Relational Model concept

Relational model can represent as a table with columns and rows. Each row is known as
a tuple. Each table of the column has a name or attribute.

Domain: It contains a set of atomic values that an attribute can take.

Attribute: It contains the name of a column in a particular table. Each attribute Ai must
have a domain, dom(Ai)

Relational instance: In the relational database system, the relational instance is

represented by a finite set of tuples. Relation instances do not have duplicate tuples.

Relational schema: A relational schema contains the name of the relation and name of
all columns or attributes.

Relational key: In the relational key, each row has one or more attributes. It can identify
the row in the relation uniquely.

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Example: STUDENT Relation

NAME ROLL_NO PHONE_NO ADDRESS AGE

Ram 14795 7305758992 Noida 24

Shyam 12839 9026288936 Delhi 35

Laxman 33289 8583287182 Gurugram 20

Mahesh 27857 7086819134 Ghaziabad 27

Ganesh 17282 9028 9i3988 Delhi 40

o In the given table, NAME, ROLL_NO, PHONE_NO, ADDRESS, and AGE are the
attributes.
o The instance of schema STUDENT has 5 tuples.
o t3 = <Laxman, 33289, 8583287182, Gurugram, 20>
 Properties of Relations
o Name of the relation is distinct from all other relations.
o Each relation cell contains exactly one atomic (single) value
o Each attribute contains a distinct name
o Attribute domain has no significance
o tuple has no duplicate value
o Order of tuple can have a different sequence

Relational Algebra
Relational algebra is a procedural query language. It gives a step by step process to
obtain the result of the query. It uses operators to perform queries.

Types of Relational operation

1. Select Operation:
o The select operation selects tuples that satisfy a given predicate.
o It is denoted by sigma (σ).

Notation: σ p(r)
 Where:

σ is used for selection prediction

r is used for relation
p is used as a propositional logic formula which may use connectors like: AND OR and
NOT. These relational can use as relational operators like =, ≠, ≥, <, >, ≤.

For example: LOAN Relation

BRANCH_NAME LOAN_NO AMOUNT

Downtown L-17 1000

Redwood L-23 2000

Perry ride L-15 1500

Downtown L-14 1500

Mianus L-13 500

Roundhill L-11 900

Perryride L-16 1300

Input:

1. σ BRANCH_NAME="perryride" (LOAN)

Output:

BRANCH_NAME LOAN_NO AMOUNT

Perryride L-15 1500

Perryride L-16 1300

2. Project Operation:
o This operation shows the list of those attributes that we wish to appear in the result. Rest
of the attributes is eliminated from the table.
o It is denoted by ∏.

Notation: ∏ A1, A2, An (r)

Where

A1, A2, A3 is used as an attribute name of relation r.

Example: CUSTOMER RELATION

NAME STREET CITY

Jones Main Harrison

Smith North Rye

Hays Main Harrison

Curry North Rye

Johnson Alma Brooklyn

Brooks Senator Brooklyn

Input:
1. ∏ NAME, CITY (CUSTOMER)

Output:

NAME CITY

Jones Harrison

Smith Rye

Hays Harrison

Curry Rye

Johnson Brooklyn

Brooks Brooklyn

3. Union Operation:
o Suppose there are two tuples R and S. The union operation contains all the tuples that
are either in R or S or both in R & S.
o It eliminates the duplicate tuples. It is denoted by ∪.

Notation: R ∪ S

A union operation must hold the following condition:

o R and S must have the attribute of the same number.

o Duplicate tuples are eliminated automatically.

Example:
DEPOSITOR RELATION
 CUSTOMER_NAME ACCOUNT_NO

Johnson A-101

Smith A-121

Mayes A-321

Turner A-176

Johnson A-273

Jones A-472

Lindsay A-284

BORROW RELATION

CUSTOMER_NAME LOAN_NO

Jones L-17

Smith L-23

Hayes L-15

Jackson L-14

Curry L-93

Smith L-11
 Williams L-17

Input:

1. ∏ CUSTOMER_NAME (BORROW) ∪ ∏ CUSTOMER_NAME (DEPOSITOR)

Output:

CUSTOMER_NAME

Johnson

Smith

Hayes

Turner

Jones

Lindsay

Jackson

Curry

Williams

Mayes
 4. Set Intersection:
o Suppose there are two tuples R and S. The set intersection operation contains all tuples
that are in both R & S.
o It is denoted by intersection ∩.

Notation: R ∩ S

Example: Using the above DEPOSITOR table and BORROW table

Input:

1. ∏ CUSTOMER_NAME (BORROW) ∩ ∏ CUSTOMER_NAME (DEPOSITOR)

Output:

CUSTOMER_NAME

Smith

Jones

5. Set Difference:
o Suppose there are two tuples R and S. The set intersection operation contains all tuples
that are in R but not in S.
o It is denoted by intersection minus (-).

Notation: R - S

Example: Using the above DEPOSITOR table and BORROW table

Input:

1. ∏ CUSTOMER_NAME (BORROW) - ∏ CUSTOMER_NAME (DEPOSITOR)

Output:
 CUSTOMER_NAME

Jackson

Hayes

Willians

Curry

6. Cartesian product
o The Cartesian product is used to combine each row in one table with each row in the
other table. It is also known as a cross product.
o It is denoted by X.

Notation: E X D

Example:
EMPLOYEE

EMP_ID EMP_NAME EMP_DEPT

1 Smith A

2 Harry C

3 John B

DEPARTMENT
 DEPT_NO DEPT_NAME

A Marketing

B Sales

C Legal

Input:

1. EMPLOYEE X DEPARTMENT

Output:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME EMP_DEPT DEPT_NO DEPT_NAME

1 Smith A A Marketing

1 Smith A B Sales

1 Smith A C Legal

2 Harry C A Marketing

2 Harry C B Sales

2 Harry C C Legal

3 John B A Marketing

3 John B B Sales
 3 John B C Legal

7. Rename Operation:
The rename operation is used to rename the output relation. It is denoted by rho (ρ).

Example: We can use the rename operator to rename STUDENT relation to STUDENT1.

ρ(STUDENT1, STUDENT)

Join Operations:
A Join operation combines related tuples from different relations, if and only if a given
join condition is satisfied. It is denoted by ⋈.

Example:
EMPLOYEE

EMP_CODE EMP_NAME

101 Stephan

102 Jack

103 Harry

SALARY

EMP_CODE SALARY

101 50000

102 30000
 103 25000

1. Operation: (EMPLOYEE ⋈ SALARY)

Result:

EMP_CODE EMP_NAME SALARY

101 Stephan 50000

102 Jack 30000

103 Harry 25000

Types of Join operations:

 1. Natural Join:
o A natural join is the set of tuples of all combinations in R and S that are equal on their
common attribute names.
o It is denoted by ⋈.

Example: Let's use the above EMPLOYEE table and SALARY table:

Input:

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1. ∏EMP_NAME, SALARY (EMPLOYEE ⋈ SALARY)

Output:
 EMP_NAME SALARY

Stephan 50000

Jack 30000

Harry 25000

2. Outer Join:
The outer join operation is an extension of the join operation. It is used to deal with
missing information.

Example:

EMPLOYEE

EMP_NAME STREET CITY

Ram Civil line Mumbai

Shyam Park street Kolkata

Ravi M.G. Street Delhi

Hari Nehru nagar Hyderabad

FACT_WORKERS

EMP_NAME BRANCH SALARY

Ram Infosys 10000

 Shyam Wipro 20000

Kuber HCL 30000

Hari TCS 50000

Input:

1. (EMPLOYEE ⋈ FACT_WORKERS)
Output:

EMP_NAME STREET CITY BRANCH SALARY

Ram Civil line Mumbai Infosys 10000

Shyam Park street Kolkata Wipro 20000

Hari Nehru nagar Hyderabad TCS 50000

An outer join is basically of three types:

a. Left outer join

b. Right outer join
c. Full outer join

a. Left outer join:

o Left outer join contains the set of tuples of all combinations in R and S that are equal on
their common attribute names.
o In the left outer join, tuples in R have no matching tuples in S.

o It is denoted by ⟕.
 Example: Using the above EMPLOYEE table and FACT_WORKERS table

Input:

1. EMPLOYEE ⟕ FACT_WORKERS
EMP_NAME STREET CITY BRANCH SALARY

Ram Civil line Mumbai Infosys 10000

Shyam Park street Kolkata Wipro 20000

Hari Nehru street Hyderabad TCS 50000

Ravi M.G. Street Delhi NULL NULL

b. Right outer join:

o Right outer join contains the set of tuples of all combinations in R and S that are equal
on their common attribute names.
o In right outer join, tuples in S have no matching tuples in R.
o It is denoted by ⟖.

Example: Using the above EMPLOYEE table and FACT_WORKERS Relation

Input:

EMPLOYEE ⟖ FACT_WORKERS
Output:

EMP_NAME BRANCH SALARY STREET CITY

Ram Infosys 10000 Civil line Mumbai

 Shyam Wipro 20000 Park street Kolkata

Hari TCS 50000 Nehru street Hyderabad

Kuber HCL 30000 NULL NULL

c. Full outer join:

o Full outer join is like a left or right join except that it contains all rows from both tables.
o In full outer join, tuples in R that have no matching tuples in S and tuples in S that have
no matching tuples in R in their common attribute name.
o It is denoted by ⟗.

Example: Using the above EMPLOYEE table and FACT_WORKERS table

Input:

EMPLOYEE ⟗ FACT_WORKERS

Output:

EMP_NAME STREET CITY BRANCH SALARY

Ram Civil line Mumbai Infosys 10000

Shyam Park street Kolkata Wipro 20000

Hari Nehru street Hyderabad TCS 50000

Ravi M.G. Street Delhi NULL NULL

Kuber NULL NULL HCL 30000

 3. Equi join:
It is also known as an inner join. It is the most common join. It is based on matched data
as per the equality condition. The equi join uses the comparison operator(=).

Example:

CUSTOMER RELATION

CLASS_ID NAME

1 John

2 Harry

3 Jackson

PRODUCT

PRODUCT_ID CITY

1 Delhi

2 Mumbai

3 Noida

Input:

CUSTOMER ⋈ PRODUCT

Output:
CLASS_ID NAME PRODUCT_ID CITY

1 John 1 Delhi

2 Harry 2 Mumbai

3 Harry 3 Noida

Integrity Constraints
o Integrity constraints are a set of rules. It is used to maintain the quality of information.
o Integrity constraints ensure that the data insertion, updating, and other processes have
to be performed in such a way that data integrity is not affected.
o Thus, integrity constraint is used to guard against accidental damage to the database.

Types of Integrity Constraint

1. Domain constraints
o Domain constraints can be defined as the definition of a valid set of values for an
attribute.
o The data type of domain includes string, character, integer, time, date, currency, etc. The
value of the attribute must be available in the corresponding domain.

Example:

2. Entity integrity constraints

o The entity integrity constraint states that primary key value can't be null.
o This is because the primary key value is used to identify individual rows in relation and if
the primary key has a null value, then we can't identify those rows.
o A table can contain a null value other than the primary key field.

Example:
3. Referential Integrity Constraints
o A referential integrity constraint is specified between two tables.
o In the Referential integrity constraints, if a foreign key in Table 1 refers to the Primary
Key of Table 2, then every value of the Foreign Key in Table 1 must be null or be
available in Table 2.

Example:
4. Key constraints
o Keys are the entity set that is used to identify an entity within its entity set uniquely.
o An entity set can have multiple keys, but out of which one key will be the primary key. A
primary key can contain a unique and null value in the relational table.

Example:
 Relational Calculus
o Relational calculus is a non-procedural query language. In the non-procedural query
language, the user is concerned with the details of how to obtain the end results.
o The relational calculus tells what to do but never explains how to do.

Types of Relational calculus:

1. Tuple Relational Calculus (TRC)

o The tuple relational calculus is specified to select the tuples in a relation. In TRC, filtering
variable uses the tuples of a relation.
o The result of the relation can have one or more tuples.

Notation:

{T | P (T)} or {T | Condition (T)}

Where

T is the resulting tuples

 P(T) is the condition used to fetch T.

For example:

{ T.name | Author(T) AND T.article = 'database' }

OUTPUT: This query selects the tuples from the AUTHOR relation. It returns a tuple with
'name' from Author who has written an article on 'database'.

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TRC (tuple relation calculus) can be quantified. In TRC, we can use Existential (∃) and
Universal Quantifiers (∀).

For example:

1. { R| ∃T ∈ Authors(T.article='database' AND R.name=T.name)}

Output: This query will yield the same result as the previous one.

2. Domain Relational Calculus (DRC)

o The second form of relation is known as Domain relational calculus. In domain relational
calculus, filtering variable uses the domain of attributes.
o Domain relational calculus uses the same operators as tuple calculus. It uses logical
connectives ∧ (and), ∨ (or) and ┓ (not).
o It uses Existential (∃) and Universal Quantifiers (∀) to bind the variable.

Notation:

{ a1, a2, a3, ..., an | P (a1, a2, a3, ... ,an)}

Where

a1, a2 are attributes

P stands for formula built by inner attributes

For example:

{< article, page, subject > | ∈ javatpoint ∧ subject = 'database'}

Output: This query will yield the article, page, and subject from the relational javatpoint,
where the subject is a database.