Chapter 6 MEXICAN RELATIONS

FOR NEARLY THREE centuries (1527-1821) there were close relations between the Philippines and Mexico. The Saavedra
(1527), Villalobos (1543), and Legazpi (1564) expeditions were fitted out in Mexico, financed by Mexican funds, and manned by Mexicans.
What linked these two countries more intimately was the galleon trade between Manila and Acapulco. No wonder, Filipinos and Mexicans
now cherish nostalgic memories of their past history.

The Philippines under Mexico. From the days of Legazpi to the year 1821, the Philippines was a part of the Viceroyalty of
Mexico. The Mexican viceroy governed the country for the king of Spain. Every year, he sent official dispatches, officials, missionaries,
and military reinforcements to Manila. The Spanish authorities in Manila submitted reports to him on Philippine conditions and needs.

In religious matters, too, the Philippines was under the jurisdic- tion of Mexico. The Inquisition of Mexico was represented by a
commissary in Manila. All white persons (Spaniards, French, Irish, English, etc.) who were suspected of heresy were arrested in Manila
and shipped to Mexico City for trial. The Bishopric of Manila, prior to its elevation to an archbishopric in 1595, was a diocese of the
Archbishopric of Mexico.

Furthermore, the Philippines was financially dependent upon Mexico. The government could not balance its colonial budget
every year. Upon the king's orders, the Mexican viceroy sent a royal subsidy (real situado) to Manila annually. This subsidy, averaging
P250,000 a year, was taken from Mexico's treasury. It helped to cover up the deficits of the colonial government.

Books Printed in Mexico. During the Spanish times, many valuable books on Philippine history, linguistics, economics, and
religion were printed in Mexico. The famous book of Dr. Antonio de Morga, Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas, was published in Mexico City
in 1609. Filipino scholars consider it the best historical work written by a Spaniard on the Philippines during the early Spanish period.
Unlike many Spanish authors, Morga wrote without bias. Dr. Jose Rizal, greatest Filipino hero and scholar, was impressed by Morga's
book so that he annotated and republished it in Paris in the year 1890.

Other Philippine books printed in Mexico during colonial times were:

1. Cronica de la Orden de N.P.S. Agustin en las Provincias de la Nueva España, Mexico, 1626. By Fr. Juan de Grijalva. An
account of the missionary labors of the Augustinians in Mexico and the Philippines from 1533 to 1592.

2. Relacion verdadera y breve de la persecucion, y martires que pade cieron por la confesion de nuestra Santa Fe Catolica en
Japon quince religiosos de la Provincia de S. Gregorio de los Descalzos de la Orden de Nuestro Serafico P. S. Francisco de las Islas
Filipinas. Mexico, 1626. Story of fifteen Franciscan missionaries from Manila who won martyrdom in Japan from 1613 to 1624.

3. Justificacion de la conservacion y comercio de las Islas Filipinas. Mexico, 1640. By Juan Grau y Monfalcon. A memorial
addressed to Msgr. Juan de Palafox y Mendoza, Royal Counsellor of the King and Bishop of Puebla, Mexico.

4. Tagalismo. Mexico, 1742. Fr. Melchor Oyanguren de Santa Ynes. A philological study of the Tagalog language.

5. Practica de testamentos, en que resuelven los casos mas frecuentes que se ofrecen en la disposicion de las ultimas
voluntados. Mexico, 1765. By Fr. Pedro Murillo Velarde. Dedicated to St. Ignatius Loyola.

Mexicans in the Philippines. Many Mexicans had distinguished themselves in the colonial annals of the Philippines.
Unfortunately, both Filipino and Spanish historians identified them as "Spaniards". It is high time that those Mexicans be given their
proper national label so that due credit may be accorded to the Mexican nation. They were Spanish subjects, it is true, but they were
Mexicans - by birth, by nationality, and by choice. The Filipinos, like them, were also Spanish subjects; but were never called "Spaniards"
during colonial times.

The first Mexican to win fame in Philippine annals was Captain Juan de Salcedo, fighting grandson of Legazpi. This Mexican
conquis- tador was the first encomendero of llocos. Unlike other Spanish en- comenderos, he neither abused nor exploited the natives
in his en- comienda. When he died, he bequeathed his property to the native Ilocanos. His older brother, Captain Felipe de Salcedo, also
rendered valuable services to Spain during the conquest of the Philippines.

The first Mexican to join the Franciscan Order in Manila was Saint Felipe de Jesus. He died as a Christian martyr in Nagasaki,
Japan in 1567,3

Another famous Mexican in Philippine annals was Archbishop Manuel Antonio Rojo. He was the acting Governor General of the
Philippines when the English attacked Manila in 1762. He was a native of Tula, Mexico, a doctor of laws, and was the founder of Mexico's
Bar Association.

Many missionaries and soldiers who served in the Philippines during Spanish times came from Mexico. The first treasurer of
the Manila Cathedral was Fr. Luis de Salinas, a Mexican secular priest. He was appointed to the position by Bishop Domingo de Salazar.
The first Mexican-born missionary to preach Christianity in Cebu (1599) was Fr. Agustin de Villegas. In 1602 a Mexican captain named
Juan Alonso de Mexica married Juliana de Morga, eldest daughter of Dr. Antonio de Morga.

Manila-Acapulco Trade. Annually the Manila galleons carried Asia's products to Acapulco. On their return trips, they brought
Mexico's exports. The first galleon to make the round trip from Mexico to the Philippines and back to Mexico in 1564-1565 was the San
Pedro, flagship of the Legazpi expedition. It should be remembered that it was Father Urdaneta who discovered the return route from the
Philippines to Acapulco.

During the early days of the Spanish colonization in the Philip- pines, there was free trade between Manila and Acapulco. This
trade brought great prosperity to both Philippine and Mexican merchants. It also cut into Spanish commerce with Mexico because the
Mexican people patronized the Asian goods brought by the Manila galleons. The merchants of Seville, Cadiz, and other cities in Spain
complained to the king that the cheaper goods from Asia were driving away Spanish products from the markets of America.

The Spanish king heeded their complaints. He restricted the Manila-Acapulco trade beginning the year 1593.

As restricted, the Manila-Acapulco trade became a government monopoly. It was administered and supervised by government
officials, carried on government-owned galleons, and regulated by royal decrees.

Galleon Cargoes. The galleons were veritable treasure ships. They carried rich cargoes worth a king's ransom. On their
voyages to Acapulco, they were loaded with Chinese porcelain and silk cloths, Persian rugs, Arabian perfumes, Molluccan spices, Indian
fabrics, and Philippine pearls and pottery. These Asian goods were landed at Acapulco. From Acapulco, they were transported by burro
trains to Mexico City, Puebla, Guadalajara, Vera Cruz, and other cities of Mexico. Part of the galleon cargoes were shipped to Guatemala,
Ecuador, Peru, Chile, and Argentina.

On their return trips to Manila, galleons carried the annual sub- sidy (real situado), the Mexican silver pesos (representing the
purchase price of the goods), and Mexico's exports. Among these Mexican exports were the famous wool from Saltillo, cacao from
Chiapas and Tabasco, and cochineal (scarlet dye) from Oaxaca.

Subsidy from Mexico. As mentioned, among the cargoes of the Manila galleon on its homeward trip from Acapulco was the
royal subsidy (real situado). This subsidy was a sum of money which the viceroy of Mexico sent annually to Manila to cover up the deficits
of the Philippine government. The amount was not fixed, but it averaged P250,000 a year. Sometimes, it was more; at other times, less.

It should be noted that the Philippines was a financial burden to the Spanish Crown. The country did not yield much gold and
silver, like Mexico and Peru. The annual income of the colonial government was not enough to meet the expenditures. Accordingly, the
king of Spain directed the Mexican viceroy to send a subsidy to Manila every year. The funds for this subsidy were taken from the Mexican
treasury and the galleon trade. The amount of the subsidy depended upon the needs of the Philippine government. The smallest subsidy
was in 1725, amounting only to P72,801. The highest was in 1799, reaching P1,200,000.

The first subsidy was sent by Mexico to the Philippines in 1605. Since then the Mexican viceroy regularly sent the subsidy. The
subsidy was finally abolished in 1821 in accordance with the Royal Decree of February 6, 1821.

Filipinos in Mexico. The first Filipinos to live in Mexico were the five political exiles from Manila. They were Pedro Balinguit,
chief of Pandacan; Felipe Salonga, chief of Polo; Pitongatan, chief of Tondo; Calao, chief of Tondo; and Agustin Manuguit, chief of Tondo.
They were exiled to Mexico because of their complicity in the Tondo Conspiracy of 1587-1588.

Many Filipino seamen during the days of the galleon trade de- serted their ships and stayed permanently in Acapulco. They
married Mexican women and reared a new generation of Filipino-Mexican children. Their descendants were now found in Acapulco and
in other towns of Mexico.

In 1619 there was a Filipino colony in the neighborhood of Aca- pulco. It included the 74 Filipino crewmen who deserted from
the galleon Espiritu Santo the year before. The Filipinos taught the Mexicans how to ferment tuba (wine) from the coconut palms that
grow in the hills of Acapulco. Within a short time, this Filipino palm wine became a popular drink among the Mexicans. It competed with
the Spanish liquors. To protect the wine industry of Spain, Captain Sebastian de Pineda requested King Philip III (1598-16219 to arrest
all Filipinos in Mexico and ship them back to Manila? Nothing came out of his request.

The Inquisition. The Inquisition was a religious court which tried cases of heresy. It was established in the Catholic kingdoms
of Europe during the Middle Ages in order to protect the Church from heretical attacks of Catholics who challenged the teachings of the
Catholic Church.

The Inquisition was established in Mexico City in the year 1536. Its first head, called Inquisitor, was Msgr. Juan de Zumarraga.
He was the first Bishop of Mexico. The first secretary of the Inquisition was Don Miguel Lopez de Legazpi. He served as secretary from
1536- 1547.

The Inquisition of Mexico extended its power to the Philippines in 1578. In that year, Archbishop Zumarraga authorized Fr.
Miguel de Benavides to represent the Inquisition in the Philippines. It should be noted that only white persons (Spaniards, Portuguese,
Dutch, French, English, etc.) in the Philippines were under the jurisdiction of the Inquisition. Filipinos and Chinese were exempted. Any
white person suspected of any crime against the Church was arrested and shipped to Mexico for trial.

The first person to be tried by the Inquisition of Mexico was Doña Ines Alvarez de Gibraleon, wife of Governor General Lavezaris.
She was accused of witchery in 1580 and was tried in Mexico City. The Inquisition found her innocent of the charge.

Abolition of the Galleon Trade. The closing years of the 18th century saw the decline of the galleon trade. The demand for
Asian goods in Acapulco decreased. The ships of the Royal Company of the Philippines established by King Charles III in 1785 competed
with Manila galleons by bringing Asian goods to Mexico. For instance, during the years 1790, 1791, and 1793, these ships brought
cargoes from Oriental ports worth P450,000. Furthermore, more and more ships from the United States and Europe were coming to
Mexico, bringing goods from foreign countries.

In 1804 the Manila authorities complained to the king that it was becoming difficult to sell the galleon cargoes in Acapulco. Three
Manila galleons - Casualidad, Montañes, and San Carlos" - returned to Manila in 1802 with their cargoes unsold. In the same year, the
galleon Filipino was able to sell only part of its cargo in Acapulco.

In 1811 the Manila galleon San Carlos could not land its cargo in Acapulco because the port was then being besieged by the
Mexican patriots under General Jose Maria Morelos. It sailed away and disposed its cargo at a big loss in the port of San Blas. On August
20, 1813, General Morelos captured Acapulco. He burned the port, including Fort San Diego on a hill overlooking the harbor. Months
later, he evacuated Acapulco because of the coming of a strong Spanish army.

On September 25, 1813, King Ferdinand VII abolished the govern- ment monopoly of the galleon trade. Two years later (1815),
the galleon Magallanes, which had left Manila in 1811, returned to Manila. This was the last government-owned galleon to participate in
the Manila-Acapulco trade.

Adios to Philippine-Mexican Relations. The close ties that linked the Philippines and Mexico during colonial times were officially
cut off in 1821 when Mexico won her independence. After that year, the Spanish king ruled the Philippines directly from Madrid.

The leaders of the new Mexican nation tried to continue Philip- pine-Mexican relations. They made efforts to contact the Filipino
leaders so as to persuade them to overthrow Spanish rule and to resume the Manila-Acapulco trade. Unfortunately, such contact could
not be made for two reasons: (1) there were then in the Philippines no national leaders who could lead a libertarian struggle against
Spain, and (2) the Spanish authorities in Manila angered by Mexico's separation from Spain, closed the Philippines to Mexican commerce
and intercourse.

Mexican Contributions to the Filipinos. Mexico contributed to the development of the Filipino nation and civilization. Philippine
flora was enriched by the new plants introduced by the early Spanish colonizers from Mexico. Among these plants were achuete, cacao,
maize, chico, camachile, maguey, and tobacco. The bright yellow candle bush flower (cassia alata), which blooms in the Philippines from
November to January, came from Mexico. It is popularly called Acapulco because it originally came from Acapulco. Other Mexican flowers
that now grow abundantly in the Philippines are the amarilla (marigold), cadena de amor (chain of love), calachuchi, and azucena.

Certain animals were introduced in the Philippines from Mexico. Among them were cattle, horses, sheep, and fighting roosters.

Some Filipino families today have Mexican blood in their veins. They are the descendants of the Mexican officials and soldiers
who intermarried with Filipino women during colonial times. They have the same Spanish surnames as their blood relatives in Mexico,
such as Amaya, De la Torre, Flores, Guzman, Lopez, Orozco, Navarro, Velasquez, and Zaldivar. Thus, Mr. Eulogio B. Rodriguez, former
Director of the National Library of the Philippines, remarked that "traces of native Mexican characteristic features can still be found among
some of our people."*

Mexico gave the Filipinos many images of saints that are now venerated in their churches. Among these images are Our Lady
of Peace and Good Voyage of Antipolo, the Black Nazarene of Quiapo, and Our Lady of Guadalupe. The first image of Our Lady of
Guadalupe, patroness of Pagsanjan, Laguna, arrived from Mexico in 1687. This image was worshiped in the town for 258 years. It was
destroyed on March 15, 1945 when American planes bombed the town which was then occupied by Japanese troops. To replace the
loss of this Mexican- made image, Msgr. Gregorio Aguilar of the Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe of Mexico City and other Mexican
Catholics donated another life-size image of Our Lady of Guadalupe to the town of Pagsanjan. This new image arrived in the town on
December 11, 1958.

The imprint of Mexico's influence is shown also in Filipino folk music. The guitar, the flute, the drum, the trumpet, and the violin
were introduced in the Philippines during colonial days from Mexico. Some Filipino folk dances of Mexican origin are the Jarabe, the
Kuratsa, and the Pandango sa Sambalilo.

Many customs of the Filipino people are of Mexican origin. The celebration of colorful fiestas in towns and barrios (villages), the
holding of ferias (market days), and the Lenten custom of flagellation in the Philippines are of Mexican influence. Also Mexican in origin
are the customary blessing of animals and plants by the priest, the making of the belen (manger) at the homes during Christmas season,
and the custom of hanging colored lanterns, foodstuffs, and colorful figures of persons and animals along the streets during certain
religious festivals. The Philippine Christmas custom of panawagan originated from the Mexican posada.

Many Mexican words are found in the national language (Tagalog) of the Filipinos. Among them are achuete (due-bean),
camatchile (tree-bean), chocolate, cumpay (Spanish compadre), palenque (market), peon (laborer), maguey (fiber plant), maize (corn),
maya (bird), tamales (food delicacy), and zacate (grass)."

A lasting memory to the Mexican nation is the town of Mexico in the province of Pampanga. This town was named after Mexico
by its founder, Fr. Mateo de Peralta, a Mexican Augustinian missionary.

Philippine Contributions to the Mexicans. The Philippines also contributed something to Mexican life and culture. Many
Oriental articles, which the Mexicans now cherish as colonial relics, were brought to Acapulco by the Manila galleons. Among these
articles are Chinese porcelain vases, Chinese camphor chests, Chinese silk shawls (known in Mexico as mantas de Manila), Chinese
ivory-inlaid furniture, Indian muslims, Persian rugs, Japanese lacquer work, Philippine earthen jars, and Philippine wood carvings. They
can be seen today in the homes of prominent families in Mexico City, Guadalajara, Cuer- navaca, Puebla, Taxco, Acapulco, and other
towns of Mexico. At the Museo Nacional de la Historia (located at Chapultepec Castle, Mexico City) may be seen today the old Chinese
porcelain vases, ivory-inlaid table and chairs, silk shawls, and Persian rugs.

The artistic wood carvings ornamenting the altar railings and pulpits of the Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe and the Cathedral
of Mexico City were made by Filipino and Chinese sculptors in Manila during Spanish times.

The fame of the Parian, the Chinese shopping district in Manila, spread to Mexico. In 1700 the Mexican authorities established
a shopping district in Mexico City. This shopping district was also called Parian.10 It was located at the plaza of the Cathedral of Mexico
City. At this Parian of Mexico City, the Oriental goods brought by the Manila galleons were sold to the public. This Parian was demolished
in 1843. Its site is now the main city square called Zocalo.

The Philippines gave certain plants to Mexico. Among them are the coconuts which grow well in the hills of Acapulco; the big
sweet mangoes, called mangas de Manila; the large and delicious bananas known as lakatan, which the Mexicans call rakatan; and the
fragrant flower ylang-ylang, called by the Mexicans ilang-ilang de Manila.
 Some words in the Mexican language were of Philippine origin. Among them are golgoreta (earthen jar for storing drinking
water), palay (unhusked rice), parian (market), maluto (cooked rice wrapped in banana leaf) and tik-tik (house lizard).

Finally, the Philippines contributed to the success of the Mexican Revolution for independence (1810-1821) by supplying the
revolution- aries with the needed funds. During the last three years of libertarian struggle General Agustin de Iturbide commander of the
revolutionary forces, faced a desperate situation for lack of funds. The troops were on the brink of mutiny for their salaries had not been
paid for many months. To raise the needed funds, he confiscated the chests of 5,000,000 Mexican silver pesos which were being carried
by burro train from Mexico City to San Blas to be loaded on a Manila-bound galleon. Part of this silver cargo belonged to Doña Ana
Marquesa de las Salinas (wife of Dr. Paul de la Gironiere, French physician in Manila)."

Two years later (1812), General Iturbide again confiscated the chests of several millions of silver pesos which were being trans-
ported by burro train from Mexico City to Acapulco for shipment to Manila. This silver cargo belonged to several Manila merchants,
including Don Antonio de Escura. Many years afterwards, in 1859, Pedro de Escura, son of the deceased Antonio de Escura, went to
Mexico to seek reparations for his father's losses. Upon arrival in Mexico City, he wrote a formal letter, dated December 30, 1859 to
President Benito Juarez of the Mexican Republic requesting payment for his late father's silver cargo seized by General Iturbide in
1821.12 After failing in his mission, he resided permanently in Mexico and married a rich Mexican heiress.

Chapter 7 THE SPANISH COLONIAL SYSTEM

SPAIN WAS THE first European country to rise as a great colonizing power in modern times. At the zenith of her glory and
grandeur during the 16th century, her siglo de oro (golden century), she had far-flung colonies in Africa, the New World (Latin America
and Asia) - the first global colonial empire in history - so that King Philip II was the first monarch to justly boast that the sun never set on
his realm. To rule such extensive possessions, Spain compiled the first code of colonial laws, called Leyes de Indias, which modern
authorities on colonialism acclaim as "one of the most humane and one of the most comprehensive codes published for any colonial
empire". However, because of the distance of the Philippines from Spain and the corruption and decadence of Spanish officials and
friars, especially in the 19th century, these colonial laws were unevenly applied or failed to benefit the colonies.

Aims of Spanish Colonization. Spain's aims in colonizing over- seas lands (including the Philippines) may be keynoted by
three G's - God, Gold and Glory. The first and chief aim of her colonization was the propagation of Catholic Christianity, which is attested
by the Testament of Queen Isabel the Catholic (1479-1504) and the Christian spirit of the Leyes de Indias. This is the reason why every
expedition of discovery, exploration and conquest was accompanied by Christian missionaries. As Dr. Wilhelm Roscher, noted German
authority on Spanish colonization, affirmed: "The principal aim of Spanish coloni- zation was the conversion of the heathen peoples to
Christianity."

The second aim of Spanish colonization was the desire for gold or economic wealth. This aim sprang from the struggle among
European powers to monopolize the spice trade of the Orient and to acquire riches. At that time (as it is today), material wealth was a
measure of greatness among nations.

The third aim of colonization arose out of Spain's ambition to be the greatest empire in the world. By acquiring so many colonies
(in- cluding the Philippines), Spain realized her imperialist ambition.

By and large, the first colonial aim (propagation of Christianity) was the most successful and enduring. All the colonies which
Spain had colonized are now Christian nations. Spain had failed to become rich by colonizing the Philippines and other countries. And
her glory in acquiring so many colonies did not last forever, because in the 19th century her glory vanished and she declined as a world
power.
Spain Retains the Philippines Despite Economic Loss. As a colony, the Philippines was a financial burden to the Spanish
treasury. For this reason, the advisors of King Philip II recommended the abandonment of the Philippines. The king spurned their advice.
He told them that the chief objective of the Spanish colonization was the propagation of Christianity, and that for the conversion of the
Filipino people he would gladly spend "all the riches of the Indies".

In 1619 the question of abandoning the Philippines was revived by the court advisers. Upon hearing this news, Fr. Fernando
Moraga, despite his advanced age and feeble health, journeyed to Spain. He threw himself at the feet of Philip III, imploring him not to
abandon the Philippines for the sake of Christianity. Deeply touched by the padre's pleading, the king replied: "Depart with God, Father
Moraga, and be assured that I will not give up what my father had conquered and left me".$

The Philippines as Crown Colony. The Philippines was a crown colony in the sense that she belonged to the Spanish king.
From the beginning of Spanish rule to 1821, she was a dependency of Mexico, being administered directly by the Mexican viceroy in the
name of the Spanish king. After Mexico's separation from Spain in 1821, the Philippines came to be directly ruled from Madrid, and this
arrange- ment lasted until 1898. The king appointed the governor general and other colonial officials and issued royal decrees governing
the Philip- pines.

The Council of the Indies. To help the king rule the colonies, the Council of the Indies was created by King Charles I
(concurrently Emperor Charles V of Germany) in his Royal Decree of August 1, 1524. This council was a powerful body, for it handled
all matters pertaining to the colonies of the Spanish empire. It consisted of a president, four councilors who were either lawyers or
clergymen, a secretary, a fiscal, (crown attorney), a treasurer, a historian, a cosmo- grapher, a professor of mathematics and an usher.
The first president of the Council of the Indies was Fray Garcia Jofre de Loaisa, Father General of the Dominican Order and Archbishop
of Seville.

Later the Council of the Indies was dismantled by Queen Isabel II in 1863. This Queen issued Royal Decree of May 20, 1863
replacing it with the Ministry of Colonies (Ministerio de Ultramar), which was headed by the Minister of Colonies, assisted by the Council
of the Philippines (Consejo de Filipinas). This Council was composed of the Deputy Minister of Colonies, the directors of the Ministry of
Colonies as ex-officio members and twelve regular members appointed by the king because of their knowledge of Philippine affairs.