By U. Charlotte and N.

Joselyne
Water supply and sanitation

water from the source to the consumers

 Water supply and sanitation
Water from the source to the consumers - Disposal
 Source
 Demand
 Storage (why?)
 Transmitted (infrastructures?)
 Treatment (WTP)
 Transmitted (infrastructures?)
 Storage (why?)
 Distribution ( infrastructures? )
 Consumers ( who?)
 Collection (Drains)
 WasteWater Treatment Plants (WWTP)
 Recycling; Disposal
 INDICATIVE CONTENT

 Introduction
 Water Demands
 Sources of Water Supply
 Quality of Water
 Treatment of Water
 Distribution system
 Water supply plumbing systems in buildings & houses
 Sewerage System

Expectation as Construction and Structure Engineers

 Schedule
 Week 1 :
 introduction, chap1
 Week 2 :
 chap2 , Chap3
 Week 3:
• tutorial 2,3 and Cat 1
 Week 4:
• Chap4, chap5
 Week 5:
• Chap6, tutorials
 Week 6
• Chap7, chap8
 Week 7
• Cat2, Presentation of courseworks
 Week 8
• computer model
 A WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM
 A water supply system is a system for the
 collection,
 transmission,
 Treatment (water quality analysis & treatment),
 storage and
 distribution of water from the source to the consumers,
for example:
 homes, commercial establishments, industry, irrigation,
facilities and public agencies for water—related activities
(fire—fighting, street flushing and so forth).
 WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
 is used to describe collectively the facilities used to supply
water from its source to the point of usage.
 The water distribution system starts where the main
supply conduit from the treatment or source ends.
The purpose of distribution system is to
 deliver water to consumer with appropriate quality,
quantity and pressure. ?!
Function of Water Distribution Systems:
 is to supply treated water safe for human consumption and
complying with quality regulations.
 Requirements of Good Distribution System
 Water quality should not get deteriorated in the distribution
pipes.
 It should be capable of supplying water at all the intended
places with sufficient pressure head.
 It should be capable of supplying the requisite amount of water
during fire fighting.
 The layout should be such that no consumer would be without
water supply, during the repair of any section of the system.
 All the distribution pipes should be preferably laid one meter
away or above the sewer lines.
 It should be fairly water-tight as to keep losses due to leakage
to the minimum.
 SOME DEFINITIONS
 PIPING
Water service pipe means a pipe on the property that conveys
potable water from a water works or private water source to the
inside of the building
 WATER MAINS
Water mains can be divided into three categories:
 Trunk mains
These carry water from a source of supply (reservoir, pumping
station etc.) without supplying consumers directly.
 Secondary main
These are distribution mains fed from a trunk main and supplying the
consumers’ connections.
 Service pipes
The branch supplies from the secondary mains that serve individual
premises.
Example of distribution network
COMPONENTS OF WATER DISTRIBUTION
The major Components are:
 Pipes, Valves, pumps, Flush Hydrants, fittings,
water meter, storage tank and reservoirs...
 each component plays a role in ensuring adequate
water service and in maintaining water quality.
 Because the pipes and valves are buried, a detailed
map is needed to gain quick access to the system for
maintenance and repairs.
COMPONENTS OF WATER DISTRIBUTION
Pipes
 Two types of water pipes are needed in a water system:
 transmission lines and distribution lines.
 Distribution pipes carry water out to the users
 transmission lines carry the water from the source to the storage
system.

 The upgraded Nzove - Ntora water transmission pipeline to improve

clean water Supply in Kigali
 COMPONENTS OF WATER DISTRIBUTION
Valves
 are a critical part of a water system and are often an
afterthought.
 Valves isolate portions of the water system for servicing.
 water system repairs and maintenance can be conducted with
minimal loss of service.
COMPONENTS OF WATER DISTRIBUTION
Pumps
 Pumps are used to impart energy to the water in order to
boost it to higher elevations or to increase pressure.
 Pumps are typically made from steel or cast iron.
 Most pumps used in distribution systems are centrifugal in
nature,
 in that water from an intake pipe enters the pump through
the action of a “spinning impeller” where it is discharged
outward between vanes and into the discharge piping.
 The cost of power for pumping constitutes one of the
major operating costs for a water supply.
Pumps
COMPONENTS OF WATER DISTRIBUTION

Flush hydrants
 are the most visible part of the water distribution
system.
 They must be at the end of all lines to remove
accumulated corrosion products from dead-ends.
 should also be installed throughout the system to
provide for periodic flushing to maintain high water
quality.
Flush hydrants
COMPONENTS OF WATER DISTRIBUTION
Fittings
 Pipes come in all sorts of sizes
 sometimes they need to connect with each other.
 While the connections are sometimes straight, at other
times they may take a turn in direction.
 For those situations, pipe fittings :
 Help to connect pipes of different sizes and diameters
and
 help lines to change direction,
 Pipe fittings, like pipes themselves, come in different
types of material. They can be made of strainless steel,
copper, or PVC
Fittings
COMPONENTS OF WATER DISTRIBUTION
A water meter
 device that records the amount of water being used in your
home for billing purposes
 Your water company checks your water meter to calculate how
much to charge you.
A velocity-type meter
 measures the velocity of flow through a meter of a known
internal capacity.
 The speed of the flow can then be converted into volume of
flow for usage.
 There are several types of meters:
 jet meters (single-jet and multi-jet), turbine meters,
 propeller meters, and mag meters.
COMPONENTS OF WATER DISTRIBUTION
Storage tanks and reservoirs are used to:
 provide storage capacity to meet fluctuations in demand,
 provide reserve supply for fire-fighting use and emergency ,
 stabilize pressures in the distribution system,
 increase operating convenience and provide flexibility in
pumping,
 provide water during source or pump failures,
 to blend different water sources.
 The recommended location of a storage tank is just beyond the
center of demand in the service area
 Elevated tanks are used most frequently,
 Systems of distribution
1.Gravitational system
 water flows from the source to the treatment plant and
from treatment plant to the distribution area by gravity.
 This system is reliable and economical.
2.Direct pumping
 water is pumped from the source to the treatment plant
and from treatment plant to the distribution area.
The disadvantages are:
 the system is costly;
 water supply fails whenever power supply fails and
 pressure at the consumers end fluctuates a lot.
3.Combined
 Water flows from the source to the treatment plant and
from treatment plant to the distribution area by gravity or
pumping.
The advantages are:
 pump can work at convenient schedule,
 uniform pressure can be maintained during water supply,
 water from distribution reservoir can be used when pump
fails
 the quality of water would be improved due to detention
of water in the elevated reservoir.
 TYPES OF DISTRIBUTION SCHEMES
There are basically two types of distribution system:
 Branched systems
 A looped network
 Branched systems:
•used for small capacity community
supplies
• delivering the mostly through
public standpipes and having few
house connections
The advantage:
•their design is straight-forward.
•The direction of the water flow in
all pipes and the flow rate can be
readily determined
 A looped network
• usually has a ring of mains to which the
secondary pipes are connected.
• In large distribution system, the secondary
pipes are usually all inter-connected
• which requires many valves and
special parts.
• For small distribution systems, over-
crossing secondary pipes that are not
inter-connected may be advantageous
with a considerable cost saving.
Review chap1
 QUIZ 1
 Explain the main purpose of water distribution system
HW 1
Q1: Describe the status of water supply and sanitation in
Rwanda
Q2: Describe the consequences to have and to lack potable
water
 Instructions:
 Do a report of maximum 4 pages

 Date of submission: one week after unit is taught.

 Chap 2

WATER DEMAND AND QUANTITY ESTIMATION

Water demand
 This is the volume of water, which has to be put into a supply
and distribution system to satisfy the requirements of
consumers plus leakage and other waste, which may be
incurred in the process.

 The total demand in each category of uses (domestic,

commercial and public/institutional) is made up of several
water use activities such as drinking, washing, gardening, etc.
Determinant of Domestic Demand
1. Number and size of households
2. Family income and income distribution
3. Costs of water presently used
4. Cost of future water used
5. Connection charges
6. Availability and quality of service
7. Cost and availability of water using devices
8. Availability of alternative water sources
9. Present water consumption
10. Legal requirements
11. Population density
12. Cultural influences
Determinant of commercial Demand
1. Sales or value added of non-subsistence commercial sector
2. Costs and volume of water presently used
3. Price of future water used
4. Connection charges
5. Costs of water using appliances
6. Quality and reliability of service
7. Working hours of various types of commercial establishments
8. Legal requirements
Determinant of industrial Demand
1. Present and future costs of water
2. Type of industry and water use intensity
3. Relative price of alternative sources
4. Quality and reliability of supply
5. Costs of treatment and disposal of waste water
6. Legal requirements
Determinant of agricultural Demand
1. Present and future costs of water
2. Availability of other sources
3. Quality and reliability of supply
4. Supply cost of alternative water systems
5. Number of cattle
6. Legal requirements
Determinant of public services Demand
1. Present and future costs of water
2. Per capita revenue of local governments
3. Number and size of public schools, hospitals etc.
4. Legal requirements
 Urban and rural water demand
Rural area
 The factors which determine domestic demand may differ
between the urban and the rural sector.
 In the rural sector, special attention needs to be given to such
things as
 the availability of alternative water sources,
 the income and ability to pay for or contribute to the project
facilities and their management,
 the choice of technology and the use of water for other purposes
like agriculture (e.g. livestock or vegetable growing) and,
 the ability to operate and maintain facilities.
 In the rural context, the assessment of effective demand have to
be carried out in close consultation with the local population,
and
 attention needs to be given to issues such as community
participation and hygiene education
Urban areas
Number of factors affect urban water demand and should be taken into account
when forecasting urban water demand and use:
 Demographic factors (e.g. population growth, migration, overspill from
larger cities)
 Socio-economic factors (e.g. standard of housing and living , employment
opportunities);
 Climate;
 Type of sanitation;
 Extent of distribution leakage which is dependent upon the age of and
pressure of the system;
 Consumer wastage;
 Ratio of institutional and business demand and use to domestic consumption
 Availability of non-piped supplies;
 Tariff levels
 2.3 Effective Water Demand
 The “effective demand” for water is the quantity of water demanded of a
given quality at a specified price.
Difference between “effective demand” for water and “actual consumption”
of water.
 Water consumption is the actual quantity of water consumed. whereas
 effective demand relates that quantity to the price of water
It is an important and critical step in the economic analysis of water supply
projects; it will enable to:
 (i) determine the service level(s) to be provided;
 (ii) determine the size and timing of investments;
 (iii) estimate the financial and economic benefits of the project; and
 (iv) assess the ability and willingness to pay of the project beneficiaries.
2.4 WATER QUANTITY ESTIMATION

 The quantity of water required for community uses for

which the water supply scheme has to be designed
requires the following data:
1. Water consumption rate: Per Capita Demand ( in liters
per day per head)
2. Population to be served.

Quantity = per capita demand x Population

Water consumption rate
(Per Capita Demand in liters per day per head)
1.Water Consumption Rate (per capita demand)
 It is very difficult to precisely assess the quantity of water
demanded by the public;
 there are many variable factors affecting water consumption
 The various types of water demands may be broken into
following categories:
 Factors affecting per capita demand
 Size of the city
 Presence of industries
 Climatic conditions
 Habits of people and their economic status
 Quality of water
 Pressure in the distribution system.
 Efficiency of water works administration
 Cost of water
 Policy of metering and charging method
 Example of Rwanda!
Water tariff in Rwanda – way to reduce consumption

Assuming 6 m3 , total bill = ?

 Fluctuations in Rate of Demand
 Average Daily Per Capita Demand =
Quantity Required in 12 Months/ (365 x Population)
 If this average demand is supplied at all the times, it will not be
sufficient to meet the fluctuations! Why??
 Seasonal variation: There are demand peaks during summer.
i.e. Firebreak outs
 Daily variation: depending on the activity; people draw out more
water i.e on Sundays and Festival days
 Hourly variations :are very important as they have a wide range.
 During active household working hours i.e. 06-10:00 and 16-20:00, the
bulk of the daily requirement is taken.
 if a fire breaks out, a huge quantity of water is required to be supplied
during short duration, necessitating the need for a maximum rate of
hourly supply.
Fluctuations in Rate of Demand cont’
 So, an adequate quantity of water must be available to meet the
peak demand.
 To meet all the fluctuations, the supply pipes, service reservoirs
and distribution pipes must be properly balanced.
 The effect of monthly variation influences the design of storage
reservoirs and
 the hourly variations influences the design of pumps and
service reservoirs.
 Maximum daily demand = 1.8 x average daily demand

 Maximum hourly demand of maximum day i.e. Peak demand

= 1.5 x average hourly demand
= 1.5 x Maximum daily demand/24
= 1.5 x (1.8 x average daily demand)/24
= 2.7 x average daily demand/24
= 2.7 x annual average hourly demand
Design Periods
 Water quantity should be worked out with the estimated
requirements of the future.
 The future period for which a provision is made in the water
supply scheme is known as the design period.
Design period is estimated based on the following:
 Useful life of the component; considering obsolescence, wear,
tear…
 Expandability aspect
 Anticipated rate of growth of population, including industrial,
commercial developments & migration-immigration.
 Available resources.
 Performance of the system during initial period.
2. POPULATION FORECASTING METHODS

 There various methods for estimating future populations.

 The particular method to be adopted for a particular case
or for a particular city depends largely on the factors
discussed in the methods,
 the selection is left to the discretion and intelligence of the
designer.
 Arithmetic Increase Method
 Geometric Increase Method
 Incremental Increase Method
 Decreasing Rate of Growth Method
 Simple Graphical Method
 Comparative Graphical Method
 Ratio Method
 Logistic Curve Method
Arithmetic Increase Method
 This method is based on the assumption that the population increases at a
constant rate; i.e. dP/dt=constant=k;
 Thus Pt= P0+kt
 This method is most applicable to large and established cities.
Geometric Increase Method
 This method is based on the assumption that percentage growth rate is
constant i.e. dP/dt=kP;
 Thus lnP= lnP0+kt
 This method must be used with caution, for when applied it may produce
too large results for rapidly grown cities in comparatively short time. This
would apply to cities with unlimited scope of expansion.
Incremental Increase Method
 Growth rate is assumed to be progressively increasing or decreasing,
depending upon whether the average of the incremental increases in the past
is positive or negative.
 The population for a future decade is worked out by adding the mean
arithmetic increase to the last known population as in the arithmetic increase
method
Decreasing Rate of Growth Method
 In this method, the average decrease in the percentage increase is
worked out, and is then subtracted from the latest percentage
increase to get the percentage increase of next decade.
Simple Graphical Method
 In this method, a graph is plotted from the available data, between
time and population. The curve is then smoothly extended up to the
desired year.
 This method gives very approximate results and should be used
along with other forecasting methods.
Comparative Graphical Method
 In this method, the cities having conditions and characteristics
similar to the city whose future population is to be estimated are
selected.
 It is then assumed that the city under consideration will develop, as
the selected similar cities have developed in the past.
Ratio Method
 In this method, the local population and the country's population for the last
four to five decades is obtained from the census records.
 The ratios of the local population to national population are then worked out
for these decades. A graph is then plotted between time and these ratios, and
extended up to the design period to extrapolate the ratio corresponding to
future design year.
 This ratio is then multiplied by the expected national population at the end
of the design period, so as to obtain the required city's future population.
Logistic Curve Method
 The three factors responsible for changes in population are:
 Births, Deaths and Migrations.
 Logistic curve method is based on the hypothesis that when these varying
influences do not produce extraordinary changes, the population would
probably follow the growth curve characteristics of living things within
limited space and with limited economic opportunity. The curve is S-shaped
and is known as logistic curve.
ESTIMATING PRESENT AND FUTURE POPULATION
A starting point in demand forecasting is determining the size and
future growth of the population in the project area.
 The first step is to estimate the size of the existing population.
 The second step is to determine the service or project area
 the service area will have to be determined in consultation with the
project engineer, the municipal authorities
 The third step is to estimate future population growth in the
project area.
 It should also take into account the effects of urban and/or regional
development plans and the effects of migration from rural to urban
areas.
 Finally the project has to determine which level of coverage it
intends to achieve.
 Often, project objectives contain statements such as: “provide safe water
supply to 75 percent of the population of town x”. In this statement, it is
assumed that the town area and service or project area are the same.
UNACCOUNTED FOR WATER
 A certain percentage of the water supplied to
consumers is lost due to
 technical losses (physical leakages) and/or
 nontechnical losses(unmetered consumption, illegal
connections).
 This so-called Unaccounted For Water (UFW) is
normally expressed as a percentage of the volume of
distributed water.
 It is necessary to include a realistic estimate of UFW
in a demand estimate for a WSP. This percentage is
naturally relate to the existing UFW rate and should
be based on realistic targets for UFW reduction.
 PEAK FACTOR
 Demand for water may vary from one season to another and
throughout the day. Daily demand show variations and there will be
peak hours during the day,
 These seasonal and daily peak factors influence the size of the total
installed capacity. These are technical parameters and have to be
determined by project engineers.
 These seasonal, daily and other predictable demand factors are
known as peak factors.
 In determining the total installed capacity of a planned project, the
technical staff needs to consider both these peak demand factors and
the projected growth in demand.

 Failure to do so could result in the project becoming supply

constrained and unable to fully meet the demand requirements
 Data about daily and seasonal water consumption patterns is
normally available from secondary data or may be collected in the
household survey.
 WATER CONSERVATION

Measures ???
WATER CONSERVATION cont’d
 Water conservation is a critical component of meeting
existing and future water needs, including in-stream
and out-of-stream uses.
 Water conservation measures include anything that
reduces the amount of water needed to meet water
supply uses.
 Conservation measures entail changing practices and
improving system efficiencies:
 to reduce water demand,
 preserve natural resources,
 accommodate future development opportunities.
WATER CONSERVATION cont’d
Water conservation Best Management Practices (BMP)
that can reduce demand include:
•reducing irrigation,
•changing landscaping materials,
•minimizing leaks and systems inefficiencies, and
•reusing or recycling water.
Review chap2
Water demand and quantity estimation

• WATER DEMAND?
• Categories of water use and the factors
(determinant)influencing demand
• different bn urban and rural water demand
•WATER QUANTITY ESTIMATION:
1. Water consumption rate (Per Capita Demand)
2. Population to be served.
Estimating present and future population
UFW (unaccounted for water)
Peak factor
Water conservation (measures & BMP)
 Quiz 2
 Explain how climatic conditions affect per capita water
demand
 Chap 3

WATER SOURCES AND STORAGE

 SOURCES OF WATER
 Water may be obtained from natural sources.
 Water sources relate to the basic phases of the hydrological cycle of rain, surface
and groundwater. The various sources of water can be classified into four categories:
1. Surface sources, such as
 Ponds and lakes;
 Streams and rivers;
 Storage reservoirs;
2. Rain water
3. Sub-surface or underground sources
 Springs;
 Infiltration wells ; and
 Wells and Tube-wells.
4. Water obtaining from reclamation

 Necessity to know the source:

 Meet demand?
 Need pumping or gravity?
 Treatment? (each source of water has a unique set of contaminants; it may require
one or more treatment processes depending upon the impurities found in the water)
1. Surface water
 Streams, rivers and lakes are the major sources of surface water.
 Water in these sources originates partly from groundwater outflows
and partly from rainwater which flows over the terrestrial areas into
the surface water bodies.
 Usually in surface water bodies, the dissolved mineral particles will
remain unchanged while the organic impurities are degraded by
chemical and microbial action.
 In slow-flowing or impounded surface waters sedimentation of
suspended solids occurs naturally.
 Although clear water from rivers and lakes requires no treatment, on
taking into account the risk of incidental contamination, it is better to
practice chlorination.
 Unpolluted surface water of low turbidity may be purified by slow
sand filtration alone.
 Alternatively, rapid sand filtration followed by chlorination can be
practiced
Surface water
2. Ground water
 GW refers to any subsurface water that occurs beneath the water table
 The GW can be tapped from different sources including natural springs,
wells and bore holes, infiltration galleries etc.
 is generally stored in aquifer, underground layers that are saturated with
water.
 These aquifers receive water as soil becomes saturated with precipitation or
through stream and river runoff.
 As the aquifers exceed their capacity for water storage, they will bleed
water back into streams or rivers.
 A little contamination of GW occurs from organic and inorganic soil
particles, animal and plant debris, fertilizers, pesticides, microorganisms...
 In spite of this contamination, infiltration causes partial removal of
suspended particles including microorganisms. Organic substances are also
degraded by oxidation. Partial removal of microorganisms occurs by the
death of cells due to lack of nutrients.
 It is important to select the location of groundwater supply at a safe distance
from other sources of contamination like septic tanks.
Ground water
3. Rainwater
 Rainwater run off from roofs can be collected and stored for
domestic use. Rainwater will be of high quality and the only
possible source of contamination is airborne microorganisms
that too will be present in very low numbers.
 During collection, the first flush of water of a day has to be
diverted away from the storage tank since it may contain dust,
bird droppings etc.
 It is important to protect the stored rainwater from
contamination and from the entry of mosquitoes.
 This method is mainly used for household supplies and hence
boiling the water is the only treatment.
 Rain water may be collected:
 From roofs of houses and dwellings
 From prepared catchments
Rain water harvesting
 4. Water obtaining from reclamation
 Oceans and wastewater may be treated suitably and be reused
 WATER STORAGE
 A water storage/reservoir is a basin filled with water that
is often used by humans for different purposes and uses.
 They are built extensively in regions of water scarcity.
 The main need of storage reservoirs is for greater
quantity of continuously available and easily accessible
quantity of water
 A number of problems arise in design, construction and
operation ie
 selection of site,
 the relative merits of different types of dams,
 storage capacity and optimum yield and
 co-ordinated use of storage for different purposes.
Major functions and uses of storage reservoirs
 Drinking water
 Irrigation
 Flood control
 Fish production and production of other useful organisms
(Aquatic production, fisheries and aquaculture)
 Mining
 Fire & ice ponds
 Energy (hydropower generation)
 Industry
 Low energy purifiers
 Recreational
 Conservation and biodiversity
 Training and education, etc
Types of reservoirs
 Depending on purpose served, reservoirs may be
classified as follows:
 Storage or conservation reservoirs
 Flood protection reservoir
 Multipurpose reservoirs
 dams
 Intakes
 Distribution reservoirs
1. Storage or conservation reservoirs:
 A river does not carry the same quantity of water
throughout the year.
 A storage reservoir is constructed to store the excess
water during the period of large supplies, and release it
gradually as and when it is needed.
 Are primarily used for irrigation, hydroelectric
development, domestic and industrial supplies.
2. Flood protection reservoirs:
 Are those which store water during flood and release it
gradually at a safe rate when the flood reduces.

3. Multipurpose reservoir:
 Is the one which serves more than one purpose.
4. Dams
 A dam is a hydraulic structure constructed across a river to
store water on its upstream side.
 It is an impervious or fairly impervious barrier put across
a natural stream so that a reservoir is formed.
 Due to the construction of the dam, water level in the river
at its upstream side is very much increased, and a large
area may be submerged depending upon the water spread
of the reservoir so formed.
Dams may be classified into different categories, depending upon
the purpose or basis of the classification:
TYPES OF DAMS

Basis of classification Types Common examples

Classification according to use Storage dam Gravity dam, earth dam, rockfill
dam, arch dam, etc
Diversion dam Weir, barrage

Detention dam Dike, water spreading dam,

debris dam
Classification by hydraulic design Overflow dam Spillway
Non-overflow type Gravity dam, earth dam, rockfill
dam
Classification by materials Rigid dam Gravity dam, arch dam, buttress
dam, steel dam, timber dam
Non-rigid dam Earth dam, rockfill
5. Intakes
 are the structures used for admitting water from the
surface sources and conveying it further to the treatment
plant.
(More information will be discussed in chapter 6)

6. Distribution reservoir:
 is a small storage reservoir used for water supply in a city
or industrial area.
Distribution reservoir
Functions of Distribution Reservoirs:
 To equalize the variation in hourly demand of water by
the consumers to a uniform rate of supply from the
source either by gravity or pumping,
 To maintain the desired minimum residual pressure in the
distribution system,
 To provide the required contact time for the disinfectant
added in order to achieve effective disinfection, and
 To facilitate carrying out repairs either to the pumping
main or to pump-set without interruption to the supply
of water.
 Types of distribution reservoirs
Surface reservoirs:
 are made mostly of masonry or concrete. It is usual practice to
construct surface reservoir in two or more compartments so
that one unit can be cleaned or repaired while other units are in
operation.
Elevated reservoirs:
 are commonly known as overhead tanks. They may be
constructed of stone masonry, reinforced concrete or steel.
Standpipes:
 are normally employed where the construction of a surface
reservoir would not provide sufficient head. A standpipe is
essentially a tall cylindrical tank whose storage volume
includes an upper portion (the useful storage), which is above
the entrance to the discharge pipe and a lower portion
(supporting storage) which acts only to support the useful
storage and provide the required head.
Design of storage reservoir
1. Number of Storage Reservoirs
 Urban water systems should have at least one elevated
tank for each of the areas.
 Two tanks (or a tank with two compartments) are
desirable to improve reliability and pump control during
times when one tank is out of service for inspection,
cleaning, painting, or other maintenance.
2. Location of Distribution Reservoirs:
 Should be located as close as possible to the center of
demand.
 Water level in the reservoir must be at a sufficient
elevation to permit gravity flow at an adequate pressure.
 The topography of a water distribution area is an
important consideration in system design and type of
storage facilities to be incorporated into a water supply
system.
3. Storage Capacity of Distribution Reservoirs
 is the summation of:
 Balancing Storage: The quantity of water required to be stored
in the reservoir for equalizing or balancing fluctuating demand
against constant supply
 Breakdown Storage: often called emergency storage is the
storage preserved in order to tide over the emergencies posed
by the failure of pumps, electricity, or any other mechanism
driving the pumps.(= about 25% of the total storage or 1.5 to 2
X of the average hourly supply)
 Fire Storage: This provision takes care of the requirements of
water for extinguishing fires. A provision of 1 to 4 l per person
per day is sufficient to meet the requirement.
 The total reservoir storage can finally be worked out by adding all
the three storages.
R= aD + bD + 10/24 (D + F - P)
 Where
 R = total storage capacity (million litres)
 D = average domestic demand for maximum month (m.l.d)
 F = fire demand (m.l.d)
 P = capacity of pump (m.l.d)
 a,b coefficients which may be taken as 0.2 and 0.1 respectively.
 When a storage or distribution reservoir is to be designed for the
purpose of balancing or equalizing the flow, its storage capacity can
be determined by two methods:
 Hydrograph method and Mass curve method.
 For more information refer to page 512-522 and pages 36-46:
WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING book BY B.C PUNMIA, 1995.
The volume of water storage needed depends upon the
following:
 Maximum rate of peak hourly demand,
 Maximum rate of pumping, and
 Duration and actual schedule of pumping and distribution
in a day.

 Tutorials
The general norms for volume of storage required with reference to
duration of supply from the source are listed in Table below
HW 2
1. Conduct a study of how a site of reservoir is selected
2. Explain how the following factors play a role in maintaining water
quality in distribution reservoir
 Shape and configuration
 Shape and dimension
 Depth of water
 Inlet/ outlet and Baffles
 Flow pattern
 Residence time
 Pumping and loss of supply
 Stratification
Review chap3
Water source and water storage

• SOURCE OF WATER
•WATER STORAGE
•Need of storage
•Function and uses
•Types
•Distribution reservoir
•Functions, types
•Location
•Storage capacity
•Storage required
•tutorial
QUIZ 3
 Explain why is it necessary to know the source of
water?
 Explain how distribution reservoirs maintain the
desired minimum residual pressure in the distribution
system