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Unit 11 Miscellaneous Metrology

The document discusses precision instrumentation based on laser principles including laser light properties that enable high resolution measurement. It describes coordinate measuring machines (CMMs) which can measure in three axes and integrate with computers for complex evaluation of objects. Various types of CMM structures and modes of operation are outlined.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
136 views15 pages

Unit 11 Miscellaneous Metrology

The document discusses precision instrumentation based on laser principles including laser light properties that enable high resolution measurement. It describes coordinate measuring machines (CMMs) which can measure in three axes and integrate with computers for complex evaluation of objects. Various types of CMM structures and modes of operation are outlined.

Uploaded by

bhuyanuttam7
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MISCELLANEOUS METROLOGY

UNIT 11
 Precision Instrumentation based on Laser Principals:
Light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation
(laser) produces an intense emergent beam of light that can
be parallel to a high degree or can be focused onto a very
small area.
 Although a number of materials may be used to produce
lasers, the helium–neon gas laser is the most popular for
applications in metrology.
 Some of these are described here:
 Laser light is monochromatic. It has a bandwidth in the
range of 0.4–0.5 μm. Stabilized lasers have still narrower
bandwidths, with the result that very high resolution can be
achieved during measurement.
 Laser light is coherent. In normal light, the rays are
randomly phased, resulting in partial interference within the
beam. In contrast, laser rays are all in phase, producing a
coherent beam of light.
 Laser light is naturally collimated. The rays in a laser
beam are perfectly parallel with little divergence and scatter.
 These factors combine to produce a beam that is perfectly
parallel and very small in size. The light is extremely
bright and can produce images or fringes that are quite
sharp when employed in an optical system. Therefore,
laser-based instrumentation is the best choice for precise
measurement.

Laser transducer system


 Coordinate Measuring Machines:
 The term measuring machine generally refers to a single-
axis measuring instrument. Such an instrument is
capable of measuring one linear dimension at a time. The
term coordinate measuring machine refers to the
instrument/machine that is capable of measuring in all
three orthogonal axes. Such a machine is popularly
abbreviated as CMM.
 A CMM enables the location of point coordinates in a
three-dimensional (3D) space. It simultaneously captures
both dimensions and orthogonal relationships. Another
remarkable feature of a CMM is its integration with a
computer. The computer provides additional power to
generate 3D objects as well as to carry out complex
mathematical calculations. Complex objects can be
dimensionally evaluated with precision and speed.
 Potential as a sophisticated measuring machine
can be exploited under the following conditions:

 Multiple features: The more the number of features


(both dimensional and geometric) that are to be
controlled, the greater the value of CMM.

 Flexibility: It offers flexibility in measurement, without


the necessity to use accessories such as jigs and fixtures.

 Automated inspection: Whenever inspection needs to


be carried out in a fully automated environment, CMM
can meet the requirements quite easily.

 High unit cost: If rework or scrapping is costly, the


reduced risk resulting from the use of a CMM becomes a
significant factor.
 Structure: The basic version of a CMM has three axes, along three
mutually perpendicular directions. Thus, the work volume is
cuboidal. A carriage is provided for each axis, which is driven by a
separate motor.
 While the straight line motion of the second axis is guided by the
first axis, the third axis in turn is guided by the second axis. Each
axis is fitted with a precision measuring system, which continuously
records the displacement of the carriage from a fixed reference.
 The third axis carries a probe. When the probe makes contact with
the workpiece, the computer captures the displacement of all the
three axes.

Basic configuration of a CMM (a) Moving lever cantilever arm type


(b) Moving bridge type (c) Column type (d) Moving RAM horizontal arm type
(e) Gantry type
 Cantilever The vertically positioned probe is carried by a
cantilevered arm. The probe moves up and down along the Z-
axis, whereas the cantilever arm moves in and out along the
Y-axis (lateral movement). The longitudinal movement is
provided by the X-axis, which is basically the work table. This
configuration provides easy access to the workpiece and a
relatively large work volume for a small floor space.

 Bridge A bridge-type configuration is a good choice if better


rigidity in the structure is required. The probe unit is
mounted on a horizontal moving bridge, whose supports rest
on the machine table.

 Column This configuration provides exceptional rigidity and


accuracy. It is quite similar in construction to a jig boring
machine. Machines with such a configuration are often
referred to as universal measuring machines.

 Horizontal arm In this type of configuration, the probe is


carried by the horizontal axis. The probe assembly can also
move up and down along a vertical axis. It can be used for
gauging larger workpieces since it has a large work volume. It
is often referred to as a layout.
 Gantry: In this configuration, the support of the workpiece is
independent of the X- and Y-axis. Both these axes are
overhead and supported by four vertical columns from the
floor. The operator can walk along with the probe, which is
desirable for large workpieces.
 Modes of Operation:
 Modes of operation are quite varied in terms of type of
construction and degree of automation. Accordingly, CMMs
can be classified into the following three types based on their
modes of operation:
 1. Manual
 2. Semi-automated
 3. Computer controlled
 The manual CMM has a free-floating probe that the operator
moves along the machine’s three axes to establish contact with
part features. The differences in the contact positions are the
measurements. A semi-automatic machine is provided with an
electronic digital display for measurement. Many functions
such as setting the datum, change of sign, and conversion of
dimensions from one unit to another are done electronically.
 Probe: The probe is the main sensing element in a CMM.
Generally, the probe is of ‘contact’ type, that is, it is in physical
contact with the workpiece when the measurements are taken.
Contact probes may be either ‘hard’ probes or ‘soft’ probes.
 However, some CMMs also use a non-contact-type. Figure
illustrates the main components of a probe assembly. A probe
assembly comprises the probe head, probe, and stylus. The
probe is attached to the machine quill by means of the probe
head and may carry one or more styli. Some of the probes are
motorized and provide additional flexibility in recording
coordinates.

Probe assembly
 Operation: Most modern CMMs invariably employ
computer control. A computer offers a high degree of
versatility, convenience, and reliability.
 A modern CMM is very similar in operation to a
computer numerical control (CNC) machine, because both
control and measurement cycles are under the control of
the computer. A user-friendly software provides the
required functional features.
 The software comprises the following three components:

 1. Move commands, which direct the probe to the data


collection points
 2. Measurement commands, which result in the
comparison of the distance traversed to the standard
built into the machine for that axis
 3. Formatting commands, which translate the data into
the form desired for display or printout
 Major Applications: The CMM is a sophisticated equipment,
which offers tremendous versatility and flexibility in modern
manufacturing applications.

 A CMM can easily be integrated into an automated inspection


system. The computer controls easy integration in an
automated environment such as an FMS or a CIM. The major
economic benefit is the reduction in downtime for machining
while waiting for inspection to be completed.

 A CMM may be interfaced with a CNC machine so that


machining is corrected as the workpiece is inspected. A
further extension of this principle may include computer-
assisted design and drafting (CADD).

 Another major use of CMMs is in reverse engineering. A


complete 3D geometric model with all critical dimensions can
be built where such models do not exist. Once the geometric
model is built, it becomes easier to design dies or moulds for
manufacturing operations.
 Optical instruments: are used for precision
measurement, the projected image should be clear, sharp,
and dimensionally accurate. The design of mechanical
elements and electronic controls should be compatible
with the main optical system. In general, an optical
instrument should have the following essential features:
 1. A light source.

 2. A condensing or collimating lens system to direct light


past the work part and into the optical system.
 3. A suitable stage or table to position the work part, the
table preferably having provisions for movement in two
directions and possibly rotation about a vertical axis.
 4. The projection optics comprising lenses and mirrors.

 5. A viewing screen or eyepiece to receive the projected


image.
 6. Measuring and recording devices wherever required.
 When two light waves interact with each other, the wave effect
leads to a phenomenon called interference of light. Instruments
designed to measure interference are known as
interferometers. Application of interference is of utmost
interest in metrology. Interference makes it possible to
accurately compare surface geometry with a master, as in the
case of optical flats

 Basics of Optical Interference:


 A ray of light is composed of an infinite number of waves of
equal wavelength. The value of the wavelength determines the
colour of light.
 Let us consider two waves, having sinusoidal property, from
two different light rays. Figure illustrates the combined effect
of the two waves of light.
 The two rays, A and B, are in phase at the origin O, and will
remain so as the rays propagate through a large distance.
Suppose the two rays have amplitudes yA and yB, then the
resultant wave will have an amplitude yR = yA + yB. Thus,
when the two rays are in phase, the resultant amplitude is
maximum and the intensity of light is also maximum.
Two waves of different amplitudes that are in phase
 Basics of interferometry:
 The reader that the number of fringes that appear in a given length
on the screen is a measure of the distance between the two point
light sources and forms the basis for linear measurement.
 This phenomenon is applied for carrying out precise measurements
of very small linear dimensions, and the measurement technique is
popularly known as interferometry.
 This technique is used in a variety of metrological applications such
as inspection of machine parts for straightness, parallelism, and
flatness, and measurement of very small diameters, among others.
 The instrument used for making measurements using interferometry
technique is called an interferometer.
 Krypton-86 light is the basis for the new basic
international standard of length. The metre is defined as
being exactly 1,650,763.73 wavelengths of this light
source, measured in vacuum.

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