Data Communication and Computer

Networks

Chapter 5: The Data Link

Layer

Ketema D.(MSc.)
 Data Link Layer Introduction

Introduction

The data link layer is responsible for carrying a frame from one hop
(computer or router) to the next hop; i.e., it has local responsibility
unlike the network layer
Position of the data link layer

2 / 85
 Data Link Layer Introduction

Introduction

The data link layer transforms the physical layer, a raw transmission
facility, to a reliable link.
It makes the physical layer appear error-free to the network layer. The
following figure shows the relationship of the data link layer to the
network and physical layers.

The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one hop
(node) to the next.

3 / 85
 Data Link Layer Introduction

Layer 2 frame structure

Data Link Layer Responsibilities

Framing. The data link layer divides the stream
of packet received from the network layer into
manageable data units called frames.
Physical addressing. If frames are to be
distributed to different systems on the network,
the data link layer adds a header to the frame to
define the sender and/or receiver of the frame.
If the frame is intended for a system outside
the sender‘s network, the receiver address is
the address of the device that connects the
network to the next one.
4 / 85
 Data Link Layer Introduction

Data Link Layer Responsibilities

Flow control. If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the receiver is
less than the rate at which data are produced in the sender, the data link
layer imposes a flow control mechanism to avoid overwhelming the
receiver.

Error control. The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by
adding mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames.
It also uses a mechanism to recognize duplicate frames.
Error control is normally achieved through a trailer added to the end
of the frame.

Access control. When two or more devices are connected to the same
link, data link layer protocols are necessary to determine which device
has control over the link at any given time.

5 / 85
 Data Link Layer Introduction

Hop-to-hop (node-to-node) delivery by data link layer

6 / 85
 Data Link Layer Introduction

Hop-to-hop (node-to-node) delivery by data link layer

As the figure above shows, communication at the data link layer occurs
between two adjacent nodes.
To send data from A to F, three partial deliveries are made.
First, the data link layer at A sends a frame to the data link layer at
B (a router).
Second, the data link layer at B sends a new frame to the data link
layer at E.
Finally, the data link layer at E sends a new frame to the data link
layer at F.
Note that the frames that are exchanged between the three nodes have
different values in the headers. The frame from A to B has B as the
destination address and A as the source address. The frame from B to E
has E as the destination address and B as the source address. The frame
from E to F has F as the destination address and E as the source address.
The values of the trailers can also be different if error checking includes
the header of the frame.
7 / 85
 Data Link Layer Error Detection and Correction

Error Detection and Correction

Mainly a data link layer function
Networks must be able to transfer data from one device to another with
complete accuracy - our wish
Data can be corrupted during transmission - many factors exist - like
transmission impairments
Hence, reliable systems must have a mechanism for detecting and
correcting errors
Two types of errors: single-bit and burst
Single-bit error: only one bit in a data unit (byte, character, packet, ...) has
changed; less likely to occur in serial transmission (since noise normally
lasts longer than the transmission time of 1 bit, e.g. 1 microsecond if
speed is 1 Mbps), but most likely to occur in parallel transmission

8 / 85
 Data Link Layer Error Detection and Correction

• Burst error: 2 or more bits in the data unit have changed; most likely to
occur in serial transmissions.

Error detection and correction: include redundant error-detection (and

correction) codes with the data
Two possibilities
Include enough redundant information (called error-correcting
codes) to enable the receiver to deduce what the transmitted
data must have been; this method is often referred to as
forward error correction; applicable on unreliable channels
such as wireless links
Include only enough redundant information (called
error-detecting codes) to allow the receiver to deduce that an
error occurred, but not which error, and have it request
retransmission; applicable on reliable channels such as fiber
9 / 85
 Data Link Layer Error Detection and Correction

Error Detection and Correction

Error-detecting codes: two types: parity check and cyclic redundancy

check (a third one, called checksum, also exists)
Parity check: most common and simple; two varieties
Simple parity check: a redundant bit, called a parity bit, is added to
every data unit so that the total number of 1s in the unit (including
the parity bit) becomes even (or odd for odd-parity); this method
can detect all single-bit errors; it can detect burst errors only if the
total number of errors in each data unit is odd
Two-dimensional parity check: a block of bits is organized in a
table (rows and columns)

10 / 85
 Data Link Layer Error Detection and Correction

Can detect most errors

If 2 bits in one data unit are damaged and two bits in exactly the same
positions in another data unit are also damaged, the checker will not detect
an error

11 / 85
 Data Link Layer Error Detection and Correction

Cyclic redundancy check (CRC): is based on binary division

The CRC is appended to the end of a data unit so that the resulting data
unit becomes exactly divisible by a second, predetermined binary number

Read about the method of generating the CRC

12 / 85
 Data Link Layer Data Link Control and Protocols

Data Link Control and Protocols

For reliable data delivery across the link, the data link layer has two most
important responsibilities: flow control and error control, collectively
known as data link control
Flow Control
Refers to a set of procedures used to restrict the amount of data that
the sender can send before receiving an acknowledgement
It is an end-to-end mechanism for regulating traffic between source
and destination
Congestion control: a mechanism used by the network to limit
congestion
Flow control and congestion control are not really separable, and
we will refer to both as flow control

13 / 85
 Data Link Layer Data Link Control and Protocols

• Limiting factors: speed of the receiver (to process incoming data), amount
of memory (buffer) to store the incoming data before processed, and
network capacity
Rate of processing is normally slower than rate of transmission
The receiver must be able to inform the sender to temporarily
halt transmission until it is ready to receive more
If no flow control
When overload occurs:
Queues build up
Packets are discarded
Sources retransmit messages
Congestion increases instability
Flow control prevents network instability by keeping packets
waiting outside the network rather than in queues inside the network

Avoids wasting network resources

14 / 85
 Data Link Layer Data Link Control and Protocols

Data Link Control and Protocols

Error Control
Refers to both error detection and error correction
In the data link layer, error control refers primarily to methods of
error detection and retransmission
Anytime an error is detected, specified frames are retransmitted;
this process is called automatic repeat request (ARQ)

15 / 85
 Data Link Layer Data Link Control and Protocols

Flow and Error Control

Flow and Error Control Mechanisms : (three methods)

1 An Unrestricted Simplex Protocol

Simplex transmission: from sender to receiver

Processing time ignored; the receiver is assumed to process the
received data infinitely quickly
Infinite buffer space assumed to be available
Communication channel assumed to be free of error

16 / 85
 Data Link Layer Data Link Control and Protocols

Flow and Error Control

• 2 Stop-And-Wait ARQ
Protocols in which the sender sends one frame and then waits
for an acknowledgement before proceeding are called
stop-and-wait

17 / 85
 Data Link Layer Data Link Control and Protocols

Stop-And-Wait ARQ: Lost Frame

18 / 85
 Data Link Layer Data Link Control and Protocols

Stop-And-Wait ARQ: Lost ACK

19 / 85
 Data Link Layer Data Link Control and Protocols

Stop-And-Wait ARQ: Delayed ACK

20 / 85
 Data Link Layer Data Link Control and Protocols

Flow and Error Control

3 Sliding Window Protocols

Stop-and-wait ARQ is not efficient; there is only one frame that is
sent
can we transmit multiple frames while waiting for an ack?
use full-duplex transmission
two protocols: Go-Back-N ARQ and Selective Repeat ARQ
both methods require frames to be numbered
sequence numbers
frames from a sending station are numbered sequentially from
0 to 2m − 1, where m is the number of bits of the sequence
number in the frame header
e.g., let m = 3, then frames can be numbered as 0, 1, 2, 3 ,4, 5,
6, 7, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 0, 1, . . .
21 / 85
 Data Link Layer Data Link Control and Protocols

Flow and Error Control

A Go-Back-N-ARQ
The sender and receiver have sliding windows
The sender’s window is of fixed size and is at most 2m − 1; but other
protocols such as TCP allow variable size windows (see later in the
transport layer); it holds frames sent but not acknowledged
The receiver’s window is of size 1 the sender sets a timer for each
frame sent; the receiver has no timer
The receiver sends positive acknowledgements if a frame has
arrived safe and in order
If a frame is damaged or out of order, the receiver discards it and
keeps silent and discards all subsequent frames; this causes the
timer of the sender to expire and goes back and resends all frames,
beginning from the one with the expired timer
The receiver does not need to acknowledge frames individually
22 / 85
 Data Link Layer Data Link Control and Protocols

Working of Go-Back-N ARQ

Suppose there are a sender and a receiver, and let’s assume that there are 11
frames to be sent. These frames are represented as 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10, and
these are the sequence numbers of the frames. Mainly, the sequence number
is decided by the sender’s window size. But, for the better understanding, we
took the running sequence numbers, i.e., 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10. Let’s consider
the window size as 4, which means that the four frames can be sent at a time
before expecting the acknowledgment of the first frame.

Step 1: Firstly, the sender will send the first four frames to the receiver, i.e.,
0,1,2,3, and now the sender is expected to receive the acknowledgment of the
0th frame.

23 / 85
 Data Link Layer Data Link Control and Protocols

Working of Go-Back-N ARQ

24 / 85
 Data Link Layer Data Link Control and Protocols

Working of Go-Back-N ARQ

Let’s assume that the receiver has sent the acknowledgment for the 0 frame,
and the receiver has successfully received it

The sender will then send the next frame, i.e., 4, and the window slides
containing four frames (1,2,3,4).

25 / 85
 Data Link Layer Data Link Control and Protocols

Working of Go-Back-N ARQ

The receiver will then send the acknowledgment for the frame no 1. After
receiving the acknowledgment, the sender will send the next frame, i.e., frame
no 5, and the window will slide having four frames (2,3,4,5).

26 / 85
 Data Link Layer Data Link Control and Protocols

Working of Go-Back-N ARQ

Now, let’s assume that the receiver is not acknowledging the frame no 2,
either the frame is lost, or the acknowledgment is lost. Instead of sending the
frame no 6, the sender Go-Back to 2, which is the first frame of the current
window, retransmits all the frames in the current window, i.e., 2,3,4,5.

27 / 85
 Data Link Layer Data Link Control and Protocols

Working of Go-Back-N ARQ

28 / 85
 Data Link Layer Data Link Control and Protocols

Working of Go-Back-N ARQ

29 / 85
 Data Link Layer Data Link Control and Protocols

Flow and Error Control

B Selective Repeat ARQ

In GO-Back-N ARQ, the task of the receiver is simplified; no need
to buffer out-of-order frames; they are simply discarded
This protocol is inefficient for a noisy link that has a high
probability of damage resulting in the resending of multiple frames
For a noisy link, use Selective Repeat ARQ that requires resending
only the damaged frame
Selective Repeat ARQ defines a negative ack (NAK) that reports the
sequence number of a damaged frame before the timer expires
The sender and receiver windows are both at most half of 2m
The receiver’s window defines the range of acceptable sequence
numbers, i.e., frames may arrive out of order

30 / 85