Filtering

BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE The biggest single problem in communication is the illusion that it has Filtering is the distortion or withholding of
taken place.
information to manage a person’s reactions.
COMMUNICATION -George Bernard Show
MARLON C. MENDINA, MBA

Example of filtering include a manager keeping a • The old saying, “Don’t shoot the messenger!” illustrates the A secretary who doesn’t pass along a complete message is also
tendency of the receiver to vent their negative response to unwanted filtering.
division’s negative sales figures from a superior. messages to the sender.
The Vice-President may delete the e-mail announcing the quarter’s
sales figures before reading it, blocking the message before it arrives.

• Filtering prevents members of an organization from getting the • To maximize your chances of sending and receiving effective • Since people tend to filter bad news more during upward
complete picture of the situation. communications, it’s helpful to deliver a message in multiple ways communication, it is also helpful to remember that those below you
and to seek information from multiple sources. In this way, the in an organization may be wary of sharing bad news. One way to
impact of any one person’s filtering will be diminished. defuse this tendency to filter is to reward employees who convey
What can we diminish the impact of any person’s filtering the information upward, regardless of whether the news is good or bad.
message?
What are the reasons or criteria of an individual when deciding • Past experience: Were previous senders rewarded for passing along Filtering can lead to miscommunications in business. Listeners translate
whether to filter a message or pass it on? news of this kind in the past, or were they criticized? messages into their own words, each creating a unique version of what
• Knowledge and perception of the speaker: Has the receiver’s direct was said (Alessandra, 1993).
superior made it clear that “no news is good news?”
• Emotional state, involvement with the topic, and level of
attention: Does the sender’s fear of failure or criticism prevent the
message from being conveyed? Is the topic within the sender’s realm
of expertise, increasing confidence in the ability to decode the
message, or is the sender out of a personal comfort zone when it
comes to evaluating the message’s significance? Are personal
concerns impacting the sender’s ability to judge the message’s value?

Selective Perception
Selective perception refers to filtering what we see and hear to suit Selective perception is a time-saver and a necessary tool in a complex Think back to the example conversation between the person asked to
our own needs. This process is often unconscious. We are bombarded culture. But it can also lead to mistakes. order more toner cartridges and his boss earlier in this chapter. Since
with too much stimuli every day to pay equal attention to everything, Bill found the to-do list from his boss to be unreasonably demanding,
so we pick and choose according to our own needs. he assumed the request could wait.

The boss, assuming that Bill had heard the urgency of her request,
assumed that Bill would place the order before returning to previously
stated tasks.

Information Overload
Both members of this organization were using selective perception to Messages reach us in countless ways every day. Some messages are • This state of imbalance is known as information overload, which
evaluate the communication. Bill’s perception was that the task could societal—advertisements that we may hear or see in the course of our occurs “when the information processing demands on an individual’s
wait. The boss’s perception was that a timeframe was clear, though day. Others are professional—e-mails, memos, and voice mails, as well time to perform interactions and internal calculations exceed the
unstated. as conversations with our colleagues. Others are personal—messages supply or capacity of time available for such processing” (Schick,
from and conversations with our loved ones and friends. Gordon, & Haka, 1990).
When two selective perceptions collide, a misunderstanding happens.
Add these together, and it’s easy to see how we may be receiving more
information than we can take in.
 A field study found that managers can expect, on average, to do only 3
minutes of uninterrupted work on any one task before being
interrupted by an incoming e-mail, instant message, phone call,
coworker, or other distraction (González & Gloria, 2004).
• Information overload is “a symptom of the high-tech age, which is Research shows that working in such a fragmented fashion significantly
too much information for one human being to absorb in an expanding impacts efficiency, creativity, and mental acuity (Overholt, 2001).
world of people and technology. It comes from all sources, including
TV, newspapers, and magazines as well as wanted and unwanted
regular mail, e-mail, and faxes. It has been exacerbated enormously
because of the formidable number of results obtained from Web
search engines.”

• Going back to our example of Bill, let’s say he’s in his office on the • The supplier on the other end of the phone line has just given him a • He chooses the third option—at least he heard that one, he reasons,
phone with a supplier. While he’s talking, he hears the chime of his choice among the products and delivery dates he requested. Bill and it seemed fair. How good was Bill’s decision amidst all the
e-mail alerting him to an important message from his boss. He’s realizes he missed hearing the first two options, but he doesn’t have information he was processing at the same time?
scanning through it quickly while still on the phone when a coworker time to ask the supplier to repeat them all or to try reconnecting with
pokes her head into his office, saying Bill’s late for a staff meeting. him at a later time.

Workplace Gossip
The informal gossip network known as the grapevine is a lifeline for Researchers agree that the grapevine is an inevitable part of Employees trust their peers as a source of information, but the
many employees seeking information about their company (Kurland & organizational life. Research finds that 70% of all organizational grapevine’s informal structure can be a barrier to effective
Pelled, 2000). communication occurs at the grapevine level (Crampton, 1998). communication from the managerial point of view. Its grassroots
structure gives it greater credibility in the minds of employees than
information delivered through official channels, even when that
information is false.
The grapevine lacks a specific sender, which can create a sense of As a manager what can you do to decrease the Managers who understand the grapevine’s power can use it to send
distrust among employees: Who is at the root of the gossip network? and receive messages of their own. They can also decrease the
When the news is volatile, suspicions may arise as to the person or grapevines power? grapevine’s power by sending official messages quickly and accurately
person behind the message. should big news arise.

Verbal Communication
There are three types of communication including: Verbal communications in business take place over the phone or in
• VERBAL COMMUNICATION involving listening to a person to person. The medium of the message is oral.
understand the meaning of a message
Different Types of Communication and • WRITTEN COMMUNICATION, in which a message is read
Channels • NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION, involving observing a person and
inferring meaning.

Let’s return to our printer cartridge example. This time, the message is • Storytelling is an effective form of verbal communication that serves • Stories can help clarify key values and also help demonstrate how
being conveyed from the sender (the manager) to the receiver (an an important organizational function by helping to construct common certain tasks are performed within an organization. Story frequency,
employee named Bill) by telephone. We’ve already seen how the meanings for individuals within the organization. strength, and tone are related to higher organizational commitment
manager’s request to Bill (“Buy more printer toner cartridges!”) can go (McCarthy, 2008).
awry. Now let’s look at how the same message can travel successfully • The quality of the stories is related to the ability of entrepreneurs to
from sender to receiver. secure capital for their firms (Martens, Jennings, & Devereaux, 2007).
While the process may be the same, high-stakes communications There are also many times in our professional lives when we One of the most consistent recommendations from communications
require more: planning, reflection, and skill than normal day-to-day have crucial conversations, which are defined as discussions in which experts is to work toward using “and” instead of “but” when
interactions at work. not only are the stakes high, but also the opinions vary. Emotions run communicating under these circumstances. In addition, be aware of
strong (Patterson et al., 2002) your communication style and practice being flexible; it is under
stressful situations that communication styles can become the most
Examples of high-stakes communication events include asking for a rigid.
raise or presenting a business plan to a venture capitalist.

Written Communication
In contrast to oral and verbal communications, written business • Written communication is often asynchronous. • Written communication can also be read by many people (such as all
communications are printed messages. employees in a department or all customers). It’s a “one-to-many”
communication, as opposed to a one-to-one conversation.
That is, the sender can write a message that the receiver can read at
Examples of written communications include memos, proposals, any time, unlike a conversation that is carried on in real-time.
e-mails, letters, training manuals, and operating policies.

They may be printed on paper or appear on the screen.

What are other asynchronous communications that are that is quite There are exceptions, of course: A voicemail is an oral message that is • Normally, verbal communication takes place in real-time. Written
different from written communication? asynchronous. Conference calls and speeches are oral one-to-many communication, by contrast, can be constructed over a longer period
communications, and e-mails can have only one recipient or many. of time. It also can be collaborative. Multiple people can contribute to
the content of one document before that document is sent to the
intended audience.
Verbal and written communications have different strengths and • When determining whether to communicate verbally or in writing, Picture a manager making a speech to a team of 20 employees.
weaknesses. ask yourself: Do I want to convey facts or feelings? The manager is speaking at a normal pace. The employees appear
interested.
Verbal communications are a better way to convey feelings. But how much information is being transmitted?
Written communications do a better job of conveying facts. Probably not as much as the speaker believes.

• The fact is that humans listen much faster than they speak. • Based on these numbers, we could assume that the audience has As you can see, oral communication is the most often used form of
• The average public speaker communicates at a speed of about 125 more than enough time to take in each word the speaker delivers, communication, but it is also an inherently flawed medium for
words a minute, and that pace sounds fine to the audience. (In fact, which creates a problem. The average person in the audience can conveying specific facts. Listeners’ minds wander. It’s nothing
anything faster than that probably would sound unusual. hear 400 to 500 words a minute (Lee & Hatesohl). The audience personal—in fact, it’s a completely normal psychological occurrence.
has more than enough time to hear.
To put that figure in perspective, someone having an excited
conversation speaks at about 150 words a minute.)

• As a result, their minds may wander.

Nonverbal Communication
In business, once we understand this fact, we can make more What you say is a vital part of any communication. Research shows that nonverbal cues can also affect whether or not you
intelligent communication choices based on the kind of information we get a job offer.
want to convey.
Surprisingly, what you don’t say can be even more
important.
Judges examining videotapes of actual applicants were able to assess
the social skills of job candidates with the sound turned off. They
watched the rate of gesturing, time spent talking, and formality of
dress to determine which candidates would be the most socially
successful on the job. (Gifford et al., 1985)
To be effective communicators, our body Following are a few examples of nonverbal cues that can support or • Body Language
detract from a sender’s message: A simple rule of thumb is that simplicity, directness, and warmth
language, appearance, and tone must align with convey sincerity. Sincerity is vital for effective communication.
the words we’re trying to convey. Research
shows that when individuals are lying, they are In some cultures, a firm handshake, given with a warm, dry hand, is a
more likely to blink more frequently, shift their great way to establish trust. A weak, clammy handshake might convey
a lack of trustworthiness. Gnawing one’s lip conveys uncertainty. A
weight, and shrug (Siegman, 1985). direct smile conveys confidence.

• Eye Contact • Facial Expressions • Posture

In business, the style and duration of eye contact vary greatly across Our faces convey basic information to the outside world. The position of our body relative to a chair or other person is another
cultures. In the United States, looking someone in the eye (for about a powerful silent messenger that conveys interest, aloofness, professionalism,
Happiness is associated with an upturned mouth and slightly closed or lack thereof.
second) is considered a sign of trustworthiness. eyes;
Head up, back straight (but not rigid) implies an upright character.
Fear with an open mouth and wide-eyed stare.
Shifty eyes and pursed lips convey a lack of trustworthiness.
In interview situations, experts advise mirroring an interviewer’s tendency to
lean in and settle back in a seat. The subtle repetition of the other person’s
The impact of facial expressions in conversation is instantaneous. Our posture conveys that we are listening and responding.
brains may register them as “a feeling” about someone’s character.

• Touch • In Mexico, when doing business, men may find themselves being
The meaning of a simple touch differs between individuals, genders, grasped on the arm by another man. To pull away is seen as rude.
and cultures. • In Indonesia, to touch anyone on the head or to touch anything with
one’s foot is considered highly offensive.
• In the Far East and some parts of Asia, according to business Communication Channels
etiquette writer Nazir Daud,
“It is considered impolite for a woman to shake a man’s hand” (Daud,
2008).
• Americans place great value in a firm handshake.
 The figure below illustrates the information richness of different
channels.

The channel, or medium, used to communicate a message affects how Research shows that effective managers tend to use more
accurately the message will be received. information-rich communication channels than less effective managers
(Allen & Griffeth, 1997; Yates & Orlikowski, 1992).
Channels vary in their “information-richness.” Information-rich
channels convey more non-verbal information.

Like face-to-face and telephone conversations, videoconferencing has • The growth of e-mail has been spectacular, but it has also created Less than 1% of all written human communications even reach paper
high information richness, because receivers and senders can see or challenges in managing information and increasing the speed of doing these days (Isom, 2008).
hear beyond just the words that are used—they can see the sender’s business.
body language or hear the tone of their voice. • Over 100 million adults in the United States use e-mail at least once a
Handheld devices, blogs, written letters, and memos offer medium-rich day (Taylor, 2002).
channels because they convey words and pictures or photos. • To combat the overuse of e-mail, companies such as Intel have even
• Internet users around the world send an estimated 60 billion e-mails instituted “no e-mail Fridays.” During these times, all communication
Formal written documents, such as legal documents and budget each day, and a large portion of these are spam or scam attempts (60 is done via other communication channels.
spreadsheets, convey the least richness because the format is often Billion emails sent daily worldwide, 2006).
rigid and standardized. As a result, the tone of the message is often • That makes e-mail the second most popular medium of
lost. communication worldwide, second only to voice.

The key to effective communication is to match the communication For example, written media may be a better choice when the sender Oral communication, on the other hand, makes more sense when the
channel with the goal of the message (Barry & Fulmer, 2004). wants a record of the content, has less urgency for a response, is sender is conveying a sensitive or emotional message, needs feedback
physically separated from the receiver, and doesn’t require a lot of immediately, and does not need a permanent record of the
feedback from the receiver or when the message is complicated and conversation.
may take some time to understand.
 When the message is emotional, the sender should use verbal
communication. Indeed, a good rule of thumb is that more emotionally
laden messages require more thought in the choice of channel and
how they are communicated.
Cross-Cultural Communication

Culture is a shared set of beliefs and experiences common to people in The different and often “multicultural” identity of individuals in the • For example, during the Cold War, Soviet leader Nikita Khruschev told
a specific setting. The setting that creates a culture can be geographic, same organization can lead to some unexpected and potentially large the American delegation at the United Nations, “We will bury you!”
religious, or professional. miscommunications. His words were interpreted as a threat of nuclear annihilation.
However, a more accurate reading of Khruschev’s words would have
been, “We will overtake you,” meaning economic superiority. The
words, as well as the fear and suspicion that the West had of the
Soviet Union at the time, led to a more alarmist and sinister
interpretation (Garner, 2007).

Cultures also vary in terms of the desired amount of situational context • Examples of high-context cultures include China, Korea, and Japan. Finally, don’t forget the role of nonverbal communication. As we
related to interpreting situations. People in very high-context cultures learned in the nonverbal communication section, in the United States,
put a high value on establishing relationships before working with looking someone in the eye when talking is considered a sign of
others and tend to take longer to negotiate deals. trustworthiness. In China, by contrast, a lack of eye contact conveys
Conversely, people in low-context cultures “get down to business” and respect.
tend to negotiate quickly. Examples of low-context cultures include
Germany, Scandinavia, and the United States (Hall, 1976; Munter,
1993).
It’s easy to see how meaning could become confused, depending on When in doubt, experts recommend that you ask someone around you
how and when these signals are used. to help you interpret the meaning of different gestures, that you be
sensitive, and that you remain observant when dealing with a culture
different from your own.