of two different reactions.
▪ One is fast and usually ends in the short-term as the reactants are rapidly exhausted. The
other is slow and keeps a steady reaction rate in the long-term.
▪ The oxidative reaction rate is supposed as
first order for oxygen and active reactants
concentration in bitumen.
▪ The formation of sulfoxides goes fast at
the beginning and slows down to
equilibrium as the reactants are nearly
fully depleted while the formation of
ketones is much slower and tends to keep
constant for a longer time

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 Changes in bitumen composition during distillation, mixing, laying and time
in service
❖ Oxidation of asphalt/bitumen

▪ Measurements have shown that an 80/10 penetration grade bitumen extracted

from an asphalt concrete surface layer with air voids of 8%, after 2 years in
service in the latitude of Thessaloniki, Greece, showed a reduction in
penetration by 20%. Bitumen (80/100) extracted from a similar bituminous
mixture (cold asphalt concrete surface layer with 9% air voids) but lay in the
latitude of Jakarta, Indonesia, after 1 year in service, showed a reduction in
penetration of 35% to 45%. Finally, it should be mentioned that bitumen
oxidation is more intense at the surface (surface layer) than within the
bituminous mixture (layers beneath).
▪ The hardening of the bitumen during mixing, laying and compaction can be
simulated in the laboratory by either the rolling thin film oven test (RTFOT) or
the thin film oven test (TFOT), and its ageing can be simulated by the
pressurised ageing vessel test (see Chapter 4). Bitumen also hardens during
hot storage; hence, prolonged storage should be avoided

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 Physical Properties of Bitumen

▪ Specific gravity (ASTM D-70)

▪ Flash Point (ASTM D-92)
▪ Solubility test (ASTM D-2042)
▪ Spot test (AASHTO T-102)
▪ Penetration (ASTM D-5)
▪ Viscosity tests
▪ Softening point (ASTM D-36)
▪ Frass breaking point test (BS
EN 12593, BS 2000-8)
▪ Ductility (ASTM D113)
▪ Thin film oven test (TFOT):
ASTM D1754
▪ Rolling Thin film oven test
(RTFOT): ASTM D-2872

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 Physical Properties of Bitumen

❖ Specific Gravity (ASTM D-70; IS: 1202-1978)

In paving jobs, to classify a binder, density property is of great use. In most
cases bitumen is weighed, but when used with aggregates, the bitumen is
converted to volume using density values. The density of bitumen is greatly
influenced by its chemical composition. Increase in aromatic type mineral
impurities cause an increase in specific gravity. The specific gravity of
bitumen is defined as the ratio of mass of given volume of bitumen of
known content to the mass of equal volume of water at 27 C. The specific
gravity can be measured using either pycnometer or preparing a cube
specimen of bitumen in semi solid or solid state. The specific gravity of
bitumen varies from 0.97 to 1.02.

• For asphalt binder, a Pycnometer Method, is used.

• Weigh the pycnometer, and then fill with water.
• Bring to test temperature and weigh.
• The density (Specific Gravity * Density of Water) is then calculated from
the mass of the sample and the water displaced by the sample in the
pycnometer, and the specific gravity is calculated.

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 Physical Properties of Bitumen

❖ Flash Point (ASTM D-92; IS:1209-1978)

• This test involves heating the asphalt

in a brass cup, and passing a small
flame over the cup periodically, until a
quick flash occurs.
• The temperature at which the flash
occurs is called the flashpoint.
• It is conducted to determine the
temperature range that can be used
during the production of HMA without
causing safety hazards.

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 Physical Properties of Bitumen

❖ Solubility test (ASTM D-2042)

• In this test, a sample of asphalt is mixed

with a solvent and then poured through
a glass fiber pad filter.
• The retained impurities are washed,
dried, and weighed.
• This test is run to minimize the presence
of such impurities as dust and organic
materials in the asphalt..

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 Physical Properties of Bitumen

❖ Spot test (AASHTO T-102)

• In this test, visual evaluation of a drop

of asphalt and solvent mix on a filter
paper is made.
• Results are reported as acceptable or
not acceptable, based on the absence
or presence of a dark area in the spot
on the filter paper.
• This test was developed to identify
asphalts that have been damaged due
to overheating (cracking—molecules
thermally broken apart) during the
asphalt production process.

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 Physical Properties of Bitumen

❖ Penetration (ASTM D-5; IS: 1203-1978))

• In this test, a container of asphalt maintained at 25°C

is placed under a needle.
• The needle, under a weight of 100 g, is allowed to
penetrate the asphalt in the container for 5 s.
• The depth of penetration, expressed in dmm, is
reported as the penetration.
• The purpose of this test is to classify asphalt, check
consistency, and evaluate the overheating of asphalt.
• Generally five different grades are available: 40/50,
60/70, 85/100, 120/150, and 200/300. A 40/50 grade
means an asphalt binder that has a penetration value
ranging from 40 to 50 dmm and is harder than the
85/100 grade and softer than the 40/50 grade.
• A binder with a lower penetration grade such as 40/50
would be used in a project in a warmer location,
whereas those with higher grades (such as 120/150)
would be used in a project in a colder region

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 Physical Properties of Bitumen

❖ Softening Point (Ring and Ball) Test: ASTM D-36; IS: 1205-1978

• This test is conducted to determine

the temperature at which asphalt
starts flowing.
• This test involves the placement of
a steel ball over a ring of asphalt in
a bath, and heating the assembly at
5°C/min.
• The temperature at which the
asphalt cannot support the ball
anymore and sinks is reported as
the softening point.
• This is not used for paving asphalts
that much, but is used for roofing
asphalts.

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 Physical Properties of Bitumen

❖ Frass Breaking Point Test (BS EN 12593; BS 2000-8)

• This test is conducted to determine the very low temperature stiffness

of asphalt binder.
• In this test, a steel plate coated with a thin layer of asphalt binder is
slowly bent and released repeatedly, while the temperature is reduced
constantly at the rate of 1°C/min, until the asphalt binder cracks.

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 Physical Properties of Bitumen

❖ Ductility (ASTM D113; IS: 1208-1978)

• In this test, a sample of asphalt is stretched until it

breaks or until the testing equipment limit is
reached.
• The asphalt sample is stretched at a rate of 5
cm/min at 27°C, and the ductility is measured in
cm. If run at a lower temperature, the rate of
stretching is reduced.
• This test is run to ensure the use of nonbrittle
asphalts.
• A minimum ductility value of 75 cm has been
specified by the BIS
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 Physical Properties of Bitumen

❖ Thin Film Oven Test (TFOT): ASTM D1754)

• This is a conditioning procedure, in which a 50 g asphalt sample is

placed in a flat-bottom pan on a shelf in a ventilated oven maintained
at 325°F.
• The shelf is rotated at 5–6 revolutions/min for 5 h.
• The loss in penetration or increase in viscosity as well as change in
weight of the sample are usually measured after the heating.
• The use of this test is to evaluate the effect of heat and air on
asphalts, and identify those that would harden excessively due to
volatilization and/or oxidation..
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 Physical Properties of Bitumen

❖ Rolling Thin Film Oven Test (RTFOT): ASTM D-2872, BS EN 12591,

AASHTO T-240

• In this test, eight bottles with asphalt are placed in a rack inside an
oven maintained at 160°C, and the rack is rotated around a heated air-
blowing orifice for 75 min.
• As the rack rotates, asphalt binder inside each bottle flows inside,
exposing the fresh surface to the air.
• The mass loss, as well as viscosity, after this process is checked.
• This test is run to classify asphalts (aged residue, or AR, process) and
to ensure minimization of mass loss and change in properties

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 Physical Properties of Bitumen

❖ Viscosity Tests (IS: 1206-1978)

Viscosity is defined as the ratio of applied shear stress to applied shear

strain. It can be measured by direct tests (Brookfield viscometer, rotational
viscometer etc.), but is generally measured by indirect tests such as orifice
type viscometer
▪ Viscosity denotes the fluid property of
bituminous material and it is a measure of
resistance to flow.
▪ At the application temperature, this
characteristic greatly influences the strength of
resulting paving mixes.
▪ Low or high viscosity during compaction or
mixing has been observed to result in lower
stability values.
▪ At high viscosity, it resist the compactive effort
and thereby resulting mix is heterogeneous,
hence low stability values.
▪ And at low viscosity instead of providing a
uniform film over aggregates, it will lubricate the
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aggregate particles
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 Physical Properties of Bitumen

❖ Viscosity Tests: Absolute Viscosity

• Two types of viscosity tests are generally run:

• absolute viscosity (expressed in poise) (flow in vacuum) (ASTM
D-2171, AASHTO T-202) at 140°F, and
• kinematic viscosity (expressed in centistokes) (by gravity flow)
(ASTM D-2170, AASHTO T-201) at 275°F

▪ Absolute Viscosity

• A sample of asphalt is introduced through one side of a capillary tube,

maintained in a bath at 60°C.
• After reaching 60°C, the asphalt is made to flow by applying a
vacuum on the other side of the tube, and the time to flow through
two marked points in the tube is measured.
• The time is then used, along with the calibration constant of the tube,
to determine the viscosity

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 Physical Properties of Bitumen

▪ Kinematic Viscosity

• The kinematic viscosity test is similar to the absolute viscosity test, but
runs at a higher temperature, at which the asphalt is sufficiently fluid
to flow.
• A different type of tube is used for this test, and after reaching the test
temperature, only a small vacuum is applied on the other side of the
tube to initiate the flow of asphalt due to gravity.
• The kinematic viscosity is then determined by multiplying the time
taken by the asphalt to flow between two timing marks and the
calibration factor of the tube

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 Physical Properties of Bitumen

❖ Kinematic Viscosity

• Kinematic viscosity is used to determine suitable mixing and compaction

temperature for HMA.
• Generally, the viscosity for mixing and compaction is specified as 170 ±
20 and 280 ± 30 cSt (for mixing and compaction, respectively; Asphalt
Institute 1984).
• Generally, the absolute viscosity is determined at 60°C, and the
kinematic viscosity is measured at 135°C, and then a plot of
temperature (in Rankine) versus kinematic viscosity (log–log) is plotted
with two data points, one with the measured value at 135°C and another
one calculated from the absolute viscosity at 60°C as follows:

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 Physical Properties of Bitumen

❖ Viscosity Tests

• Viscosity tests are used for classification of asphalts (absolute viscosity),

as well as on conditioned asphalts to evaluate overheating/overaging of
asphalt.
• ASTM D-3381 presents the specifications for the different types of
viscosity-graded asphalt.
• Viscosity grades are generally expressed as an AC, followed by a
number expressing its viscosity divided by 100. For example, an AC 20
asphalt binder means a binder with absolute viscosity of 2000 P.
• In India, we use VG-10, VG-20, VG-30, VG-40.
• Generally higher viscosity asphalts are used in warmer climatic regions,
whereas lower viscosity materials are used in colder regions

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 Introduction to Viscoelasticity of Bitumen

❖ Viscoelasticity of asphalt/bitumen
• In asphalt testing and specifications, the non-Newtonian behavior is
studied using linear viscoelasticity theory. A linear viscoelastic behavior
indicates that the material properties change as a function of shearing
rate and temperature. A viscoelastic material combines the behavior of an
elastic solid and a viscous liquid. The elastic solid is represented by
Hooke’s law
G is the shear modulus; the viscous liquid is
𝜏 = 𝐺𝛾 represented by the Newtonian viscous
relationship τ = ηγ˙, where η is the viscostiy.

Depending on the temperature and rate of loading, an asphalt binder

could behave as an elastic material or as a viscous material, or in a way
that reflects both its elastic and viscous nature.

At low temperatures and short periods of loading the response is elastic,

whereas at high temperature and long periods of loading the response is
viscous

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 Introduction to Viscoelasticity of Bitumen

❖ Linear viscoelasticity of asphalt/bitumen

• At intermediate temperatures and periods of loading, asphalt binders
show viscoelastic behavior. The lag between the shear stress and shear
strain is called the phase angle, δ, and can range from 0, for a perfectly
elastic material, to 90° (one-quarter of a cycle) for a perfectly viscous
material. An increase in phase angle indicates an increase in the viscous
behavior of the material and a decrease in the elastic behavior.

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 Introduction to Viscoelasticity of Bitumen

❖ Linear viscoelasticity of asphalt/bitumen

• A Newtonian viscous liquid has δ value of 90◦ , while an elastic solid has a δ
value of 0◦ . Asphalt binders have a phase angle between these two extremes.
The dynamic modulus and phase angle are the two fundamental properties
needed to describe the viscoelastic response under dynamic harmonic loading.
• The stiffness relevant for asphalt binder is related to shear failure.
• To determine stiffness or modulus related to shear failure, one needs to
measure shear stress and shear strain.

The shear modulus can be

determined as the ratio of shear
stress to strain at a specific
frequency.

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 Rheological Properties of Bitumen

❖ Complex Modulus and Phase Angle

• The dynamic shear rheometer (DSR; test method: AASHTO T-315) is used to
characterize the viscoelastic behavior of asphalt binder, and evaluate its rutting
and cracking potential.
• The basic principle used for DSR testing is that asphalt behaves like elastic solids
at low temperatures and like a viscous fluid at high temperatures.
• These behaviors can be captured by measuring the complex modulus (G*) and
phase angle (δ) of an asphalt binder under a specific temperature and
frequency of loading.

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 Rheological Properties of Bitumen

❖ Complex Modulus and Phase Angle

• The G* and δ parameters are measured by the DSR by applying a torque on the
asphalt binder between a fixed and an oscillating plate, and measuring the
resultant strain.
• G* is defined as the ratio of shear stress to shear strain, and δ is the time lag
between the stress and the strain in the asphalt binder. These properties are
determined at high and intermediate pavement service temperatures.

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 Rheological Properties of Bitumen

❖ Complex Modulus and Phase Angle

• G* is defined as the ratio of shear stress to shear strain, and δ is the time lag
between the stress and the strain in the asphalt binder. These properties are
determined at high and intermediate pavement service temperatures.
• The high temperature is determined from the average of maximum HMA
pavement temperature over a 7 day period through summer, which is obtained
from data from weather stations.
• The intermediate testing temperature is determined from an average of 7 day
average maximum and minimum design temperature.

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 Rheological Properties of Bitumen

❖ Complex Modulus and Phase Angle

• Figure below shows results of DSR tests conducted on different asphalts at

different temperatures. Dividing G* by the angular velocity (10 rad/s used in
DSR testing), one can obtain complex dynamic shear viscosity from DSR tests

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 Aging Tests on Bitumen

❖ Aging tests
Short-term aging is done by subjecting the asphalt binder to the rolling thin film
oven (RTFO) test, explained earlier. Long-term aging is simulated with the use of
the pressure aging vessel (PAV; ASTM-D6521, AASHTO R-28; Figure 9.12). The
PAV test consists of subjecting the RTFO residue to high pressure and
temperature inside a closed vessel. The PAV is placed inside an oven for
maintaining the specified high temperature, and a cylinder of clean, dry
compressed air is used to supply and regulate air pressure

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 Aging Tests on Bitumen

❖ DST tests conducted on aged asphalt

• The asphalt binder in its unaged condition, short-term aged condition (RTFO
conditioned), and long-term aged condition (PAV conditioned) is tested with
the DSR for evaluation of its rutting and fatigue characteristics.
• The rutting potential is evaluated by the rutting factor, defined as G*/Sin δ,
of which G* and δ can be obtained from DSR testing.
• Since higher G* means greater resistance to rutting, and lower δ means a
more elastic asphalt binder, higher G* and lower δ values are desirable to
make the HMA less susceptible to rutting.
• Considering rutting as a stress-controlled, cyclic loading phenomenon, it can
be shown that rutting potential is inversely proportional to G*/Sin δ. Hence,
a minimum limit is set on the value of G*/Sin δ.
• Testing asphalt for the rutting factor prior to long-term aging is critical, since
with aging the stiffness of the asphalt binder increases and resistance to
rutting increases (Bahia and Anderson, 1995).
• Hence, the DSR test for rutting potential is conducted on RTFO residue. It is
also conducted on unaged asphalt binder, since in some cases RTFO may not
indicate the actual aging of the binder during the production and placement
of HMA

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 Aging Tests on Bitumen

❖ DST tests conducted on aged asphalt

• The asphalt binder is also tested with the DSR to determine the fatigue
cracking potential of HMA.
• The fatigue potential is measured by the fatigue factor, defined as G* Sin δ.
• This is done because it can be shown that under a strain-controlled process,
the work done for fatigue is proportional to G* Sin δ, and hence a lower
value of G* Sin δ means a lower potential of fatigue cracking.
• This can be explained by the fact that as G* decreases, the asphalt binder
becomes less stiff and is able to deform without building up large stresses,
and as δ value decreases, the asphalt binder becomes more elastic and
hence can regain its original condition without dissipating “energy.”
• An upper limit is set on the G* Sin δ value in the Superpave specification, in
order to minimize the potential of fatigue cracking (Bahia and Anderson,
1995).
• Since the asphalt binder becomes stiffer due to aging during its service life
and becomes more susceptible to cracking, the DSR test for fatigue factor
determination is conducted on PAV-aged samples

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 Aging Tests on Bitumen

❖ Low-temperature stiffness

• The bending beam rheometer (BBR) is used to evaluate the stiffness of

asphalt binder, and its cracking potential at low temperature. The BBR
consists of a loading mechanism in which an asphalt binder beam is
subjected to a transient creep load at a constant low temperature.
• The creep stiffness and the rate at which the stiffness changes with loading
time give an indication of its cracking potential at the test temperature.
• The higher the stiffness (s), the lower the rate (m), and the greater the
potential for cracking.
• Since the asphalt binder becomes stiffer with aging and more susceptible to
thermal cracking, the BBR test is conducted on PAV-aged samples.
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 Groups and Grades of Bitumen

Paving grade Hard grade paving Oxidized bitumen

bitumen bitumen

Paving bitumens are bitumens produced from the residue distillation of crude oil,
whereas oxidised bitumens are produced from bitumen subjected to a blowing
process during which oxidation of bitumen occurs.

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 Groups and Grades of Bitumen

❖ Paving grade bitumen

▪ Paving grade bitumens are designated by the nominal penetration or viscosity ranges as
appropriate.
▪ In United States, paving bitumens are graded in reference to either penetration or
viscosity value
▪ Viscosity-graded bitumen (ASTM D 3381) or AASHTO M 226 2012)
▪ If ASTM: bitumens characterized by the letters AC, followed by numbers related to
viscosity values
▪ If AASHTO: characterized by the letters AR, followed by numbers related to
viscosity values
▪ The selection of the most suitable grade is based on the climatic and traffic conditions
encountered.
▪ Characterized by their consistency at intermediate (determined by penetration test),
consistency at elevated service temperatures (determined by softening point or viscosity
test) and durability (determined by resistance to hardening test). Their brittleness at low
service temperature (determined by the Fraass breaking test) and temperature
dependence of consistency (determined by the penetration index) may also need to be
determined to meet regional requirements for specific conditions such as extreme cold
or wide ambient temperature variations. Flash point is also determined as well as,
optionally, the density

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 Groups and Grades of Bitumen

❖ Paving grade bitumen (ASTM D 3381)

Property Test Viscosity grade (grading based on original asphalt)

Method
ASTM AC-2.5 AC-5 AC-10 AC-20 AC-30 AC-40
Viscosity at D 2171 25 ± 5 50 ± 10 100 ± 20 200 ± 40 300 ± 60 400 ± 80
60 C (Pa.s)
Viscosity at D 2171 ≥125 ≥175 ≥250 ≥300 ≥350 ≥400
135 C
(mm2/s)
Penetration D5 ≥220 ≥140 ≥80 ≥60 ≥50 ≥40
at 25 C

Property Test Penetration grade

Method
ASTM 40/50 60/70 85/100 120/150 200/300
Penetration D5 40-50 60-70 85-100 120-150 200-300
at 25 C
Softening D 92 ≥49 ≥46 ≥42 ≥38 ≥32
point (C)
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 Groups and Grades of Bitumen

❖ Hard paving grade bitumen

▪ Has very high stiffness modulus values

▪ Used for construction and maintenance of road and airport pavements or other kinds of
bitumen surfaces.
▪ Hard paving bitumens constitute an extension of common paving bitumens.
▪ They are usually used in locations with very high daily traffic flow, when annual ambient
temperatures are intermediate or high.
▪ As with common paving bitumens, the tests conducted on hard paving bitumens aim at
determining their consistency at intermediate service temperatures (penetration test) and
at elevated service temperatures (softening point and dynamic viscosity test) and their
durability (resistance to hardening test). Kinematic viscosity, Fraass breaking point, flash
point and solubility are also properties considered useful in the specification of hard
paving bitumens.

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 Groups and Grades of Bitumen

❖ Oxidized bitumen

▪ Mainly used in roofing, waterproofing, adhesives and insulations.

▪ Oxidation process is conducted after bitumen production and consists of blowing air
through heated bitumen (temp. between 240 C and 320 C).
▪ Oxidation ‘dehydrates’ and ‘polymerises’ bitumen. As a result, the molecular weight of
asphaltenes is increased, additional asphaltenes are created from the continuous oil
phase (maltenes) and thus bitumen with higher molecular wt. is produced.
▪ Because of these changes, bitumen becomes harder and it becomes less susceptible to
temperature changes.
▪ However, because of hardening, it can easily crack at temp. below 0 C.
▪ Hard paving bitumens constitute an extension of common paving bitumens.
▪ They are graded in reference to a combination of the softening point values, and
penetration at 25 C, expressed in multiples of 5.
▪ E.g., an oxidized bitumen 85/25 means that the softening point of the product is between
80 C and 90C and the penetration is between 20 and 30 dmm.

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 Groups and Grades of Bitumen

❖ Paving grade bitumen (IRC: 115)

Specification Purpose No. of Layers Thickness of each

Layer
Dense Bituminous Base/Binder Single or Multiple 50 mm – 100 mm
Macadam (DBM) Course/Overlay for
Strengthening
Semi-Dense Bituminous Wearing Course Single 25 mm – 40 mm
Concrete (SDBC)
Bituminous Concrete Wearing Course Single 25 mm/ 40 mm/ 50
mm
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 Groups and Grades of Bitumen

❖ Paving grade bitumen (IRC: 115)

Viscosity Grade (VG) General Applications

VG-40 Use in highly stressed areas such as those in intersections, near

(40-60 penetration) toll booths, and truck parking lots in lieu of old 30/40 penetration
grade
VG-30 Use for paving in most of India in lieu of old 60/70 penetration
(50-70 penetration) grade
VG-20 Use of paving in cold climatic; high altitude regions of North India
(60-80 penetration)
VG-10 Use in spraying applications and for paving in very old climatic in
(80-100 penetration) lieu of old 80/100 penetration grade

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 Groups and Grades of Bitumen

❖ Paving grade bitumen (IRC: 115)

Highest Daily Mean Air Temperature, C
Lowest Daily Mean Air Less than 20 C 20 to 30 C More than 30 C
Temperature, C
More than – 10 C VG-10 VG-20 VG-30

– 10 C or lower VG-10 VG-10 VG-20

Lowest Daily Mean Air Less than 20 C 20 to 30 C More than 30 C

Temperature, C
Grade of Modified Bitumen
More than – 10 C PMB/NRMB 120 PMB/NRMB 70 PMB/NRMB 40
CRMB 50 CRMB 55 CRMB 60
– 10 C or lower PMB/NRMB 120 PMB/NRMB 120 PMB/NRMB 70
CRMB 50 CRMB 50 CRMB 55
PMB = Polymer Modified Bitumen; NRMB = Natural Rubber Modified Bitumen;
CRMB = Crumb Rubber Modified Bitumen
62
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 Thank you!

See you on Thursday (07/04/23)

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