5 Pre-Calculus for Enigneers

Lesson 7.1: Polynomial Functions

Lesson Summary
In this lesson, we will define the polynomial function where we will first focus
on one variable. The polynomial function can be classified based on the
degree of the exponent. We will also solve the polynomials by dividing two
polynomials, identifying the remainder, and identifying the domain that
resulted to zero. Lastly, we will graph the polynomial functions as well as
analyzing its behavior.

Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

1. Explain polynomial functions

2. Solve polynomial functions
3. Graph the polynomial functions

Motivation Question
How do we identify polynomial functions? What are its classifications? And
what do they look like in the graph?

Discussion

Definition and Classification of Polynomial Function

We usually see functions from a linear to a function of higher degree. This
function are called polynomial functions which they are expressed in the form
of a polynomial. A polynomial composed of one or more terms (monomials).
Polynomial function has only positive integers as exponents in the equation
and do not involve much on the fraction or decimal exponents. We will first
define polynomial function.

Definition:
A polynomial function of x of degree n is expressed as:

P(x) = anxn + an-1xn-1 + an-2xn-2 + … + a2x2 + a1x + a0

Where n is the non-negative integer and an, an-1, an-2, … , a2,

a1, a0 is the real numbers with an ≠ 0.

A polynomial is generally expressed as P(x). The highest exponent in the

variable in the P(x) is the degree. The term anxn is called the first term and
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the numerical coefficient in it is a leading coefficient. The following are the

examples of a polynomial function indicating their degree.
1. f(x) = 4x3 – 3x2 + 2 with the degree of 3.
2. g(x) = x2 + 6x + 2 with the degree of 2.
3. h(x) = x7 - 4x5 + 1 with the degree of 7.

Polynomials are classified according to its degree. Among them, only six (6)
are properly termed from constant to quintic as shown in Table 1. Polynomial
functions have their domain a set of real numbers ( ).

Table 1. Classification of Polynomial Function.

Polynomials Degree Form Example

Constant 0 f(x) = c y=3
Linear 1 f(x) = ax + b y=x+1
Quadratic 2 f(x) = ax2 + bx + c y = x2 + 2x + 1
Cubic 3 f(x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d y = x3 + 3x2 + 3x
+1
Quartic 4 f(x) = ax4 + bx3 + cx2 + dx y = x4 + 4x3 + 6x2
+e + 4x + 1
Quintic 5 f(x) = ax5 + bx4 + cx3 + dx2 y = x5 + 5x4 +
+ ex + f 10x3 + 10x2 + 5x
+1

A constant can be considered a function under polynomials with the degree 0.

The number of terms in a function cannot be used when identifying the kind of
function, hence we will only use the degree to determine whether that
polynomials is a linear, quadratic, cubic, or others.

Quadratic Function

A polynomial with a degree of 2 or a second degree polynomial is called

quadratic function. By the definition:

Definition:
Let a, b, and c be real numbers with a ≠ 0, a quadratic function
is given by using the general form:

f(x) = ax2 + bx + c

and using the standard form:

f(x) = a(x – h)2 + k

where the coordinates (h,k) is the vertex of the parabola in the graph.

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The graph of a quadratic function is in a form of U-shape called parabola

(Figure 1). This graph has one important feature which is having an extreme
point called the vertex. The vertex is the turning point of the graph. When the
parabola opens upward, the vertex is at the lowest point (or at minimum value)
and when it opens downward, the vertex is at the highest point (or at
maximum value).

Figure 1. The graph of a quadratic function. Credit: Abramson, 2017

The graph of a quadratic function is also symmetric with respect to a line

called the axis of symmetry. The axis of symmetry intersects with the vertex
of a parabola. The y-intercept is the point at which the parabola crosses the y-
axis while the x-intercept is the point at which the parabola crosses the x-axis.
These x-intercepts, if they exist, represents the zeros or the roots of a
quadratic function, the values of x at which y=0 (Abramson, 2017).

The axis of symmetry is defined by x = t

. When using the quadratic

formula t to solve for roots or zero of the quadratic function, we

find the midpoint between the solved values of x (or the roots) always be in
t
, hence the equation of axis of symmetry. When the quadratic equation
does not intersect the x-axis, there will be no roots, but we can determine the
axis of symmetry just by using the x-coordinate of the vertex.

Since quadratic function can open upward or downward, we can determine

just by looking at the sign of the leading coefficient. If the leading coefficient is
positive, then the parabola opens upward. When the leading coefficient is
negative, then the parabola opens downward as shown in Figure 2 (Larson
and Hostetler, 2007). Take note that the quadratic function must be in general
form first before looking at the leading coefficient.

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Figure 2. The graph of a quadratic function when (a) the leading coefficient is
positive and (b) the leading coefficient is negative. Credit: Larson
and Hostetler, 2007

Example 1. Identifying the characteristic of a parabola

Determine the vertex, axis of symmetry, and zeros of the parabola
shown in Figure 3.

Solution: (From Abramson,

2017 p. 345)

The vertex is the turning point of

the graph. We can see that the
vertex is at (3, 1). Because this
parabola opens upward, the axis
of symmetry is the vertical line
that intersects the parabola at
the vertex. So the axis of
symmetry is x = 3. This parabola
does not cross the x-axis, so it
has no zeros or no solution. Figure 3. The graph of a
given quadratic
function. Credit:
Abramson, 2017 p.

The standard form y = a(x - h)2 + k of the quadratic equation gives us an idea
of the value of vertex by itself. And it is from that form where we can
transform into a general form by distribution, thus simplifying them until no
further operations. When the given equation is in general form y = ax2 + bx +
c, how do we determine the vertex (h, k) and the axis of symmetry? Let us
take a look into the two forms. We will first equate the two forms since they
are equal. Then,

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a(x - h)2 + k = ax2 + bx + c

ax – 2ahx + (ah2 + k) = ax2 + bx + c
2

We can say that b = - 2ah. The axis of symmetry can be represented by h

since it intersects the vertex, thus the equation of the axis of symmetry is
equal to the x-coordinate of the vertex or x = h. Hence,

b = - 2ah
h=- (axis of symmetry)

We already have the h of the vertex. We can just substitute to the original
given which is in general form to solve for k, or k = f(h). Another way is to use
c = ah2 + k. Re-equating them will give us:

c = ah2 + k
k = c – ah2
k = c – a(- )2
k=c- t
hence the vertex (h, k)

When that the graph is given, we have to make an equation out of the graph.
The following is the procedure on how to make an equation from the graph
(Abramson, 2017 p. 347).
1. Identify the horizontal shift of the parabola; this value is h. Identify the
vertical shift of the parabola; this value is k.
2. Substitute the values of the horizontal and vertical shift or h and k. in
the function f(x) = a(x − h)2 + k.
3. Substitute the values of any point, other than the vertex, on the graph
of the parabola for x and f (x).
4. Solve for the stretch factor, ∣a∣.
5. If the parabola opens up, a > 0. If the parabola opens down, a < 0
since this means the graph was reflected about the x-axis. Expand
and simplify to write in general form.

Example 2. Creating an equation from the graph

1. Find the vertex, axis of symmetry and zeros of the given quadratic
function.
a. f(x) = x2 + 4x + 3
b. g(x) = x2 - 4

Solution:
a. We will first identify the h and k and we can have the vertex and
the axis of symmetry

h=- =- th
=-2

k=c- =3- th
= -1
hence, the vertex is (-2, -1) and the axis of symmetry is x = -2
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Looking at the graph,

Figure 4. The graph of the function y = x2 + 4x + 3. Credit:

Abramson, 2017 p. 345

We can solve for the roots just by equating the given function to
zero and factor them out. Thus,

x2 + 4x + 3 = 0
(x + 3)(x + 1) = 0
x = -3 ; x = -1

b. following the same procedure as for the first given,

h=- =- th
=0

k=c- = -4 - th
= -4

hence, the vertex is (0, -4) and the axis of symmetry is x = 0 (y-
axis)

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Looking at the graph,

Figure 5. The graph of the function y = x2 - 4.

We can solve for the roots just by equating the given function to
zero and factor them out. Thus,

x2 - 4 = 0
x2 = 4
x = 2 or x = 2 ; x = -2

2. Create a quadratic function in general form based on the given

vertex or intercepts.
a. Vertex (1, 2) and passes through (0,0)
b. x = 2, x = -4

Solution:
a. using the quadratic equation in standard form,
y = a(x - 1)2 + 2
since it passes through the point (0, 0), f(0) = 0, so
0 = a(0-1)2 + 2; a = -2
Substituting to the standard form
y = -2(x - 1)2 + 2
y = -2x2 + 4x

b. from the roots,

y = (x - 2)(x + 4), thus,
y = x2 + 2x - 8

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Polynomial Functions of higher degrees

Polynomial functions can be of higher degrees depending on the highest

power. The purpose of this topic is to identify what makes these function
different from the usual linear and quadratic functions by seeing how their
graphs behave. But before that, we will discuss first on power function.

A Power function is a single term function that consists only of a coefficient

and a base variable raised to a higher degree. In other words, power function
is polynomial function by definition with only one term. It is expressed in the
form:

f(x) = kxn

where k and n are real numbers with k as coefficient. The graphs of the power
functions can be generalized based on the graph’s “end behavior” or the
direction of the ends of the graph. When the exponent is even, the end
behavior faces toward the same direction and when the exponent is odd, the
end behavior faces to the opposite direction. As the exponent increases, the
with of the graph increases as shown in Figure 6.

Table 2. Power functions and their graphs.

Source: Abramson, 2017

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Figure 6. The width of the odd (left) and even (right) graphs. Credit:
Abramson, 2017 pp. 361-362.

The graph of the polynomial functions of higher degree are much similar with
the power functions with the only difference having many ups or downs as
well as roots that are not repeated. The same thing with their end behavior.
Polynomial functions are continuous in nature and having smooth round turns.
Their plots would be proven difficult to analyze, however, having a knowledge
of point-plotting, intercepts and symmetry, we would at least be able to
accurately sketch by hand. Table 3 shows the graph of the polynomial
function.

As explained earlier on the end behavior of the graph, the graph eventually
rise or fall as it moves to the right. The method of identifying the end behavior
of the polynomial function is called the Leading Coefficient Test. It is
determined by the function’s degree and by its leading coefficient. As the
value of x moves without bound to the left or right, the graph of the polynomial
function eventually rises or falls in the manner as illustrated in Figure 7.

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Figure 7. The Leading Coefficient Test which determines the end behavior of
the polynomial function. Credit: Larson and Hostetler, 2007 p 141.

Example 3. Applying the Leading Coefficient Test

Describe the end behavior of the graph of the given function. (From Larson
and Hostetler, 2004)
a. f(x) = -x3 + 4x
b. f(x) = x4 – 5x2 + 4
c. f(x) = x5 – x

Solution:
a. Because the degree is odd and the leading coefficient is negative, the
graph rises to the left and falls to the right.
b. Because the degree is even and the leading coefficient is positive, the
graph rises to the left and right.
c. Because the degree is odd and the leading coefficient is positive, the
graph falls to the left and rises to the right.

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Table 3. Polynomial functions of higher degree.

Source: Abramson, 2017 p. 366

Dividing Polynomials
Polynomials can be divided despite being an algebraic expression. They can
be easily divided as far as quadratic only by factoring. It will be difficult for
polynomials of higher degree. There are two methods of dividing polynomials:
the long method and the synthetic division.

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Long division, as the name implies, is the division of polynomials by

conventional means.
Example (From Larson and Hostetler, 2004). Let say that the function f(x) =
6x3 – 19x2 + 16x – 4 be divided by x – 2, the procedure can be seen in a
figure which the quotient resulted to 6x2 – 7x + 2. The division can be
expressed into:
6x3 – 19x2 + 16x – 4 = (x - 2) • q(x), hence

Figure 8. Long division the function f(x) = 6x3 – 19x2 + 16x – 4 divided by x - 2.
Credit: Larson and Hostetler, 2007 p 153.

Based on the solution, we can say that

6x3 – 19x2 + 16x – 4 = (x - 2) • (6x2 – 7x + 2), factoring the rest will resulted to:
6x3 – 19x2 + 16x – 4 = (x - 2)(2x - 1)(3x - 2) [Final answer]

The synthetic division, on the other hand, uses only the coefficients to get
the quotient. It is a shortcut since long division takes much time. To use
synthetic division, the divisor must be in a form (x - k). In case the polynomial
is divided by x + k, we just have to convert into x – (-k), hence using -k to
solve. The procedure is explained in Figure 9.

Figure 9. The procedure for using synthetic division. Credit: Larson and
Hostetler, 2007 p 156.

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It is important to write the function in general form, that is, to arranged from
the highest degree down to the constant. If the total number of terms in the
polynomial is not equal to (n+1) where n is the highest degree, that would
mean the other terms in between are considered zero (0).

Example. Use synthetic division to divide x4 – 10x2 – 2x + 4 by x + 3.

Solution
The number if terms in the given is not equal to n+1 = 4+1 = 5. Which means,
the other term that has x3 is not present, hence that term is equal to 0. The
step-by step process is shown in the image.

Figure 10. Step-by-step solution using synthetic division. Credit: Larson and
Hostetler, 2007 p 156.

Zeros of Polynomial Functions

In the division of polynomials by a binomial, the quotient is expressed as

P(x) = (x - k) q(x) + r

Where the binomial (x - k) is the divisor, q(x) is the quotient, and r is the
remainder. When the remainder is zero (0), that means that polynomial is
factorable by (x - k).

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We can use the long division or synthetic division to identify if that function is
factorable. Even with the use of synthetic division, it is still taking time just to
prove. To immediately see whether the given binomial is a factor of the
polynomial function, we can use the remainder theorem. The Remainder
Theorem states that:

“If a polynomial function f(x) is divided by (x - k), the remainder is r = f(k)”

To simplify further, we will just substitute k to the function to get the remainder
(r).

Example. Use the remainder theorem to evaluate the function f(x) = 3x3 + 8x2
+ 5 – 7 at x = -2

Figure 11. Step-by-step solution for the remainder theorem. Credit: Larson
and Hostetler, 2007 p 157.

When we are looking for the zeros of the function, we can only use synthetic
division to factor them all.

There are important things to know about the remainder theorem.

1. If r = 0, then (x - k) is a factor of the given function.
2. If r = 0, then (k, 0) is an x-intercept of the graph of the function.
3. This only applies for identifying the remainder as well as guessing if
(x – k) is a factor.
4. The other theorem, the Factor Theorem, states that the given
polynomial function has a factor (x - k) if and only if f(k) = 0.

After knowing the division of polynomials as well as the remainder theorem,

we can now proceed to the zeros of polynomial function. Considering that
the given is only a function, especially of higher degree, how do we determine
their zeros? How do we narrow the possible factors in determining the zeros?

The zeros we are talking about refers to the x-intercepts. The purpose is to
factor the polynomial by first listing the possible x-intercepts. The resulted x-
intercepts are considered factors if their remainder is zero. There are

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polynomials that has zeros but not as rational numbers (real numbers that are
integers, terminated, or repeating – See Module 1). Hence, they cannot be
factored.

For polynomials until quadratic form, we can easily factor them as there will
be two (2) zeros. In quadratic function f(x) = ax2 + bx + c, we can determine
the zeros or “roots” using the mentioned methods:
1. Factoring
2. Completing the square
3. Quadratic formula

For factoring, we will use the factors from the constant (c) and leading
coefficient (a) to determine the zeros. It will be easy if a = 1, otherwise, a trial
and error will be done to accomplish them.

Example. Use the factoring to find the zeros.

1. x2 + 3x + 2
2. 3x2 – 5x – 2

Solution:
1. x2 + 3x + 2 = 0
(x + 2)(x + 1) = 0
x = -2 ; x = -1
2. 3x2 – 5x – 2 = 0
(3x + 1)(x - 2) = 0
x = -1/3 ; x = 2 (trial and error was done to achieve the result)

In completing the square, you need to transform the given function into one
that is in (x + n)2 = p where n and p are integers. We will first derive the
completing the square.
ax2 + bx + c = 0
ax2 + bx = -c
x2 + x = - add both sides by square of
x2 + x + =- + factoring the left side
(x + )2 = - + let n = and p = - + , thus
(x + n)2 = p

From there, you can simplify further to solve for the zeros or roots.

Example. Use completing the squares to find the zeros.

1. x2 + 3x + 2
2. 3x2 – 5x – 2

Solution:
1. x2 + 3x + 2 = 0
x2 + 3x = -2
x2 + 3x + = -2 +
h
(x + )2 =
h
x+ =
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h
x=-
h h
x = - + = -1; x = - - = -2

2. 3x2 – 5x – 2 = 0
3x2 – 5x = 2
x2 - x =
x2 - x + = +
(x - )2 =
x- =
x= =2;x= = -1/3

The quadratic formula is the most useful method when it comes to time
consumed to solve. Unlike the first two methods, the inputs are the numerical
coefficients (a, b, c) in the given function. It is done using the formula:

x=

where a, b, and c are the numerical coefficients in the given function. Note
that there will be two values of x due to the presence of sign. Let us first
derive how this quadratic formula came out this way. To solve, we will use
completing the square to the equation ax2 + bx + c. Hence,
ax2 + bx + c = 0
ax2 + bx = -c
x2 + x = - add both sides by square of
x2 + x + =- + factoring the left side
(x + )2 = - + square root both sides

x+ = simplifying further

x+ =

x+ = transpose the to the other side

x =-
t
x=
t

Example. Use the quadratic formula to find the zeros.

1. x2 + 3x + 2
2. 3x2 – 5x – 2

Solution:
1. x2 + 3x + 2 = 0
th t
x= = th
=
h
x=

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h h
x= = -1 ; x = = -2

2. 3x2 – 5x – 2 = 0
t t t t
x= = t
=
x=
x= =2;x= = -1/3

For the polynomial functions of higher degree, we have to think of a certain

value that would make the remainder equal to zero then do a synthetic
division and repeat the same procedure until it reaches into quadratic to factor
it. To work it out, we have to understand the rational zero theorem. The
Rational Zero Theorem helps us narrow down the list of possible rational
zeros for a polynomial function. The method of applying the rational zero test
to the polynomial is called “rational zero test”. Thus,

Rational Zero Theorem:

In a polynomial function P(x) = anxn + an-1xn-1 + an-2xn-2 + … +
a2x + a1x + a0, every rational zero of the function has the form
2

Rational zero =

where and have no common factors other than 1, and

p = a factor of the constant term a0
q = a factor of the leading coefficient an

To use this test, list all rational numbers whose numerators are the factor of
the constant term and whose denominators are the factors of the leading
coefficient. Hence,

D O Dth D D DhO
Possible rational zero = D O Dth h ܽ h h D

The more the factors from either numerator or denominator, the more
possible rational zeros will be produced, and it will be doubled since the
rational zero can be positive or negative.

The following are the procedures of factoring the polynomials especially of

higher degree.
1. Identify the constant term and the leading coefficient.
2. Use the rational zero theorem/test to narrow down the possible
rational zeros.
3. You can first apply the remainder theorem to evaluate whether those
possible rational zeros will result to r = 0. You can also directly use
synthetic division if you are lucky enough to get to r = 0. Otherwise,
you have to repeat that to the other possible rational zeros.
4. If the identified factor has r = 0, you can proceed to synthetic division
to determine the quotient.
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5. Repeat the procedures 1-3 for the quotient until you reached quadratic
function for easy factoring.
6. The final result for identifying zeros of the polynomial must be in a
form of factor. For example, f(x) = (x + k)(x + m )(x + n)…. If the solved
quotient can no longer be factored or do not have a real solution (i.e.,
irrational or imaginary numbers), just leave it be.

You can also determine the zeros by factoring the terms which you think is
possible. It is done by grouping the terms that has a common factor. But it
can only be applied if you can see the common factor in them. Otherwise, do
the rational zero test.

Example 1. Find the rational zeros of the function f(x) = x3 + x + 1. The final
answer must be in factor form.

Solution:

Figure 12. Step-by-step solution for the remainder theorem. Credit: Larson
and Hostetler, 2007 p 170.

This one is a typical example of having no rational zero. There is actually zero
or “roots” but probably as an irrational number.

Example 2. Find the rational zeros of the function f(x) = x3 + x + 1. The final
answer must be in factor form.

Solution: In this item, there are many possible rational zeros. If you don’t want
to take the risk of doing synthetic division, you can first do the remainder
theorem to save time as well as space in your answer sheet. You can
proceed to synthetic division if you have at least one of them with r = 0, then
repeat until all are factored as shown in the figure below.

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 23 Pre-Calculus for Enigneers

Figure 13. Step-by-step solution for the remainder theorem. Credit: Larson
and Hostetler, 2007 p 171.

Page 23 of 70
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SLG20-01
 24 For instructional purposes only, 1st Semester Ay 2020-2021

Assessment
Instructions. The following questions will test your knowledge on the
polynomial function. Answer the following questions as
required.

A. Identify the vertex of the given quadratic functions.

1. f(x) = 2x2 + 4x – 4
2. f(x) = x2 + 2x – 3
3. f(x) = 3x2 - 5x - 1
4. f(x) = x2 - x
5. f(x) = x2 + 5x – 2

B. Form an equation in general form based on the given.

1. Vertex (3, 2) and passes through (0, 11)
2. Vertex (0, 0) and passes through (-5, 25)
h
3. Vertex (-2, -1) and passes through ( , )
4. Have the roots 3 and -4
5. (x + 1) and (2x - 3)

C. Divide the following polynomials using synthetic division.

1. x3 – 1 by (x – 1)
2. 2x4 + 4x3 – 5x2 + 3x – 2 by (x + 3)
3. 2x4 + 7x3 4x2 – 27x – 18 by (x - 2)
D. Determine the zeros of the following polynomial functions. The
final answer must be in a form of factor.
1. x3 – 5x2 – x + 5
2. x4 – 19x2 + 30x
3. x6 – 3x4 + 2x2

References

1) ABRAMSON, J. 2017. College Algebra. OpenstaxTM.

https://d3bxy9euw4e147.cloudfront.net/oscms
prodcms/media/documents/CollegeAlgebra-OP.pdf

2) CASTILLO, L.L., CEJALVO, F.V., REYES, F.N., and TANGCO, J.T.

2009. College Algebra. National Book Store, 125 Pioneer Street,
Mandaluyong City 1550

3) LARSON, R, and R.P. HOSTETLER. 2004. College Algebra, 6th ed.

Houghton Mifflin Co., 222 Berkeley Street, Boston, MA 02116-3764.

4) LARSON, R, and R.P. HOSTETLER. 2007. Pre-Calculus, 7th ed.

Houghton Mifflin Co., 222 Berkeley Street, Boston, MA 02116-3764.

5) SULIVAN, M. 2005. College Algebra, 7th ed. Pearson Prentice Hall,

Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458

Vision: A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental TP-IMD-02
conservation. V0 07-15-
Mission: Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge 2020
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
No.