Lesson 5 NETWORK ACCESS

Physical Layer Protocols

Types of Connections
 Before network communications can occur, a physical connection to a local network must be established.
 A physical connection can be a wired connection using a cable or a wireless connection using radio waves.
Network Interface Cards
 Network Interface Cards (NICs) connect a device to a network.
 Used for a wired connection.
 Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) NICs are used for wireless
connections.
The Physical Layer
• Provides the means to transport the bits that make up a data link layer
frame across the network media.
• Accepts a complete frame from the data link layer and encodes it as a series
of signals that are transmitted onto the local media.
• Encoded bits that comprise a frame are received by either an end device or an
intermediate device.
Physical Layer Standard
 International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
 Telecommunications Industry Association/Electronic Industries
Association (TIA/EIA)
 International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
 American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
 Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
Functions
 Encoding
• Method of converting a stream of data bits into a
predefined "code”.
 Signaling Method
• Method of representing the bits.
• Physical layer standards must define what type of
signal represents a "1" and what type of signal
represents a "0”.
• Long pulse might represent a 1 whereas a short pulse represents a 0.
Bandwidth
 Capacity of a medium to carry data.
 Digital bandwidth measures the amount of
data that can flow from one place to
another in a given amount of time.
 Bandwidth is sometimes thought of as the
speed that bits travel, however this is not
accurate. In both 10Mb/s and 100Mb/s Ethernet, the bits are sent at the speed of electricity. The difference is the number of
bits that are transmitted per second.
Throughput
 Measure of the transfer of bits across the media over a given period.
 Usually does not match the specified bandwidth in physical layer implementations due to many factors.
• Amount of traffic
• Type of traffic
• Latency created by network devices encountered between source and destination.
 Goodput is throughput minus traffic overhead for establishing sessions, acknowledgments, and encapsulation.
Types of Physical Media
Network Media
Copper Cabling
Characteristics of Copper Media
 Transmitted on copper cables as electrical pulses.
 Attenuation - the longer the signal travels, the more it
deteriorates.
 All copper media must follow strict distance limitations.
 Electromagnetic interference (EMI) or radio frequency
interference (RFI) - distorts and corrupts the data signals being
carried by copper media.
• To counter copper cables wrapped in shielding.
 Crosstalk - disturbance caused by the electric or magnetic fields of
a signal on one wire to the signal in an adjacent wire.
• To cancel crosstalk opposing circuit wire pairs twisted
together.
Unshielded Twisted-Pair Cable
 UTP cabling is the most common networking media.
• Terminated with RJ-45 connectors.
• Used for interconnecting network hosts with
networking devices such as switches.
• Consists of four pairs of color-coded wires that
have been twisted together to help protect against
signal interference from other wires.
• Color codes aid in cable termination.

Shielded Twisted-Pair (STP) Cable

 STP provides better noise protection than UTP.
 STP cable is significantly more expensive and difficult to install.
 Uses an RJ-45 connector.
 Combines the techniques of shielding to counter EMI and RFI, and
wire twisting to counter crosstalk.
 Uses four pairs of wires, each wrapped in a foil shield, which are
then wrapped in an overall metallic braid or foil.

Coaxial Cable
 Coax consists of:
• A copper conductor used to transmit the electronic signals.
 • A layer of flexible plastic insulation surrounding a copper conductor.
• The insulating material is surrounded in a woven copper braid, or metallic foil, that acts as the second wire in the
circuit and as a shield for the inner conductor.
• The entire cable is covered with a cable jacket to prevent minor physical damage.
 UTP cable has essentially replaced coaxial cable in modern Ethernet installations but is used in:
• Wireless installations: Coaxial cables attach antennas to wireless devices.
• Cable Internet installations
UTP Cabling
Properties of UTP Cabling
 Consists of four pairs of color-coded copper wires that have been twisted
together and then encased in a flexible plastic sheath.
 Small size can be advantageous during installation. Notice that the orange/orange white
 UTP cable does not use shielding to counter the effects of EMI and RFI. pair is twisted less than the
• Cancellation: When two wires in an electrical circuit are placed close blue/blue white pair. Each colored
together, their magnetic fields are the exact opposite of each other and pair is twisted a different number of
cancel out any outside EMI and RFI signals. times.
• Varies the number of twists per wire pair to further enhance the
cancellation effect of a paired circuit.
UTP Cabling Standards
 UTP cabling conforms to the standards established by TIA/EIA.
• TIA/EIA-568 stipulates the cabling standards for LAN installations
 Cat 3 Cable
• Used for voice communication
• Most often used for phone lines
 Cat 5 and 5e Cable
• Used for data transmission
• Cat5 supports 100 Mb/s and can support 1000Mb/s, but it is not recommended
• Cat5e supports 1000 Mb/s
 Cat 6 Cable
• Used for data transmission
• An added separator is between each pair of wires allowing it to function at
higher speeds
• Support 1000 Mb/s – 10 Gb/s, though 10 Gb/s is not recommended
UTP Connectors
 UTP cable terminated with an RJ-45 connector.
 TIA/EIA-568 standard describes the wire color codes to pin assignments (pinouts) for Ethernet cables.
 RJ-45 connector is the male component, crimped at the end of the cable.
 Socket is the female component of a network device, wall, cubicle partition outlet, or patch panel.
 Essential that all copper media terminations be of high quality to ensure optimum performance with current and future
network technologies.
Types of UTP Cable

UTP Testing Parameters:

 Wire map
 Cable length
 Signal loss due to attenuation
 Crosstalk
Fiber Optic Cabling
Properties of Fiber Optic Cabling
 Fiber-optic cabling is now being used in four types of industry:
 Enterprise Networks
 Fiber-to-the-Home (FTTH)
 Long-Haul Networks
 Submarine Cable Networks
Fiber Media Cable Design
• Jacket
Protects the fiber against abrasion, moisture, and other
contaminants. Composition can vary depending on the cable
usage.
• Strengthening Material
Surrounds the buffer, prevents the fiber cable from being
stretched when it is being pulled. Often the same material used
to produce bulletproof vests.
• Buffer
Used to help shield the core and cladding from damage.
• Cladding
Tends to act like a mirror by reflecting light back in the core of
the fiber. Keeps light in the core as it travels down the fiber.
• Core
Light transmission element at the center of the optical fiber.
Core is typically silica or glass. Light pulses travel through
the fiber core.
Fiber versus Copper

Types of fiber Media

Fiber- Optic Connectors
 Light can only travel in one direction over optical fiber,
two fibers are required to support the full duplex operation.
 Straight-Tip (ST) Connectors
• One of the first connector types used.
• Locks securely with a “twist-on/twist-off”.
 Subscriber Connector (SC) Connectors
• Referred to as square or standard connector.
• Uses a push-pull mechanism to ensure positive
insertion.
• Used with multimode and single-mode fiber.
• Lucent Connector (LC) Simplex Connectors
• Smaller version of SC and popular due to size.
• Duplex

Multimode LC Connectors
• Similar to LC but using a duplex connector.

 Fiber patch cords are required for interconnecting infrastructure devices.

 Yellow jacket is for single-mode fiber cables
 Orange (or aqua) for multimode fiber cables.
 Fiber cables should be protected with a small plastic cap when not in use.
Testing Fiber cables
 Terminating and splicing fiber-optic cabling requires special training and
equipment.
 Three common types of fiber-optic termination and splicing errors are:
• Misalignment: The fiber-optic media are not precisely aligned to one another Optical Time Domain
when joined. Reflectometer (OTDR) can
• End gap: The media does not completely touch at the splice or connection. be used to test each fiber-
• End finish: The media ends are not well polished, or dirt is present at the optic cable segment
termination.
 Can be field tested by shining a bright flashlight into one end of the fiber while observing
the other end.

Wireless Media
Properties of Wireless Media
 Wireless media carry electromagnetic signals that represent the binary digits
of data communications using radio or microwave frequencies.
 Wireless areas of concern:
• Coverage area: Construction materials used in buildings and
structures, and the local terrain, will limit the coverage.
• Interference: Disrupted by such common devices as fluorescent
lights, microwave ovens, and other wireless communications.
• Security: Devices and users, not authorized for access to the
network, can gain access to the transmission.
• Shared medium: Only one device can send or receive at a time and
the wireless medium is shared amongst all wireless users.
Types of Wireless Media
 Wi-Fi: Standard IEEE 802.11
• Uses Carrier/Sense Multiple Access/Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA).
• Wireless NIC must wait till channel is clear.
 Bluetooth: Standard IEEE 802.15
 • Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN)
• Uses a device pairing process for distances 1 to 100 meters
 WiMAX: Standard IEEE 802.16
• Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access
• Wireless broadband access.
Wireless LAN
 Wireless LAN requires the following network devices:
• Wireless Access Point (AP): Concentrates the wireless signals
from users and connects to the existing copper-based network Home and small business wireless
infrastructure, such as Ethernet. routers integrate the functions of a
router, switch, and access point into
• Wireless NIC adapters: Provide wireless communication
one device.
capability to each network host.
Data Link Protocols
Data Link Layer

Data Link Sublayers

 Data link layer is divided into two sublayers:
• Logical Link Control (LLC)
• Communicates with the network layer.
• Identifies which network layer protocol is
being used for the frame.
• Allows multiple Layer 3 protocols, such as
IPv4 and IPv6, to utilize the same network
interface and media.
• Media Access Control (MAC)
• Defines the media access processes
performed by the hardware.
• Provides data link layer addressing and
access to various network technologies.
• Communicates with Ethernet to send and
receive frames over copper or fiber-optic
cable.
• Communicates with wireless
technologies such as Wi-Fi and
Bluetooth.
Media Access Control
  As packets travel from the source host to the destination host, they travel over different physical networks.
 Physical networks can consist of different types of physical media such as copper wires, optical fibers, and wireless consisting
of electromagnetic signals, radio and microwave frequencies, and satellite links

Providing Access to Media

 At each hop along the path, a router:

• Accepts a frame from a medium
• De-encapsulates the frame
• Re-encapsulates the packet into a new frame
• Forwards the new frame appropriate to the medium of that segment
Data Link Layer Standards
 Engineering organizations that define open standards and protocols that apply to the network access layer include:
• Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
• International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
• International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
• American National Standards Institute (ANSI)

Media Access Control

Controlling Access to the Media
 Media access control is the equivalent of traffic rules that regulate the entrance of motor vehicles onto a roadway.
 The absence of any media access control would be the equivalent of vehicles ignoring all other traffic and entering the road
without regard to the other vehicles.
 However, not all roads and entrances are the same. Traffic can enter the road by merging, by waiting for its turn at a stop sign,
or by obeying signal lights. A driver follows a different set of rules for each type of entrance.
Physical and Logical Topologies
 Physical topology - Refers to the physical connections and
identifies how end devices and infrastructure devices such
as routers, switches, and wireless access points are
interconnected.
 Logical Topology: Refers to the way a network transfers frames from one node to the next. These logical signal paths are
defined by data link layer protocols.
Common Physical WAN Topologies
 Point-to-Point - Permanent link between two endpoints.
 Hub and Spoke - A central site interconnects branch sites
using point-to-point links.
 Mesh - Provides high availability, but requires that every
end system be interconnected to every other system.
Administrative and physical costs can be significant.

Logical Point-to-Point Topology

• End nodes communicating in a point-to-point
network can be physically connected via a number
of intermediate devices.
• However, the use of physical devices in the
network does not affect the logical topology.
• The logical connection between nodes forms what
is called a virtual circuit.

Physical LAN Topologies

 Star - End devices are connected to a central intermediate
device. Use Ethernet switches.
 Extended Star - Additional Ethernet switches interconnect
other star topologies.
 Bus - Used in legacy networks. All end systems are chained to
each other and terminated in some form on each end. Switches
are not required to interconnect the end devices. Bus topologies
using coax cables were used in legacy Ethernet networks
because it was inexpensive and easy to set up.
 Ring - End systems are connected to their respective neighbor
forming a ring. Unlike the bus topology, the ring does not need
to be terminated. Ring topologies were used in legacy Fiber
Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) and Token Ring networks.
 Half-Duplex Communication
 Both devices can transmit and receive on the media but cannot do so simultaneously.
 Used in legacy bus topologies and with Ethernet hubs.
WLANs also operate in half-duplex
  Full-Duplex Communication
• Both devices can transmit and receive on the media at the same time.
• Data link layer assumes that the media is available for transmission for both nodes at any time.
• Ethernet switches operate in full-duplex mode by default, but can operate in half-duplex if connecting to a device such
as an Ethernet hub.
Media Access Control Methods
 Contention-Based Access
• Nodes operate in half-duplex.
• Compete for the use of the medium.
• Only one device can send at a time.
 Controlled Access
• Each node has its own time to use the medium.
• Legacy Token Ring LANs are an example

LAN and WAN Frames

 Layer 2
protocol used
for a topology
is determined
by the
technology.
 Data link layer
protocols
include:
• Ethernet
• 802.11 Wireless
• Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP)
• HDLC
• Frame Relay

Lesson 6 NETWORK LAYER

Network Layer Protocols
• The network layer, which resides at OSI Layer
3, provides services that allow end devices to
exchange data across a network.
• The network layer uses four processes in order
to provide end-to-end transport:
• Addressing of end devices – IP
addresses must be unique for
identification purposes.
• Encapsulation – The protocol data units
from the transport layer are
encapsulated by adding IP header
information including source and
destination IP addresses.
• Routing – The network layer provides
services to direct packets to other
networks. Routers select the best path
for a packet to take to its destination
network.
 • De-encapsulation – The destination host de-encapsulates the packet to see if it matches its own.

• There are several network layer protocols in existence; however,

the most commonly implemented are:
• Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4)
• Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6)

Encapsulating IP
• At the network layer, IP encapsulates the transport
layer segment by adding an IP header for the
purpose of delivery to the destination host.
• The IP header stays the same from the source to the
destination host.
• The process of encapsulating data layer by layer
enables the services at different layers to scale
without affecting other layers.
• Routers implement different network layer
protocols concurrently over a network and use the
network layer packet header for routing.

Characteristics of IP
• IP was designed as a protocol with low overhead – it
provides only the functions required to deliver a
packet from the source to a destination.
• An IP packet is sent to the destination without prior
establishment of a connection
• IP was not designed to track and manage the flow of
packets.
• These functions, if required, are performed by
other layers – primarily TCP

IP- Connectionless
• IP is a connectionless protocol:
• No dedicated end-to-end connection is created
before data is sent.
• Very similar process as sending someone a
letter through snail mail.
• Senders do not know whether or not the destination is present, reachable, or functional before sending
packets.
• This feature contributes to the low overhead of IP.
IP – Best Effort Delivery
 IP is a Best Effort Delivery protocol:
• IP is considered “unreliable” because it does not guarantee that all packets that are sent will be received.
• Unreliable means that IP does not have the capability to manage and recover from undelivered, corrupt, or out of
sequence packets.
• If packets are missing or not in the correct order at the destination, upper layer protocols/services must resolve these
issues.
IP – Media Independent
• IP operates independently from the media that carries the data at lower layers of the protocol stack – it does not care if
the media is copper cables, fiber optics or wireless.
• The OSI data link layer is responsible for taking the IP packet and preparing it for transmission over the
communications medium.
• The network layer does have a maximum size of the PDU that can be transported – referred to as MTU (maximum
transmission unit).
• The data link layer tells the network layer the MTU.
IPv4 Packet Header
• An IPv4 packet header consists of the fields containing binary numbers. These numbers identify various settings of the
IP packet which are examined by the Layer 3 process.
• Significant fields include:
• Version – Specifies that the packet is IP version 4
• Differentiated Services or DiffServ (DS) – Used to determine the priority of each packet on the network.
• Time-to-Live (TTL) – Limits the lifetime of a packet – decreased by one at each router along the way.
• Protocol – Used to identify the next level protocol.
• Source IPv4 Address – Source address of the packet.
• Destination IPv4 Address – Address of destination.
Limitations of IPv4
• IPv4 has been updated to address new challenges.
• Three major issues still exist with IPv4:
• IP address depletion – IPv4 has a limited number of unique public IPv4 addresses available. Although there
are about 4 billion IPv4 addresses, the exponential growth of new IP- enabled devices has increased the need.
• Internet routing table expansion – A routing table contains the routes to different networks in order to make
the best path determination. As more devices and servers are connected to the network, more routes are
created. A large number of routes can slow down a router.
• Lack of end-to-end connectivity – Network Address Translation (NAT) was created for devices to share a
single IPv4 address. However, because they are shared, this can cause problems for technologies that require
end-to-end connectivity.
Encapsulating IPv6
• The IPv6 header is simpler than the IPv4 header.
 • Advantages of IPv6 over IPv4 using the simplified header:
• Simplified header format for efficient packet handling
• Hierarchical network architecture for routing efficiency
• Auto configuration for addresses
• Elimination of need for network address translation (NAT) between private and public addresses
• IPv6 packet header fields:
• Version – Contains a 4-bit binary value set to 0110 that identifies it as a IPv6 packet.
• Traffic Class – 8-bit field equivalent to the IPv4 Differentiated Services (DS) field.
• Flow Label – 20-bit field suggests that all packets with the same flow label receive the same type of handling
by routers.
• Payload Length – 16-bit field indicates the length of the data portion or payload of the packet.
• Next Header – 8-bit field is equivalent to the IPv4 Protocol field. It indicates the data payload type that the
packet is carrying.
• IPv6 packet header fields:
• Hop Limit – 8-bit field replaces the IPv4 TTL field. This value is decremented by 1 as it passes through each
router. When it reaches zero, the packet is discarded.
• Source IPv6 Address – 128-bit field that identifies the IPv6 address of the sending host.
• Destination IPv6 Address – 128-bit field that identifies the IPv6 address of the receiving host.
Routing
Host Forwarding Decision
• An important role of the network layer is to direct packets between hosts. A host can send a packet to:
• Itself – A host can ping itself for testing purposes using 127.0.0.1 which is referred to as the loopback
interface.
• Local host – This is a host on the same local network as the sending host. The hosts share the same network
address.
• Remote host – This is a host on a remote network. The hosts do not share the same network address.
• The source IPv4 address and subnet mask is compared with the destination address and subnet mask in order to
determine if the host is on the local network or remote network.
Default Gateway
• The default gateway is the network device that can route traffic out to other networks. It is the router that routes
traffic out of a local network.
• This occurs when the destination host is not on the same local network as the sending host.
• The default gateway will know where to send the packet using its routing table.
• The sending host does not need to know where to send the packet other than to the default gateway – or router.
Using the Default Gateway
 • A host’s routing table usually includes a default gateway address – which is the router IP address for the network that
the host is on.
• The host receives the IPv4 address for the default gateway from DHCP, or it is manually configured.
• Having a default gateway configured creates a default route in the routing table of a host - which is the route the
computer will send a packet to when it needs to contact a remote network.
Host Routing Tables
• On a Windows host, you can display the routing table using:
• route print
• netstat -r
• Three sections will be displayed:
• Interface List – Lists the Media Access Control (MAC) address and assigned interface number of network
interfaces on the host.
• IPv4 Route Table – Lists all known IPv4 routes.
• IPv6 Route Table – Lists all known IPv6 routes.
Router Packet Forwarding Decision
• When a router receives a packet destined for a remote network, the router has to look at its routing table to determine
where to forward the packet. A router’s routing table contains:
• Directly-connected routes – These routes come from the active router interfaces configured with IP addresses.
• Remote routes – These routes come from remote networks connected to other routers. They are either
configured manually or learned through a dynamic routing protocol.
• Default route – This is where the packet is sent when a route does not exist in the routing table.
IPv4 Router Routing Table
• On a Cisco IOS router, the show ip route command is used to display the router’s IPv4 routing table. The routing
table shows:
• Directly connected and remote routes
• How each route was learned
• Trustworthiness and rating of the route
• When the route was last updated
• Which interface is used to reach the destination
• A router examines an incoming packet’s header to determine the destination network. If there’s a match, the packet is
forwarded using the specified information in the routing table.
Understanding Remote Route Entries
• 10.1.1.0/24 identifies the destination network.
• 90 is the administrative distance for the corresponding network – or the trustworthiness of the route. The lower the
number, the more trustworthy it is.
• 2170112 – represents the metric or value assigned to reach the remote network. Lower values indicate preferred
routes.
• 209.165.200.226 – Next-hop or IP address of the next router to forward the packet.
• 00:00:05 - Route Timestamp identifies when the router was last heard from.
• Serial/0/0/0 – Outgoing Interface
Router
• A router is a computer. Like computers, a router requires a CPU, an operating system, and memory.
• Cisco routers are designed to meet the needs of wide variety of businesses and networks:
• Branch – Teleworkers, small businesses, and medium-size branch sites.
• WAN – Large businesses, organizations and enterprises.
• Service Provider – Large service providers.
• The focus of the CCNA certification is on the branch family of routers.
Router CPU and OS
• Like computers, Cisco routers require a CPU to execute OS instructions including system initialization, routing
functions and switching functions.
• The component highlighted in the figure to the left is the CPU of a Cisco 1941 with the heatsink attached. A heatsink
is used to dissipate the heat from the CPU for cooling purposes.
• The CPU requires an operating system to provide routing and switching functions. Most Cisco devices use the Cisco
Internetwork Operating System (IOS).
Router Memory
• Volatile memory – requires continual power to store information.
• Non-volatile memory – does not require continual power.
• A router uses four types of memory:
• RAM – Volatile memory used to store applications, processes, and data needed to be executed by the CPU.
• ROM – Non-volatile memory used to store crucial operational instructions and a limited IOS. ROM is
firmware embedded on an integrated circuit inside of the router.
• NVRAM – Non-volatile memory used as permanent storage for the startup configuration file (startup-config).
• Flash – Non-volatile memory used as permanent storage for the IOS and other operating system files such as
log or backup files.
Inside Router
• There are numerous types and models of routers, however, they all have the same general hardware components:
• Power supply
• Cooling fan
• SDRAM - Synchronous Dynamic RAM
• Non-volatile RAM (NVRAM)
• CPU
• Heat shields
• Advanced Integration Module (AIM)
Connect to Router
• Cisco devices, routers, and switches typically interconnect many devices. The Cisco 1941 router backplane includes
the following ports and connections:
• Enhanced High-speed WAN Interface Card (eHWIC) Slots
• Auxiliary (AUX) – RJ-45 port for remote management.
• Console Port – Used for initial configuration and Command Line Interface access – RJ-45 or USB
Type-B (mini-B USB)
• Gigabit Ethernet used to provide LAN access by connecting to switches, users, or to other routers.
• Compact Flash Slots – Labeled as CF0 and CF1 and used to provide increased storage flash space
upgradable to 4GB.
• USB port – used to provide additional storage space.
LAN and WAN Interfaces
Cisco router connections can be classified in two categories:
In-band router interfaces – LAN and WAN interfaces
Management ports – Console and AUX ports
• The most common ways to access user EXEC mode in the CLI environment on a Cisco router:
• Console – This is a physical management port that provides out-of-band access to the Cisco router. Out-of-
band means that it is dedicated and does not require network services to be configured on the router.
• Secure Shell (SSH) – This is a secure method of remotely establishing a CLI connection over a network. SSH
does require active networking services configured.
• Telnet – Telnet is an insecure method of remotely establishing a CLI session through a virtual interface over a
network. The connection is not encrypted.
Bootset Files
• Cisco routers and switches load the IOS image and startup configuration file into RAM when they are booted.
• The running configuration is modified when the network administrator makes any changes. These changes should be
saved to the startup configuration file in NVRAM in order for them to take effect on the next reboot of the router or
during in the event of a power loss.
Router Bootup Process
• Three major phases to the bootup process of a router:
• Perform the POST and load the bootstrap program – During the Power-on Self-Test, the router executes
diagnostics from ROM on various hardware components. After the POST, the bootstrap program is copied
from ROM into RAM and its job is to locate the Cisco IOS and load it into RAM.
• Locate and load the Cisco IOS software – Typically, the IOS is stored in flash memory and is copied into
RAM for execution by the CPU.
 • Locate and load the startup configuration file or enter setup mode – The bootstrap program then copies the
startup config file from NVRAM into RAM and becomes the running configuration.
Show version Output
• The show version command displays information about the version of the Cisco IOS software running on the router
as well as:
• The version of the bootstrap program
• Information about the hardware configuration
• Amount of system memory
Configure a Cisco Router
Basic Switch Configuration
• Cisco routers and switches have many similarities
in regards to their configuration:
• Support a similar operating system.
• Support similar command structure.
• Support many of the same commands.
• They also have identical initial
configuration steps when implemented in a
network.
• The commands on the left display a sample
configuration of a switch.
Basic Router Configuration Steps
• Similar to the configuration of a switch on the
previous slide, the initial configuration should
include:
• Configure the router’s device name
• Secure the user EXEC mode
• Secure remote Telnet and SSH access
• Secure privileged EXEC mode
• Secure all passwords in the config file
• Provide legal notification – Authorized access only
• Save the configuration

Verify interface configuration

• After configuring an interface, or for troubleshooting purposes, there are several commands that can be used:
• show ip interface brief – Provides you a summarized view of all interfaces to verify if they are activated and
operational. Look for Status of “up” and Protocol of “up”.
• show ip route – Displays the contents of the IPv4 routing table stored in RAM.
• show interfaces – Displays the IPv4 statistics for all interfaces on a router.
• Remember to save your configuration changes with the copy running-config startup-config command.

Lesson 7 IP ADDRESSING
IPv4 Addresses
 Binary numbering system consists of the numbers 0 and 1 called bits
• IPv4 addresses are expressed in 32 binary bits divided into 4 8-bit octets
 IPv4 addresses are commonly expressed in dotted decimal notation
Positional Notation
 The first row identifies the number base or radix. Decimal is 10.
Binary is based on 2, therefore radix will be 2
 The 2nd row considers the position of the number starting with 0.
These numbers also represent the exponential value that will be
used to calculate the positional value (4th row).
 The 3rd row calculates the positional value by taking the radix
and raising it by the exponential value of its position.
Note: n^0 is always = 1.
 The positional value is listed in the fourth row.

Binary to Decimal
 To convert a binary IPv4 address to decimal enter the 8-bit binary number of each octet under the positional value of row 1
and then calculate to produce the decimal.

Decimal to Binary Conversion

 To convert a decimal IPv4address to binary use the positional chart and check first if the number is greater than the 128 bit. If
no a 0 is placed in this position. If yes then a 1 is placed in this position.
 128 is subtracted from the original number and the remainder is then checked against the next position (64) If it is less than 64
a 0 is placed in this position. If it is greater, a 1 is placed in this position and 64 is subtracted.
 The process repeats until all positional values have been entered.
Network and Host Portions
 An IPv4 address is hierarchical.
• Composed of a Network portion and Host portion.
 All devices on the same network must have the identical network portion.
 The Subnet Mask helps devices identify the network portion and host portion.
The Subnet Mask
 Three IPv4 addresses must be configured on a host:
• Unique IPv4 address of the host.
• Subnet mask - identifies the network/host portion of the IPv4 address.
 • Default gateway -IP address of the local router interface.
 The IPv4 address is compared to the subnet mask bit by bit, from left to right.
 A 1 in the subnet mask indicates that the corresponding bit in the IPv4 address is a network bit.
Logical AND
 A logical AND is one of three basic binary operations used in digital logic.
 Used to determine the Network Address
 The Logical AND of two bits yields the following results:
1 and 1 = 1
0 and 1 = 0
0 and 0 = 0
1 and 0 = 0
The Prefix Length:
Shorthand method of expressing the subnet mask.
Equals the number of bits in the subnet mask set to 1.
Written in slash notation, / followed by the number of
network bits.

Network, Host, and Broadcast Addresses

 Types of Addresses in Network 192.168.10.0/24
 Network Address - host portion is all 0s (.00000000)
 First Host address - host portion is all 0s and ends with a 1 (.00000001)
 Last Host address - host portion is all 1s and ends with a 0 (.11111110)
 Broadcast Address - host portion is all 1s (.11111111)
Static IPv4 Address Assignment to a Host
 Some devices like printers, servers and network devices require a fixed IP address.
 Hosts in a small network can also be configured with static addresses.

Dynamic IPv4 Address Assignment to a Host

 Most networks use Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) to assign IPv4 addresses dynamically.
 The DHCP server provides an IPv4 address, subnet mask, default gateway, and other configuration information.
 DHCP leases the addresses to hosts for a certain length of time.
 If the host is powered down or taken off the network, the address is returned to the pool for reuse.
IPv4 Communications
 Unicast – one to one communication.
 Broadcast– one to all.
 Multicast – one to a select group.
Unicast Transmission
 Unicast – one to one communication.
• Use the address of the destination device as the destination address.
Broadcast Transmission
 Broadcast– one to all
• Message sent to everyone in the LAN (broadcast domain.)
• destination IPv4 address has all ones (1s) in the host portion.
Multicast Transmission
  Multicast– one to a select group.
• 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255 addresses reserved for multicast.
• routing protocols use multicast transmission to exchange routing information.
Public and Private IPv4 Addresses
 Private Addresses
• Not routable
• Introduced in mid 1990s due to depletion of IPv4 addresses
• Used only in internal networks.
• Must be translated to a public IPv4 to be routable.
• Defined by RFC 1918
 Private Address Blocks
• 10.0.0.0 /8 or 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255
• 172.16.0.0 /12 or 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255192.168.0.0 /16
• 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255
Special User IPv4 Addresses
 Loopback addresses (127.0.0.0 /8 or 127.0.0.1)
• Used on a host to test if the TCP/IP configuration is operational.
 Link-Local addresses (169.254.0.0 /16 or 169.254.0.1)
• Commonly known as Automatic Private IP Addressing (APIPA) addresses.
• Used by Windows client to self configure if no DHCP server available.
 TEST-NET addresses (192.0.2.0/24 or 192.0.2.0 to 192.0.2.255)
• Used for teaching and learning.
Legacy Classful Addressing
 In 1981, Internet IPv4 addresses were assigned using classful addressing (RFC 790)
 Network addresses were based on 3 classes:
• Class A (0.0.0.0/8 to 127.0.0.0/8) – Designed to support extremely large networks with more than 16 million host
addresses.
• Class B (128.0.0.0 /16 – 191.255.0.0 /16) – Designed to support the needs of moderate to large size networks up to
approximately 65,000 host addresses.
• Class C (192.0.0.0 /24 – 223.255.255.0 /24) – Designed to support small networks with a maximum of 254 hosts.

Classless Addressing
 Classful Addressing wasted addresses and exhausted the availability of IPv4 addresses.
 Classless Addressing Introduced in the 1990s
• Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR, pronounced “cider”)
• Allowed service providers to allocate IPv4 addresses on any address bit boundary (prefix length) instead of only by a
class A, B, or C.
Assignment of IP Address
 The following organizations manage and maintain IPv4 and IPv6 addresses for the various regions.
• American Registry for Internet Numbers (ARIN)- North America.
• Réseaux IP Europeans (RIPE) - Europe, the Middle East, and Central Asia
• Asia Pacific Network Information Centre (APNIC) - Asia and Pacific regions
• African Network Information Centre (AfriNIC) – Africa
• Regional Latin-American and Caribbean IP Address Registry (LACNIC) - Latin America and some Caribbean islands
IPv6 Network Addresses
 IPv6 versus IPv4:
• Has a larger 128-bit address space
• 340 undecillion addresses
• Solves limitations with IPv4
• Adds enhancement like address auto-configuration.
 Why IPv6 is needed:
• Rapidly increasing Internet population
 • Depletion of IPv4
• Issues with NAT
• Internet of Things
IPv4 and IPv6 Coexistence
 Migration from IPv4 to IPv6 Techniques
 Dual stack - Devices run both IPv4 and IPv6 protocol stacks simultaneously.
 Tunneling - The IPv6 packet is encapsulated inside an IPv4 packet.
 Translation - Network Address Translation 64 (NAT64) allows IPv6-enabled devices to communicate with IPv4 devices.
IPv6 Address Representation
 IPv6 Addresses:
• 128 bits in length
• Every 4 bits is represented by a single hexadecimal digit
• Hextet - unofficial term referring to a segment of 16 bits or four hexadecimal values.

Rule 1 – Omit Leading 0s

 In order to reduce or compress IPv6
• First rule is to omit leading zeros in any hextet.

Rule 2 – Omit All 0 Segments

 A double colon (::) can replace any single, contiguous string of one or more 16-bit segments (hextets) consisting of all 0s.
IPv6 Address Types
 Three types of IPv6 addresses:
• Unicast- Single source IPv6 address.
• Multicast - An IPv6 multicast address is used to send a single IPv6 packet to multiple destinations.
• Anycast - An IPv6 anycast address is any IPv6 unicast address that can be assigned to multiple devices.
IPv6 Prefix Length
 The IPv6 prefix length is used to indicate the network portion of an IPv6 address:
• The prefix length can range from 0 to 128.
• Typical IPv6 prefix length for most LANs is /64

IPv6 Unicast Addresses

  Global Unicast - These are globally unique, Internet routable addresses.
 Link-local - used to communicate with other devices on the same local link. Confined to a single link.
 Unique Local - used for local addressing within a site or between a limited number of sites.

IPv6 Link-Local Unicast Addresses

 IPv6 link-local addresses:
• Enable a device to communicate with other IPv6-enabled devices on the same link only.
• Are created even if the device has not been assigned a global unicast IPv6 address.
• Are in the FE80::/10 range.
Structure of an IPv6 Global Unicast Address
 A global unicast address has three parts:
• Global routing prefix - network, portion of the address that is assigned by the provider. Typically /48.
• Subnet ID – Used to subnet within an organization.
• Interface ID - equivalent to the host portion of an IPv4 address.
Static Configuration of a Unicast Address
 Router Configuration:
 Similar commands to IPv4, replace IPv4 with IPv6
 Command to configure andIPv6 global unicast on an interface is ipv6 address ipv6-address/prefix-length
Static Configuration of a Global Unicast Address
 Host Configuration:
• Manually configuring the IPv6 address on a host is similar to configuring an IPv4 address
• Default gateway address can be configured to match the link-local or global unicast address of the
Gigabit Ethernet interface.
 Dynamic assignment of IPv6 addresses:
• Stateless Address Autoconfiguration (SLAAC)
• Stateful DHCPv6
Dynamic Configuration – SLAAC
 Stateless Address Autoconfiguration (SLAAC):
• A device can obtain its prefix, prefix length, default gateway address, and other information from an IPv6
router.
• Uses the local router’s ICMPv6 Router Advertisement (RA) messages
 ICMPv6 RA messages sent every 200 seconds to all IPv6-enabled devices on the network.
Dynamic Configuration – DHCPv6
 The RA Option 1: SLAAC only (this is the default)
 RA Option 2: SLAAC and Stateless DHCPv6:
• Uses SLAAC for IPv6 global unicast address and default gateway.
• Uses a stateless DHCPv6 server for other
information.
 RA Option 3: Stateful DHCPv6
• Uses the Routers link-local address for the
default gateway.
• Uses DHCPv6 for all other information.
EUI-64 Process and Randomly Generated
 When the RA message is SLAAC or SLAAC with
stateless DHCPv6, the client must generate its own
Interface ID
 • The Interface ID can be created using the EUI-64 process or a randomly generated 64-bit number
 An EUI-64 Interface ID is represented in binary and is made up of three parts:
• 24-bit OUI from the client MAC address, but the 7th bit (the Universally/Locally (U/L) bit) is reversed.
• The inserted 16-bit value FFFE (in hexadecimal).
• 24-bit Device Identifier from the client MAC address.
Dynamic Link-Local Addresses