KWARA STATE UNIVERSITY, MALETE

COLLEGE OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE
2023/2024 FIRST (HARMATTAN) SEMESTER COURSE

Course Code: CSC 101 Instructor: Muhammed Kolawole Abdulsalam (Mr.)

Course Title: Internet Technology & Programming I. [email protected], 08038458590
Course Status: 2 Credit Compulsory

Briefly explanation of some Basic Principle of Computer Networks

What is Computer Networking:

Computer Networking is the practice of connecting computers together to enable communication and
data exchange between them. In general, Computer Network is a collection of two or more computers.
It helps users to communicate more easily.

How Does a Computer Network Work?

Nodes and Links are the fundamental building components of a computer network. A Network Node
can be represented as Data Communication Equipment such as a Modem, Router, etc., or Data
Terminal Equipment such as linking two or more computers. A link in a computer network can be
characterized as a wire, a cable, or the free space of a wireless network. Computer networks function
simply as rules or protocols that aid in the transmission and reception of data/information via the links
that allow computer networks to interact. Each device has an IP Address, which aids in device
identification.

Basic Terminologies of Computer Networks

Network: A network is a collection of computers and devices that are connected together to enable
communication and data exchange.

Nodes: Nodes are devices that are connected to a network. These can include computers, Servers,
Printers, Routers, Switches, and other devices.

Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules and standards that govern how data is transmitted over a network.
Examples of protocols include TCP/IP, HTTP, and File Transfer Protocol .

Topology: Network topology refers to the physical and logical arrangement of nodes on a network.
The common network topologies include bus, star, ring, mesh, and tree.
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Service Provider Networks: These types of Networks give permission to take Network Capacity and
Functionality on lease from the Provider. Service Provider Networks include Wireless
Communications, Data Carriers, etc.

IP Address: An IP address is a unique numerical identifier that is assigned to every device on a

network. IP addresses are used to identify devices and enable communication between them.

DNS: The Domain Name System (DNS) is a protocol that is used to translate human-readable domain
names (such as www.google.com) into IP addresses that computers can understand.

Firewall: A firewall is a security device that is used to monitor and control incoming and outgoing
network traffic. Firewalls are used to protect networks from unauthorized access and other security
threats.

Types of Computer Networks

LAN: A Local Area Network (LAN) is a network that covers a small area, such as an office or a
home. LANs are typically used to connect computers and other devices within a building or a campus.

WAN: A Wide Area Network (WAN) is a network that covers a large geographic area, such as a city,
country, or even the entire world. WANs are used to connect LANs together and are typically used
for long-distance communication.

Cloud Networks: Cloud networks may be represented as a Wide Area Network (WAN) since they
can be hosted on public or private cloud service providers, and cloud networks are accessible on
demand. Cloud networks are made up of Virtual Routers, Firewalls, and other components.

TYPES OF COMPUTER NETWORK ARCHITECTURE

Computer Network falls under these broad Categories:

Client-Server Architecture: Client-Server Architecture is a type of Computer Network Architecture

in which Nodes can be Servers or Clients. Here, the server node can manage the Client Node behavior.

Peer-to-Peer Architecture: In P2P (Peer-to-Peer) Architecture, there is no any concept of a Central

Server. Each device is free for working as either client or server.

Network Devices: An interconnection of several devices, also known as hosts, that are linked via
various channels to send/receive data or media. Computer networks can also comprise several
devices/mediums that aid in communication between two separate devices; these are referred to as
Network devices and include routers, switches, hubs, and bridges.
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Network Topology

The Network Topology is the physical layout arrangement of the different devices in a network.
Common examples include Bus, Star, Mesh, Ring, and Daisy chain.

OSI Model: OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. It is a reference model that specifies
standards for communications protocols and also the functionalities of each layer. The OSI has been
developed by the International Organization For Standardization and it is 7 layer architecture. Each
layer of OSI has different functions and each layer has to follow different protocols. The 7 layers are
as follows:

 Physical Layer
 Data link Layer
 Network Layer
 Transport Layer
 Session Layer
 Presentation Layer
 Application Layer

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  Protocol

A protocol is a set of rules or algorithms which define the way how two entities can communicate
across the network and there exists a different protocol defined at each layer of the OSI model. A few
such protocols are TCP, IP, UDP, ARP, DHCP, FTP, and so on.

Define the term Internet: The internet is a worldwide network of interconnected networks that
allows different devices to communicate and exchange information. The internet is not a single entity,
but rather a collection of networks that connect with one another using common protocols and
standards. The internet is also decentralized, which means that it is not controlled or regulated by a
single authority or organization. To allow data transfer and access, the internet employs standardized
protocols and technologies like as Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol (TCP/IP),
HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP), and HypeText Markup Language.

The internet is not the same as the World Wide Web, which is a service that provides websites and
apps using the internet's infrastructure. The internet provides several advantages and difficulties to
people, companies, and society, such as increased connectedness, efficiency, creativity, and diversity,
while also raising concerns about privacy, security, ethics, and legislation. The internet is a constantly
changing phenomena that has yet to realize its full potential and significance.

Uses of the Internet

Some of the important usages of the internet are:

Online Businesses (E-commerce): Online shopping websites have made our life easier, e-commerce
sites like Amazon, Jumai,Alibaba, and Myntra are providing very spectacular services with just one
click and this is a great use of the Internet.

Cashless Transactions: All the merchandising companies are offering services to their customers to
pay the bills of the products online via various digital payment apps like Monipoint, OPay ,Palmpay
etc.

Education: It is an online service that gives a wealth of instructional content to anybody via any
server on the internet. Those who are unable to attend physical classrooms can select any subject from
the internet and gain comprehensive understanding about it while sitting at home. With the aid of the
Internet, world-class faculty are teaching online on digital platforms and giving quality education to
students.

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Social Networking: The purpose of social networking sites and apps is to connect people all over the
world. With the help of social networking sites that allow communication, share videos, and images
with our loved ones when they are far away from us. Also, it allows creation of groups for discussion
or for meetings such as Zoom application etc.

Entertainment: The Internet is also used for entertainment and there are numerous entertainment
options available on the internet like watching movies, playing games, listening to music, etc. it allows
user to download movies, games, songs, TV Serial, etc., easily from the internet.

Security Challenge on the Internet: Very huge amount of data is managed across the Internet almost
the time, which leads to the risk of data breaching and many other security issues. Both Hackers and
Crackers can lead to disrupting the network and can steal important information like Login
Credentials, Banking Credentials, etc.

Steps to Protect the Online Privacy

 Install Antivirus or Antimalware.

 Create random and difficult passwords, so that it becomes difficult to guess.
 Use a private browsing window or VPN for using the Internet.
 Try to use HTTPS only for better protection.
 Try to make your Social Media Account Private.
 If you are not using any application, which requires GPS, then you can turn GPS off.
 Do not simply close the tab, first log out from that account, then close the tab.
 Try to avoid accessing public Wifi or hotspots.
 Try to avoid opening or downloading content from unknown sources.

Social Impact of the Internet: The Internet's societal influence may be observed in both directions.
Some argue that it has a beneficial influence because it promotes civic involvement, but others argue
that it has a bad impact since it increases the danger of being duped by someone on the internet,
withdrawing from society, and so on. Whatever the influence of social media, one thing is certain: it
has altered the way people connect and engage with one another in society. The number of individuals
on social media platforms is growing by the day, which aids in the formation of new relationships.
New communities are formed on social media in the interest of the people. Social media platforms
such as Facebook, Instagram, LinkedIn, and others are the most widely used social media platforms
for both personal and corporate reasons, where we may engage with others and complete tasks.

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Advantages of the Internet

Online Banking and Transaction: The Internet allows user to transfer money online through the net
banking system. Money can be credited or debited from one account to the other.

Education, Online Jobs, Freelancing: Through the Internet it is easier to get more jobs via online
platforms like Linkedin and to reach more job providers. Freelancing on the other hand has helped
the youth to earn a side income and the best part is all this can be done via the internet.

Entertainment: There are numerous options for entertainment online we can listen to music, play
games can watch movies, and web series, and listen to podcasts, Youtube itself is a hub of knowledge
as well as entertainment.

New Job Roles: The Internet has given the access to social media, and digital products so we are
having numerous new job opportunities like digital marketing and social media marketing online
businesses are earning huge amounts of money just because the Internet is the medium to help us to
do so.

Communication Medium: The communication barrier has been removed from the Internet while
sending messages via email, Whatsapp, and Facebook, so also, Voice chatting and video conferencing
are also available to help you to do important meetings online through zoom and others.

Comfort to humans: Without putting any physical effort you can do so many things like shopping
online it can be anything from stationeries to clothes, books to personal items, etc. You can book train
and plane tickets online.

GPS Tracking and google maps: Yet another advantage of the internet is that you are able to find
any road in any direction, and areas with less traffic with the help of GPS on your mobile.

Disadvantages of the Internet

Time Wastage: Wasting too much time on the internet surfing social media apps and doing nothing
decreases your productivity rather than wasting time on scrolling social media apps one should utilize
that time in doing something skillful and even more productive.

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Bad Impacts on Health: Spending too much time on the internet causes bad impacts on your health
physical body needs some outdoor games exercise and many more things. Looking at the screen for
a longer duration causes serious impacts on the eyes.

Cyber Crimes: Cyberbullying, spam, viruses, hacking, and stealing data are some of the crimes
which are on the verge these days. Your system which contains all the confidential data can be easily
hacked by cybercriminals.

Effects on Children: Small children are heavily addicted to the Internet watching movies, and games
all the time is not good for their overall personality as well as social development.

Bullying and Spreading Negativity: The Internet has given a free tool in the form of social media
apps to all those people who always try to spread negativity with very revolting and shameful
messages and try to bully each other which is wrong.

EXPLORE THE HISTORY OF THE INTERNET

The origin of the internet can be traced back to the 1960s, when the US Department of Defense funded
a research project called Advance Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) which aimed to
create a resilient and reliable network that could withstand a nuclear attack. ARPANET was the first
network to use packet-switching, a technique that breaks data into small units called packets and sends
them across different routes to their destination. ARPANET also introduced the concept of
internetworking, which is the ability to connect different networks using gateways or routers.

In the 1970s, two researchers, Vint Cerf and Robert Kahn, proposed a new set of protocols that would
allow different networks to communicate with each other using a common language. These protocols
are known as TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol), and they are still the basis
of the internet today. TCP/IP defines how data is formatted, addressed, routed, and delivered across
the internet. TCP/IP also assigns a unique identifier to each device on the internet, called an IP
address, which allows data to be sent and received by the correct destination.

In the 1980s, the internet expanded beyond the military and academic domains, as more networks
joined the system. The National Science Foundation (NSF) established a backbone network called
NSFNET, which connected several supercomputers and research institutions across the US. NSFNET
also provided access to other networks around the world, creating a “network of networks” that
formed the internet as we know it today.

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In the late 1980s and early 1990s, the internet became more accessible and user-friendly, thanks to
the invention of the World Wide Web (WWW) by Tim Berners-Lee. The WWW is a service that runs
on top of the internet and uses its infrastructure to provide access to web pages, which are documents
that contain text, images, videos, and other multimedia content. The WWW uses a markup language
called HTML (HyperText Markup Language) to create and structure web pages, and a protocol called
HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol) to transfer web pages from servers to browsers. The WWW
also uses a system of links, called hyperlinks, that connect web pages to each other and allow users
to navigate the web.

Since its conception, the internet has developed greatly, and it continues to expand and adapt as new
technology and uses arise. Because it allows user to interact, study, work, play, and access a
tremendous quantity of information and services, the internet has become a crucial part of our
everyday life. The internet has also changed many sectors and businesses, including education,
commerce, entertainment, media, health, and politics. Cybersecurity, privacy, the digital divide, social
media, e-commerce, and online activism are all new difficulties and opportunities brought forth by
the internet. The internet is a complex and dynamic system that represents human society's diversity
and inventiveness.

Definition of World Wide Web:

The World Wide Web (WWW) is a global hypertext system that allows users to access a massive
collection of web pages, websites, multimedia content, and other digital resources. It is not the same
as the internet, but rather a program that sends messages via the internet. The World Wide Web
consists of interconnected documents written in Hypertext Markup Language (HTML), identified by
a Uniform Resource Locator (URL), and shared over the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).

The WWW, commonly known as the Web, is distinct from the Internet, which is the underlying
network that links various devices and networks. The Web is a service that operates on top of the
Internet and uses its infrastructure to enable access to web pages, which are documents that contain
text, photos, videos, and other multimedia information. Tim Berners-Lee, a British physicist working
at CERN, the European Organization for Nuclear Research, created the World Wide Web in 1989.
He developed a system that would allow researchers to exchange and access information using a
standard language and format across several machines and networks. He wrote the first proposal of
the Web in 1989, and the second proposal in 1990, where he defined the main concepts and
components of the Web, such as web pages, hyperlinks, web servers, web browsers, and web
protocols.
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The Web creates and structures web pages using HTML (HyperText Markup Language), and it
transfers web pages from servers to browsers using HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol). The Web
also employs a system of links known as hyperlinks to connect web pages and allow users to traverse
the Web. Each web page has a unique identifier, known as a URL (Uniform Resource Locator), that
specifies its location and name on the Internet, and each device on the Internet has a unique identifier,
known as an IP address (Internet Protocol address), that allows data to be sent and received by the
correct destination. The Web has evolved significantly since its inception, and it continues to grow
and change as new technologies and applications emerge. The Web has become an essential part of
our daily lives, as it enables us to communicate, learn, work, play, and access a vast amount of
information and services.

Some of the uses and importance of the Web are:

Communication: The Internet allows users to connect with individuals all over the globe using a
variety of tools and platforms such as email, social media, video conferencing, instant messaging, and
online forums. We may also use the Internet to communicate our ideas, opinions, experiences, and
feelings with others, as well as to build and join online groups and networks based on our interests,
hobbies, and ambitions.

Education: The Internet gives users access to a diverse range of educational materials and
possibilities, including online courses, seminars, tutorials, quizzes, textbooks, journals, and libraries.
The Web also offers a variety of learning styles and methodologies, including self-paced, interactive,
collaborative, and customized learning. The Internet also makes it easier for students, professors, and
researchers to make professional relationships and share knowledge and ideas.

Entertainment: The Internet provides users with a wide range of entertainment options and material,
including games, music, TV series, podcasts, comics, and memes. User-generated material, such as
blogs, vlogs, podcasts, and livestreams, can also be created and consumed over the Web. Users may
also engage in online events and activities such as competitions, quizzes, polls, and auctions over the
Web.

Commerce: The Web enables user to buy and sell goods and services online, using platforms such
as e-commerce, online shopping, online banking, online payment, and online advertising. The Web
also allows user to compare and review products and prices, and to find the best deals and offers. The

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Web also supports different types of businesses and transactions, such as B2B (business-to-business),
B2C (business-to-consumer), and C2C (consumer-to-consumer).

Information: The Web provides user with access to a huge amount of information and data on various
topics and domains, such as news, weather, sports, health, travel, and culture. The Web also allows
us to search and retrieve information using search engines, directories, and databases. The Web also
helps user to organize and manage information using tools such as bookmarks, tags, and cloud storage.

Innovation: The Web promotes innovation and creativity by allowing users to investigate new
possibilities and opportunities, as well as generate new solutions and products. The Web also
encourages collaboration and cooperation by allowing users to collaborate and share resources and
ideas with others. The Internet also stimulates experimentation and feedback by allowing users to test
and enhance their ideas and products.

Difference between Internet and World Wide Web

The difference between the internet and the World Wide Web is that

 The internet is a global network of computers that can communicate and exchange data with
each other, while the World Wide Web is a collection of web pages and other resources that
are accessed through the internet using a web browser and a protocol called HTTP.
 The internet is hardware-oriented, whereas the world wide web is software oriented. The
internet includes all the physical infrastructure that’s required for these networks to work
together, such as cables, routers, and servers. The world wide web uses protocols such as HTTP
and HTML to transfer and display information on web browsers.
 The internet is the network of connected devices and networks that enables data transmission
and communication while the world wide web is a service that runs on the internet and provides
access to web pages and documents that contain multimedia content.
 The internet is the physical infrastructure that connects different devices and networks, while
the World Wide Web is one of the many services that run on the internet.
 The internet is like a huge book-store, while the World Wide Web is like a collection of books
on that store.
 The internet was invented in the late 1960s as a military and academic project, while the World
Wide Web was invented in 1989 by Tim Berners-Lee as a way to share and link information
across different computers.
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  The internet is governed by the Internet Protocol (IP), which deals with the transmission of
data in packets, while the World Wide Web is governed by the HyperText Transfer Protocol
(HTTP), which deals with the linking of files, documents, and other resources.

BRIEFLY DESCRIBE THE ARCHITECTURE OF WORLD WIDE WEB:

The architecture of the world wide web is the design and structure of the system that enables the web
to function and grow. The architecture of the web consists of three main components: web resources,
web protocols, and web agents.

Web resources: Web resources are the information entities that are identified and accessed on the
web, such as web pages, images, videos, and documents. Web resources are represented by data
formats, such as HTML, XML, JPEG, and PDF, that are structured and organized by markup
languages such as HTML and XML. Web resources are linked to each other by hyperlinks, which are
references that point to other resources and assigned unique identifiers called URLs (Uniform
Resource Locators), which specify their location and name on the web.

Web protocols: Web protocols are the rules and standards that govern how web resources and web
agents communicate and interact with one another. Web protocols specify how data on the internet is
structured, addressed, transported, and received. The most essential web protocol is HTTP (Hypertext
Transfer Protocol), which allows web servers and web clients to exchange online resources. HTTPS
(Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure), a secure version of HTTP, FTP (File Transfer System), a
protocol for transferring files, and SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol), a protocol for sending and
receiving emails, are examples of web protocols.

Web agents: Web agents, which include web servers, web browsers, web crawlers, and web
applications, are software and hardware components that engage in the web. Web agents request,
offer, and process web resources via web protocols. Online agents perform a variety of tasks and
services on the internet, including hosting, obtaining, displaying, analyzing, and producing web
resources. Web agents may also communicate with one another and with human users on the internet.

The web's architecture is founded on a few fundamental ideas and qualities, including universality,
decentralization, interoperability, and evolvability. These concepts and characteristics guarantee that
the web is scalable, efficient, and adaptable to a variety of purposes and settings. Various restrictions
and best practices, such as simplicity, modularity, extensibility, and robustness, can have an impact
on web architecture. These limits and best practices contribute to the web's quality and consistency.

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The following are the main components of the WWW architecture:

1. Clients: Clients are end-user devices that request and consume information from the web, such
as PCs, cellphones, or tablets. Client programs are web browsers such as Chrome, Firefox, or
Safari.

2. Servers: Servers store and deliver requested data to clients. They are capable of hosting
webpages, apps, or services. Online servers, such as Apache or Nginx, process client requests and
provide web pages.

3. Uniform Resource Locator (URL): URLs are addresses used to identify and locate resources
on the web. They include the protocol (e.g., HTTP or HTTPS), domain name, and specific path to
the resource.

4. Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) or HTTPS: HTTP is the protocol used for
communication between clients and servers on the web. HTTPS is a secure version of HTTP that
uses encryption for enhanced security.

5. Hypertext Markup Language (HTML): HTML is the standard markup language used to
create and structure web content. It defines the elements and layout of a web page, including text,
images, and links.

6. Uniform Resource Identifier (URI): URIs are used to identify resources on the web, including
URLs. They provide a standardized means to refer to resources.

7. Hyperlinks: Hyperlinks are connections between web pages. They allow users to navigate
between different resources on the web by clicking on text or images.

8. Web Browsers: Web browsers interpret HTML, render web pages, and allow users to interact
with content. Popular browsers include Chrome, Firefox, Safari, and Edge.

9. Web Standards: Web standards, maintained by organizations like the World Wide Web
Consortium (W3C), ensure consistency and compatibility across different browsers and platforms.
Standards include HTML, Cascading Style Sheets (CSS), and JavaScript.

10. Web Hosting: Websites and web applications are hosted on servers. Web hosting services
provide the infrastructure and resources necessary for making content accessible on the internet.

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The WWW works by using a combination of web browsers, web servers, web pages, and web
protocols.

- A web browser is a software program that allows user to access and view web pages on the
internet. A web browser can be installed on your computer, smartphone, tablet, or other device.
Some examples of web browsers are Microsoft Edge, Google Chrome, and Firefox.

- A web server is a computer that stores and delivers web pages to web browsers. A web server
can be located anywhere in the world, and can host one or more websites. A web server can also
provide other services, such as email, file transfer, or database management. Some examples of
web servers are Apache, Nginx, and IIS.

- A web page is a document that is written in a special language called HTML, which stands for
HyperText Markup Language. HTML allows web pages to contain text, images, videos, audio,
and other multimedia elements, as well as links to other web pages or resources. Links are also
called hyperlinks, because they can take you to different places on the web by clicking on them.

- A web protocol is a set of rules and mechanisms that governs the communication between web
browsers and web servers. The most common web protocol is HTTP, which stands for HyperText
Transfer Protocol. HTTP provides the rules and mechanisms for addressing, routing, and
delivering data packets across different networks. HTTP also enables the concept of
internetworking, or the interconnection of multiple networks into a network of networks, which is
the essence of the web.

The WWW works by following these steps:

- When user want to visit a web page, a user type in a web address, also known as a URL, which
stands for Uniform Resource Locator. A URL is a unique identifier that tells the browser where
to find the web page you want to see. For example, the URL for the Kwara State University website
is https://www.kwasu.com.ng
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 - The browser sends a request to a web server, which is a computer that stores and delivers web
pages. The browser uses a protocol called DNS, which stands for Domain Name System, to
translate the URL into an IP address, which is a numerical identifier that locates the web server
on the internet. For example, the IP address for the Kwara State University website is 192.168.0.1.

- The web server responds by sending back the web page user requested, along with any other files
or data that are needed to display it correctly. The web server uses a protocol called HTTP, which
stands for HyperText Transfer Protocol, to communicate with the browser and to send and receive
data packets. Data packets are small blocks of data that are transmitted over the internet.

- The browser interprets the HTML code and renders the web page on your screen. You can then
interact with the web page by clicking on links, filling out forms, watching videos, or doing other
actions. The browser may also send or receive additional requests or data to or from the web
server, depending on your interaction.

DEFINITION OF MARKUP LANGUAGE:

A markup language is a collection of symbols or codes used to format a document. A markup language
specifies how a document should be formatted, presented, or processed by a computer program.
Markup languages are frequently used to construct webpages because they allow the author to
determine the page's content and design. HTML, XML, and Markdown are examples of markup
languages.

Markup languages are significant because they allow information to be created and shared on the web
and other platforms. Markup languages enable the author to isolate the information from the
presentation, making the document easier to update, maintain, and reuse. Markup languages, by
providing semantic and syntactic information about the text, also make it more accessible and
understood to diverse users, devices, and applications. Because markup languages employ common
standards and protocols, they help improve data and system interoperability and compatibility.
Markup languages are used by web developers to build websites, academics to produce books, and
engineers to store data in an accessible manner. The two most used markup languages are HTML and
XML.

WHAT IS HTML: HTML is an abbreviation for HyperText Markup Language. It is used to design
and arrange web page and application parts, paragraphs, and headers. HTML is not a programming
language, and it does not support dynamic functionality. Instead, it enables users to organize and
format papers.
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Basic Tags: HTML uses tags to define elements within a document. Tags are enclosed in angle
brackets. For example, `<html>`, `<head>`, `<body>`, `<title>`, `<h1>`, `<p>`, etc.

Anchor Tag: The anchor tag `<a>` is used to create hyperlinks in HTML. It can be used to link to
another document or another part of the same document.

Lists in HTML: HTML supports ordered (`<ol>`), unordered (`<ul>`), and definition lists (`<dl>`).
List items are specified using the `<li>` tag.

Table in HTML: The `<table>` tag defines a table in HTML. Each table row is defined with the `<tr>`
tag. A table header is defined with the `<th>` tag, and a table cell is defined with the `<td>` tag.

Img Tag in HTML: The `<img>` tag is used to embed images in an HTML document. The source file
(src), alternative text (alt), width, and height are common attributes of this tag.

Forms and Frames in HTML: Forms are defined with the `<form>` tag. It can contain input elements
like text fields, checkboxes, radio-buttons, submit buttons, etc. Frames are used to divide the browser
window into multiple sections where each section can load a separate HTML document.

DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN PHYSICAL AND LOGICAL MARKUP TAGS

Physical markup tags also known as presentational or formatting tags, are used to describe the
appearance or style of the text or content.

Examples: <b> (bold), <i> (italic), <u> (underline), <font> (font style and color), <br> (line break),
<hr> (horizontal rule).

Purpose: These tags focus on how the content should be displayed, indicating stylistic features like
bold, italic, or underline. They are concerned with the visual presentation rather than the semantic
meaning of the content.

Usage: Physical markup tags were more commonly used in early versions of HTML but are now
considered outdated. The modern approach favors the use of CSS for styling, allowing for a clearer
separation of content and presentation.

Logical markup tags also known as semantic tags, are used to describe the meaning or structure of
the content. Examples: <h1> to <h6> (headings), <p> (paragraph), <ul> and <ol> (unordered and
ordered lists), <em> (emphasized text), <strong> (strong importance), <blockquote> (block
quotation).

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Purpose: These tags focus on the structure and meaning of the content, providing a semantic way to
represent information. Logical markup enhances the accessibility and search engine optimization of
a webpage by clearly defining the purpose of each element.

Usage: Logical markup is the preferred approach in modern web development as it separates content
from presentation. It makes the HTML code more readable, maintainable, and adaptable to different
devices and contexts.

Example:

html
Copy code
<!-- Physical Markup Example -->
<p>This is <b>bold</b> and <i>italic</i> text.</p>
<!-- Logical Markup Example -->
<p>This is <strong>strong</strong> and <em>emphasized</em> text.</p>

Physical Description Logical Tags Description

Tags
`<b>` Defines bold text `<abbr>` Defines the abbreviation of text

`<i>’ Defines italic text `<acronym>` Defines the acronym

`<u>` Defines underlined text `<address>` Defines contact information of a

person or an organization
`<big>` Increases the font size by `<cite>` Defines citation
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`<small>` Defines small text `<code>` Defines a piece of computer code

`<sub>` Defines subscripted text `<blockquote>` Defines a long quotation

`<sup>` Defines superscripted text `<del>` Defines the deleted text

`<strike>` Defines strike-through `<dfn>` Defines a definition term

text
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`<tt>` Defines teletype text `<ins>` Defines inserted text

In the example above, the physical markup tags (<b> and <i>) are used for styling, indicating
bold and italic text. In contrast, the logical markup tags (<strong> and <em>) are used to convey
semantic meaning, indicating strong importance and emphasized text. Using logical markup is
generally recommended for creating more meaningful and maintainable HTML documents.

Table 1.1 : Depicts the difference between Physical tags and Logical tags.

Physical tags are used to indicate how specific characters are to be formatted or indicated using HTML
tags. They are extremely straightforward and are used to highlight important sentences. Physical text
styles indicate the specific type of appearance for a section e.g., bold, italics, etc. Physical styles are
rendered in the same manner by all browsers.

On the other hand, logical tags are used to tell the browser what kind of text is written inside the tags.
They are different from physical tags because physical tags are used to decide the appearance of the
text and do not provide any information about the text. Logical tags are used to indicate to the visually
impaired person that there is something more important in text or to emphasize the text.

Markup languages are computer languages that are used to structure, format, or define relationships
between different parts of text documents with the help of symbols or tags inserted in the document.
These languages are more readable than usual programming languages with strict syntax. There are
several markup languages available but the most popular among them are as follows.

1. HTML
2. XML
3. XHTML
4. SGML

HTMLThe markup language Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) is used to generate and link
webpages. It describes the fundamental structure of a web page and includes meta-data about the page
as well as a sequence of components that will be shown on the web page. It renders many items on
the webpage using preset tags like as table>, form>, and so on. Each element requires a starting and
ending tag, as well as material within it. A web browser displays a marked-up HTML page by
interpreting distinct tags and formatting and structuring the content of the document accordingly

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before displaying it. It can be written in a plain text editor and can be associated with styling sheets
such as CSS (Cascading Style Sheets) and scripting languages such as JavaScript.

Features:

 Easy to learn
 Platform-independent
 Support audio, video, and images embedded web pages
 Supported by all browsers
 Can be integrated with styling and scripting languages

Example: The following code illustrates the basic structure of HTML code.

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>HTML Example Code</title>
</head>
<body>
<h1>Introduction</h1>
<p>A course lecture on Internet Technology</p>
</body>
</html>

Drawbacks:
 It can only create static web pages because of its static nature.
 It offers limited security features.
 It requires long code for creating even a simple web page.
XML: XML (Extensible Markup Language) is a markup language that is used to store structured
data. It defines the elements using custom tags, which support a wide range of elements. Because
HTML was unable to add new elements, XML was invented, which was extensible in order to define
custom elements. It was created to store and transfer data while also containing information about the
sender, recipient, message header, and message body. It is more concerned with what data is than
with how data appears. It is used to represent papers, data, transactions, invoices, and other items.
Features:
 Efficient data sharing
 Software and hardware independent

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  Compatible with other markup languages
 Supports platform transition
 Supports Unicode
Example: The following code illustrates the basic structure of XML code.
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
<message>
<to>Users</to>
<from>GeeksforGeeks</from>
<subject>Welcome message</subject>
<text>Welcome to GeeksforGeeks</text>
</message>
Output of XML code:

Drawbacks:
 It is verbose in nature and has redundant syntax.
 It has high storage and transportation cost.
 It generally has large file sizes due to redundant syntax.

XHTML: Extensible Hypertext Markup Language (XHTML) is a markup language used to build
HTML pages that allow for the usage of custom tags to specify new components. In terms of error
management, it is stricter than HTML, in that browsers do not show web pages if the markup
document contains mistakes. It generates an XML version of the HTML document, which must be
properly marked up. It provides several necessary tags that must be included in the document, such
as!DOCTYPE>, html>, head>, title>, and body>. In the case of XHTML, the html> element should
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also include the xmlns property. A DTD (Document Type Definition) declaration must be included
in an XHTML web page. There are three types of DTD as follows.
 Transitional DTD
 Strict DTD
 Frameset DTD
XML is used to create web page quality standards and to make webpages more browser-compatible
and accurate. Because of the well-formatted, clear code, XHTML pages are also simple to maintain
and update.
Features:
 XML-based markup language
 Easy to maintain, convert and edit documents
 Strict rules for syntax and structure
 Clean, consistent, and well-structured format
 Compatible and accurate with many browsers
Example: The following code illustrates the basic structure of the XHTML code.
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
<!DOCTYPE html
PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN"
"DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd">
<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"
xml:lang="en" lang="en">
<head>
<title>XHTML</title>
</head>
<body>
<div style="color:#090;font-size:40px;
font-weight:bold;text-align:center;
margin-bottom:-25px;">Kwara State University</div>
<p style="text-align:center;font-size:20px;">
Computer science Department
</p>
</body>
</html>
Output of XHTML code

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Drawbacks:

 It is difficult to write XHTML code than HTML because of strict rules.

 It does have the solution for cross-browser combability issues.

SGML: The Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML) is a markup language that defines
markup languages. It is used to label files so that they no longer rely on any other program. It saves
SGML files with the .sgml suffix. It manipulates large files that require regular updates and is a
component of complex systems. It describes the relationship between a document's entities, elements,
and attributes, as well as the rules that allow the computer system to determine the beginning and end
of an element. It provides the easiest method for directly exchanging files across workstations and
programs.

Features:
 Platform independent
 Elements marked by different tags
 Elements have generic types and attributes
 Consistent use of delimiters and special characters
 String substitution for standard boilerplate text, and document management
Example: The following code illustrates the basic structure of SGML code.

<MESSAGE>
<FROM>GeeksforGeeks</FROM>
<TEXT>Welcome to GeeksforGeeks</TEXT>
</MESSAGE>

Drawbacks:

 It has a complex linking procedure.

 It is very hard to write SGML code.

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