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Educational Statistics
Lecture No. 7.
Inferential Statistics
Tests of Association
 Presented by
 Dr. Asif Iqbal
 Assistant Professor of Education
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 [email protected]
 Learning Objectives
After completion of unit, the students will be able to:
 1. Briefly explains correlation and uses of correlation.
 2. Write considerations in interpreting correlation.
 3. Know formula is used to calculate Pearson correlation.
 4. Know formula is used to calculate Spearman correlation.
 5. Able to understand the Term “regression”
 6. Explain the use of regression analysis.
 7. Write down the types of regression.
 8. Mention p-value and interpretation of p-value.
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 Correlation
 Introduction
A correlation is a relationship between two variables.
 The purpose of using correlation in research is to
determine the degree to which a relationship exists
between two or more variables.
Correlation is important in research because several
hypotheses are stated in terms of correlation or lack of
correlation between two variables, so correlational
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studies are directly related to such hypotheses.

 Correlation
Correlation is a statistical technique used to measure and
describe relationship between two variables.
These variables are neither manipulated nor controlled,
rather they simply are observed as they naturally exist in
the environment.
Suppose a researcher is interested in relationship
between number of children in a family and IQ of the
individual child. 7/21/2020 5
 Correlation
He would take a group of students coming from different
families.
Then he simply observe or record the number of children
in a family and then measure IQ score of each individual
student same group.

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 Inferential Statistics


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 Inferential Statistics


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 Characteristics of Relationship
 1. Direction
 In a positive correlation both variables tend to change into
same direction. When variable X increases, the variable Y also
increases. And if the variable X decreases, the variable Y also
decreases.
 In a negative correlation both variables do not tend to change
into same direction. They go in opposite direction of each
other.
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 Characteristics of Relationship
 When the variable X increases, the variable Y decreases. And if
the variable X decreases, the variable Y increases.
 The direction of the relationship is identified by the sign of the
correlation.
 A positive sign (+) indicates positive relationship. A negative
sign (-) indicates negative relationship.

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 Characteristics of Relationship
 2.Form of Relationship
 The form of correlation measures how well the data fit the
specific form being considered.
 A linear correlation measures how well the data points fit
on a straight line.

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 Characteristics of Relationship
 3. Degree of Relationship
 The degree of relationship is measured by the numerical value
of the correlation.
 This value varies from 1.00 to – 1.00. A perfect correlation is
always identified by a correlation of 1.00 and indicates a
perfect fit. + 1.00 will indicate perfect positive correlation and
–1.00 will indicate perfect negative correlation.
 A correlation of 0 indicates no correlation or no fit at all.
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 Pearson Correlation
The most commonly used correlation is the Pearson
Correlation.
It is also known as Pearson product-moment Correlation.
It measures the degree and the direction of linear
relationship of between two variables.
It is denoted by r.

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 Interpreting Pearson Correlation
 1. Prediction
 If two variables are known to be related in some systematic
way, it is possible to use one variable to make prediction about
the other.
2. Validity
 Suppose a researcher develops a new test for measuring
intelligence. It is necessary that he should show that this new
test valid and truly measures what it claims to measure. One
common technique for demonstrating validity is to use
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correlation.
 Interpreting Pearson Correlation
3. Reliability
Apart from determining validity, correlations are also
used to determine reliability.
A measurement procedure is reliable if it produces stable
and consistent measurement.
It means a reliable measurement procedure will produce
the same scores when the same individuals are measured
under the same conditions. 7/21/2020 15
 Interpreting Pearson Correlation
3. Theory Verification
Many psychological theories make specific predictions
about the relationship between two variables.
A theory may predict a relationship between brain size
and learning ability; between the parent IQ and the child
IQ etc. In each case, the prediction of the theory could be
tested by determining the correlation
between two variables. 7/21/2020 16


 Spearman Correlation
 The most commonly used measure of relationship is the
Pearson correlation. It measures the degree of linear
relationship between two variables and is used with interval or
ratio data. Other measures of correlation have been developed
for non-linear relationship and for other type of data.
 One such measure is the Spearman Correlation. The Spearman
correlation is used in two situations.
 Pearson correlation measures the degree of linear relationship
between two variables, the spearman correlation measures the
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consistency of relationship.
 Regression
 A correlation quantifies the degree and direction of two
variables related. It does not fit a line through the data points. It
does not have to think about the cause and effect. It does not
natter which of the two variables is called dependent and which
is called independent.
 Regression finds the best line that predicts dependent variables
from the independent variable. The decision of which variable
is calls dependent and which calls independent is an important
matter in regression, as it will get a different best-fit line if
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we exchange the two variables.

 Objectives of Regression Analysis
 The regression analysis is used to explain variability in
dependent variable by mean of one or more of independent
variables and to analyze relationships among variables to
answer the question of how much dependent variable changes
with the changes in the independent variables and to forecast or
predict the value of dependent variable based on the values of
the independent variable.
 The primary objective of the regression is to develop a
relationship between a response variable and the explanatory
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variable for the purpose of prediction.

 Uses of Regression Analysis
 Regression analysis estimates the relationship between two or
more variables and is used for forecasting or finding cause and
effect relationship between the variables.
 There are multiple benefits of using regression analysis.
 It indicates significant relationship between independent and
dependent variables.
 It indicate strength of impact of multiple variables on
dependent variable.
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 Types of Regression
 Linear Regression:
 Itis the most commonly used types of regression. In this
technique the dependent variable is continuous and the
independent variable can be continuous or discrete
and the nature of regression line is linear.
 Linear regression establishes a relationship between dependent
variable (Y) and one or more independent variables
(X) using best fit straight line (also known as regression line)
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 Types of Regression
 Logistic Regression:
 Logistic regression is a statistical method for analyzing a
dataset in which there are one or more independent variables
that determine an outcome. The outcome is measured with the
dichotomous (binary) variable. Like all regression analysis, the
logistic regression is a predictive analysis.
 It is used to describe and explain relationship between one
dependent binary variable and one or more nominal,
ordinal, interval or ratio level independent variables.
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 Types of Regression
Polynomial Regression:
It is a form of regression analysisin which the
relationship between independent variable X and
dependent variable Y is modeled as an nth degree
polynomial in x.
This type of regression fits a non-linear relationship
between the values of X with the corresponding values
of Y. 7/21/2020 23
 Types of Regression
 Stepwise Regression:
 It is a method of fitting regression model in which the choice of
predictive variables is carried out by an automatic procedure.
 In each step, a variable is considered for addition or subtraction
from the set of explanatory variables based on some pre-
specified criteria.
 The general idea behind this procedure is that we build our
regression model from a set of predictor variable by entering
and removing predictors in our model, in a stepwise manner,
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until there is no justifiable reason to enter or remove any more.

 P-Value
 The p-value is the level of marginal significance within a
statistical hypothesis test representing the probability of
occurrence of a given event. This value is used as an
alternative to rejection points to provide the smallest level of
significance at which the null hypothesis would be rejected.
 A p-value is used in hypothesis testing to help researcher
support or reject the null hypothesis. It is evidence against the
null hypothesis.
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 P-Value
 A relatively simple way to interpret p-value is to think of them
as representing how likely a result would occur by chance. For
a calculated p-value of .01, we can say that the observed
outcomes would be expected to occur by chance only 1 in 100
times in repeated tests on different samples of the population.
 Similarly a p-value of .05 would represent the expected
outcome to occur by chance only 5 times out of 100 times in
repeated tests.
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 P-Value
 In case of p-value .01, the researcher is 99% confident of
getting similar results if same test is repeated for 100 times.
 Similarly in case of p-value .05, the researcher is 95%
confident and in case of p-value .001, he is 999% confident of
getting similar results if same test is repeated for 100 times and
1000 times respectively.

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 Correlation Analysis in SPSS
 Suppose you want to find out if there is a relationship between
the amount of water consumed (in glasses) and skin elasticity
ratings (1-10 with 10 being the best). You select 5 participants.
Each participant is given a different about of water and each is
asked to rate their skin elasticity. Here are the data. You can see
the how many glasses of water each participant drank and their
personal ratings of their skin elasticity.


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 Null Hypothesis
 Problem/ Topic

Correlation of amount of water consumed with skin elasticity.

Null Hypothesis

Ho: There is no statistically significant correlation of

amount of water consumed and skin elasticity.
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
 Correlation Analysis in SPSS

Participant Glasses of Skin Elasticity
Water Rating
Participant 1 1 glass Rating of 1
Participant 2 2 glasses Rating of 4
Participant 3 3 glasses Rating of 6

Participant 4 4 glasses Rating of 7
Participant 5 5 glasses Rating of 9
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 Data Entry in SPSS


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 Correlation Analysis in SPSS


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 Output Results in SPSS


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 Interpret Results in SPSS


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 Reporting Results in APA
 A Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient was
computed to assess the relationship between the amount of
water that one consumed and rating of skin elasticity. There
was a positive correlation between the two variables, r = 0.985,
n = 5, p = 0.002. A scatterplot summarizes the results (Figure
1) Overall, there was a strong, positive correlation between
water consumption and skin elasticity. Increases in water
consumption were correlated with increases in rating of skin
elasticity. 7/21/2020 35
Steps of Hypothesis Testing
Step 1: Problem Identification
Step 2: Formulation of Hypothesis
Step 3: Defining Population and Sample
Step 4: Selecting Appropriate Instruments
Step 5: Collection of Data
Step 6: Analysis of Data
Step 7: Interpret Results or Make a Decision
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Sources from where you can get help for
data analysis
 Statistics help for students.
 http://statistics-help-for-students.com/

 Statistics How to
 https://www.statisticshowto.com/
 SPSSSurvival Manual: A Step by Step Guide to Data Analysis Using
IBM SPSS 5th Edition. by. Julie Pallant
 http://spss5.allenandunwin.com.s3-website-ap-southeast-
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2.amazonaws.com/about_book.html
 Self Assessment Activity
 Q. 1 Briefly explains correlation and uses of correlation?
 Q. 3 Write down considerations kept in mind while interpreting
correlation.
 Q. 4 Which formula is used to calculate Pearson correlation?
 . 5 Which formula is used to calculate Spearman correlation?
 Q. 6 What do you understand by “regression”?
 Q. 7 Why do we use regression analysis?
 Q. 8 Write down the types of regression.
 Q. 9 Write down a brief note on p-value?
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