CHAPTER THREE

STEADY STATE SINGLE PHASE AC CIRCUIT ANALYIS

……………………………………………………………………………………….

Introduction to Ac generator

Electricity is produced by generators at power stations and then distributed by a

vast network of transmission lines (called the National grid system) to industry and
for domestic use. It is easier and cheaper to generate alternating current (AC) than
direct current (DC) and ac is more conveniently distributed than dc. Since its
voltage can be readily altered using transformers.

One way to generate an ac voltage is to rotate a coil of wire at constant angular

velocity in a fixed magnetic field. The magnitude of the resulting voltage is
proportional to the rate at which flux lines are cut (Faraday’s law), and its polarity
is dependent on the direction the coil sides move through the field. Since the rate
of cutting flux varies with time, the resulting voltage will also vary with time.

For example in fig 4.1 in (a), since the coil sides are moving parallel to the field,
no flux lines are being cut and the induced volt- age at this instant (and hence the
current) is zero. (This is defined as the 00 position of the coil.) As the coil rotates
from the 00 position, coil sides AA’ and BB’ cut across flux lines; hence, voltage
builds, reaching a peak when flux is cut at the maximum rate in the 900position as
in (b). Note the polarity of the voltage and the direction of current. As the coil
rotates further, voltage decreases, reaching zero at the 1800 position when the coil
sides again move parallel to the field as in (c). At this point, the coil has gone
through a half-revolution.

During the second half-revolution, coil sides cut flux in directions opposite to that
which they did in the first half revolution; hence, the polarity of the induced
voltage reverses. As indicated in (d), voltage reaches a peak at the2700 point, and,
since the polarity of the voltage has changed, so has the direction of current. When
the coil reaches the 3600 position, voltage is again zero and the cycle starts
over.Figure4.2 shows one cycle of the resulting wave form. Since the coil rotates
continuously, the voltage produced will be a repetitive, periodic wave form (a
waveform that continually repeats itself after the same time interval).

1
Fundamental of Electrical Engineering steady state AC circuits
 Fig 3.1 Generating an AC voltage.

Fig 3.2 Coil voltage versus angular position

Sinusoidal terminologies

Period (T): the time taken for an alternating quantity to complete one cycle is
called the period of the waveform.

2
Fundamental of Electrical Engineering steady state AC circuits
Frequency: the number of cycles completed in one second is called the frequency
of the waveform and measured n hertz, Hz.

( )

The Period and frequency of a sin wave can be related by the following equation:

Example1. Two sources have frequencies f1 and f2 respectively. If f2=2f1 and T2 is

20ms, determine f1, f2, and T1?

Example 2. An alternating current completes 5 cycles in 8ms. What is its

frequency?

Instantaneous value: the magnitude of a waveform at any instant of time; denoted

by lower case letters (e1,e2,i1,i2…)

Peak value: the maximum instantaneous value of a waveform as measured from

the zero-volt level.

3
Fundamental of Electrical Engineering steady state AC circuits
Peak-to-peak value: the full voltage between positive and negative peaks of the
waveform, that is, the sum of the magnitude of the positive and negative peaks.

Average (mean) value:

Because a sine wave is symmetrical, its area below the horizontal axis is the same
as its area above the axis; thus over a complete cycle the average value is zero. The
average of half a sine wave, however, is not zero.

Therefore the average value of sin wave is the average value measured over a half
cycle.

( )

=-Am(cosπ-cos00)

=-Am[-1-(+1)]=-Am(-2)

Area=2Am

4
Fundamental of Electrical Engineering steady state AC circuits
Since we know the area under the positive pulse, we can easily determine the
average value the positive region of a sine wave:

( )

Average value=0.637Am

Equation of sinusoidal waveform

The basic mathematical formula for the sinusoidal waveform is:

Where e is instantaneous voltage, Em is the maximum coil voltage and α is the

instantaneous angular position of the coil.

Angular Velocity (ω) the rate at which the generator coil rotates is called its
angular velocity.

Where, α is angular distance and t is time

In practice, ω is usually expressed in radians per second, where radians and

degrees are related by the identity.
Relationship between ω,T and f
One cycle of sine wave may be represented as either or t=Ts.
Substituting these in to you get 2π=ωt transposing yields

( )

Thus,

5
Fundamental of Electrical Engineering steady state AC circuits
Recall f=1/T Hz. Substituting this it to in the above equation you get

( )

but

Combining these equations yields

Similarly

Substitute to the above equation yields

The general expression for an alternating voltage is

( )

Phasor

The instantaneous levels of alternating current and voltage are vector quantities,
since these levels are continuously changing, an ac waveform must be represented
by rotating vector or phasor.

A phasor is a rotating line whose projection on a vertical axis can be used to

represent sinusoidally varying quantities.

The sinusoidal output voltage from the simple generator can be represented by the
phasor diagram.

Fig 3.3 (a) phasor reperesentation of AC waveform (b) phasor diagrma

6
Fundamental of Electrical Engineering steady state AC circuits
Voltages and currents with phase shifts

If a sine wave does not pass through zero at t=0 it has a phase shift. Waveforms
may be shifted to the left or to the right.

Mathematical equation for a waveform shifted to left

( )

Mathematical equation for waveform shifted to right

( )

(a) ( ) ( ) ( )

Fig 3.4 Phase shifted sine waves

Sometimes voltages and currents are expressed in terms of rather than

.a cosine wave is a sine wave shifted by , or alternatively, a sine wave I
a cosine wave shifted by .

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

Phase difference

Phase difference refers to the angular displacement between different waveforms

of the same frequency. If the angular displacement between two wave forms is 0 0
the waveforms are said to be in phase; otherwise, they are out of phase.

7
Fundamental of Electrical Engineering steady state AC circuits
When describing a phase difference, select one waveform as reference. Other
waveforms then lead, lag, or are in phase with this reference.

a) In phase (b) out of phase(current leads) (c) out of phase(current lags)

Fig 3.5 illustrating phase difference

Effective value (rms)

An effective value is an equivalent dc value: it tells us how many volts or Amps of

dc that a time-varying waveform is equal to in terms of its ability to produce
average power. A familiar example of such a value is the value of the voltage at the
wall outlet in your home.

The effective value of a sine wave can be determined using the circuits of fig 4.

 Consider a sinusoidal varying current i(t). By definition, the effective value

of i is that value of dc current that produces the same average power.
 Consider (b). Let the dc source be adjusted until its average power is the
same as the average power in (a). the resulting dc current is then the
effective value of the current of(a).to determine this value, determine the
average power for both cases, then equate them.

(a) AC circuit

8
Fundamental of Electrical Engineering steady state AC circuits
(b) DC circuit

Fig 3.6 Determining the effective value of a sinusoidal ac.

First, consider the dc case. Since current is constant, power is constant and
average power is

Now consider the ac case. Power to the resistor at any value of time is P(t) i 2R,
where i is the instantaneous value of current.

( ) ( ) ( )

But

( ) (trigonomeric identity)

Therefore
( )

And

To get the average of P(t), note that the average of cos2ωt is zero and thus the last
term of the above equation drops off leaving

Equating the average power delivered by the ac generator to that delivered by the
dc source,
9
Fundamental of Electrical Engineering steady state AC circuits
 √

or

√
which,in words, states that the equivalent dc value of a sinusoidal current or
voltage is 1/√ or 0.707 of its maximum value.

In summery,

( ) and

Example 2.An alternating voltage is given by find (a) the

rms voltage (b) average voltage(c) the frequency and (d) the
instantaneous value of voltage at t=4ms.

The general expression for an alternating voltage is:

( )

a.

b.

c.

d. ( )

Example 3. An alternating voltage is given by ( )

Find (a) the amplitude,(b)the peak-to-peak value, (c) the rms value, (d)
the periodic time, (e)the frequency,(f) the phase angle relative to

10
Fundamental of Electrical Engineering steady state AC circuits
Comparing ( ) with the general expression
( ) gives:

a.
b.
c.
d.

e.
f.

Exercise 1

1. If you double the rotational speed of an ac generator, what happens to the

frequency and period of the waveform?

2. A 10Hz sinusoidal current has a value of 5A at t=25ms. What is its value at

t=75ms?

3. Determine the phase relationship between voltage and current given by the
following equations:

( ) ( )

4. A sinusoidal current has a peak value of 30A and a frequency of 60Hz. At time
t=0, the current is zero. Express the instantaneous current in the form
.

5. An alternating voltage v has a periodic time of 20ms and a maximum value of

200V. when time t=0, v=-75V. Deduce a sinusoidal expression for v and sketch
one cycle of the voltage showing impotent points.

6. An alternating voltage is represented by ( find(a) the

maximum value (b) the frequency (c) the periodic time (d) rms value (e) average
value

11
Fundamental of Electrical Engineering steady state AC circuits
Complex number review

A complex number is a number of the form

where a and b are real numbers and √ . The number a is called the real part
of C and b is called its imaginary part.

complex numbers may be represented geometrically, either in rectangular form or

in polar form as points on a two-dimensional plane called the complex plane.

Rectangular form polar form

( )

( )

Converstion between two forms

The two forms are related by the following equation,

Rectangular to polar
√

Polar to rectangular

12
Fundamental of Electrical Engineering steady state AC circuits
Mathematical operations with complex number

Let us first examine the symbol j associated with imaginary numbers by definition,

√ , ,

Complex conjugect

The conjugate or complex conjugat of a complex number can be found by simply

changing the sign of the imaginary part in the rectanguar form or by using the
negative of the angle ot the polar form.

The conjugate of is

The conjugate of C is C

Addition

To add two or more complex numbers, simply add the real and imaginary parts
separately.

and

then
( ) ( )

Subtaction

and

Then ( ) ( )

Addition or subtraction can not be performed in polar form unless the complex
numbers have the same angle .

Multiplication

To multiply two complex numbers in rectanguar form, mulitiply the real and
imaginary parts of one in turn by the imaginary parts of the other.

and

13
Fundamental of Electrical Engineering steady state AC circuits
Then ( ) ( )

( ) ( )

To mulitiply two complex numbers in polar form,mulitiply magnitudes and add

angles algebraically.

and

Then

Division

To divide two complex numbers in rectangular form, multiply the numerator and
denominatior by the conjugate of the denomnator and resulting real and imaginary
parts collected. That is, if

and
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )

In polar form, division is accomplished by simply dividing the magnitde of the

numerator by the magnitude of the denominator and subtracting the ange of the
denominator from the numerator.

and

14
Fundamental of Electrical Engineering steady state AC circuits
AC circuits

R,L and c circuit elements each have quite different electrical poroperties.
Resistance, for example, oppses current, while inductance opposes changes in
current and capacitance opposes change in voltage. These differences result in
quite different voltage-current relationships.

Resistance in AC circuit(pure resistive circuit)

(a) Circuit diagram (b) waveform (c) phasor diagram

Fig 3.7 Pure resistive circuit

In a pure resistive circuit current is in phase with voltage.

The relation illustrated in fig4. May be stated mathematical as:

where,

Inductance in AC circuit

(a) Circuit diagram (a) voltage and current wavforms (c) phasor diagram

Fig 3.8 pure inductive circuit

15
Fundamental of Electrical Engineering steady state AC circuits
For an ideal inductor, volage VL is prortional to the rate of chage of current.
Because of this, voltgae and current are not in phase as they are for a resistive
circuit.

( )

Where

Utilizing the trigonometric idntity ( ), you can write this as:

( )

For a pure inductive circuit current lage volage by 900.

Inductive reactance(XL)

From the above equation

thus

This ratio is defined as inductive reactance and is give the symbol X L. since the
ratio of volts to amps is ohms, reactance has units of ohms.

Thus

But,

( ) (Ω)

Reactane XL represents the opposition that inductance presents to current for the
sunusoidal as case.

We now have everything that we need to solve simple inductive circuits with
sinusoidal excitation, that is ,we know that current lags voltage by 900 and that
their amplitudes are related by

16
Fundamental of Electrical Engineering steady state AC circuits
Example 4.A 0.5H inductor is conneceted across AC source. If the voltage across
the inductor is determine the inductive reactance and
write the expression for the current.

( )( )

we know that i lags v by 900. Therefore,

( )A

Capacitance in Ac circuit(pure capacitve circuit)

(a)circuit diagram (b) Weave form (c) phase diagram

Fig 3.8 pure capacitve circuit

For capacitance, current is proportional to the rate for change of voltage, i.e.

( )

where

Using the appropriate trigomometric identity( ( ) ( )), the

above equation can be written as
17
Fundamental of Electrical Engineering steady state AC circuits
 ( )

For a purely capacitive circuit, current leads voltage by 900.

Capactive ractance(XC)

Now consider the relationship between maximum capacitor voltage and current
magnitudes.

Rearranging, we get

The ratio of Vm to Im is defined as capacitive reactance and is given the symbol X c.

that is,

( )

but, ω=2πf

Thus,

( ) (Ω)

Reactance XC represents the opposition that capacitance presents to current for the
sinusoidal ac case.
We now have everything that we need to solve simple capacitive circuits with
sinusoidal excitation. i.e., we know that current leads voltage by 900 and that

And

18
Fundamental of Electrical Engineering steady state AC circuits
Example 5.A 1µFcapacitor is conneceted across AC source. If the voltage across
the capacitor is determine the capacitive reactance and
write the expression for the current.

and we know that for acapcitor i leads v by 900. Therefore,

( ) A

AC series circuit

When we examined dc circuits we saw that the current everywhere in series circuit
is a always constant. This same applies when we have series elements with ac
sources.

Further, we had seen that the total resistance of a dc series circuit consisting of n
resistors was determined as:

When working with ac circuits we no longer work with only resistance but also
with capacitive and inductive reactance.

Impedance

Impedance is a term used to collectively determine how the resistance, capacitance,

and inductance ―impede‖ the current in ac circuit. The symbol for impedance is the
letter Z and the unit is the ohm (Ω).

Because impedance may be made up of any combination of resistance and

reactance, it is written as a vector quantity Z,

The polar form impedance is written as:

(Ω)

19
Fundamental of Electrical Engineering steady state AC circuits
The value Z is the magnitude(in ohms) of the impedance vector Z and is
deteremined as:

√ ( )

The corresponding angle of the impedance vector is determined as:

( )

The rectangular form of impedance is written as

, Where R is resistance and X is reactance (XL or XC)

If we are given the polar form of the impedance, then we may determine the
equivalent rectangular expression from.

and

Fig 3.9 Impedance diagram

Resistive impedance ZR is a vector having a magnitude of R along the positive real

axis, Inductive impedance ZL is a vector having a magnitude of XL along the
positive imaginary axis, while the capacitive impedance Zc is a vector having a
magnitude of Xc along the negative imaginary axis. Mathematically, each of the
vector impedance is written as follows

20
Fundamental of Electrical Engineering steady state AC circuits
R-L circuit

RL circuit is the combination of resistive and inductive load.

Fig 3.10 RL circuit

In RL circuit the total impedance Z is

( )

Fig 3.11 (a) impedance diagram (b) phasor diagram

Voltage across resistor(R) and indictor(L) can be determined as

Thus the total voltage (supply voltage, Vs)

The total circuit current (i):

21
Fundamental of Electrical Engineering steady state AC circuits
Example 6. A 4Ω resistor and a 9.55mH inductor are connected in series with 240
V, 50 Hz AC source. Calculate (a) inductive reactance (b) the
impedance, (c) the total current, and (d) draw impedance and phasor
diagram.

a. ( )( )

b. √ √

c.

d.

Impedance diagram phasor diagram

Therefore, in the above example current lags voltage by

R-C circuit

Fig 3.12 RC circuit

22
Fundamental of Electrical Engineering steady state AC circuits
In RC circuit the total impedance Z is written as

( )

(a) Impedance diagram (b) phasor diagram

Voltage across resistor(R) and indictor(L) can be determined as

Thus the total voltage (supply voltage, Vs)

The total circuit current (IT):

Example 7. A resistor of 25Ω is connected in series with a capacitor of 45µF.

calculate (a) the impedance, (b) the current taken from a 240,50Hz
supply. Find also the phase angle between the supply voltage and the
current.

a. ( )( )

23
Fundamental of Electrical Engineering steady state AC circuits
 b. √ √

c.

phase angle between the supply voltage and current

.

I.e., current leads supply voltage by

Series RLC circuit

Fig 3.13 RLC circuit

In RLC circuit the total impedance Z written as

( )

Fig 3.14 (a) Impedance diagram ( ) (b) impedance diagram (for )

24
Fundamental of Electrical Engineering steady state AC circuits
Voltage across each circuit element

Where And ( )

Fig3.15 (a) Phasor diagram(for ) (b) phasor diagram (for )

Example 8. A 5Ω resistor, 120mH inductor and 100µF capacitor are connected in

series to a 300V, 50Hz AC supply. Calculate (a) the current flowing, (b)
the phase difference between the supply voltage and current,(c) the
voltage across the circuit elements, and (d) draw the phasor and
impedance diagram.

( )( )

( )( )

Since XL is greater than XC the circuit is inductive

√ ( ) √

a.
b. ( ) ( )
c.

25
Fundamental of Electrical Engineering steady state AC circuits
 d.

Impedance triangle phasor diagram

Parallel RLC circuit

Fig 3.16 RLC circuit

Admittance

Admittance is defined as a vector quantity which is the reciprocal of the impedance

Z.

Mathematically, admittance is expressed as:

( ) the unit of admittance is the

Siemens(S).

The admittance of resistor R is called conductance and is given a symbol YR.

26
Fundamental of Electrical Engineering steady state AC circuits
The admittance of a purely reactive component X is called susceptance of the
component and is assigned the symbol B. The unit for susceptance is Siemens (S).

In order to distinguish between inductive susceptance and capacitive susceptance,

we use the subscripts L and C respectively.

Fig Admittance diagram

The total impedance (ZT) in parallel RLC circuit can be calculated as

The total current (iT)

27
Fundamental of Electrical Engineering steady state AC circuits
Exercise 2

1. Calculate the current taken by 23µF capacitor when connected to a 240 V, 50 Hz

supply.

2. A coil has an inductance of 40mH and negligible resistance. Calculate its

inductive reactance and the resulting current if connected to(a) a240 V,50Hz
supply and (b) a 100 V,1kHz supply.

3. a coil of inductance 300mH and negligible resistance is connected I series with

100Ω resistor to a 250V, 50Hz supply. Calculate (a) the inductive reactance of
the coil, (b) the impedance of the circuit,(c) the current in the circuit, (d) voltage
across each components and (e) the circuit phase phase angle.

4. A capacitor C is connected in series with a 40Ω resistor across a supply of

frequency 60Hz. A current of 3A flows and circuit impedance is 50Hz. Calculate
(a) the value of capacitance, C, (b) the supply voltage,(c) the phase angle between
the supply voltage and current ,(d) voltage across the resistor and capacitor ,and
(e) draw phasor and impedance diagram.

5. A 40µF capacitor in series with a coil of resistance 8Ω and inductance 80mH is

connected to a 200V, 100Hz supply. Calculate (a) the circuit impedance,(b) the
current flowing, (c) the phase angle between voltage and current, (d) the voltage
across the coil, and the resistor,(e) the voltage across the capacitor, and (f) draw
the phasor and impedance diagram.

28
Fundamental of Electrical Engineering steady state AC circuits
AC powers
INSTANTANEOUS AND AVERAGE POWER

The instantaneous power p(t) absorbed by an element is the product of the

instantaneous voltage v(t) across the element and the instantaneous current i(t)
through it.

p(t) = v(t)i(t)…………………………………………………………..…………….(4.5.1)

The instantaneous power is the power at any instant of time. It is the rate at which
an element absorbs energy.
Let the voltage and current at the terminals of the circuit be
v(t) = Vm cos(ωt + θv……….…………………..……………….(4.5.2)
i(t) = Im cos(ωt + θi)………………………………………………4.5.3)

Where Vm and Im are the amplitudes (or peak values), and θv and θi are the phase
angles of the voltage and current, respectively.
The instantaneous power absorbed by the circuit is
P(t ) = v(t)i(t) = VmIm cos(ωt + θv) cos(ωt + θi)………………..(4.5.4)

We apply the trigonometric identity

cos A cos B 
1
cos(A  B)  cos(A  B)
2
And express Eq. (4.5.4) as
1 1
p (t )  Vm I m cos( v   i )  Vm I m cos(2 wt   v   i ) …….………… (4.5.6)
2 2
This shows us that the instantaneous power has two parts. The first part is constant
or time independent. Its value depends on the phase difference between the voltage
and the current. The second part is a sinusoidal function whose frequency is 2ω,
which is twice the angular frequency of the voltage or current.
A sketch of P(t ) in Eq. (4.5.6) is shown in Fig below

29
Fundamental of Electrical Engineering steady state AC circuits
 Fig 3.17 The instantaneous power P(t ) entering a circuit.

We also observe that P(t ) is positive for some part of each cycle and negative for
the rest of the cycle. When P(t ) positive, power is absorbed by the circuit. When
P(t ) is negative, the power is absorbed by the source; that is, power is transferred
from the circuit to the source. This is possible because of the storage elements
(capacitors and inductors) in the circuit.

Average power
The instantaneous power changes with time and is therefore difficult to measure.
The average power is more convenient to measure. In fact, the wattmeter, the
instrument for measuring power, responds to average power.
The average power is the average of the instantaneous power over one period.
Thus, the average power is given by

T
1
P(t )   p(t )dt ………………….………….. (4.5.7)
T0
Substituting P(t ) in Eq. (4.5.6) into Eq. (4.5.7) gives

T T
1 1 1 1
P   Vm I m cos( v   i )dt   Vm I m cos(2wt   v   i )dt …………….… (4.5.8)
T 02 T 02

T T
1 1 1 1
P  Vm I m cos( v   i )  dt  Vm I m  cos(2wt   v   i )dt ………………. (4.5.9)
2 T0 2 T0

30
Fundamental of Electrical Engineering steady state AC circuits
The first integrand is constant, and the average of a constant is the same constant.
The second integrand is a sinusoid. We know that the average of a sinusoid over
its period is zero because the area under the sinusoid during a positive half-cycle is
canceled by the area under it during the following negative half-cycle. Thus, the
second term in Eq. (4.5.9) vanishes and the average power becomes
1
P  Vm I m cos( v   i ) ………………………..… (4.5.10)
2
Complex power
The phasor forms of v(t ) and i(t ) in Eq. (4.5.2) and Eq. (4.5.3) are V = Vm  v and I
= I m  i , respectively. P is calculated using Eq. (4.5.10) or using phasors V and I.
To use phasors, we notice that
1 1
S= VI* = VrmsIrms* = Vm I m ( v   i ) ……………………….. (4.5.11)
2 2
1 1
= Vm I m cos( v   i )  j Vm I m sin( v   i )
2 2

S= Vrms I rms cos( v   i )  jVrms I rms sin( v   i ) ...……………………. (4.5.12)

P Q
Apparent power
We notice from Eq. (4.5.11) that the magnitude of the complex power is the
apparent power; hence, the complex power is measured in volt-amperes (VA).
Also, we notice that the angle of the complex power is the power factor angle. The
apparent power is given by
S  Vrms I rms
The complex power maybe expressed in terms of the load impedance Z. The load
impedance Z may be written as
V Vrms
Z  ( v   i ) . Z, V, and I in phasor form.
I I rms
Thus, Vrms = ZIrms. Substituting this into Eq. (4.5.11) gives
2
Vrms
2
S= I rms Z ………………………. (4.5.13)
Z*
Since Z = R  jX , Eq. (4.5.13) becomes
2
S= I rms ( R  jX )  P  jQ

31
Fundamental of Electrical Engineering steady state AC circuits
where P and Q are the real and imaginary parts of the complex power;
that is,
2
P = R e (S) = I rms R
2
Q = Im (S) = I rms X

Active or real power

The real power P is the average power in watts delivered to a load; it is the only
useful power. It is the actual power dissipated by the load. P is the average or real
power and it depends on the load’s resistance R. And is given by
P = Vrms I rms cos( v   i )
Reactive power
The reactive power Q is a measure of the energy exchange between the source and
the reactive part of the load. The unit of Q is the volt-ampere reactive (VAR) to
distinguish it from the real power, whose unit is the watt. We know that energy
storage elements (capacitors and inductors) neither dissipate nor supply power, but
exchange power back and forth with the rest of the network. In the same way, the
reactive power is being transferred back and forth between the load and the source.
It represents a lossless interchange between the load and the source. Notice that:
Q = Vrms I rms sin( v   i )
1. Q = 0 for resistive loads (unity pf).
2. Q < 0 for capacitive loads (leading pf).
3. Q > 0 for inductive loads (lagging pf).

Summary
1
Complex Power = S = P  jQ  VI*
2
= Vrms I rms  v   I
Apparent Power = S = S = Vrms I rms  P 2  Q 2
Real Power = P = Re(S) = S cos(  v   i )
Reactive Power = Q = Im(S) = S sin(  v   i )
P
Power Factor =  cos( v   i )
S

32
Fundamental of Electrical Engineering steady state AC circuits
Power triangle
It is a standard practice to represent S, P, and Q in the form of a triangle, known as
the power triangle, shown in Fig. 3.5.2(a). This is similar to the impedance triangle
showing the relationship between Z, R, and X, illustrated in Fig. 3.5.2(b). The
power triangle has four items—the apparent/complex power, real power, reactive
power, and the power factor angle. Given two of these items, the other two can
easily be obtained from the triangle.
As shown in Fig. 3.5.3, when S lies in the first quadrant, we have an inductive load
and a lagging pf. When S lies in the fourth quadrant, the load is capacitive and the
pf is leading.

Z
S X
Q

 
P R
Fig 3.5.2 (a) power triangle (b) Impedance triangle

Fig 3.5.3 power triangle

Power factor correction

Most domestic loads (such as washing machines, air conditioners, and

refrigerators) and industrial loads (such as induction motors) are inductive and

33
Fundamental of Electrical Engineering steady state AC circuits
operate at a low lagging power factor. Although the inductive nature of the load
cannot be changed, we can increase its power factor.

The process of increasing the power factor without altering the voltage or current
to the original load is known as power factor correction.
Alternatively, power factor correction may be viewed as the addition of a reactive
element (usually a capacitor) in parallel with the load in order to make the power
factor closer to unity
.
Since most loads are inductive, as shown in Fig.3.6.1(a), a load’s power factor is
improved or corrected by deliberately installing a capacitor in parallel with the
load, as shown in Fig. 3.6.1(b). The effect of adding the capacitor can be illustrated
using either the power triangle or the phasor diagram of the currents involved.
Figure 3.6.2 shows the latter, where it is assumed that the circuit in Fig.3.6.1(a) has
a power factor of cos θ1, while the one in Fig. 3.6.1(b) has a power factor of cos
θ2.

Fig. 3.6.1 Power factor correction: (a) original inductive load,

(b) Inductive load with improved power factor.

Fig. 3.6.2 Phasor diagram showing the effect of adding a capacitor in parallel with
the inductive load.

34
Fundamental of Electrical Engineering steady state AC circuits
It is evident from Fig. 3.6.2 that adding the capacitor has caused the phase angle
between the supplied voltage and current to reduce from 1 to  2 , thereby
increasing the power factor. We also notice from the magnitudes of the vectors in
Fig. 3.6.2 that with the same supplied voltage, the circuit in Fig. 3.6.1(a) draws
larger current I L than the current I drawn by the circuit in Fig. 3.6.1(b). Power
companies charge more for larger currents, because they result in increased power
losses (by a squared factor, since P  I 2 R ). Therefore, it is beneficial to both the
power company and the consumer that every effort is made to minimize current
level or keep the power factor as close to unity as possible. By choosing a suitable
size for the capacitor, the current can be made to be completely in phase with the
voltage, implying unity power factor.

We can look at the power factor correction from another perspective. Consider the
power triangle in Fig. 3.6.3. If the original inductive load has apparent power S1,
then

Fig 3.6.3 Power triangle illustrating power factor correction.

P  S1 cos1 , Q1  S1 sin 1  P tan 1 …………………….……………. (3.6.1)

If we desire to increase the power factor from cos 1 to cos  2 without altering the
real power (i.e. P  S 2 cos 2 ), then the new reactive power is
Q2  P tan  2 …………………………………… (3.6.2)
The reduction in the reactive power is caused by the shunt capacitor, that is,

35
Fundamental of Electrical Engineering steady state AC circuits
QC  Q1  Q2  P(tan 1  tan  2 ) ……………………………………….. (3.6.3)
Since QC  Vrms
3
X C  CV rms
2
The value of the required shunt capacitance C is
determined as
QC P(tan 1  tan  2 )
C  ………………………..…….. (3.6.4)
Vrms
2
Vrms2

Note that the real power P dissipated by the load is not affected by the power
factor correction because the average power due to the capacitance is zero.
Although the most common situation in practice is that of an inductive load, it is
also possible that the load is capacitive, that is, the load is operating at a leading
power factor. In this case, an inductor should be connected across the load for
power factor correction. The required shunt inductance L can be calculated from
2
Vrms V2 2
V rms
QL   rms , L ……………………(3.6.5)
XL L Q L
where QL  Q1  Q2 , the difference between the new and old reactive powers.

Example:
When connected to a 120 V (rms), 60-Hz power line, a load absorbs 4 kW at a
lagging power factor of 0.8. Find the value of capacitance necessary to raise the pf
to 0.95.

36
Fundamental of Electrical Engineering steady state AC circuits
 37
Fundamental of Electrical Engineering steady state AC circuits
In this chapter, we want to see how nodal analysis, mesh analysis, Thevenin’s
theorem, Norton’s theorem, superposition, and source transformations are applied
in analyzing ac circuits. Since these techniques were already introduced for dc
circuits, our major effort here will be to illustrate with examples.
Analyzing ac circuits usually requires three steps.

Steps to analyze AC circuits:

1. Transform the circuit to the phasor or frequency domain.
2. Solve the problem using circuit techniques (nodal analysis, mesh analysis,
superposition, etc.).
3. Transform the resulting phasor to the time domain.

Mesh Analysis

Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) forms the basis of mesh analysis. The validity of
KVL for ac circuits is illustrated in the following examples.
Example 1
Determine current Io in the circuit given below using mesh analysis.

4
Io
I3  j2
50 0 A

I2
DC 2090 o V
j10

8 I1
 j2

Fig. 3.7.1
Applying KVL to mesh 1, we obtain
(8  j10  j 2) I 1  ( j 2) I 2  j10 I 3  0 ……………..………………………. (3.7.1)
For mesh 2,
(4  j 2  j 2) I 2  ( j 2) I 1  ( j 2) I 3  2090 o  0 …...……………………….. (3.7.2)

38
Fundamental of Electrical Engineering steady state AC circuits
For mesh 3, I 3  5.
Substitute this in equation 3.7.1 and 3.7.2. We get
(8  j8) I 1  j 2 I 2  j 50
j 2 I 1  (4  j 4) I 2   j 20  j10
The above equations can be put in matrix form
8  j8 j 2   I1   j 50 
=
 j2
 4  j 4  I 2   j 30
From which we obtain the determinants

8  j8 j2
 =32(1 + j) (1− j) + 4 = 68
j2 4  j4
8  j8 j 50
2  = 340 – j240 = 416.17   35.22 o
j2  j 30
 2 416.17  35.22 o
I2    6.12  35.22 o A
 68
The desired current is
I o   I 2  6.12144.78 o A
Example 2
Solve for Vo in the circuit given below using mesh analysis.

 j 4 40 o A
6

8

j 5
+
100oV  j 2 Vo 30o A
_

Fig. 3.7.2

39
Fundamental of Electrical Engineering steady state AC circuits
Solution:
As shown in figure 3.7.3 meshes 3 and 4 form a supermesh due to the current
source between the meshes. For mesh 1 KVL
 10  (8  j 2) I 1  ( j 2) I 2  8I 3  0 ……………………… (3.7.3)
Or
(8  j 2) I 1  j 2 I 2  8I 3  10 ……..……………… (3.7.4)
For mesh 2,
I 2  3 …………………….………….…….. (3.7.5)
For the supermesh,
(8  j 4) I 3  8I 1  (6  j5) I 4  j5I 2  0 ……………….…… (3.7.6)
Due to the current source between meshes 3 and 4, at node A,
I 4  I 3  4 ……………..……………. (3.7.7)
Combining Equation 4.7.4 and 4.7.5
(8  j 2) I 1  8I 3  10  j 6 ……………………………….… (3.7.8)
Combining Equations 4.7.6 and 4.7.7
 8I 1  (14  j ) I 3  24  j35 ………… ……………………. (3.7.9)

I3 A I4 sup ermesh

 j 4 I3 I4 6
4A

j 5
8
+
10V I1  j 2 Vo I2 3A
_

Fig.3.7.3
From Equations (4.7.8) and (4.7.9), we obtain the matrix equation
8  j 2  8   I1  10  j 6 
=
 8
 14  j   I 2   24  j 35
We obtain the following determinants

40
Fundamental of Electrical Engineering steady state AC circuits
 8  j2  8
  112  j8   j 28  2  64  50  j 20
8 14  j

10  j 6 8
1  = 140  j10  j84  6  192  j 280
 24  j 35 14  j
 58  j186
Current I1 is obtained as
1  58  j186
I1    3.618274.5 o A
 50  j 20
The required voltage Vo is
Vo   j 2( I 1  I 2 )   j (3.618274.5 o  3)
 7.2134  j 6.568  9.756222.32 o V

Exercise
Calculate current I o in the circuit given below

Io

10
 j 4 j8

500 o V
20 o A
5  j 6

Fig. 3.7.4
Answer: 5.0755.943o A

Nodal analysis
The basis of nodal analysis is Kirchhoff’s current law. Since KCL is valid for
phasors, we can analyze ac circuits by nodal analysis. The following examples
illustrate this.
Example 1

41
Fundamental of Electrical Engineering steady state AC circuits
Find I x in the circuit given below using nodal analysis.

1H
10
IX
2I X 0.5H
0.1F
20 cos 4tV

Fig.3.7.5
Solution:
We first convert the circuit to the frequency domain:
20 cos 4t  200 o ,   4rad / s
1H  jL  j 4
0.5H  jL  j 2
1
0.1F    j 2.5
jC
Thus the frequency equivalent circuit is as shown below

V1 V2
j 4
10
IX
2I X j 2
200 o V  j 2.5

Fig 3.7.6
Applying KCL at node 1,
20  V1 V1 V  V2
  1
10  j 2.5 j4
Or
(1  j1.5)V1  j 2.5V2  20...................................(*)
At node 2
V1  V2 V2
2I X  
j4 j2
V1
But I X  substituting this gives
 j 2.5

42
Fundamental of Electrical Engineering steady state AC circuits
 2V1 V  V2 V2
 1 
 j 2.5 j4 j2
By simplifying, we get
11V1  15V2  0.........................................(**)

Equations (*) and (**) can be put in matrix form as

1  j1.5 j 2. 5 V1   20 
11 15  V  = 0 
  2  
We determine the determinants as
1  j1.5 j 2 .5
 = 15  j5
11 15
20 j 2 .5
1  = 300
0 15
1  j1.5 20
2   220
11 0
1 300
V1    18.9718.430 V
 15  j 5
2  220
V2    13.91198.3o V
 15  j 5
The current Ix is given by
V1 18.9718.43 o
Ix =   7.59108.4 o A
 j 2.5 2.5  90 o
Transforming this to time domain
i X  7.59 cos(4t  108.4 o ) A

Exercise:
Using nodal analysis find V1 and V2 in the circuit below
0.2 F
V1 V2 4


10 sin 2tA VX 
2 2H 3V X
 

Fig. 3.7.7
43
Fundamental of Electrical Engineering steady state AC circuits
 Answer: V1 (t )  20.96 sin( 2t  58 o )V ,V2 (t )  44.11(2t  41o )V
Example 2
Compute V1 and V2 in the circuit of Fig. below
1045 o V

V1 4 V2

30 o A  j 3 j 6 12

Fig. 3.7.8
Solution:
Nodes 1 and 2 form a supernode as shown below. Applying KCL at the supernode
gives

V1 V V
3  2  2
 j3 j 6 12
Or
36  j 4V1  (1  j 2)V2 ……………………………………
(4.7.10)
But a voltage source is connected between nodes 1 and 2, so that

Fig. 3.7.9
V1  V2  1045 o ……………………………………………. (3.7.11)

Substituting Eq. (4.7.11) in Eq. (4.7.10) results in

36  40135 o  (1  j 2)V2

44
Fundamental of Electrical Engineering steady state AC circuits
 V2  31.41  87.18 o V
From Eq. (4.7.11),
V1  V2  1045 o  25.78V
Exercise 2
Calculate V1 and V2 in the circuit shown below

Fig.3.7.10
Answer: V1= 19.3669.67 o V, V2 = 3.376165.7 V
Superposition
Since ac circuits are linear, the superposition theorem applies to ac circuits the
same way it applies to dc circuits. The theorem becomes important if the circuit
has sources operating at different frequencies. In this case, since the impedances
depend on frequency, we must have a different frequency-domain circuit for each
frequency. The total response must be obtained by adding the individual responses
in the time domain. It is incorrect to try to add the responses in the phasor or
frequency domain. Why? Because the exponential factor e jwt is implicit in
sinusoidal analysis, and that factor would change for every angular frequency w . It
would therefore not make sense to add responses at different frequencies in the
phasor domain. Thus, when a circuit has sources operating at different frequencies,
one must add the responses due to the individual frequencies in the time domain.

Example
Use the superposition theorem to find Io in the circuit in figure below

45
Fundamental of Electrical Engineering steady state AC circuits
 Fig.3.7.11
Solution:
Let
I o  I o'  I o''
…………………………………….………….. (3.7.12)
Where I o' and I o'' are due to the voltage and current sources, respectively.
Consider the circuit below

Fig. 3.7.12
If we let Z the parallel combination of  j 2 and 8  j10 , then
 j 2(8  j10)
Z=  0.25  j 2.25
 j 2  8  j10
And current I o' is
j 20 j 20
I o'  
4  j 2  Z 4.25  j 4.25
I o'  2.353  j 2.353
…………………………………………….. (4.7.13)
To get I o'' , consider the circuit below

Fig. 3.7.13

For mesh 1
(8  j8) I 1  j10 3  j 2 I 2  0 ………………….……. (3.7.14)
For mesh 2
(4  j 4) I 2  j 2 I 1  j 2 I 3  0 ………………………… (3.7.15)

46
Fundamental of Electrical Engineering steady state AC circuits
For mesh 3
I 3  5 ………………………. (3.7.16)
From Eqn. (3.7.15) and (3.7.16),
(4  j 4) I 2  j 2I1  j10  0
Expressing I1 in terms of I2 gives
I1  (2  j 2) I 2  5 ………………………………. (3.7.17)

Substituting Equation (3.3.16) and (3.7.17) into Eq. (3.7.14), we get

(8  j8)(2  j 2) I 2  5  j50  j 2I 2  0
Or
90  j 40
I2   2.647  j1.176
34
Current I o'' is obtained as
I o''   I 2  2.647  j1.176 …………………..……… (3.7.18)
From Equation (3.7.13) and (3.7.18), we write
I o  I o'  I o''  5  j 3.529  6.12144.78 o A

Exercise:
Find Vo in the circuit given below using the superposition theorem.

Fig. 3.7.14
Answer:

Source transformation
As shown in the Fig. below, source transformation in the frequency domain
involves transforming a voltage source in series with impedance to a current source
in parallel with impedance, or vice versa. As we go from one source type to
another, we must keep the following relationship in mind:

47
Fundamental of Electrical Engineering steady state AC circuits
 VS
VS  Z S I S IS 
ZS

Fig.3.7.15 Source Transformation

Example:
Calculate VX in the circuit using the method of source transformation.

Fig. 3.7.16

Solution:
We transform the voltage source to a current source and obtain the circuit in Fig.
3.7.17(a), where
20  90 o
Is =  4  90 o   j 4 A
5
The parallel combination of 5-Ω resistance and (3+j4) impedance gives
5(3  j 4)
Z1 =  2.5  j1.25
8  j4
Converting the current source to a voltage source yields the circuit in Fig.
3.7.17(b), where
VS  I S Z1   j 4(2.5  j1.25)  5  j10V
By voltage division,

48
Fundamental of Electrical Engineering steady state AC circuits
 10
VX  (5  j10)  5.519  28 o V
10  2.5  j1.25  4  j13

Fig. 3.7.17(a)

Fig. 3.7.17(b)

Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuit

Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorems are applied to ac circuits in the same way as
they are to dc circuits. The only additional effort arises from the need to
manipulate complex numbers. The frequency-domain version of a Thevenin
equivalent circuit is depicted in Fig. 3.7.18(a), where a linear circuit is replaced by
a voltage source in series with impedance. The Norton equivalent circuit is
illustrated in Fig. 3.7.18(b), where a linear circuit is replaced by a current source in
parallel with impedance. Keep in mind that the two equivalent circuits are related
as
VTh  Z N I N , Z Th  Z N
Just as in source transformation. VTh is the open-circuit voltage while IN is the
short-circuit current.

49
Fundamental of Electrical Engineering steady state AC circuits
 Fig. 3.7.18(a) Thevenin equivalent

Fig. 3.7.18(b) Norton equivalent

Example:
Obtain the Thevenin equivalent at terminals a-b of the circuit shown below.

Fig 3.7.19
Solution:
We find ZTh by setting the voltage source to zero. As shown in Fig. (3.7.20), the
8Ω resistance is now in parallel with the  j 6 reactance, so that their combination
gives
 j6  8
Z1   j 6 // 8   2.88  j3.84
8  j6

50
Fundamental of Electrical Engineering steady state AC circuits
Similarly, the 4Ω resistance is in parallel with the j 12 reactance, and their
combination gives
j12  4
Z 2  4 // j12   3.6  j1.2
4  j12

Fig. 3.7.20
The Thevenin impedance is the series combination of Z1 and Z2; that is,
ZTh = Z1 + Z2 = 6.48 − j 2.64Ω
To find VTh, consider the circuit in Fig. 4.7.21. Currents I1 and I2 are obtained as
12075 o 12075 o
I1  A, I2  A
8  j6 4  j12

Fig. 3.7.21
Applying KVL around loop bcdeab in Fig. 3.7.21 gives
VTh − 4I2 + ( j 6) I1 = 0
Or
48075 o 720(75 o  90 o )
VTh  4 I 2  j 6 I 1  
4  j12 8  j6
 37.953.43o  72201.87

51
Fundamental of Electrical Engineering steady state AC circuits
  28.936  j 24.55  37.95220.31o V
Example:
Obtain current Io in Figure below using Norton’s theorem.

Fig. 3.7.22

Solution:
Our first objective is to find the Norton equivalent at terminals a-b. ZN is found in
the same way as ZTh. We set the sources to zero as shown in Fig. 3.7.23. As
evident from the figure, the (8  j 2) and (10  j 4) impedances are short-circuited, so
that ZN = 5Ω. To get IN, we short-circuit terminals a-b as in Fig. 3.7.24 and apply
mesh analysis. Notice that meshes 2 and 3 form a supermesh because of the current
source linking them.

Fig. 3.7.23

52
Fundamental of Electrical Engineering steady state AC circuits
 Fig. 3.7.24
For mesh 1 from Fig. 3.7.24
 j 40  (18  j 2) I1 − (8  j 2) I2 − (10  j 4) I3 = 0 ………………….… (3.7.19)
For the supermesh,
(13  j 2) I2 + (10  j 4) I3 − (18  j 2) I1 = 0..………………….….. (3.7.20)
At node a, due to the current source between meshes 2 and 3,
I3 = I2 + 3 ……………….. (3.7.21)
Adding Equations (4.7.19) and (4.7.20) gives
 j 40  5 I2 = 0  I2 = j8
From Eq. (3.7.21),
I3 = I2 + 3 = 3  j8
The Norton current is
IN = I3 = (3  j8) A
Figure 3.7.25 shows the Norton equivalent circuit along with the impedance at
terminals a-b. By current division,

Fig. 3.7.25

53
Fundamental of Electrical Engineering steady state AC circuits
 5 3  j8
Io  IN   1.46538.48 o A
5  20  j15 5  j3

Maximum power transfer in AC circuits

In the previous chapter we solved the problem of maximizing the power delivered
by a power-supplying resistive network to a load RL. Representing the circuit by
its Thevenin equivalent, we proved that the maximum power would be delivered to
the load if the load resistance is equal to the Thevenin resistance RL = RTh. We
now extend that result to ac circuits.
Consider the circuit in Fig. 3.7.26, where an ac circuit is connected to a load ZL
and is represented by its Thevenin equivalent. The load is usually represented by
impedance, which may model an electric motor, an antenna, a TV, and so forth. In
rectangular form, the Thevenin impedance ZTh and the load impedance ZL are
Z Th  RTh  jX Th ……………………….…… (3.7.22)
Z L  RL  jX L ………………………….… 3.7.23)

(a) (b)
Fig. 4.7.26 finding the maximum average power transfer:
(a) Circuit with a load, (b) the Thevenin equivalent.

The current through the load is

VTh VTh
I  ………………… (3.7.24)
Z Th  Z L ( RTh  jX Th )  ( RL  jX L )
The average power delivered to the load is given by:
1 2 VTh2 RL 2
P  I RL  ……………….…. (3.7.25)
2 ( RTh  RL ) 2  ( X Th  X L ) 2
Our objective is to adjust the load parameters R L and X L so that P is maximum. To
do this we set P / RL and P / X L equal to zero. From Eq. (3.7.25), we obtain

54
Fundamental of Electrical Engineering steady state AC circuits
 VTh R L ( X Th  X L )
2
P
 ……………………………… . (3.7.26a)
X L 
( RTh  R L ) 2  ( X Th  X L ) 2 
2

P

VTh
2
( R
Th  R L ) 2  ( X Th  X L ) 2  2 R L ( RTh  R L )  …………..… (3.7.26b)
R L 
2 ( RTh  R L ) 2  ( X Th  X L ) 2 
2

Setting P / X L to zero gives

X L   X Th ……………………….…….….. (3.7.27)
And setting P / RL to zero gives

RL  RTh2  ( X Th  X L ) 2 ……………..……. (3.7.28)

Combining Equations (3.7.27) and (3.7.28) leads to the conclusion that for
maximum average power transfer, ZL must be selected so that X L   X Th , and
RL  RTh i.e.
ZL = RL  jX L  RTh  jX Th  Z Th* …………………. (4.7.29)
For maximum average power transfer, the load impedance ZL must be equal to the
complex conjugate of the Thevenin impedance ZTh.
This result is known as the maximum average power transfer theorem for the
sinusoidal steady state. Setting RL  RTh and X L   X Th in Eq. (3.7.25) gives us the
maximum average power as
2
VTh
Pmax  ………………………………………. (3.7.30)
8RTh
In a situation in which the load is purely real, the condition for maximum power
transfer is obtained from Eq. (4.7.28) by setting X L  0 that is,
RL  RTh2  X Th2  Z Th ……………………………. (3.7.31)
This means that for maximum average power transfer to a purely resistive load, the
load impedance (or resistance) is equal to the magnitude of the Thevenin
impedance.

Example:
Determine the load impedance ZL that maximizes the average power drawn from
the circuit of Fig. 4.7.27. What is the maximum average power?
55
Fundamental of Electrical Engineering steady state AC circuits
 Fig.3.7.27

Solution:
First we obtain the Thevenin equivalent at the load terminals. To get ZTh, consider
the circuit shown below. We find

4(8  j 6)
ZTh = j5  4 //(8  j 6)  j5   2.933  j 4.467
4  8  j6

To find VTh, consider the circuit given below. By voltage division,

8  j6
VTh =  10  7.454  10.3 V
4  8  j6

The load impedance draws the maximum power from the circuit when

ZL = Z Th* = 2.933− j4.467 Ω

The maximum average power is

2
VTH (7.454) 2
Pmax    2.368 W
8RTh 8(2.933)

56
Fundamental of Electrical Engineering steady state AC circuits