New Jersey Institute of Technology

Newark College of Engineering

Department of Engineering Technology

DIODES and TRANSISTORS

Tutorial
Course ECET 202 “Circuits II”

Prepared by Dr. Victor Kayzman

2024
 Contents

Introduction ………………………………………………………………… 3
I. P-N Junction and Its Properties…………………………………………. 4
I.1 P-N Junction ……………………………………………………….. 4
I.2 Forward-biased and Reverse-biased p-n Junction …………………. 4
II. Diodes ……………………………………………………………………7
II.1Volt-Ampere Characteristics of a Diode …………………………….8
II.2Resistance of a Diode ………………………………………………. 10
II.3Diode Equivalent Circuits…………………………………………… 11
II.4Diode Schematic Symbols …………………………………………...15
II.5Examples of Diode Applications …………………………………… 16
II.6Diodes: Basic Problems …………………………………………….. 20
III. Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT)……………………………………… 21
3.1 Construction of BJT ………………………………………………… 21
3.2 BJT Current and Voltage Gain …………………………………….... 22
3.3 Transistor Circuit Configurations .……………..……………………. 24
3.4 DC Biasing of Bipolar Junction Transistors ………………………… 33
3.5 BJT: Basic Problems ………………………………………………… 36
Answers to Odd-Numbered Problems ………………………………………. 37
Sources ………………………………………………………………………. 38

2
 Introduction
This tutorial considers diodes and transistors – semiconductor devices that are
fundamental construction blocks of modern electronics. Though detailed analysis
of processes that take place in diodes and transistors requires utilization of methods
of quantum mechanics and solid-state physics, consideration at the qualitative level
is sufficient for understanding of basic principles and for practical applications of
those devices. Semiconductor materials, or semiconductors, such as silicon,
germanium, gallium arsenide and others, have unique properties that place them
apart from conductors and dielectrics. For example, unlike metals, conductivity of
a semiconductor increases when temperature increases. One of the most important
properties of semiconductors is their ability to acquire specific type of conductivity
when particular chemical elements are implanted in a semiconductor’s crystal
lattice. That process is called doping and implanted chemical elements are called
dopants. For instance, doping of silicon with chemical element which has five
valence electrons (phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, or bismuth) creates excess of
“free” electrons that can move relatively easy when external voltage is applied. A
dopant with three valence electrons (boron, gallium, or indium) implanted in the
crystal lattice of silicon (atoms of which have four valence electrons) creates
deficiency of electrons to complete all covalent bonds in the crystal lattice. Those
deficiencies of electrons can migrate from atom to atom and behave as specific
charge carriers named holes. Holes have positive charge and when external voltage
is applied can move through the silicon crystal. Semiconductor with excess of
electrons is called n–type and semiconductor with deficiency of electrons (excess
of holes) - is called p-type. At that semiconductor of p-type or n-type is electrically
neutral as long as external voltage is not applied since total numbers of electrons
and protons in the crystal still stay equal. Especially interesting effects for

3
applications in electronics can be observed when p-type and n-type of a
semiconductor are connected. That connection is not mechanical: imagine a
semiconductor crystal part of which has p-type of conductivity, and the other part
has n-type, at that those parts have mutual border. Various electrical phenomena in
such structures are considered in the sections that follow.

I. P-N Junction and Its Properties

1.1 P-N Junction
Let’s imagine that we just doped a semiconductor with different dopants, which
created two adjacent regions: one has p-type of conductivity, another has n-type,
and common border between those regions. What electrical processes will take
place in that structure immediately after its development? Almost instantaneously
electrons start to diffuse through the border to the p-region and form neutral atoms
with holes through the process called recombination. Holes will diffuse in opposite
direction and form neutral atoms in the n-region. That process will create
imbalance of charges on both sides of the border (positively charged “wall” in the
n-region on the one side of the border and negatively charged “wall” in the p-
region on the other side of the border), which begets electric field that opposes
further movement of charges. If no external electrical force is applied, the small
area between charged “walls” will be depleted (hence the name - depletion region)
and movement of charges will stop (Figure 1.1). That condition is called the state
of equilibrium, and it continues as long as external voltage is not applied. The
width of a depletion region depends on many factors (type of semiconductor,
concentration of dopants, technology, applied voltage, and others), but to give you
sense of dimension, it is a fraction of micrometer under the state of equilibrium.
Electric field, which exists between charged “walls”, is called barrier potential and
is an important parameter of a semiconductor. The barrier potential defines the
4
amount of energy electrons should have to “jump” through the depletion region.
Typical semiconductors, silicon and germanium, have barrier potential of 0.7 V

Figure 1.1
P-N Junction

and 0.3 V, respectively, when temperature is 25oC (80oF). Barrier potential is an

inverse function of temperature: decreases when temperature rises and increases
when temperature decreases. The physical border between p-type and n-type of a
semiconductor in the middle of the depletion regions is called the p-n junction. P-n
junction is the main structure of [p-n] junction diodes and bipolar junction
transistors (BJT), and it defines all electrical characteristics of those devices.

1.2 Forward-biased and reversed-biased p-n junction

We will start connecting terminals of the voltage source as shown in Figure 1.2:
positive (+) terminal - to the p-region, negative (-) terminal – to the n-region.
Repulsive electric field created by the voltage source will push electrons and holes
in the direction of p-n junction toward each other. Now electrons and holes have
enough energy (received from the voltage source) to cross the “walls” and
recombine with each other in the depletion region. Width of the depletion region

5
 Figure 1.2
Forward-biased p-n junction

will decrease due to the electric field created by the source, and big number of
electrons will move through the p-region toward positive terminal of the voltage
source. The same motion, just in opposite direction, will take place for holes.
Those processes will establish stable current flow as long as voltage V is applied.
P-n junction, which conducts current as described, is called forward-biased.
Forward-biased p-n junction has low resistance.
Now we will change the polarity of the voltage source to opposite: positive
(+) terminal connected to the n-region and negative (-) terminal connected to the p-
region (Figure 1.3). The majority carriers (holes in the p-region and electrons in the
n-region) will be attracted to the positive terminal (electrons) and to the negative
terminal (holes), away from the p-n junction. Very quickly that motion of the
majority carriers, which is called transient current, will come to zero. Width of the
depletion region increases until barrier potential will compensate voltage of the
external source. Interestingly, depletion region also acts as a capacitor: when its
width changes so does the capacitance. That effect is used in electronics.

6
 When terminals of the voltage source are connected as mentioned above
[positive (+) terminal to the n-region, negative (-) terminal – to the p-region] p-n
junction is called reverse-biased. Resistance of the reverse-biased p-n junction is
very high, typically in the megaohms range. Is there a current between terminals
when p-n junction is reverse-biased? Yes, there is small current through a p-n
junction (nanoamperes for silicon and microamperes for germanium), which is
called reverse saturation current. Reverse saturation current exists due to small
number of minority carriers (holes and electrons) in the depletion region generated
by temperature. That current heavily depends on temperature of the p-n junction:
the higher the temperature the bigger the current; when temperature decreases the
current also decreases.

Figure 1.3
Reverse-biased p-n junction

7
 II. DIODES
We already mentioned that p-n junction is the working structure of a diode. But
what is the difference between p-n junction and a diode? For a p-n junction to
become a diode - device that could be used in huge variety of electrical and
electronic devices and systems – several additional technological steps are
necessary. P-n junction must be protected from mechanical, electrical, thermal, and
other undesirable impacts. Hence protective case is necessary. A diode should
withstand temperature changes, vibration, shocks, humidity, corrosion, radiation,
and effects of other factors. Technical requirements for diodes are standardized,
and their electrical and other characteristics are described in documents called
technical specifications. Today there are dozens of different designs of diodes on
the market, curious students can find many examples using Internet search. P-n
junction diode has specific schematic symbol (Figure 2.1).

Figure 2.1.
Schematic symbol of a diode

Terminal of a diode connected to the p-region of the p-n junction is called anode
(A) and terminal connected to the n-region is called cathode (C). In terms of bias a
diode (read: its p-n junction) could be in three different states: no bias, forward-
biased, and reverse-biased. If no voltage applied to a diode, it is non-biased.
Connection of anode to the positive terminal of a voltage source and cathode to the
negative terminal of the source will make the diode forward-biased; with opposite
polarity the diode will be reverse-biased. Application of diodes requires
understanding of relations between voltage and current for both forward-biased

8
and reverse-biased states. There are several models of a diode, each has theoretical
and practical applications: the “ideal” diode, the simplified model, and the
“complex” model. All three models are considered below. “Ideal” diode has zero
resistance when it is forward-biased and infinite resistance when it is reverse-
biased (does it remind you a component that you have used multiple times working
in the lab?). The simplified model takes into account barrier potential and the
“complex” model also includes resistance of forward or reverse biased p-n
junction.

2.1 Volt-Ampere Characteristics of a Diode

To find relations between current through a diode and applied voltage we start
from the formula for an “ideal” diode. “Ideal” diode is just a convenient model,
which allows better understanding of real physical processes. After principles had
been understood necessary adjustments for the real diode can be easily introduced.
The formula (the Shockley diode equation), which is applicable for forward-biased
and reverse-biased diode is:
Id = Is(eqVd/kTK – 1) (2.1)
where
Id – current through a diode
Is – reverse saturation current
Vd – voltage applied to the diode
k – Boltzmann constant, k = 1.38×10-23 J/K (joule per degree of Kelvin)
q – charge of electron, q = 1.6×10-19 coulombs; TK – temperature in degrees
of Kelvin.
{Conversion of degrees from Fahrenheit (TF) to TK or from Celsius
(TC) to TK can be

9
 5
easily done using formulas TK = 9 (TF + 459.4o) or TK = TC + 273o}.

Formula (2.1) is often written as

Id = Is(eVd/VT – 1) (2.2)
where kTK/q = 0.8625×10-4TK is called the thermal voltage VT (for practicing,
you can check and confirm that unit for kTK/q is volt). At the “room temperatures”
(293oK – 300oK), which corresponds to (20oC – 27oC), VT is in the range 25 mV -
26 mV. For a real diode equation (2.2) is modified:
Id = Is(eVd/nVT – 1) (2.3)
where n ≥ 2 is so called non-ideality factor that depends on type of a
semiconductor (silicon, germanium, etc.) and applied voltage Vd.
When a diode is forward-biased (Vd > 0) Id grows exponentially. For the forward-
biased diode Vd is usually designated as VF and current as IF. After VF exceeds
barrier voltage (0.3 V for germanium or 0.7 V for silicon – that point on the graph
IF = f (VF) is designated as “knee”) IF starts to grow sharply. For a reverse-biased
diode (Vd < 0; Vd is usually designated as VR) reverse saturation current IS will be
independent of VR for the “ideal” diode, while for the real diode its reverse
saturation current will slightly decrease with decrease of VR. When VR will reach
critical negative value (so called breakdown voltage, VBR) reverse saturation
current IS will increase sharply. That region is called the avalanche region and for
the majority of diodes should be avoided. Specific type of diodes - zener diodes –
uses that region for voltage stabilization. Graph of the function Id = f(Vd) is called
volt-ampere characteristic of a diode (Figure 2.2). Pay attention that the graph has
different scales for forward-biased and reverse-biased diode.

10
 Figure 2.2
Volt-ampere characteristic of a diode
When a diode is forward-biased and VF increases, exponential part of the formulas
(2.1 - 2.3) quickly exceeds 1: eqVF/nkTK >> 1, current sharply increases after the
“knee” point. To what extent can forward current IF increase? Remember that p-n
junction is very sensitive to temperature, and its temperature increases when
voltage VF increases. On the other hand, if value of VF is fixed but temperature
increases forward current IF will also increase. If temperature of a p-n junction is
not limited, at some point the junction will be destroyed. Technical specifications
define all limitations applied to each type of diodes, including maximum
temperature of p-n junction, electrical characteristics such as VdMAX, IdMAX and many
others. E.g., for diodes of popular series 1N400X (X = 1, 2, …, 7) maximum

11
temperature of the p-n junction should not exceed 150oC (302oF), maximum
average forward current Id = IAFMAX = 1.0 A, maximum instantaneous forward
voltage Vd = VIFAMAX = 1.1 V.
For the reverse-biased diode reverse saturation current IS is function of
temperature. For fast estimates there is a commonly accepted conditional rule: The
reverse saturation current IS doubles for every 10oC (≈50oF) increase in
temperature.

2.2 Resistance of a Diode

It is necessary to distinguish resistance of a diode for DC and AC applied voltages.
For a forward-biased diode, when only DC voltage is applied, its resistance Rd is
defined by the Ohm’s law for DC circuits:
Vd
Rd = I (2.4)
d

whereV d , Id can be found using volt-ampere characteristics or through

measurements.
The diode resistance defined by (2.4) is called DC or static resistance.
If AC voltage is applied to a diode its resistance r’d will be defined by
changes in voltage and current values:
∆Vd
r'd = ∆ I (2.5)
d

dV d
At its limit equation (2.4) becomes a derivative r’d = dI (2.6)
d

To find r’d we will differentiate equation (2.1) and then take the reciprocal:
dI d d qVd/kTK
dV d
= dV d [Is (e – 1)] = IS(q/kTK) (eqVd/kTK) = (q/kTK) IF, (2.7)

assuming eqVd/kTK >> 1, for the forward-biased diode. Expression for rd follows:

12
 k TK
r’d = q I (2.8)
F

Substitution of 1.6×10-19 coulombs for q, 1.38×10-23 J/K for k, and 298o for TK gives:
kT K 0.0257 0.026 V 26 mV
r’d = q I = IF
≈
IF
=¿
IF (2.9)
F

Equation (2.9) plays a particularly important role for practical applications.

2.3 Diode Equivalent Circuits

In many instances while analyzing circuits with a diode, it is replaced by an
equivalent circuit, often called a diode model. Depending on practical needs, there
are three options.

The “ideal” diode model.

It was mentioned earlier that the “ideal” diode has zero resistance when forward-
biased and infinite resistance when reverse-biased. Equivalent circuit of the “ideal”
diode is a switch, its

Figure 2.3.
Volt-ampere characteristic of the “ideal” diode model

13
volt-ampere characteristic is shown in Figure 2.3. The “ideal” model assumes that
barrier potential, forward dynamic resistance r’d and reverse saturation current IS all
equals to zero. Forward current IF for this model is defined by applied voltage and
limiting resistor RLIM:
IF = VF/RLIM (2.10)
Reverse-biased diode in the “ideal” model works as an open switch. The “ideal”
diode model can be used for estimations, when high accuracy is not required.

The simplified (“practical”) diode model

For a forward-biased diode this model neglects value of r’d and introduces small
voltage source VBP = 0.7 V for a silicon diode (0.3 V for a germanium diode) in
series with a switch. Reverse saturation current IS is considered zero, same as for
the “ideal” diode. An equivalent circuit for forward-biased diode in this model is
shown in Figure 2.4 and corresponding volt-ampere characteristic in Figure 2.5.
Equivalent circuit for reverse-biased diode in the simplified (“practical”) model
includes open switch, limiting resistor, and VS with reversed polarity.

Figure 2.4
Equivalent circuit for a forward-biased diode in the simplified model

14
 Figure 2.5
Volt-ampere characteristic of a diode in the simplified model (for silicon
diode)

The “complex” diode model (piecewise-linear equivalent circuit)

This model takes into account the barrier potential (0.7 V or 0.3 V for silicon or
germanium, respectively), forward dynamic resistance rd (see formula (2.7)), and
reverse resistance rR. Figure 2.6 shows equivalent circuit for a forward-biased
silicon diode in this model.

Figure 2.6
Equivalent circuit for a forward-biased silicon diode in the “complex” model

15
An equivalent circuit for a reverse-biased silicon diode in the “complex” model,
which includes voltage source with opposite polarity, reverse resistance rR, and
limiting resistor RLIM is shown in Figure 2.7. In the “complex” model actual volt-
ampere characteristic is approximated by segments of straight lines as it shown in
Figure 2.8.

Figure 2.7
Equivalent circuit for a reverse-biased silicon diode in the “complex” model
Unlike two other models the “complex” model has very small but finite reverse
current IR.

Figure 2.8
Volt-ampere characteristic of a diode in the “complex” diode model
16
The “complex” diode model is better approximation of the real diode, however in
many instances the simplified (“practical”) model produces results, which
completely satisfy practical needs. It is why the simplified model is used most
often.

2.4 Diode Schematic Symbols

Though this tutorial does not consider all types of diodes it is useful to know their
schematic symbols. Most used symbols are shown in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1. Schematic symbols of most often used diodes
Diode Diode Name Comments
Schematic symbol
P-n junction diode Most used diode for rectification and to
perform variety of other functions
PIN diode For applications in high frequency
electronic circuits
Zener diode Main application - voltage stabilization
or

Schottky diode Low-voltage diode for various

applications
Tunnel diode Diode that uses pure quantum effect –
tunneling. Applications: in high
frequency electronic equipment
Varactor diode Applications: voltage-controlled
capacitor
(another name: varicap)
Light-emitting diode Diode that emits light when forward-
biased

Photodiode Diode that converts light into electrical

current

17
 2.5 Examples of Diode Applications
There are dozens of different types of diodes and countless examples of their
applications. This section considers just a few examples of the circuits used in
electronic systems.

The Full-Wave Rectifier

All electronic devices and systems require DC voltage source for their functioning.
Full-wave diode rectifier, schematic of which is shown in Figure 2.9, converts AC
voltage into DC.

Figure 2.9
Full-Wave Rectifier

Primary winding of the center-tapped transformer T is connected to the source of

AC voltage. The transformer could be step-up, or step-down depending on
practical needs. The outer terminals of the secondary winding are connected to
anodes of the diodes D1 and D2 as shown in Figure 2.9. Cathodes of the diodes are
connected to the load resistor RL. During positive half a period, diode D1 is
forward-biased, current flows through it and resistor RL, which produces positive
half a period of the output voltage Vout = VRL. Diode D2 is reverse-biased and does

18
not contribute any voltage to the output. During negative half a period, diode D2 is
forward-biased while diode D1 is reverse-biased. Current flows through D2 and
resistor RL. It is easy to see that the direction of current through resistor RL is the
same for positive and negative input voltage, as shown in Figure 2.9. Thus, while
input voltage changes its polarity every half a cycle output voltage has positive
polarity only. After filters (not shown in Figure 2.9) output will be almost “ideal”
DC voltage. If input voltage and type of a diode (silicon, germanium or other) are
known, output can be easily calculated. For a silicon diode:
Vout = 0.5Vsec – 0.7 V (2.11)
where Vsec is the total secondary voltage; 0.7 V – voltage drop on the internal
resistance
of the diode.
An important characteristic of a diode is Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) - the
maximum voltage reverse-biased diode should withstand. If a diode is reverse-
biased, total secondary voltage that applied to it in the center-tapped rectifier is
Vpsec - 0.7 V. PIV can also be expressed through peak output voltage Vp (out):
PIV ≥ Vpsec - 0.7 V = 2Vp(out) + 0.7 V (2.12)
where Vpsec is peak secondary voltage.

19
 The Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier
The full-wave bridge rectifier shown in Figure 2.10 is another diode-based circuit
to convert AC voltage into DC. During positive half a cycle of the input voltage
current flows through diode D1,

Figure 2.10
The Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier

resistor RL, diode D2 and back to the secondary winding producing output voltage
VRL with the positive polarity. During negative half cycle current flows through
diode D4, resistor RL, diode D3 and back to the secondary winding, thus producing
output voltage VRL with the same peak amplitude and positive polarity as it was for
the positive half cycle of the secondary winding. Output voltage, including its peak
value is Vpout = Vpsec – 1.4 V (2.13)
where 1.4 V is voltage drop on internal resistances of two silicon diodes
(D1, D2 or D4, D3, respectively).
PIV for silicon diodes in the full-wave bridge rectifier:
PIV = Vpsec - 0.7 V (2.14)
Comparison of both types of full-wave rectifiers shows that each circuit has
advantages and shortcomings. Most important are mentioned below.
Advantages of the full-wave bridge rectifier:

20
 a) Center-tapped transformer (most costly and least reliable part of the
rectifier) is not needed.
b) The output voltage is twice as big as that of a full-wave center-tapped
rectifier.
c) For the same output voltage PIV rating for diodes is just half of that in a full-
wave center-tapped rectifier.
Disadvantages of the full-wave bridge rectifier:
a) It requires four diodes.
b) It is less suitable for rectification of small voltages due to twice as big
voltage drop on internal resistances of diodes since two of them are involved
during each half a cycle.

Zener Voltage Regulator

In many instances it is necessary to stabilize DC voltages. Special type of diodes –
zener diode – is specifically designed to work in the breakdown region: the diode
has narrow depletion region, and because of that, when it is reverse-biased, strong
electric field pulls valence electrons from their atoms, thus creating reverse current.
At that VBR changes insignificantly. To be exact, there are two breakdown regions:
zener breakdown (V BR ≤ 5 V ) and avalanche breakdown (V BR> 5V ) – different types
of zener diodes can operate in both. When a zener diode is forward-biased it works
as a rectified diode. A schematic circuit for a zener voltage regulator is shown in
Figure 2.11. There RLIM is a limiting resistor, DZ – zener diode, and RL – load
resistor. Breakdown voltages of zener diodes have range from units of volts to
hundreds of volts depending on the type of the diode. Zener diode provides
effective stabilization of the reverse voltage VZ, when reverse current (also called
the zener current IZ) changes between values IZK and its maximum IZM. Value IZK of
the zener current corresponds to a “knee” on the reverse part of the volt-ampere
21
characteristic (see Figure 2.2). IZM is defined by physical limitations. Data sheets
(technical specifications) for zener diodes provide current values IZK and IZM.

Figure 2.11
Zener Voltage Regulator
Example. A certain zener diode has zener impedance ZZT = 7 Ω, and VZT = 5 V at
IZT = 25 mA (IZT - zener test current; corresponding voltage and impedance are
marked as VZT and ZZT, respectively), IZK = 1 mA, IZM = 45 mA. Find VZ range
between points IZK and IZM.
Solution. Current changes: ∆ IZ1 = IZM - IZT = 45 mA – 25 mA =20 mA.
∆ IZ2 = IZK - IZT = 1 mA - 25 mA = -24 mA

Voltage changes: ∆ VZ1 = ∆ IZ1 × ZZT = 140 mV; VMAX = VZT + ∆ VZ1 = 5.140 V.
∆ VZ2 = ∆ IZ2 × ZZT = -168 mV; VMIN = VZT - ∆ VZ2 = 4.832 V.

VZ range: from 4.832 V to 5.140 V.

To evaluate effectiveness of a zener voltage regulator with variable load special
characteristic called the load regulation (LR) is used:
V OWL −V OFL
LR = V OFL
×100% (2.15)

where VOWL is the output voltage without load, and VOFL is the output with
full load.

22
 2.6 Diodes: Basic Problems
1. For a forward-biased silicon diode determine voltage VF, if temperature T =
300o K, current IF = 25 mA, and current IS = 50 nA.

2. Using equation (2.2) determine the diode current at 20o C for a silicon diode
with IS = 100 nA and VF = 0.5 V.

3. Reverse saturation current IS for a certain diode is 100 µA at temperature 125oC.

Evaluate value of IS at 25oC.

4. The “rule of thumb” to evaluate changes of IS with temperature is: absolute value
of the reverse saturation current IS doubles for every 10oC (50oF) increase in
temperature. Derive an expression to calculate IS when changes of temperature
are multiples of 10.

5. Determine dynamic resistance of a diode if the forward current IF = 15 mA.

6. Dynamic resistance of a diode r’d = 5 Ω. Find the diode’s current IF.

7. Determine required PIV for silicon diodes of the center-tapped full-wave

rectifier, if its transformer’s turns ratio N = 0.04 and input voltage Vin = 120
Vrms.

8. Determine diodes’ PIV if secondary voltage of the center-tapped full-wave

rectifier is 24 Vrms.

9. The full-wave bridge rectifier has silicon diodes, transformer with the turns
ratio n = 0.2, and a load resistor RL = 5 kΩ. Input voltage Vin = 120 Vrms.
Determine DC voltage across RL.

10. If the secondary voltage of a full-wave bridge rectifier is 100 Vrms what should
be PIV for the diodes?

11. If current of a zener voltage regulator is at its maximum, what is value of the
load resistor?

12. What is the difference in terms of performance between forward-biased zener

diode and a forward-biased rectified diode with identical voltage and current
limitations?

23
13. A zener voltage regulator has an output voltage of 5 V without load and 4.9 V
with full load. Determine load regulation.

14. Define current and voltage ranges for commercially available zener diodes.

15. For a certain zener diode VZT = 10 V at IZT = 30 mA. If ZZT = 8 Ω, what is the
voltage at IZ = 50 mA?

III. Bipolar Junction Transistors

24
The first half of XX century was time of rapid development of radio and electronic
equipment based on vacuum tubes. However as electronic systems grew more
complex critical shortcomings of vacuum tubes – low reliability, size, and big
energy consumption - became serious obstacles to further miniaturization and
development. Naturally, intensive research had been undertaken to find a solution.
Breakthrough came on December 23, 1947, when three American scientists, John
Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley from Bell Labs in Murray Hill,
New Jersey, announced invention of the point-contact transistor – predecessor of
the bipolar junction transistor (BJT). BJT was invented by William Shockley in
1948, its first working prototype was built in April of 1950 by two other American
scientists, Gordon Teal and Morgan Sparks, from Bell Labs. Word bipolar reflects
physics of the BJT: both electrons and holes participate in current transition.
Bipolar junction transistor is one of two main types of transistors (the second type
– unipolar field-effect transistor – is not considered in this tutorial).

3.1 Construction of BJT

BJT consists of three areas (layers) of a semiconductor: either two p-type regions
separated by thin n-type region, or two n-type regions separated by the thin p-type
region. The first structure is called p-n-p transistor (Figure 3.1), and the second
structure is called n-p-n transistor (Figure 3.2).

25
 Figure 3.1
Structure of p-n-p BJT (a) and its schematic symbol (b)

Figure 3.2
Structure of n-p-n BJT (a) and its schematic symbol (b)

Each of the three areas of BJT has a specific name: middle layer is called base (B),
and outer regions are called emitter (E) and collector (C), respectively. The base is
thin (around 2.5 micrometers), while emitter and collector each has width of about
350 micrometers. Each type of BJT has two p-n junctions: base-emitter (BE
junction) and base-collector (BC junction). The base is lightly doped, much less
26
than emitter and collector, to increase its resistance. The reason for this will
become clear when transistor operation is considered.

3.2 BJT Current and Voltage Gains

What makes transistor so versatile is, first and foremost, its ability to amplify input
signals when proper conditions are applied. Consider p-n-p transistor shown in
Figure 3.3. Its base-emitter junction is forward-biased, while its base-collector
junction is reverse-biased. (In case n-p-n transistor is chosen, its BE junction also
should be forward-biased and BC junction should be reverse-biased, but polarities
of applied DC sources will be opposite). Width of the depletion region of the
forward-biased BE junction will decrease, while width of the depletion region of
the reverse-biased BC junction will increase. Repulsive force created by electrical
field of the DC source VBE will push holes from heavily doped emitter to move
through the lightly doped base to collector. Since base is very thin and has very
low concentration of “free” electrons just small part of holes will recombine with
electrons in the base, creating small base current. Most part of holes will travel to
collector due to attracting electric field created by the base-collector source VBC.
For emitter current IE of the circuit shown in Figure 3.3 we can write:
IE = IC + IB (3.1)
where IC, IB are collector and base current, respectively.
In most cases IB << IC, IB << IE.

27
 Figure 3.3
Forward-reverse bias of p-n-p transistor

It is very important to define directions or currents for each p-n-p and n-p-n
transistor: conventional flow version should be combined with the physical reality.
For both types of BJTs the direction of emitter current is chosen in accordance
with conventional flow (Figures 3.4 and 3.5). Directions for IC and IB are chosen in
accordance with (3.1).
In practice, in many cases it is acceptable to use IE ≅ IC, if such substitution
does not affect accuracy of circuit analysis. Curious students can ask: how does the
circuit in Figure 3.3 amplify signals, if output current is smaller than input current,
IC < IE? Yes, this circuit does not amplify current, but it provides high voltage gain
due to low input impedance and high output impedance while IC ≈ IE.
The following ratios are used to evaluate DC current gain of a BJT circuits:
βDC = IC/IB; βDC has values from tens to hundreds.
αDC = IC/IE; αDC always less than 1, usually in 0.95 – 0.99 range, since IC = IE – IB.
Voltage gain is considered in sections that follow for each circuit configuration.

28
 Figure 3.4
Directions of currents in p-n-p transistor

Figure 3.5
Directions of currents in n-p-n transistor

3.3 Transistor Circuit Configurations

There are three basic circuit configurations, which define a huge variety of BJT
applications: common-base, common-emitter, and common-collector. What is in
the name of each configuration? The names reflect the simple fact that either base
or emitter or collector is common terminal for input and output. For each circuit
there are sets of volt-ampere characteristics for input and output, and groups of

29
parameters, which describe circuits’ electrical properties. Each circuit can be built
using either p-n-p or n-p-n transistor.
Common-Base Circuits
The schematic diagram of the common-base circuit is shown in Figure 3.6.

Figure 3.6
The common-base amplifier

The circuit has very low input resistance, which is approximately equal to the
internal AC emitter resistance re’ and is typically in the range of ohms – tens of
ohms.
(r’e ≈ 26 mV/IE) (3.1)
Contrary to that output resistance RC of the circuit is very high, up to hundreds of
kiloohms. As a result, voltage gain AV≅ RC /r’e is very high (range: from tens to
hundreds to thousands). Current gain Ai < 1 and power gain AP of the common-
base amplifier is approximately equal to AV.
The input volt-ampere characteristics of the common-base circuit represent
emitter current IE as a function of base-emitter voltage VBE, IE = f(VBE), for forward-
biased BE junction (see section II of this tutorial). Output volt-ampere
characteristics for the common-base circuit represent collector (output) current IC
as a function of voltage VCB, applied between collector and base, IC = f(VCB), for

30
different values of the emitter current IE. Example of output characteristics is
shown in Figure 3.7. There are three specific areas: active region, cutoff region,
and saturation region. The active region, located to the right of the vertical axis and
above IE = 0, is the main area, where the common-base circuit works as an
amplifier. In the active region BE junction is forward-biased and BC junction is
reverse-biased. Collector current is almost independent from voltage VCB, but
strongly depends on values of the emitter current IE. If IE = 0, there is very small
current between collector and base, which in many instances can be ignored.
Below line IE = 0 is the cutoff region – area, where BE and BC junctions are both
reverse-biased. In the cutoff region transistor acts as an open circuit between
emitter and collector terminals. In the saturation region (area to the left of the
vertical axis) both BE and BC junctions are forward-biased and BJT resistance
between emitter and collector is very low.

Figure 3.7
Output volt-ampere characteristics IC = f(VCB) of the common-base amplifier

31
Example of a common-base circuit is shown in Figure 3.8. Input signal Vin through
capacitor C1 is applied to the base, output Vout is at the collector. Resistors R1 and
R2 form voltage divider that defines DC bias voltage at the base. C1 and C3 are
coupling capacitors for input and output, respectively; their main task - to block
undesirable DC voltage, thus preventing effects that voltage can have on the circuit
(for example, changing bias voltage at the base of the transistor in Figure 3.8). The
base, which is a common terminal, is grounded through the capacitor C2 (do not
forget - we are considering AC signals!). Voltage gain Av is defined as
Av = Vout /Vin ≈ IC(RC || RL)/IC(re’|| RE). (3.2)
where re’ is defined by the formula (3.1).

Figure 3.8
The common-base amplifier

Since RE >> re’ formula (3.2) for Av can be written as

Av ≈ (RC || RL)/ re’ (3.3)
When common-base circuit is used as an amplifier Av >> 1.
32
The current gain Ai is slightly less than 1 and power gain AP is approximately equal
to Av.
Example 3.1. Find the input resistance, voltage gain, current gain, and power gain
for the circuit in Figure 3.8. Assume β DC = IC/IB = 200 and frequency of the input
signal is high enough to ignore the effect of the capacitors on the circuit.
Solution. Input resistance Rin ≅ re’ = (26 mV/IE)
IE = VE/RE, (RE = 1 kΩ)
VE = VB – 0.7 V, (assuming a silicon transistor)
VB = (Vcc×R2)/(R1 + R2) = 1.67 V (since βDC × RE >> R2).
Putting all this together: IE = (1.67 V – 0.7 V)/ RE = 0.97 mA.
Rin = (26 mV/IE) = 26 mV/0.97 mA = 26.8 Ω.
Voltage gain Av = (RC || RL)/re’ = (5 kΩ×10 kΩ)/[(15 kΩ)×0.0268 kΩ]
= 124.4
Current gain: Ai ≅ 1. Power gain: AP ≅ Av = 124.4.
Summary of the common-base circuit
a) Input: at the emitter, output: at the collector. Input and output have the same
phase
b) αDC usually close to 1, but always less than unit since IC = IE – IB
c) Input resistance is low, Rin ≅ re’
d) Output resistance is high, Rout = RC || RL
e) Due to (b) and (c) the circuit has high voltage gain AV (AV ≅ RC / re’ without
load)
f) Power gain AP is approximately equal to AV
g) Current gain Ai is less than 1 (for majority of practical applications Ai ≅ 1)
h) The circuit is used as a preamplifier, current buffer, and particularly for high
frequencies

33
 amplification [for Very High Frequencies (VHF: 30 – 300 MHz) and for
Ultra High Frequencies (UHF: 300 MHz – 3 GHz).

Common-Emitter Circuits
Variant of the common-emitter circuit with voltage-divider bias is shown in
Figure 3.9.

Figure 3.9
The common-emitter amplifier
The common-emitter circuit, usually called common-emitter amplifier, can be
found in many devices and systems. In Figure 3.9 C1 and C3 are coupling
capacitors, C2 is a bypass capacitor, which shorts AC signals and keeps emitter
grounded. Bypass capacitor allows to increase the voltage gain of the amplifier and
reduce its noise level. Reactance XC2 of the bypass capacitor should be small for all
frequencies from the amplifier’s bandwidth. Compare to the value of RE reactance
XC2 should be at least ten times smaller (RE ≥ 10XC2). Resistors R1 and R2 form
voltage divider that defines DC bias voltage at the base. The input characteristics
34
of the common-emitter amplifier represent base current IB as a function of the base-
emitter voltage VBE: IB = f(VBE), for different values of the collector voltage Vc. IB is
in the range of µA and nA, VBE has range in volts and Vc is from units to tens of
volts. Input characteristic of the common-emitter amplifier is a volt-ampere
characteristic of the forward-biased emitter-base junction. Output characteristics of
the common-emitter amplifier represent collector current IC as a function of
collector-emitter voltage VCE for different values of base current IB: IC = f(VCE),
Figure 3.10. There are also (as in the case of the common-base amplifier) three
distinctive regions: active, cutoff, and saturation.

Figure 3.10
Output characteristics of the common-emitter amplifier
Active region: base-emitter junction is forward-biased, collector-base junction is
reverse-biased. In that region the common-emitter circuit amplifies voltage,
current, and power. DC current gain is defined by βDC = IC/IB, which has range from
tens to hundreds. Technical specifications defined βDC as hFE parameter. βAC is a

35
ratio of the current variations, β AC = ∆ IC /∆ IB. In practice βDC and βAC are often used
interchangeably since their values are close. Technical specifications defined β AC
as hfe parameter. While analyzing circuits, in some instances it is helpful to use α
parameter instead or along with β. Recall that α = I C/IE. Simple calculations allow
to establish relationship between α and β:
IE = IC + IB
Expressing IE and IB using α and β, respectively: IC/α = IC + IC/β
Dividing this expression by IC:
1/α = 1 + 1/β,
which gives:
β α
α = β+1 (3.4); β = 1−α (3.5)

Input resistance of the common-emitter amplifier is Rin = βAC × re’ (3.6)

Output resistance Rout for AC signal is defined by parallel connection of RC and RL:
Rout = RC || RL = (RC × RL)/( RC + RL) (3.7)
Example 3.2. Determine input resistance Rin of the common-emitter amplifier if IE
= 5 mA
and βAC = 120.
Solution. Rin = βAC × re’ = 120×(26mV/IE) = 624 Ω.
Example 3.3. Determine output resistance Rout of the common-emitter amplifier
shown in
Figure 3.9. Assume RL = 10 kΩ.
Solution. Rout = (RC × RL)/(RC + RL) = (2 kΩ ×10 kΩ)/( 2 kΩ + 10 kΩ) =
= 1.67 kΩ.
While talking about voltage gain of the common-emitter amplifier it is important to
recognize two different entities: voltage gain base-to-collector AV and total voltage
gain A’V, which are approximately equal when output resistance of the signal’s

36
source Rs is much smaller than input resistance of the amplifier Rin (Rs << Rin). We
will assume that such conditions are met.

Summary of the common-emitter circuit

a) Input: at the base, output: at the collector
b) Output is inverted with respect to input
c) Emitter is grounded (for AC signals) through the bypass capacitor
d) Input resistance Rin = βAC × re’
e) Output resistance Rout ≅ RC
f) Voltage gain (base to collector) AV ≈ RC / re’
g) Current gain Ai = IC/Iin
h) Power gain AP = AV Ai.

Common-Collector Circuits
In the common-collector circuit, also called an emitter follower, input voltage Vin is
applied to the base through the coupling capacitor and output voltage Vout is taken
from the emitter. Since DC power supply provides zero resistance to AC current
collector terminal is grounded and is common for input and output. A typical
common-collector circuit is shown in Figure 3.11. Input voltage Vin is applied
through the coupling capacitor C1 to the base, which means it applied between base
and collector since collector is at AC ground. Resistors R1 and R2 form voltage
divider bias to define the Q-point. VCC (Voltage at the Common Collector) is the
power supply voltage. Load resistor RL connected to the emitter through coupling
capacitor C2.
Output characteristics of the common-collector circuit represent emitter
current IE as a function of emitter-collector voltage VEC for different values of the

37
base current IB. Those characteristics are the same as for common-emitter circuit
(see Figure 3.10).
Input resistance of the common-collector amplifier is defined by parallel
connection of three resistor R1, R2, and re’: Rin = R1||R2||Rin(base) (again, do not forget
we are considering AC signals!). Output resistance Rout can be found using
approximate formula: Rout ≈ (Rs/βAC)||RE, where Rs is resistance of the input source.
Example 3.4. For the circuit given in Figure 3.11determine the following: total
input resistance, voltage gain, current gain, and power gain. Assume silicon
transistor, βAC = 150, and XC1 and XC2 reactances can be ignored at the frequency of
operation.
Solution. Rin(base) = Vin/Iin ≈ βACRe. Re = RE||RL = 1.1 kΩ. Rin(base) ≈ βACRe 150×1.1 kΩ =
165 kΩ.
Input resistance Rin = R1||R2||Rin(base) = 22 kΩ || 22 kΩ || 165 kΩ = 10.31 kΩ

Figure 3.11
The common-collector amplifier (emitter follower)
Emitter voltage VE = [R2(R1 + R2)]VCC – VBE = 0.5×10 V - 0.7 V = 4.3 V
Emitter current IE = VE/RE = 4.3 V/ 2.2 kΩ = 1.95 mA

38
 re’ = 26 mV/1.95 mA = 13.3 Ω
Voltage gain Av = Re /(re’ + Re) = 1.1 kΩ/(13.3 Ω + 1.1 kΩ) = 0.988
Current gain Ai = Ie/Iin
Ie = Ve/Re = (Av × Vb)/ Re = 0.988×1.5 V/1.1 kΩ = 1.35 mA
Iin = Vin/Rin = 1.5 V/10.31 kΩ = 145 µA
Current gain Ai = Ie/Iin = 1.35 mA/ 145 µA = 9.31
Power gain Ap is approximately equals to Ai. Ap = 9.31
The common-collector circuit is used as a buffer (matching high impedance
of an input source to low impedance of a load) and as power amplifier.

Summary of the common-collector circuit

a) Input: at the base, output: at the emitter
b) Input and output signals have the same phase
c) Collector is at AC ground
d) Input resistance Rin(base) = Vin/Iin ≈ βACRe = βACRE||RL
e) Output resistance Rout ≈ (Rs/βAC)||RE
f) Voltage gain (base to collector) AV ≤ 1
g) Current gain Ai = IC/Iin
h) Power gain AP = Ai.

3.4 DC Biasing of Bipolar Junction Transistors

For transistor amplifiers of any configuration to be able to perform their functions
proper DC settings, technically known as DC biasing, must be done. That includes
settings of DC voltages for forward-biased and reverse-biased p-n junctions and
another one, which defines position of the operating point (Q-point: the quiescent
point) on output volt-ampere characteristics. For example, considering the
common-emitter circuit: for its transistor to operate as an amplifier base-emitter
39
junction should be forward-biased and base-collector junction should be reverse-
biased. Besides that, settings should be made to get output signal without
distortions. Consider sinusoidal signal, which is applied to the input of the
amplifier: after amplification inverted output signal will oscillate with respect to
DC level of output. If that level, which is defined by position of the Q-point, is not
set or set incorrectly, output signal can extend into nonlinear areas of the output
characteristics, IC = f(VCE), causing severe distortions of that signal. Q-point is a
fixed point on an output characteristic, which serves as a point of reference for
input and output signals. How to choose position of a Q-point? There are several
ways to do that.
Load-line analysis. Consider the circuit shown in Figure 3.12 (fixed-bias circuit).
Applying Kirchhoff’s Voltage law:
VCE = VCC – ICRC (3.8)
Corresponding output characteristics are shown in Figure 3.13.
If in (3.8) VCE = 0, VCC = ICRC or IC = VCC /RC, that point is marked on the IC axis in
Figure 3.13. Choosing IC = 0 we will find the second point VCE = VCC, that one on
VCE axis. Straight line between those two points is called load line and its
intersections with the volt-ampere characteristics will define positions of Q-point
for different values of the base current IB.

40
 Figure 3.12
Fixed-bias circuit

Figure 3.13
Load line for the circuit in Figure 3.12

41
The fixed-bias circuit considered above is a good illustration of the Q-point setting.
But that circuit has a serious drawback: temperature instability. The common-
emitter amplifier with voltage-divider bias shown in Figure 3.9 does not have such
a problem. We will analyze that amplifier to define equation for the load line. First,
pay attention that with respect to AC signal resistors R1 and R2 are connected in
parallel since resistor R1 is grounded through the VCC.
R 2 V CC
Base voltage VB is defined as VB ≈ R + R (3.9)
1 2

For (3.9) to correctly define VB we assume that βRE ≥ 10R2, which is correct for
majority of practical applications. Next step: determine VE:
VE = VB - VBE (3.10)
VE
Emitter current IE: IE ≈ R (3.11)
E

Since base current is many times smaller than either emitter or collector currents
we can write IC ≅ IE (3.12)
and collector-emitter voltage is defined by the following:
VCE = VCC – ICRC – IERE (3.13)
Since IC ≅ IE, VCE = VCC – IC (RC + RE) (3.14)
Equation (3.14) defines positions of the load line and a Q-point.

42
 III.5 BJT: Basic Problems
1. A certain transistor has βDC of 180. If the collector current is 15 mA, what is the
value of the base current? What is the value of αDC?

2. Why is the base region of BJT thin and little doped?

3. A 25 mV AC signal is applied to the base of a transistor of the common-emitter

amplifier. Emitter internal resistance re’ = 12 Ω and RC = 1 kΩ. The transistor is
properly biased. Determine the AC voltage at the collector.

4. Determine IB, IC, and VCE for a fixed-biased transistor in Figure 3.12 if β DC =
120, VCC = 15 V, RB = 22 kΩ, and RC = 100 Ω. (Hint: use Kirchhoff’s voltage
law to find VCE.)

5. If an emitter current of a certain transistor IE is 12 mA, what is it emitter

internal resistance re’?

6. Determine the value of the bypass capacitor of the common-emitter amplifier

for the frequency of 5 kHz.

43
7. Determine value of the bypass capacitor of the common-emitter amplifier for
the frequency of 20 kHz. Use circuit shown in Figure 3.9. You can also use
other sources (in this case a chosen circuit should be included in your report).

8. Determine base-to-collector voltage gain of the common-emitter amplifier in

Figure 3.9 with and without bypass capacitor.

9. Determine the base-to-collector voltage gain of the common-emitter amplifier

in Figure 3.9 with and without of bypass capacitor and without load resistor.

10.Analyze the effect of a load on the voltage gain for the circuit in Figure 3.9. If
there is one derive formula that takes that effect into account.

11.The maximum value of collector current in a biased transistor is

(a) βDC IB (b) IC(sat) (c) greater than IE (d) IE - IB

12.The disadvantage of base bias is that

(a) it is very complex (b) it produces low gain
(c) it is too beta dependent (d) it produces high leakage current

13.Ideally, a dc load line is a straight line drawn on the collector characteristic

curves between
(a) the Q-point and cutoff (b) the Q-point and saturation
(c) VCE(cutoff) and IC(sat) (d) IB = 0 and IB = IC/β
14.The input resistance at the base of a biased transistor depends, mainly, on
(a) βDC (b) RB (c) RE (d) βDC and RE

15.For a transistor of the common-emitter amplifier with voltage-divider bias, VB =

2.7 V. The DC emitter voltage is
(a) 2.7 V (b) 1.3 V (c) 2 V (d) 4.1 V

44
 Answers to Odd-Numbered Problems

Diodes: Basic Problems

1. 339.8 mV

3. IR = 97.66 nA
5. r’d = 1.73 Ω

7. PIV ≥ 6.09 V

9. VRL(DC) = 20.73 V

11.∞

13.2.04%

15.10.16 V

BJT: Basic Problems

1. IB = 83 µA; αDC = 0.994

3. 2.083 V

5. 2.1 Ω

7. 0.169 µF

9. With C2: 240.1; Without C2: 4.18

11. (b)

13 (c)

15. (c)

Bibliography

45
1. Thomas L. Floyd. Electronic Devices, 10th edition. Pearson, 2020.
ISBN 978-0134414447.

First Transistor
(Inventors: William Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain)
The first transistor was successfully demonstrated on December 23, 1947 at Bell
Laboratories in Murray Hill, New Jersey.

46