HIDDEN

MEDIEVAL • RENAISSANCE

SYMBOLS
BAROQUE NEOCLASSICAL

in
THE
ART
19 th AND 20 th CENTURIES

THE ILLUSTRATED DECODER OF

SYMBOLS AND FIGURES IN WESTERN PAINTING

SARAH CARR-GOMM
The great artists have created intriguing worlds of the

imagination whose features may mystify the modern

viewer. What stories are being told in these glorious

pictures? Who are the characters that inhabit them?

What are the deeper meanings that lie beyond what

is evident to the untrained eye?

In Hidden Symbols in Art Sarah Carr-Gomm, art

historian, provides a fascinating guide to the key

figures, themes, events, symbols, and emblems that

form the subject matter of Western painting. Strikingly

illustrated with 75 great works and more than 75

telling details, the book spans seven centuries of

creativity — from works produced in medieval times to

masterpieces of the twentieth century.

Hidden Symbols in Art is divided by theme

into five chapters: Classical Myth and Legend;The

Bible and the Life of Christ; Saints and their Miracles;

History, Literature, and the Arts; and Symbols and

Allegories. Each chapter opens with a collection of

some of the most famous paintings in Western art,

OD
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each reproduced in color, and accompanied by an o C/3

illuminating commentary and an analysis of its most o

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significant figures and symbols. The second part of -""!

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each chapter comprises a thematic directory of figures _.,
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and symbols, interspersed with illustrated feature
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panels on key subjects — all fully cross-referenced.
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The ideal companion for all art lovers, gallery goers, _ cr
and students of art history, Hidden Symbols in Art 0)
CT>
brings Western painting to life in a new way —with the
emphasis on making art more enjoyable by bringing us

to an understanding of its core repertoire of themes.

As Sarah Carr-Gomm leads us through the labyrinth of

artistic figures and symbols, we gain from her a wealth

of insight and a wealth of stories.

 HIDDEN
SYMBOLS
in
ART
 HIDDEN
SYMBOLS
in
ART
SARAH CARR-GOMM

all pictures supplied by

THE BRIDGEMAN ART LIBRARY

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MOBILE LIBRARY SERVICES

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CONTENTS
ih<- United States <>i America in 2001 bj
Ki//ipIi [ntemational Publications, Inc.

KM) Park Avenue South

New York NY 10010

( opyrigbl C 2001 l>\ Duncan Baird Publishers FOREWORD

ten copyright © 2001 l>\ Duncan Baird Publishers

Foi copyrighl of photographs sec- page '_'.">(>. which is to be

rded as an extension of this copyright
CHAPTER i: CLASSICAL MYTH AND LEGEND
All rights reserved.
KEY PAINTINGS
No ma\ be reproduced in any form
part of this publication
Botticelli: Venus and Mars 10
without prior written permission from the Publisher.
Boucher: Venus Asking Vulcan for the Armor of Aeneas 12
( onceived, created, and designed by Caravaggio: The Young Bacchus 14
Duncan Baird Publishers Ltd. Carlone: Juno and Mars 16
Sixth Floor. Castle House
Redon: Apollo's Chariot 18
75-76 Wells Street, London WIT 3QH
Botticelli: Primavera 20
Typeset in New Baskerville and Filosofia Guercino: Detail of the ceiling of the "Sala Di Aurora" 22
Printed in Singapore Mantegna: Parnassus 24
Piero di Cosimo: A Satyr Mourning Over a Nymph 26
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data available.
Botticelli: Athene and the Centaur 28
ISBN: 0-8478-2402-0 Picasso: Minotaur and Dead Mare in Front of a Cave 30
LC: 2001089084 Piero di Cosimo: Perseus Rescuing Andromeda 32
Waterhouse: Hylas and the Nymphs 34
Cover artwork: Hannah Firmin/Sharp Practice
Ingres: Jupiter and Thetis 36
10 98 765432 1 Rubens: The Judgment of Paris 38
Klimt: Danae 40
NOTES
Moreau: Jupiter and Semele 42
The abbreviations bce and ce are used throughout this book:
BCE Before the Common Era (the equivalent of bc) Peruzzi: The Nymph Callisto on Jupiter's Chariot 44
CE Common Era (the equivalent of AD) Raphael: The Triumph of Galatea 46
Jacopo del Sellaio: The Story of Cupid and Psyche 48
CAPTION TO THE PAINTING SHOWN ON PAGE 2
Titian: Venus and Adonis 50
Detail from The Judgment of Paris by Peter Paul Rubens
(see pages 38-39) de Vos: The Rape of Europa 52
David: The Sabine Women 54
THEMATIC DIRECTORY
Gods and Goddesses 56
Nymphs, Satyrs, and Minor Gods 62
Heroes and Monsters 64
MOBILE Hercules and his Labors 68

N7740 The Trojan War 69

.C293 Love, Mortal and Divine 72
2001 Tales of Transformation 76
The Underworld 78
Crimes and Transgressions 79

CHAPTER i: THE BIBLE AND THE LIFE OF CHRIST 80

KEY PAINTINGS

Anonymous: The Wilton Diptych 82

Bruegel: The Fall of the Rebel A ngels 84
van Eyck: The Adoration of the Lamb 86
van der Goes: The Fall 88
Raphael: Vision of Ezekiel 90
 CHAPTER I: CHAPTER 2: CHAPTER 3: CHAPTER 4: CHAPTER 5:
CLASSICAL MYTH AND LEGEND THE BIBLE AND THE LIFE OF CHRIST SAINTS AND THEIR MIRACLES HISTORY. LITERATURE, AND THE ARTS SYMBOLS AND ALLEGORIES

Fra Angelico: The I .ast Judgment 92 CHAPTER 4: HISTORY. LITERATURE. AND THE ARTS 180
Gauguin: The Vision after the Sermon 94 KEY PAINTINGS

Fra Angelico: 'The Annunciation 96 Altdorfer: The Battle of Issus 182

Bellini: Madonna and Child with Saints 98 Delacroix: The Death of Sardanapalus 184
Leonardo da Vinci: Virgin and Child with Saint Anne 100 Ingres: Napoleon I 186
Quarton: Coronation of the Virgin 102 David: The Oath of the Horatii 188
van der Goes: Christ Child Adored try Angels 104 Blake: Antaeus Setting Down Dante and Virgil in the

Griinewald: The henheim Altarpiece 106 Last Circle of Hell 190

Millais: (Christ in the House of His Parents 108 Claude Lorrain: Landscape with Aeneas at Delos 192
Piero della Francesca: Baptism of Christ 110 French School: lie Consolalione Philosophise 194
Spencer: Resurrection with the liaising 0/ fan in \ Daughter 112 Holbein: I he Ambassadors 196
Velazquez: Christ in the House of Martha and Mary 111 Rembrandt: The Anatomy Lesson 198
van derWeyden: The Entombment 116 THEMATIC DIRECTOR)
THEMATIC DIRECTORY Kings, Queens, and Empcrois 200
In the Beginning 118 Victory and Virtue in Ancient Rome 202
Hell and the Apocalypse 120 Figures of World Literature 204
Moses and the Exodus 121 Architecture, Drama, and Musk 206
Lives of the Patriarchs 122 The World ol learning 208
Kings, Queens, and Prophets 124
Heroes and Heroines of Israel 128
The Virgin Mary 130 CHAPTER 5: SYMBOLS AND ALLECORIES 210
The Life of Christ 132 KM PAINTINGS
\,ui Eyck: The Arnolfini Marriage 212
de la Hyre: Allegory 0) the Regency "I \uin of Austria 214
CHAPTER 3: SAINTS AND THEIR MIRACLES 138 \k imboldo: Summei 216
KEY PAINTINGS Watteau: Embarkation fan the Island n/ (\thera 218
Caravaggio: The Martyrdom 0/ Saint Matthew 140 Bronzino: An lllegory with Venus and Cupid 220
Carpaccio: Saint Stephen Preaching 142 Chagall: To M\ Wife 222
Duccio: The Maestri 111 Cousin: Eva Prima Pandora 224
Masaccio and Lippi: The Raising of the Sou if Theophihu I 16 Picasso: Guernica

Raphael: The Miraculous Draught 0/ Fishes 148 Rubens: TheFoui Continents 228
Carpaccio: Saint Jerome and the I. ion in the Monastery 150 M.iss\s: I 'he Man f\ lender and His M 230
El Greco: Saint Veronica with the Hol\ Veil I 52 Mantegna: I'allas Expelling tht \u>\ from tht (.urden

Bellini: Sacred Allegory 15 1 of Virtue

Botticelli: San Marco Altarpiece 156 Steen: Beware of I uxury 234

Memling: Saint Christophei 158 rHEMATK DIRE< loRY

Spinello: The Heavy Stone 160 I he Animal World

Uccello: Saint George and tin- Dragon 162 The Ft nits ol the Eai th 240
di Benvenuto: Saint Catherine of Siena Intercedes with 1 aiulsi apt- and the I lements 242
Christ to Release Palmerina li, I The Bod\ and Soul 244
[•HEMATIC DIRECTORY ( )1)|(( is. Pastimes, and 1-
mblems 2 11.

Apostles, Disciples, and Evangelists 166 Ch) istianit)

Fathers of the Church 170 Virtues and Yu is 250

Female Saints of the Early Church 171

Male Saints ol the Earlv Chun li 171

Later Saints and Martvrs 178 INDEX 252
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 256
FOREWORD bv Sarah Carr -Go in 111

I In- .inn ol this hook is to serve as .1 useful introdw tion drawn from classical antiquity became increasingly

to the meanings of works of art Most ol the works cov- popular, especially figures from mythology. Classical

ered date- from the period of the late Middle Ages to deities were basically personifications of human quali-

the early twentieth century when figurative art predom- ties or natural phenomena, making them useful as
inated. It is the figures that often embody the principal allegorical references in paintings. In this book, their

message of a painting or sculpture: images and episodes Roman titles, rather than Greek, are given because this
from the lives of the saints, for example, were commis- was the norm in the Renaissance and Baroque periods.
sioned because their remarkable acts of faith and It has been fashionable in art history to seek multiple
devotion were considered exemplary. Most of the levels of meaning and erudite solutions for particularly
entries in the book are, therefore, about individuals: complex paintings. Recently, however, scholars have

religious, historical, and mythological. pointed out the potential pitfalls of this

Literary characters and their authors approach and have shown that when eso-
are also included, as are themes of art- teric subjects were depicted they often
historical relevance, symbols, attributes, carried an inscription to identify the sub-

and personifications. ject or explain the message. Should you

A symbol may be simply defined as an wish to delve deeper, many entries are

element, animate or inanimate, that accompanied by references to the liter-

stands for something else. The meaning ary, historical, and biblical sources with

of certain symbols, however, differs which artists would have been familiar.

according to the context in which they Detail from The Arnolfini For the most part, these are readily avail-

appear - the dove, for example, repre- Marriage by Jan van Eyck able today. For example, the Golden
(see pages 212-13).
sents the Holy Spirit in religious Legend written in around 1260 by Jacobus
paintings, but when accompanied by de Voragine, which tells the lives of the

Venus is associated with love. Moreover, it cannot be Virgin and the saints, organized according to their feast

assumed that the elements of a painting always carry days in the liturgical calendar, was translated into many
symbolic significance - they may be included for aes- languages and widely read throughout Western Europe.
thetic or naturalistic reasons. Until the production of several books on iconogra-
Attributes are emblems that help the viewer to iden- phy in the mid-sixteenth century, there was no
tify characters within a painting, such as the wheel of authoritative dictionary to decipher visual symbols;

Saint Catherine or the shaggy tunic of Saint John the moreover, symbols and attributes were not standard-
Baptist. They usually derive from an episode in the life ized. Even after this time, patrons, artists, and their

of the figure concerned and often have no symbolic advisers were not consistent in their choice of reference

meaning. People, as well as objects, can serve this pur- - more than one source might be used, and there was
pose; the apocryphal figure of Tobias, for example, may always room for invention. The student of iconography
be seen as the attribute of the Archangel Raphael. must, therefore, be cautious in the quest for meanings.
There are also collective attributes, which identify a Although ideas as to the original intention of a work of
type: the crown of regents, the palm of martyrs or the art can be formed from a knowledge of its subject-

cockle shell of pilgrims. matter, there are many other factors to consider. These
Many of the works featured in this book communi- include artistic style and technique, social and political

cate important messages through personification - the history, the original location of the work, and the inten-
embodiment of an abstract concept or quality in tion of the artist's patron; such topics are, however,

human form. From the Renaissance onwards, subjects beyond the scope of this book.
 FOREWORD 7

Each chapter in this book explains the significance and explained. A thorough cross-referencing svstem is

and meaning of key symbols and figures within a major followed, as explained below. You can use the book to

subject area of Western art. The key paintings shown at look up a specific symbol or figure, or to explore the
the beginning of each chapter - 75 in all - are ones that significance of the symbols in a particular painting.

are especially rich in symbolism or complex in their With so many questions to answer, the study of art

meaning. After each group of key paintings comes a history is never-ending, and the subject is a delight

thematic reference section for the subject area in ques- because it involves looking at, and thinking about, the
tion, with major symbols and figures clearly highlighted splendid products of the human imagination.

75 KEY PAINTINGS
The Annunciation (™
Chapter symbol for quick reference.

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A brief analysis "I ea< h painting provides
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main subject(s) oi the painting oi its

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si i \i si i .i Iim ol page numbers to

dire< i you i<> information about
other kc\ .is|)c< is oi the painting
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THEMATIC DIRECTORY
Each chapter is divided into (hemes. I cm-. Mui-ial ami Divine ,

The main text provides detailed information,

illustrated with details from relevant works E"^rJEH."r
of Key symbols and figures are highlighted in
art. IA
capital letters.The locations of the works ited are i

given, in most cases, in the index on pages 252-54.

IllT » Ir^Td Arrh.f

Feature panels, illustrated with details from major

works ol art and covering especially impoi i.uii

themes as well as general topics, are interspersed

within the thematic entries.

Cross-references at the end of ca< h themed sic Hon

direct von to related entries elsewhere in the book.
Footnotes refer to selected documentary sources.
 9#

CHAPTER ONE

CLASSICAL MYTH AND

LEGEND

In the second half of the fifteenth century, the artists

of the Renaissance began to turn increasingly to the

traditions of classical antiquity for the subject matter of

their paintings. The myths of the Greeks and Romans,

as told in the works of poets such as Homer, Virgil, and
Ovid, provided a vivid world of gods, monsters, and

heroes whose lives, loves, and labors formed fictional

models through which artists could express a new spirit

of humanism and naturalism in painting - and whose

popularity as subjects for artistic representation has

endured to the present day.

Sandro Botticelli: Venus and Mars 10 Piero di Cosimo: Perseus Rescuing Andromeda 32
Francois Boucher: Venus Asking Vulcan for the Armor of Aema\ 1 John William Waterhouse: Hylas and the Nymphs 34
Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio: The Young Bacchus 14 Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres: Jupiter and Thetis 36
Giovanni Battista Carlone: Juno and Mars 16 Peter Paul Rubens: The judgment oj Paris 38
Odilon Redon: Apollo's Chariot 18 Gustav Klimt: Danae 40
Sandro Botticelli: Primavera 20 Gustave Moreau: Jupiter and SemeU 42
Giovanni Francesco Barbieri Guercino: Detail of the ceiling Baldassarre Peruzzi: The Nymph CalUsto on Jupiter's Chariot 44
of the "Sala di Aurora" 22 Raphael: The Triumph oj Galatea 16

Andrea Mantegna: Parnassus 24 Jacopo del Sellaio: The Stun <>/ ( upid and Psyche is

Piero di Cosimo: .4 Satyr Mourning Over a Nymph 26 Titian: Venus and Adonis 50
Sandro Botticelli: Athene and the Centaur 28 Marten de Yos: The Rape of Europa 52
Pablo Picasso: Minotaur and Dead Mare in Front of a Cave 30 Jacques Louis David: The Sabine Worn 54
 " »

Venus and Mars

Sandro Botticelli (1444/45-1510)

During the Renaissance, artists often chose the they play with his lance, helmet, and armor;
gods and goddesses of antiquity as subjects and he is oblivious to the shell being blown in

because of their beautiful figures and the his ear and the wasps buzzing around his head.

settings in which they could be placed. As Wasps - vespe in Italian - were the emblem of
personifications, they could also be useful the Vespucci family, and it is thought that
mediums for allegory. Here, Venus is shown Botticelli painted this piece for them in 1483.

reclining gracefully while Mars lies exhausted; The painting's shape suggests it may have been
as long as she can entertain the brutal god of designed for a specific spot - perhaps above a
war, there will be peace on Earth. Even the door or fireplace or, more appropriately, as
naughty little satyrs are unable to wake him as part of a piece of bedroom furniture.
 k

k
fc.

KEY ELEMENT
VENUS: Goddess of beauty and love-, Venus was born as SEE ALSO PAG! PAGI

drops of Uranus's semen fell into the sea; Botticelli's

Armoi 2 lh \udr 223
Birth of Venus (1484-86) depicts her being blown ashore 27
( !upid 72 Satyi
on a shell. She captivated men with the aid of a magical
l)is( ord (d Shells
girdle, forged by her husband Vulcan, and was often Mars 59 I ranus 56
pic tnred as the ideal of contemporary beauty. Painters Myrtle I'll Vulcan 13

of the female nude traditionally showed her reclining

provocatively, a pose derived from Giorgione's Sleeping

Venus (c. 1508). Cupid was her special attribute - others

were roses, myrtle, swans, doves, and Discord's apple.
 BOUCHER: VENUS ASKING VULCAN FOR THE ARMOR OF AENEAS l3 +

Venus Asking Vulcan

for the Armor of Aeneas
Frangois Boucher (1703-1170)

Aeneas, the hero of Virgil's poem The Aeneid, looks down at her husband Vulcan and
was destined to land in Italy and become the requests a special suit of armor for her son.

forefather of the Romans. On his arrival, he Boucher, chief painter to King Louis XV of
was engaged in a series of wars instigated by France, was criticized for being too self-indul-
Juno, prompting his mother Venus to come to gent to paint anything more serious than putti
his aid. Boucher's painting (1732) shows a flir- nymphs, and seminaked women. But his light-

tatious and almost naked Venus, goddess of hearted, frivolous style, typical of the Rococo,
beauty and love, sitting on a cloud surrounded was ideally suited to the paintings, decorations,
by swans and doves - two of her attributes. She tapestry, and stage-sets of the king's court.

KEY ELEMENT
VULCAN: God of the forge who presided over fire, gods who, to his discomfort, were greatlv amused.
Vulcan was the patron of metalworkers. He made Mercury even taunted Vulcan by saying how much he
thunderbolts for Jupiter, but was thrown off Mount would like to take Mars s place

Olympus when he tried to free his mother after Jupiter In paintings, Vulcan's deformity is usually apparent,

chained her up in punishment. Vulcan landed on the and he often appears half-naked and dishevelled at his

island of Lemnos in Greece, where he built a palace forge. Sometimes he is shown striking at the anvil with

for himself and set up forges, said to be the Earth's a hammer or holding a thunderbolt with pincers, or he
volcanoes. The Cyclopes (one-eyed giants) were his may be blowing the flames, his face black with smoke.
attendants. Unfortunately, he broke his leg in the fall to Appropriately, he often appears above fireplaces, as in
Earth and became permanently lame. Peruzzi's Yulain (it His Forge (&1515).

Vulcan created many ingenious works of art, both for Homer /WW III t_'s_oi7 Ovid \htamotphoses IY:17<M><> and

the gods and for mortals at the gods' request - includ- Homei Odyjs«yVTII:265-S46

ing magnificently decorated shields for Achilles and

Aeneas. 1

He also made a set of armor for Jupiter, who

promised Vulcan anything he wanted as a reward. SEE ALSO PAGI PAGI

Vulcan asked for the chaste Minerva but, unable to

\i hilles 69 Nymphs 62
ravish her, he spilled his seed on the Earth instead, and
Aeneas 71 Putta 17
Erichthonius was born. Vulcan eventually married
Armor 246 Swan 239
Venus, who was continually unfaithful. One story
Dove 239 Venus 11
describes how he fashioned an invisible net to trap the
|uno 16-17 Minerva
frolicking Venus and Mars. When the pair were caught
Jupitei 57
in a passionate embrace, Vulcan exposed them to the
 i

|
>.n 111 \\|i I i'-\ ND

^^ The Young Bacchus

Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio (1571-1610)

The garland of grapes and vine leaves sur- of the glass of wine to the spectator suggests
rounding this boy's head identify him that the invitation is for more than just a drink.
immediately as Bacchus, god of wine. As well as establishing a style based on sharp
Caravaggio's representation (r.1589) is, how- contrasts of deep shadow and almost glaring
ever, of his model, dressed up as the pagan light, Caravaggio was a master of still life. The
god. The erode content of the painting is glass and carafe are remarkably naturalistic,

explicit - the half-naked torso, flushed face, while the overripe, bruised quality' of the fruit
heavy eyelids, and pouting expression are reflects the transience of life - indicating how
sexually charged; and the provocadve offering this sensual body will soon wither and decay.

KEY ELEMENT
BACCHUS: Son of Jupiter and Semele, Bacchus was scene, and when the sailors jumped overboard in mad-
the god of wine who inspired music and poetry. Raised ness or fear, they were turned into dolphins.

by Silenus, he had a blissful childhood and was often in The Romans held the festival of the Bacchanalia in

the company of nymphs, satyrs, herdsmen, and honor of Bacchus; and, from the Renaissance, this

vine-tenders. He was also frequently accompanied event inspired images of revelry, excess, and intoxica-
by Maenads or "mad women" (also known as tion. Animals were consumed raw at these ceremonies,
Bacchants) - female followers who danced around him which usually turned into wild orgies. Francesco
in a drunken frenzy. Zuccarelli's Bacchanal (r.1740) shows nymphs and satyrs

Bacchus may be pictured with his rowdy throng or dancing in an idyllic landscape while Silenus reclines
alone, and is sometimes shown wearing an animal skin, on an urn. Other paintings depict the god's more lech-

riding in a chariot drawn by wild animals. He is usually erous aspect; for in the form of a goat, he was also
depicted as a beautiful youth, crowned with vines and worshipped as the god of fertility - hence his associa-

grapes, and holding a cup or thyrsus (staff). tion with Pan, Silenus, and the satyrs.

As a youth, Bacchus set out to teach the art of wine- 'Apollodorus The Library III:xiv 7

growing, but the enterprise had a tragic ending. He fell

in love with Erigone - daughter of his host, Icarios -

and seduced her. But he had little time to enjoy his hap- SEE ALSO PAGE PAGE

piness, for Icarios was killed by drunken shepherds, 1

Fruit 240 Satyr 27

and when Erigone heard the news, she hanged herself.
Goat 237 Semele 43
When his divine nature was contested, Bacchus
Nymphs 62 Silenus 62
always emerged victorious. On one occasion, after he
Nude 223 Still life 217
was kidnapped by Lydian pirates, he covered their oars
Pan 62 Vine 240
and sails with ivy. Wild beasts then appeared on the
CARAVAGGIO: THE YOUNG BACCHUS 15
 + if m ra \m> 1

^ Juno and Mars

Giovanni Battista Carlone (1592-1677)

This painting of r.1650 is a "modello" - a

drawing or painting of an intended composi-
tion, made for a patron in the hope that the

work would be commissioned. As there was

often considerable competition with other
artists to win a commission, a modello was
more fully executed than an ordinary sketch.
Carlone and his brother decorated vast areas
of many churches in Genoa, and with this

particular canvas, Carlone secured the

commission to paint the ceiling of the gallery

of the Palazzo Negrone. The episodes he

depicted were taken from Virgil's epic account
of Aeneas's journey from Troy to the shores of
Italy, where he became the forefather of the
Romans. In the tale, the gods and goddesses
variously aid and thwart the hero as he contin-
ues on his travels. This ceiling painting, which
invites the viewer to look up to the realm of
the gods, shows a vengeful Juno (who hated
the Trojans) seated with her peacock on the
right, instructing Mars and his attendant
Furies to impede Aeneas's path.

KEY ELEMENT
JUNO: Goddess of marriage and childbirth, Juno was
the daughter of Saturn and Ops, sister and consort of
Jupiter, and the mother of Vulcan, Juventas, and Mars.
She was majestically beautiful, but after losing the prize

for beauty to Venus in the Judgment of Paris (see pages

38-39), she sided with the Greeks in the ensuing Trojan

War - against her husband's wishes.

Many legends tell of Juno's jealousy of her husband's

mortal loves, and she is often depicted spying on him,
as in Pieter Lastman's Juno Discovering Jupiter and Io
 CARLONE: JUNO AND MARS 17

(1614). Enraged by his behavior, she took revenge on SEE ALSO I'M.I PAO

several innocent girls, notably Callisto, Io, and Semele. 57

Armor 246 Jupitei
Juno's attribute is a peacock, and a pair of the birds
Breast 2 15 \l.llv 59
drew her chariot. It was she who put the eyes in the
Callisto 45 Peacock 239
peacock's marvelous tail after Mercury slew Argus, the Flint's 56 PlttlO 17

one-hundred-eyed monster guarding Io.

1

Antonio lo 7:^ Semele 43

Balestra illustrated this scene in Juno Placing the One
Hundred Eyes of Argus in the Peacock's Tail (c. 1714).

'Ovid Metamofphoses 1:568-746

 ii \n in \si> 1

<£* Apollos Chariot

Odilon Redon (1840-1916)

At the beginning of his career, Redon worked the story of Apollo and the Python - a symbol
almost entirely in black and white, creating of evil. Redon admired Delacroix's version of
haunting images from his imagination. He was the theme on the ceiling of the Gallery of

adopted by the Symbolist poets, and the Apollo in the Louvre, and in this image
Surrealists considered him one of the precur- (c. 1905-1 9 16) he borrowed Delacroix's idea of
sors of their movement. In about 1890, he a chariot drawn by a team of horses rising to

began to work in color, producing decorative the heavens, which he described as "the joy of
screens, flower paintings, and portraits. He full daylight, in contrast to the sadness of night
favored pastel, which has similar properties to and shadows, like the happiness of feeling
charcoal but produces vibrant color. better after great pain." To Redon, the myth
Redon's success with these subjects gave him represented not only the triumph of good over
the confidence to treat scenes from classical evil and day over night but also the triumph of
mythology, and several of his works illustrate the creative spirit over base matter.

KEY ELEMENT
APOLLO: Son of Jupiter and Latona, and father of A monster of darkness known as the Python guarded
Aesculapius, Apollo was the god of light, healing the valley's entrance, so Apollo slew the creature with a

(because his light nurtured plants), poetry, music thousand arrows.' In Apollo and the Python (1811),
(especially that of the lyre), and prophecy. A blaze of Turner shows him resting after his triumph.

light shone over the island of Delos at his birth, and See also page 60
'Ovid Metamorphoses 1:41 6-51
sacred swans flew around it seven times. Nourished on
ambrosia and nectar after Latona abandoned him, he
was dazzling in appearance and personified youth and
beauty. He was also a hunter, acting as the protector of
athletes and young men in war. His attributes include a SEE ALSO PAGE PAGE

lyre, a bow and arrow, a golden chariot drawn by four

Aesculapius 61 Laurel 215
horses or rays of the sun, a laurel wreath or a crown.
Arrow 246 Lyre 207
In his role as god of prophecy, Apollo set out to find
Jupiter 57 Oracles 60
a suitable place to give truthful oracles to humans. He Latona 58
found it in the valley of Delphi in the heart of Greece.
+ . tSS •
\n in \m> 1
 BOTTICELLI: PRI.MAVERA 21

Primavera
Sandro Botticelli (1444/45-1510)

No satisfactory explanation has been given for

the combination of characters in Botticelli's

masterpiece (c.1478), which, unusually, reads
from right to left. On the right, the west wind
Zephyr chases Chloris. As he catches her, she

exhales and changes into Flora,

flowers
goddess of spring, who strews the ground with
blooms from her embroidered dress. In the

center, Venus gestures to the Three Graces,

who dance in an eternal circle; on the far left,

Mercury disturbs a cloud with his caduceus.

Cupid flies above the arch framing the central

figure, suggesting that the overall theme ma\
be love. The flowers and the forest are painted

to imitate a tapestry - the most costly form of

wall decoration.

KEY ELEMENT
THE THREE GRACES: Aglaia, Euphrosyne, and
Thalia - the Three Graces - personified beaut} and
charm, and often attended Venus, goddess of love,

whose attributes they adopted. Thej were popular

subjects with artists, who turned to classical prototypes

for inspiration; famous examples are the painting b\

Rubens (1639) and the sculpture byCanova ( 1813-16).

SEE ALSO PAGl l'\l.|

( !adu< ens 247 Men m\ 59

(
'lipid 72 Myrtle 241

Flora 62 Venus 11

Flowers 241 Winds 62

Fruit 240
 + ,. MYTH \\|i i i

^ The "Sala
Giovanni Francesco Barbieri
Guercino 0591-1666)
di Aurora"

Guercino lived in Rome from 1621 to 1623.

During this period he produced some spectac-

ular works, including the frescoes on two

floors of the Casino Ludovisi, commissioned

by Cardinal Ludovisi, nephew of the Pope.
Aurora (1621-23) can be seen on the ceiling of
the entrance hall, where the painting's inge-
nious trompe Voeil architectural framework gives
the impression that one is looking straight up

into the open sky. Galloping across the

morning sky in her chariot, Aurora scatters

flowers and drives away the dark clouds of

night, watched by her old husband Tithonos.

KEY ELEMENT
AURORA: Rosy-fingered and saffron-robed, Aurora

was the goddess of dawn and sister of Apollo. Rising in

the east each morning, she would set out to herald the
coming of the day, either flying or driving her chariot.

Her sons, the morning winds, were felt at her approach.

The Aurora shed for Memnon, who died in the

tears

Trojan War, were said to be the dewdrops found at

dawn. She had several love
1
affairs with mortals, includ-

ing Cephalus, and when infatuated she neglected her

duties. Struck by the beauty of Tithonos, she carried

him off and secured his immortality, but forgot to ask

for eternal youth. After they married, Tithonos grew

slowly more decrepit until she could no longer bear to

look at his withered body and locked him away.

'Ovid Metamorphoses XIII:576-622

SEE ALSO PAGE PAGE

Apollo 18,60 Patto 47

Birds 239 Trojan War 69-71

Cephalus 77 Winds 62

Flowers 241

II
GL'ERCINO: THE "SALA DI AURORA" 23 +
+ . :
Ml IN \M> I t
 MANTEGNA: PARNASSUS 25 +

Parnassus
Andrea Mantegna (1431-1506)

Mantegna's Parnassus (1497) was commis-

sioned by Isabella d'Este, wife of the Marquis
of Mantua, to hang in her "studiolo" - a room
set aside to display precious works of art. The
painting reflects her classical education and
her love of music. In the center, the nine
Muses sing and dance to the sound of the lvre,

played by Apollo on the left, while Mercury,

the inventor of the lyre, stands on the right

holding a syrinx (pan pipes). All is well on

Mount Parnassus - the sacred land of Apollo
and the Muses - as long as Mars the war-
monger remains enchanted by Venus. The
couple form the apex of the triangular compo-
sition, leaning together in harmony. But to
their left, Cupid has just shot a dart at Venus's

husband Vulcan to alert him to the adulterv.

KEY ELEMENT
MUSES: Children of Jupiter and Mnemosyne
(Memory), the nine Muses presided over and inspired
music, poetry, dancing, and the Liberal Arts. [Tie) are
often depicted as young and beautiful virgins, and nv<\\

appear with their protector Apollo, perhaps holding

books or musical instruments. The) were also guardians
of the Castilian Spring on Mount Parnassus, which was
thought to be the source of poetic inspiration.
See also box page <> !

SEE ALSO PAGl i'\<.i

Apollo IS. 60 Mais 59

\i mor 246 Men ui\ 59

Cupid 72 Pegasus t.l

Liberal Aits 197 Venus 11

Lyre 207 Vul< .m 13

A Satyr Mourning Over a Nymph
Piero di Cosimo (0.1462-1521)

In the foreground, a partly naked woman lies has been linked to the classical tale where
on the ground with a wound in her neck. She Cephalus accidentally kills his beloved wife
is either dying or already dead - and the satyr Procris with his javelin. Others have seen it as

at her head and the dog at her feet mourn her an illustration of a Renaissance play by Niccolo
fate. The horizontal format of the painting da Correggio, who embellished the original
(c.1495) - which suggests it was designed for a story by introducing a faun who aroused the
specific place or piece of furniture - allows for jealousy of Procris - although neither inter-
a panoramic view of an estuary with various pretation explains the absence of Cephalus.
animals wandering along the shore. The The subject remains unidentified and may
subject of the piece is unknown, although it illustrate a poem or play that is now lost.
 1

KEY ELEMENT
SATYR: These mythical creatures were men with goat's SEE ALSO I'U.l PACl

horns, legs, and hooves. They inhabited the country-

Bacchus 14 Rowers 24
side as the carousing attendants of Bacchus, god of
Birds 239 Nude 223
wine, and became associated with lust. A satyr appears
Cephalus 77 Nymphs 62
in Jacob Jordaens' Satyr and the Peasant ( 1620), pointing 1

Dog 2 '-'
Procris / /

out the incongruity of blowing on soup to make it cold

and on hands to warm them.

+ MYTH \M> l i

Athene and the Centaur

Sandro Botticelli (14.44/45-1510)

Athene (Minerva in Roman myth) was goddess half beast, recoils from the goddess as she
of war and wisdom, and protector of the arts. leans toward him and plays gently with his hair.

In this painting (r.1480), Botticelli depicts her He appears to be in some distress, perhaps
in a particularly provocative style, her curves because Athene's civilizing nature makes him
emphasized by her revealing dress. She holds a aware of his baseness.
halberd (axe) - her attribute as goddess of war The interlocking rings embroidered on
- and can be futher identified by the olive Athene's dress are an emblem of the Medici
branches decorating her hair and clothes (she family of Florence - Pierfrancesco de Medici
created the olive tree when she competed with commissioned this painting, as well as two of
Neptune for the city of Athens, to which she Botticelli's other works: Primavera (see pages
gave her name). The centaur, half man and 20-21) and The Birth of Venus (1484-86).

KEY ELEMENT
CENTAUR: This mythological creature had the torso, The renowned Battle of the Lapiths and the
arms, and head of a man, and the body and legs of a Centaurs occurred during the wedding of Pirithous and
horse. Thought to represent the base or animal aspect the lovely Hippodamia. 2 The Lapiths had invited the

of humanity, the centaurs were said to come from centaurs, but when the fiercest centaur Eurytus caught
ancient Thessaly - probably because the inhabitants sight of the beautiful bride, he dragged her off by her
were known to be excellent horsemen. Their behavior hair; the other centaurs followed his example and
was often wild and uncouth, and the centaur Nessus carried off every girl they could lay their hands on.

even tried to carry off the wife of Hercules - an Theseus then attacked the centaurs on behalf of
encounter depicted by Piero di Cosimo in Scenes of Pirithous, and a bloody fight ensued in which half the
Primitive Man (early sixteenth century). centaurs were slain and the rest driven away. The cele-

The only civilized centaur was Chiron, whose hybrid brated sculptures on the Parthenon in Athens depicted
form resulted from a union between the nymph Philyra this violent struggle between civilization and barbarity.

and Saturn - who had turned himself into a horse in an 'Ovid .Fasft' V:379-414 2
Ovid Metamorphoses XII:210-535

attempt to conceal his illicit passion from his wife.

Chiron was a wise teacher, especially of music and

medicine, and educated many classical heroes, includ-

ing Aesculapius, Achilles, and Jason. Hercules caused SEE ALSO PAGE PAGE

the centaur's death as Chiron entertained him; other

Achilles 69 Jason 67
centaurs smelled the feast and a battle ensued, in which
Aesculapius 61 Minerva 59
Hercules accidentally shot a poisoned arrow into
Armor 246 Olive 241
Chiron's knee.' In great pain, Chiron then begged the
Bacchus 14 Theseus 65
gods to take away his immortality and, with bow and
Hercules 68 Zodiac 209
arrow, became the constellation Sagittarius.
+ 3o CLASSICAL MUM \M> I.I

%:
 PICASSO: MINOTAUR AND DEAD MARE IN FRONT OF A CAVE 3l

Minotaur and Dead

Mare in Front of a
Cave Pablo Picasso (1881-1973)

Picasso's work often related to his private life.

After his wife Olga left him and he discovered

that his lover was pregnant, he wrote surreal
poetry for some nine months. Then, in March
1936, he visited Juan-les-Pins on the French
Riviera, returning with drawings of fantastic

scenes featuring Minotaurs. For Picasso, the

bull-headed monster was a symbol of the dual
nature of man and, here, it represents lust and
brutality. Although the gentleness of its eyes
and smile are oddly endearing, it holds a horse
broken by its own hands and stretches a huge
arm toward a girl with a veil - who stares,

afraid. On the left, another pair of hands

stretch imploringly from the darkness of a
cave. Disturbed by events in Spain, which
would later lead to the outbreak of civil war,

this picture was a private allegory for the artist.

KEY ELEMENT
MINOTAUR: The ferocious Minotaur w.is conceived

when Pasiphae, wife of King Minos of Crete, mated with

a bull. It had a man's bod) and a bull's head, and was
kept in a labyrinth where, every nine years, seven youths

and seven maidens were sent in sacrifice. Finally, the

hero Theseus volunteered as a victim and killed the

beast; he escaped with the aid of a ball ot twine pro-

vided by Minos's daughter. Ariadne. In paintings, the

creature represents base animal instincts such .is lust.

SEE ALSO I'M. PAGE

Ariadne 71 Flowers

^f
I'll

Bull 236 fheseus to

 + MV1H \M» I 1

^ Perseus Rescuing
Andromeda
Piero di Cosimo (c. 1462-1521)

Piero di Cosimo was a highly inventive artist,

famed for the costumes and decorations that

he created for masques and processions, and

for his amusing mythological paintings, which
were in great demand by private patrons in

Florence. His life was as eccentric as his

pictures - he hated fire so much that he was

afraid to cook and lived on hard-boiled eggs,
preparing them 50 at a time while boiling his
glue. He also refused to allow his rooms to be
swept or his fruit trees to be pruned, living
more like a brute than a man.
Piero has represented several stages of a
mythological narrative on this single panel
(1490). In the top right, Perseus flies through
the sky to rescue Andromeda, who is tied to a

tree stump on the left - her mother had

angered Neptune by declaring herself more
beautiful than the nereids and she was about
to be sacrificed to a sea monster. A moment
later, Perseus lands on the back of the comical
sea monster - placed prominently in the
center of the composition - and starts to swipe
at its neck. A bizarre mix of people in strange

costumes or degrees of undress recoil from the

scene in the foreground. Having slain the
beast, Perseus marries Andromeda - the group
on the right celebrates her liberation. KEY ELEMENT
PERSEUS: Sent to get the head of Medusa, 1

gorgon who turned all who looked on her to stone,

Perseus was given armor by Minerva and winged boots

by Mercury - a scene depicted in Paris Bordone's
Perseus Armed by Mercury and Minerva (c.1540). Perseus
beheaded Medusa by looking at her reflection in his

shield, and on the way home rescued the Ethiopian

 PIERO DI COSIMO: PERSEUS RESCUING ANDROMEDA 33

princess Andromeda, who was about to be eaten b) a SEE ALSO PAGl PAGl

sea monster. When Andromeda's suitor Phineus inter-

Armoi 2 16 MLusi< al Instruments 207
rupted the couple's wedding feast,-' Perseus used
Neptune
Breast 245 3

Medusa's head to petrify him - as shown in Phineus and

Medusa 64 Nude 223
His Followers Turned to Stone by Giordano ( 1634—1705).
Men ur\ 59 Pegasus 64
See also page 64 Minerva 59
'Ovid Metamorphoses [V:604-803 ibid. V:l-249
u> in \\|p | ECEND
 WATERHOL'SE: HYLAS AND THE NYMPHS 35

Hjlas and the Nymphs

John William Waterhouse (1849-1917)

The English painter John Waterhouse was

born in Rome and frequently painted genre

scenes derived from ancient history and classi-

cal mythology. He was particularly fascinated

by enchantresses and his paintings combine a
Victorian narrative style with the dreamlike
quality of the Pre-Raphaelites. A distinctive

type of female beauty dominates his work - his

models were chosen for their pale skin,

reddish gold hair, and wistful looks. In this

painting (1896), nymphs form a ring

the
around Hylas, while one of them looks mourn-
fully at him as she draws him down.

KEY ELEMENT
HYLAS: The youth Hylas, who accompanied Hercules
on his adventures with Jason, was looking for watei
when he found a spring where naiads (nymphs of
rivers, lakes or springs) danced. One nymph was capti-

vated by Hylas's beauty and. as he filled his pitcher, she

encircled his neck and pulled him underwater.

Apollnnius ol Rhodes Atgonautica 1:1207-1240

SEE ALSO PAGl PAG1

Hercules 68 Nude 223

[ason 67 Nymphs 62
 + \I1 III w

# Jupiter and Thetis

Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres O780-1867)

I his greal canvas, painted in 181 1, was the last Thetis, a lovely nereid (sea nymph), as it had
work Ingres completed as a student in Rome been prophesied that the offspring of their

and shows Jupiter, the supreme god of antiq- union would ultimately usurp him. To prevent
uity, sitting on his imperial throne in his this, Jupiter ordered her to marry a mortal
kingdom of the The god holds a scepter
sky. man named Peleus. On the left, Jupiter's jeal-
in his right hand, his left arm rests on a cloud, ous wife Juno observes the scene suspiciously.
and an eagle watches attentively at his side. Ingres sent this work to Paris for review in
This powerful bird was Jupiter's attribute 1811, where it was highly criticized for its lack

because of its great strength, speed, and of relief and for the curious proportions of its

soaring flight. figures. Twenty-three years later this image of

Jupiter ignores the ardent attentions of omnipotent authority was bought by the state.

KEY ELEMENT
THETIS: It was prophesied that Thetis, the loveliest of home on Mount Olympus and begged Jupiter to avenge
all the nereids, would bear a child who would surpass her son.- Thetis also asked Vulcan, god of the forge, to
his father. When Jupiter ordered her to marry Peleus, make Achilles a magnificent suit of armor. 3

she tried to avoid the union by changing shape into a 'Ovid Metamorphoses Xl.221-65 'Homer Iliad 1:495-512
•Homer 7ft«rfXVlII:428-617
bird, a tree, and a tiger, but Peleus held her by force. 1

At their wedding, Discord threw down a golden apple as

a prize for the most beautiful of the major goddesses
present: Venus, Minerva, and Juno. This act led to the

Judgment of Paris (see pages 38-39), which ultimately SEE ALSO PAGE PAGE

caused the Trojan War.

Achilles 69 Nymphs 62
Achilles, hero of the Trojan War, was the son of
Agamemnon 69 Jupiter 57
Thetis and Peleus. Homer's Iliad tells how the hero was
Discord 61 Scepter 247
insulted by the Greek king Agamemnon, and how
Eagle 239 Vulcan 13
Thetis rose from the depths of the sea to the gods'
INCRES: JUPITER AND THETIS 3~
 + \n in \\i> 1

^^
™
The Judgment of Paris
Peter Paul Rubens (1517-1640)

Rubens painted several versions of this subject,

delighting in the story because it allowed him

to depict three beautiful women in an ideal-

ized pastoral landscape where clothes were

unnecessary. In one account of the Judgment
of Paris, the Trojan prince had indeed asked
the goddesses to take off their clothes to help
him judge the divine beauty contest.
In this rendition (1639), Paris is shown in

his shepherd's garb. He stares at the three

magnificent nude goddesses, contemplating

their side, front, and back views, while
Mercury holds up the apple that was to be the
prize. Minerva appears with her owl (her
armor discarded behind her), Venus with her
son Cupid, and Juno with her peacock. The
goddesses' gentle expressions and graceful
movements reveal nothing of the fateful
consequences of Paris's decision, which gave
rise to the Trojan War (see below).

KEY ELEMENT
PARIS: Son of King Priam of Troy, Paris was destined

at birth to be the ruin of his country. His father ordered

his death, but the slave who had been entrusted with

the task did not kill him, abandoning the boy on Mount
Ida instead. He was found and brought up by shep-
herds, and he too became a tender of sheep. Later, the

nymph Oenone fell in love with him.

In the portentous Judgment of Paris, he was charged

with awarding Discord's golden apple to the goddess he

deemed the fairest. 1

Juno offered him Asia if he chose

 RUBENS: THE JUDGMENT OF PARIS 89 +

her; Minerva said she would make him a great warrior SEE ALSO I'M. PA<a

and conqueror; Venus promised him the beautiful

240 Minerva 59
Apple
Helen of Sparta, together with Love, Desire, the Three Cupid 72 Nude 22

Graces, Passion, and Hymen. Venus won the apple but

Discord 61 Venus 11

the decision incurred the resentment of Juno and I luce Graces 21 Putto 17

Minerva. And when Paris abducted Helen lie incited

[uno 16-17 Trojan Wai 69-71
the Greeks to take tip arms to retrieve her. He thus

instigated the Trojan War, in which he fought without

enthusiasm until it ended witli the destruction of Troy.

I Ivginus luliiiltir X( '. 1

 + . \n in \si> 1

Danae
<8§^
Gustav Klimt (1862-1918)

Klimt's interpretation of the story of Danae

(1907—1908) is overtly sensuous; Jupiter
descends as a shower of gold while Danae lies

in a fetal position, absorbed in an erotic dream

as the gold falls between her legs. Klimt was a
famous painter of murals and portraits, and
founded the Vienna Secession in reaction to

the conservatism of the state academy.

Inspired by Byzantine mosaics, he had devel-
oped a style in which two-dimensional, abstract
patterns surrounded three-dimensional, natu-
ralistic figures. His works have a richness rarely
equaled in twentieth-century art.

KEY ELEMENT
DANAE: After an oracle predicted that Acrisius, king

of Argos, would be usurped by his grandson, he locked

his daughter Danae in a tower to stop her from con-
ceiving a child. Jupiter spotted the lovely maiden from
the skies and determined to ravish her; but unable to
make love to her in his god-like form, he came down as

a shower of gold. As a result of their coupling,

1
Danae
gave birth to the hero Perseus. In his painting Danae
(1545), Titian included an ugly nursemaid trying igno-
rantly to catch the gold - emphasizing Danae 's beauty
and her higher understanding of her fate.

'Ovid Metamorphoses IV:611

SEE ALSO PAGE PAGE

Jupiter 57 Perseus 32-33

Nude 223 Breast 245
lN.

**.
 MOREAU: JUPITER AND SEMELE 43

Jupiter and Semele

Gustave Moreau (1826-98)

Gustave Moreau was a major figure in the a paroxysm of divine ecstacy" when she saw
Symbolist movment, producing visionary and him. Jupiter is bedecked with jewels: a cluster

emotionally charged images. His sources of pearls adorn his forehead, and his hair,

varied from Italian Renaisssance painting to neck, and breast glitter with precious stones.
Byzantine art. By using thick layers of paint, he He leans on a lyre, an unusual attribute for the
created an encrusted, almost jeweled, effect, god of the skies, while his most common
depicting fantastic scenes filled with religious, attribute, the eagle, is somewhat lost at the

historical, and mythological characters. bottom of the canvas. At the foot of the
This canvas (1894-95) is typical of Moreau 's throne, Moreau painted figures representing

elaborate style and shows a youthful Jupiter Death and Sorrow, which he explained were
sitting impassively on a highly ornamental the tragic base of human life. Not far from
throne, indifferent to Semele who sprawls them, under the wings of Jupiter's eagle, the
naked across his lap. Semele had asked to gaze great god Pan (symbol of the Earth) bows his

on the god in all the brilliance of his divinity saddened brow. Shadow and Misery, the enig-
and, according to Moreau, was "struck down in mas of darkness, are at Pan's feet.

KEY ELEMENT
SEMELE: Daughter of Cadmus, king of Thebes, SEE ALSO pacj PAGI

Semele was loved by Jupiter. But when Juno,

1
Jupiter's
Architecture 206 Halo 248
wife, discovered her husband's infidelity, she persuaded
Bacchus 14 Jupiter 57
Semele to ask Jupiter to appear to her in his full glory,
Cadmus i.l Nude 223
as he did to Juno herself. Unfortunately, Semele's
Death 245 Pan 62
mortal frame could not endure the god's embrace, and
Flowers 241
his lightning turned her to ashes. Her child, Bacchus,
was snatched from her womb before she died and was
sewn into Jupiter's thigh until his birth.

Ovid Metamorphoses 111:253-315 and Philostratus the Elder 1:1 1

The Nymph Callisto on Jupiter's Chariot
Baldassarre Peruzzi (1481-1536)

This painting of 1511-12 is part of the deco- clouds, the heads of putti emerge, represent-
rated ceiling of what was originally an ing the winds. The painting is believed to have
open-sided loggia in the Villa Farnesina in some astrological significance, with the bull,

Rome. Peruzzi was also the architect of the the sign of Taurus, rising through the constel-
villa, and designed the vault to accommodate lation of the Great Bear, symbolized by Callisto

several scenes: the fresco beneath is Raphael's (placed in the sky by Jupiter after Juno turned
Triumph of Galatea (see pages 46-47). This her into a bear). Other sections of the vault
detail from Peruzzi's decoration shows Callisto also depict complex astrological scenes, and
riding in a golden chariot through a starry sky. together they are thought to represent the
Two bulls pull the chariot, and through the horoscope of Agostino Chigi, the villa's owner.
KEY ELEMENT
CALLISTO: Jupiter seduced Callisto, one of Diana's SEE ALSO PAGl PAGl

nymphs, by disguising himself as Diana. Later, as the

Bull 236 Nymph 62
nymphs were bathing in a stream, Callisto was reluctant
Diana 61 l'ui/o 17
to join them; and when the others undressed her thev
[upiter 57 Winds 62
realized she was pregnant. Banished by Diana, Callisto
]iiihi 16-17 Zodia< 209
was then changed into a bear by Juno. When Callisto 's

son Areas was 15, he almost speared his mother while

out hunting, but Jupiter swept them into the heavens to
become the Great and Little Bear.
1

Ovid Metamorphoses 11:401-530 and Fasti 11:153-93

 RAPHAEL: THE TRIUMPH OF GALATEA 47

The Triumph of Galatea

Raphael (1483-1520)

In this painting of 151 1, Galatea is shown flee- River Tiber in Rome. The scene in the picture

ing from the monster Polyphemus (seen in a is meant to reflect the view over the river from
fresco to the left of this piece) on a giant the loggia. The villa was also celebrated for its

cockle shell fitted with paddles and drawn by parties, and Raphael was usually among the
dolphins. Above her fly four putti and around guests. He had a great passion for women and
her tritons and nereids (sea nymphs) play in apparently died following a bout of excessive
the waves. This work was painted in an open indulgence. The figure of Galatea and other
loggia of the villa owned by the wealthy Papal nudes painted in the villa are representations

banker Agostino Chigi, which overlooked the of his ideal female form.

KEY ELEMENTS
GALATEA: The sea nymph Galatea was in love with the They often accompany Venus and may be seen wor-
handsome Acis, but was herself pursued by the one- shipping her statue during the Feast of Venus. In
eyed Cyclops Polyphemus - a savage monster who Titian's painting of 1518-19, The Worship oj Venus,

raised sheep on an island generally thought to be countless putti gather apples (which were sacred to the
Sicily.
1

Climbing a hill overlooking the sea, Polyphemus goddess) from an orchard floor, or the) flv up to pick

played his pipe of a hundred reeds and sang a pastoral them from the trees and tumble about playing ball.'

love song to Galatea. Later, the Cyclops saw her King in 'Philostratus the Elder Imagines 1:6

Acis's arms, so he chased the youth and hurled a huge

lump of the mountainside at him, whereupon Acis was

turned into a river.

'Ovid Metamorphoses XIII 738-897 SEE ALSO cm a PAca

Angels 118 Nymphs 62

PUTTO: A putto (plural putti) is a young, winged boy,
Apple 240 Polyphemus 66
also known as an amoretto or "little Cupid." Putti may
Centaur 28 Shells 240
appear as angels or cherubs in religious paintings, or
Cupid 72
add a humorous note to secular paintings about love.
 4 M>IM VN

jf^ The Story of Cupid and Psyche

™ Jacopo del Sellaio (1441/42-93)
Jacopo del Sellaio, an artist working in the the summit she is wafted down by the winds
si\k- of Botticelli, painted two panels depicting and falls asleep. On the right, she is led into a
the love story of Psyche and Cupid. This one sumptuous palace provided by Cupid, where
(c.1473) tells the first half of the tale. she is visited by her envious sisters. Although
In the villa on the left, we see the conception Cupid has forbidden Psyche to look at him,
and birth of Apollo's daughter Psyche, who her sisters persuade her to take a peek and she
wears a white dress throughout the rest of the falls in love. Unfortunately, a drop of hot oil

panel. Her beauty incurred the jealousy of falls from her lamp, and as an angry Cupid
Venus, who sent her son Cupid to make Psyche wakes and flies away, Psyche holds him by the
fall in love with someone ugly. As Psyche ankle in an attempt to stop him leaving.
appears to a group of suitors, Cupid flies The artist's companion panel completes the
above, but he quicky falls in love with her and story of Psyche's trials and eventual marriage.
is unable to fulfil his mission. An oracle then Together, the two pictures would have been an
tells Psyche to climb a high mountain, and at ideal decoration for a cassone, or bridal chest.
 JACOPO DEL SELLAIO: THE STORY OF CUPID AND PSYCHE 49 +

KEY ELEMENT
PSYCHE: In the second part of Psyche's story' (see tal. A feast was arranged for the couple's wedding, and
opposite), the distraught girl roamed the Earth looking Psyche later bore Cupid a daughter, Pleasure.
for Cupid - until she came to the house of Venus. Here, The story of this beautiful couple was a popular

she became Venus 's slave, and her mistress set her a romantic tale. Its numerous episodes and final wedding
series of near-impossible tasks. But Psyche was lucky: scene were sometimes used to cover large areas or to fill

some ants helped her to separate a pile of mixed grain; the many vaults of a ceiling.

a reed from the sacred waters told her how to obtain Apuleius The Golden AssVO; VIII; IX

golden wool from dangerous sheep; Jupiter's eagle

came to her aid when she went to get water from a SEE ALSO PAGi PAGE

stream guarded by dragons; and a tower guided her

Apollo 18,60 Proserpina >
safely to the Underworld to collect some of
Cupid 72 Venus 11
Proserpina's beauty. At last, Cupid begged Jupiter to
Eagle 239 Winds 62
take pity on Psyche, so the gods held council and
Jupiter 57 Underworld 78
decided to give her a cup of nectar to make her immor-
+ m ra \m> leci nd

Venus and Adonis

Titian (0488-1576)

Titian chose the tragic love affair between

Venus and Adonis as a subject for his patron
King Philip II of Spain. He completed the
painting in 1554 when the king was in London
following his marriage to Mary I, Queen of
England - although the picture was not in

keeping with wedding celebrations, but

accorded with the king's taste for naked
women. Titian had previously sent Philip a

painting of Danae, seen naked from the front.

In a letter to the king he explained that he had
painted Venus from behind so the two pictures
could hang together and his patron could
admire the variety. Titian called the painting a
poesia - a subject drawn from mythology but
elaborated, taking the same artistic licence as a

poet. He emphasized the tragic content of the

story, showing a naked Venus clinging to the

hunter, who ignores her pleas and sets off for

the hunt at dawn. Cupid lies asleep under a
tree as the sun's rays hail the fateful day.

KEY ELEMENT
ADONIS: When Myrrha tricked her father into an

incestuous relationship, the gods turned her into a tree

to protect her from his wrath - Adonis was born from
the trunk. Venus fell madly in love with the beautiful

youth after Cupid pierced her with his arrow. She was
warned that Adonis would die while hunting but failed

to dissuade him and, after his death, the rose sprang

from his blood, and the anemone from her tears.

SEE ALSO PAGE I'M.

Cupid 72 Hunting 246

4
I
Danae 40 Nude 223
Dog 212 Venus 11
 I

*
+ IfTTHANDLl
 DE VOS: THE RAPE OF EUROPA 53

The Rape of Europa

Marten de Vos (1532-1603)

Marten de Vos was the master of a busy studio

in Antwerp, an important artistic center in the
late sixteenth century. The Rape of Europa (late
sixteenth century) is a typical example of his

graceful style and shows the naked Europa

lying across the back of Jupiter, who is dis-

guised as a bull, her billowing draper) forming 7

an elegant arch behind her head as she clings

to his horns. She looks back remorsefully at

the shore where she had been playing with her

companions before he whisked her away.
Like many painters of his day, de Vos had
traveled to Italy, where he was greatly influ-

enced bv Venetian artists - Veronese and

Titian had both treated the same subject.

KEY ELEMENT
EUROPA: Jupiter fell in love with Europa. (laughter
of the king of Tyre, and disguised himself as a bull so he
could mingle with the cattle on the sands where she
played. In his painting in the Doge's Palace in Venice

(1580), Veronese shows her admiring the handsome

hull and holding out flowers so that he would kiss her
hands. Jupiter frolicked and played until Europa lost
her fear, hung garlands on his horns, and mounted
him. He then sped across the ocean to Crete, where
they made love; and as a result, she gave birth to three

sons, one of whom was Minos, king of Crete. Another

version says that one child was the continent of Europe,

and that Europa was herself turned into a bull, becom-

ing the constellation and zodiac sign of Taurus.

'Ovid Metamorphoses [1:833-75

SEE ALSO PAGI PAG1

Bull 236 Putto 17

( oniiiuiits 229 Zodiac 20<

Nude 093
+ \IVIH \\l> I I

The Sabine Women

Jacques Louis David (1748-1825)

This canvas (1799) shows the Sabine women

halting a fight between their Roman husbands
and their fathers and brothers, and was a state-

ment of David's support for the new Republic

of France after the revolution in 1789. An
ardent admirer of antique statuary, David
arranged the composition as a frieze - the
overlapping figures recalling classical relief

sculpture, and the heroic poses contrasting

masculine resolve with the women's emotional
response. The soldiers on the right carry
symbols of Rome such as the wolf, and the
picture is littered with the women's children,
who will form the future republic.

KEY ELEMENT
SABINE WOMEN: According to legend, Romulus 1

founded Rome in 753BCE. There were few women in

the settlements, so, concerned about its future growth

and greatness, he invited the neighboring Sabines to a

festival. At a given signal, the Roman men seized and

raped the unmarried Sabine women, intending to

unite with their neighbors "by the greatest and surest

bonds." Many sculptors and painters depicted this

scene, including Pietro da Cortona and Giambologna.

Romulus refused to let the women return home, so
their fathers and brothers marched on Rome. The
women had married their violators in the meantime,
and realizing the futility of this action they threw them-

selves between the armies, pleading with "tender and

endearing words" until the men ended the fight.
'Plutarch Lives Romulus

SEE ALSO PAGE PAGE

Armor 246 Romulus 202

Breast 245 War >:n

I
DAVID: THE SABINE WOMEN 55
 i m> ra \m> 1

Gods and Goddesses

<$
Episodes from the lives of the gods and goddesses of Earth, and URANUS, ruler of the heavens, whose union
antiquity provided inspiration for main artists, chal- produced the giant TITANS. There were usually said to

lenging their imaginations. The stories describe a vast be 12 Titans, six male and six female, all of whom were
range of human emotions and, as personifications of endowed with enormous size and strength. SATURN,
human qualities, the gods played an important role in the youngest, was the god of agriculture and was often
allegory. At the beginning of time, there was GAEA, the represented as an old man with a scythe. He may also

personify Time, although this allusion stemmed from a

confusion between the god's Greek name, Cronos, and
The Olympians the Greek word for time, chronos.

Uranus also fathered the one-eyed CYCLOPES and

In Greek and Roman mythology, the gods lived an the hideous, 100-handed giants, or HEKATONCHEIRES,
idyllic life on Mount Olympus. Initially a family of but he couldn't stand the sight of these unfortunates
12, Bacchus is said to have replaced Vesta when she and banished them to Tartarus. In response to Gaea's
quit Olympus in protest at her fellow gods' bad pleas, Saturn took revenge for this act by castrating his
behavior. Pluto was the only god who did not live father with a sickle. The three serpent-headed FURIES
on Olympus - his realm was the Underworld. were born as drops of Uranus's sperm fell on the Earth.
Named Allecto (relentless), Megaira (resentful) and
ROMAN NAME GREEK NAME ASSOCIATIONS Tisiphone (avenger of murder), they breathed
vengeance and pestilence, and administered revenge
Jupiter Zeus Supreme deity;

ruler of the skies on behalf of wronged mothers and fathers.

The goddess VENUS (see page 11) was born as

Juno Hera Queen of
Heaven; marriage Uranus's sperm dripped into the sea - a subject chosen
by Vasari for the ceiling of the room known as the Four
Neptune Poseidon Ruler of the seas
Elements in the Palazzo Vecchio, Florence (c.1560). She
Pluto Hades Ruler of the
Underworld
came ashore on either Cyprus or the Ionian island of

CYTHERA 1

(she was also known as the Cytheran); conse-

Venus Aphrodite Love and beauty
quently, Cythera was thought of as an earthly paradise
Vulcan Hephaestus Forge and fire
where sensual love prevailed and young girls found
Mars Ares War lovers or husbands. Watteau's The Embarkation for
Cythera (see pages 218-19), seems to depict a departure
Minerva Athene Wisdom
from the island, and has a melancholic air appropriate
Apollo Apollo Light; the arts;
to lovers returning to the everyday world. Venus is also
healing
associated with the ancient Syrian deity ASTARTE; and
Diana Artemis Hunting; chastity;
in Astarte (1877), Rossetti represents this mysterious
the moon
goddess of love, whose realm lay between the Sun and
Ceres Demeter Agriculture
the Moon.
Mercury Hermes Communication Saturn inherited his father's kingdom, marrying

Vesta Hestia Home and hearth his sister OPS, the goddess of the harvest. Ops was asso-

ciated with CYBELE, "the Great Mother" and goddess of

Bacchus Dionysos Wine; ecstasy
fertility. In allegory, Cybele represents the Earth, and is

commonly shown with an abundance of fruit, as in

Rubens' The Union of Earth and Water (1612-15), which

L\~
 GODS AND GODDESSES 57

Corn: see Ceres

episode. Jupiter's image is usually majestic; he is

portrayed as an athletic figure with a long, curly beard

and hair. He may be enthroned or holding a scepter,
and as the "aegis bearer," he may wear armor.
In ancient times, the transfer of power between gods
was equated with four AGES OF THE WORLD: gold,

silver, copper or bronze, and 1

iron. Saturn's benevolent
and tranquil rule was linked to the Golden Age, a
period free of fear and conflict, where the season was
everlasting spring and animals lived in harmonv. When
Saturn was overthrown bv Jupiter, he fled to Italy, where
he taught agriculture and the Liberal Arts. In the Age
of Silver, Jupiter introduced the four seasons, forcing

In Raphael'sThe Council of the Gods (detail; 1509-1511), humans to seek shelter. In the Age of Bronze, humans
Jupiter and Juno converse with Venus and her son Cupid. became fiercer and more inclined to conflict, but were
still free from wickedness. The Age of Iron introduced
invokes peace and prosperity. But Uranus had warned treachery, violence, greed, and war. In frescoes in the

Saturn that he would be ousted by his son in turn, so he Sala della Stufa (1637-47; Pitti Palace, Florence) Pietro

swallowed his offspring as fast as they were born - a da Cortona compared these ages to the ages of man:
monstrous act depicted by Goya in Saturn Devouring One gold representing bounty and youth, silver the agrarian

oj His Children (1821-23). Finally, Ops could no longer life, bronze reaping the rewards of middle age, while
bear to see her children perish, so when JUPITER was iron brought violence and death.
born she gave Saturn a stone wrapped in swaddling and Jupiter married his sister JUNO (see pages 16-17).

hid the baby in a cave on Mount Ida on Crete, 2 where but his infidelities often provoked her fury. Among his

Amalthea nurtured him on honey and goat's milk. lovers was his sister CERES, goddess of agriculture,

As predicted, Jupiter finally overthrew his father, corn, and the regenerative powers of nature. When
presenting Saturn with an emetic that made him vomit Pluto abducted their daughter Proserpina. Jupiter
up Jupiter's brothers and sisters, who emerged promised to return her on condition that she had eaten
unharmed. Jupiter then became the supreme head of no food in the Underworld. Proserpina innocently
these new gods, and they lived on the summit of Mount confessed that she had placed some pomegranate seeds
Olympus in Greece, in a cloudless sea of limpid air, in her mouth, so Jupiter resolved thai she should spend
illuminated by white radiance. The Titans sought to equal parts of the year with her mother and her new
overthrow their usurpers by piling two mountains on husband Pluto.' He thus created the seasons, foi Ceres
top of each other to reach Olympus, but Jupiter hurled made the world barren during Proserpina's stav in the

thunderbolts to halt their attack. The subject was popu- Underworld, while her return home became spring and

lar in Baroque times, and Giulio Romano's trompe I'oeil summer. Like Abundance. Ceres ma) carrj sheaves or

frescoes in the Palazzo del Te, Mantua (1530-32) ears of corn, fruit, or a cornucopia, and hold agricul-

showed later artists the dramatic possibilities of the tural tools. She was associated with Cvbele, and in his

Ages of the World: see Ages of Man (page 245); Ceres: see 'Ovid FoshTV:286 ibid. rV:197-206 Ovid Metamorphoses 1:89-150
Cornucopia (page 244), Pluto (page 78), Proserpina (page 78) •ibid. V:342-57l
Jupiter: see Amalthea (page 77), Liberal Arts (page 197)
+ MYTH Wl> I H.l ND

Forethought and Afterthought

Ih< In.tii PROMETHEUS (whose her beauty and the art of pleasing,

name means "forethought") pre- the Graces made her captivating,

(Ih ted that the Olympians would Apollo taught her to sing, Mercury
overthrow the Titans, so lie fought instructed her in eloquence, and
on Jupiter's side. Unfortunately, he Minerva gave her rich jewelry.
enraged his new master by fashion- Jupiter's gift was a box, which he
ing man from the freshly-made told her not to open but to give to

earth but in the image of the gods, 1

her husband. Jupiter then sent

a story illustrated in two paintings her to Earth, where Prometheus's
by Piero di Cosimo (1490s). An brother Epimetheus (whose name
angry Jupiter then deprived means "afterthought") ignored his

humankind of fire, so Prometheus sibling's warning and married her.

climbed to the heavens and Overcome with curiosity, Pandora

retrieved a spark from the chariot opened the box: evils poured out
of the sun. In retribution for and spread over the Earth to afflict

this defiant act, Jupiter chained mankind ceaselessly. Only Hope,

Prometheus to a rock on Mount In Prometheus Carrying Fire (detail) by the consoler of sorrow, remained

Caucasus. Each day an eagle came Cossiers (1600-1671), the Titan glares up inside. Pandora's story became the
and devoured Prometheus's liver,
at Jupiter as he steals fire for humankind. counterpart of Eve's temptation
and each night the organ was and the Fall of Man, and in Eva

regenerated until, after many years, Hercules set him Prima Pandora (see pages 224-25) Jean Cousin painted
free.
2
Prometheus's torture was a popular theme in art, her with an apple and an urn of troubles. Pandora was
especially in the seventeenth century; Rubens shows his also portrayed in the nineteenth century - Rossetti

muscular body racked with pain in Prometheus (1611-14). depicted her several times as a troubled beauty holding

Jupiter's wrath extended to humans too, and he asked her casket, from which an evil vapor escapes.
his son Vulcan to make PANDORA out of clay.' She came 'Hesiod Works and Days 48-104 and Ovid Metamorphoses 1:76-89
-Apollodorus The Library I vii 1 'Hesiod Works and Days 60-142
to life and the gods showered her with gifts: Venus gave

Statue of Ceres (c.1615), Rubens depicted her as a statue Frogs (c.1610). Jupiter also ravished Maia (daughter of
in a niche, with swags of fruit and putti. the Titan, Atlas) and assumed various disguises to

The Titaness LATONA 1

was another of Jupiter's pursue the mortals Danae, Io, Europa, Callisto,

lovers. Fleeing Juno's anger, she gave birth to the twins Antiope, and Leda.
Apollo and Diana on the island of Delos. When she Jupiter divided up the universe by drawing lots.-' His

stopped to drink from a lake, peasants gathering reeds brother Pluto won the Underworld, Jupiter became the
harried and insulted her; and as a punishment for their ruler of Heaven, while NEPTUNE took control of the
malicious behavior she turned them into frogs, who sea, the rivers, and fountains. Neptune was also respon-

continued to bicker underwater. Johann Koenig illus- sible for earthquakes and could wreak havoc with the
trated this in Latona Changing the Lycian Peasants into elements. His many loves included Caenis, Coronis, and

L
 GODS AND GODDESSES 59 +

Sea Horse: see Neptune

Amymone. The sea nymph He sacrificed two of the cows and

Amphitrite tried to escape his made a lyre from a tortoise shell and
attentions by fleeing to the some cow-gut. When Apollo discov-
farthest limits of the sea, until a ered the theft, he was so enchanted
dolphin persuaded her to marry by the sound of the lvre that he
him; their son was the merman agreed to exchange his entire herd
Triton. Neptune also fathered the for the instrument. Mercurv is thus

Cyclops Polyphemus. In allegory, he seen as both inventive and light-

may represent water, and he is often fingered; he was the god of good
depicted as the god of the sea, luck, and of commerce, wealth, and
appearing as a slightly disheveled thieves, and mav be shown as a

but vigorous man with cascading personification of diplomacv.

locks. His attribute is a trident, Son of Jupiter and Juno. MARS

which he used to rouse the winds the god of war is depicted as a
and whip up tempests. He is also militant figure with a helmet and
depicted riding in a chariot drawn shield; he is usually armed with a

by dolphins, or sea horses, accompa- spear, sword, and lance. He ma\ be

nied by mermaids, mermen, nereids accompanied by the Furies or by his

(sea nymphs), and naiads (water sisters Strife and Bellona (his female
nymphs). His majestic figure some- counterpart). Mars appears in alle-

times decorates fountains. Mercury is depicted in his winged boot gories illustrating the triumph of
MERCURY, son of Jupiter and and petasus m Andrea Mantegna's love or wisdom over war. In his nega-
Parnassus (detail; seepages 2-4-25).
Maia, was the athletic messenger of tive role, where war tramples on
the gods. He acted as a guide and civilized pursuits, he may also
1
ambassador, was the protector of travelers, and led the emphasize the superior aim of peace. Mars most
souls of the dead down to the Underworld. He is usually famous affair - shown in numerous paintings - was with
shown wearing winged sandals "of untarnishable gold," Venus; whenever he rested in her company, he took off
and perhaps a winged petasus - a hat with a low crown his armor and the world was at peace. Painters followed
and small brim. He was also the god of dreams and the classical description of the couple together: "Mars

sleep, carrying a "wand which he- could use at will to cast potent in arms, rules the savage works of War. vet often

a spell upon our eyes or wake us from the soundest casts himself back into your lap. vanquished by the ever-
sleep." His
1
'
wand, or caduceus, often has snakes twined living wound of love." The theme ma) also be treated
around it and may have wings. He was entrusted with humorously, with putti playing disrespectfully with
("lipid's education, depicted by Correggio in The Mais' discarded armor.
Education of Cupid (r.1528); Giambologna cast a potent MINERVA was goddess of wisdom and war. but unlike
image of Mercury in flight (1665). Mars, she fought in defense of justice. She was born
On the day he was born, Mercury stole Apollo's cows, from Jupiter's head, because he had been told in a

walking them backwards so they could not be traced. 4

prophecy that his first wife Metis would give birth to

Latona: see Apollo (pages 18 and 60), Diana (page 61 ); Ovid MetamorphosesVl:313-&\ -Homer llliad XX: 184-204
Mercury: see Caduceus (page 247); Neptune: sec Coronis 'Homer OdysseyVAl Ovid Metamorphoses [1:676-706
(page 72), Polyphemus (page 66) I iu retius I), Rerum Natura 1:32-40
 + •
MYTH MUD I I

^ one who would surpass him. When Metis became preg-

nant. Jupiter swallowed her. but he suffered so much
founded
the city's
Owl: see Minerva

Attica's capital Athens,

patroness.
and Minerva became
Her temple - the Parthenon - was
pain that he had to beg VULCAN (see page 13) to split built on the Acropolis. She may be shown with an olive

his head open - and Minerva issued forth. The owl of tree or branch, and olive leaves may decorate her dress.
wisdom was sacred to Minerva and she often counseled As the god of light, APOLLO (see also page 18) inher-
her father. She possessed a noble beauty- and is usually ited two distinct characteristics. First, he was the
shown in armor, carrying a lance and a shield, which physical light of the sun god SOL, drawing a four-horse

may bear the image of Medusa. She was also chariot across the sky each day, often preceded by the

goddess of crafts, particularly spinning and weaving, figure of Aurora. The subject lent itself to paintings on
and she invented the flute. She was invoked by those in several Baroque ceilings, such as Guido Reni's Aurora
pursuit of reason, learning, and the civilized arts. (1614; Casino Rospigliosi, Rome) and Giambattista
Minerva once competed with Neptune for the region Tiepolo's Course of the Chariot of the Sun (1740; Palazzo

of Attica, which was promised as a prize to the one who Clerici, Milan), which shows Apollo blazing across the
gave the most useful present to its inhabitants. Neptune four continents. He is also seen rising or setting, as in

hit the ground with his trident and brought forth a the pair of tapestry designs by Boucher, The Rising and

spring or, in some accounts, a horse; Minerva created Setting of the Sun ( 1 754) or with Phaethon,
, who asked to

the olive tree, a symbol of peace - so the land was drive the god's chariot and foolishly flew too close to

awarded to her. The tree was cultivated by Cecrops, who the ground, scorching some nations.

Communicating with the Gods

In the classical world, the gods communicated with mortals through

ORACLES, the most famous of which was that of Apollo at DELPHI in the
P55' -ATI heart of Greece. Here, Apollo's prophecies were uttered by a priestess, the

PYTHIA, who sat on a sacred tripod of gold placed over a chasm in the

rock. The hero Hercules contested Apollo's possession of the oracle when
he did not receive the answer he required. He tried to carry the sacred

jm is
tripod away but Apollo came to the priestess's defence, and Jupiter settled

^^^^_ the quarrel by throwing a thunderbolt between his two sons. Apollo
1
had
^=-^^1
another oracle on Delos, the island of his birth. In Landscape with Aeneas at

Delos (see pages 192-93) Claude Lorrain shows the picturesque landscape

no
where Aeneas came to consult it.

w^^^. Apollo also had a famous oracle Cumae in Italy, where the SIBYL
J' >r^^5^5m*// , i ^^^{ relayed his prophecies. She asked Apollo,
at

who loved her, to grant her as

many years of life as there were grains in a heap of dust. Salvator Rosa's

River Scene with Apollo and the Sibyl (1650s) shows her holding the dust in her

hand before the god. She scorned his love, and as she had forgotten to

Domenichino's:A Sibyl (c.1620) ask for eternal youth, Apollo condemned her to the misery of a
2
represents the prophetess as a voluptuous protracted old age.
xvoman in Eastern costume. 'Apollodorus The Library II vi 2 'Ovid Metamorphoses XIV: 130-53
 GODS AND GODDESSES 61 +

Bear: see Diana

Secondiy, Apollo represented the light of truth, Orazio Gentileschis Diana

knowledge, and reason. Artists such as Poussin and the Hunter (1625) shows the
goddess in naturalistic pose.
Anton Mengs were influenced by Raphael's painting
Parnassus (c.1510), where Apollo sits surrounded by the
Muses and the great poets. Together with Calliope, the which was guarded by the
muse of epic poetry, he provided inspiration to poets VESTAL VIRGINS. Vestals

and bestowed on them his crown of laurel, a reference were selected at the age
to his unrequited love for Daphne. of six, performing their
Apollo was also associated with the protection of duties for 30 years before

flocks and herds. He often dressed as a shepherd with a they were free to mam.
crook, and in this bucolic guise may be seen with satyrs. Their most important task
As god of music, his supremacy was contested by the was to ensure that the
satyr Marsyas and by Pan. He could be cruel too, and as sacred fire never died -
the archer-god, he rounded viciously on the Greeks in they were whipped by the
the Trojan War, his arrows killing ranks of men and his high priest when this

poisoned darts bringing disease. Usually, however, he is happened - and if they

depicted as the god of the civilized arts. broke their vow of chastity
The medicine god AESCULAPIUS was the son of the}' were walled up alive.

Apollo and Coronis, and was brought up by the wise They wore white tunics with purple borders and purple
centaur Chiron, from whom he learned the art of mantles. Celebrated Vestals were Rhea Silvia (mother of
healing. Aesculapius was introduced to Rome from Romulus and Remus), Tuccia, and Claudia. Vesta gave
Greece during a severe plague, arriving disguised as a up her place on Olympus to the latecomer BACCHUS
snake. He resumed his appearance on the Tiber Island (see page 14), god of wine and drama.
and the plague ceased. The caduceus, a serpent twined Two wedding FEASTS OF THE GODS were popular
around a staff, is his attribute. subjects in art: the feast of Cupid and Psyche, and that

Apollo's twin sister DIANA was goddess of chastity of Thetis and Peleus. At the latter, the 12 deities of
and hunting. She is often depicted as an athletic figure Olympus sat on their thrones, the Fates and Muses
dressed in a short tunic, and may carry a bow and arrow sang, Ganymede poured nectar, and 50 nereids danced
and be accompanied by hounds or stags. She was iden- on the sands. Unfortunately, the goddess of DISCORD
tified with the moon goddess Luna, and a crescent Kris, who stirred up war b\ spreading rumor, had not
moon is her attribute. She is often surrounded by been invited. As [uno, Minerva, and Venus chatted
attendant nymphs, and perhaps a bear, because Juno together, she threw down a golden apple dedicated to

turned her nymph Callisto into a bear. As Chastity, the fairest - an act that led to the Judgment of Paris

Diana may be paired with Venus or Cupid, who repre- and, ultimately, to the Trojan War. In The Goddess of
sent sensual love. She may also carry a shield to protect Discord (1806), Turner shows her choosing the apple in

herself from Cupid's arrows. the garden of the Hesperides. Artists also painted the
VESTA was the goddess of the hearth and home. A feasts without reference to the weddings as great
fire burned constantly in her circular temple in Rome, outdoor banquets set in the shade of trees.

Aesculapius: see Centaur (page 28), Coronis (page 72); Apollo: Discord: see Judgment of Paris (page 69); Feasts of the Gods:
see Aurora (page 22), Daphne (page 7(i), Marsvas (page 79), six- Apple (page 240), Ganymede (page I'M, Psyche (page 19),
Muses (pages 25 and 63), Phaethon (page 79), Pan (page 82) rhetis i page M); Minerva: see Medusa I page 64)
 + H UfD I H.I ND

^ Nymphs,
I he opportunity to

\m adian setting made the world of nymphs and

Satyrs,
portray beautiful
and Minor Gods
people in an
nivthi-
by an ass.

into a lotus tree.

She fled in terror until the
*
HYMEN, the
gods turned her
god of marriage, was also

( .il beings a favorite theme from the Renaissance the son of Bacchus and Venus, and is usually portraved

onwards. NYMPHS were lovely women who possessed as a boy crowned with flowers, holding a burning torch.
prophetic powers; they were associated with the woods, CASTOR AND POLLUX were the inseparable warrior
mountains, and dales. Naiads were nymphs of the rivers twins of Jupiter and Leda, and rode horses whiter than
and lakes, and nereids were nymphs of the sea. They snow. In Latin they were known as the Dioscuri or "sons

were often desired by SATYRS (see page 27). of Jupiter." They rescued their sister Helen from
FAUNUS, ancient chief of the fauns or satyrs, was Theseus, took part in the Calydonian Boar Hunt and in

often depicted in the company Jason's quest for the Golden Fleece;
of Bacchus. Worshipped by they also carried the daughters of
fanners, shepherds, and country- Leucippus off to Sparta - a scene
dwellers, he was identified with made famous by Rubens in the Rape
the Greek god PAN, who lived in of the Daughter of Leucippus ( c 1
. 618)
the mountains of Arcadia. Pan Castor almost died in the ensuing
had a human torso and arms, fight, but Jupiter granted Pollux's
and the legs, tail, hooves, and prayer that he might share his

horns of a goat; he was thought immortality and allowed the twins to

to be the instigator of sudden, spend alternate days on Mount
inexplicable "panic." Poussin's Olympus and in Hades.' He also

Triumph of Pan (1635-36) shows placed them in the sky as the con-
him as a garlanded herm (a stellation Gemini, where they
double-faced bust). guided sailors, appearing as a glow
Pan pursued the wood nymph Waterlwuse 's Hylas and the Nymphs (detail; of atmospheric electricity.

SYRINX until she reached a see pages 34—35) reveals the artist s delight in The WINDS were the sons of
the Arcadian world of heroes and nymphs.
river. She prayed to be trans- AURORA, goddess of the dawn (see
formed and, just as he thought page 22). They blew in times of

he had caught her, he found he was clasping marsh strife, so their king Aeolus kept them in a cavern and
reeds. As he sighed disappointedly, the reeds produced tempered their fury." The East wind came from Arabia
a delightful sound, so he cut unequal lengths, tied them and Persia, where the sun rose; the balmy West wind
together, and named his musical pipes the syrinx.
1

Zephyr blew from shores warmed by the setting sun; the

Pan's son SILENUS was Bacchus's companion in South wind brought rain and clouds; while the North
revelry. He is usually depicted as a merry old man riding wind, old Boreas, whipped up storms of snow and hail.

an ass, in varying degrees of drunkenness. Rubens' They may be shown as winged heads with puffed
Drunken Silenus Supported by Satyrs (c.1620) shows him cheeks, or as personifications: the cold winds as old

inebriated to the point of helplessness. PRIAPUS, god of men with shaggy beards, the warm winds as youths.

licentiousness and fertility, was the son of Bacchus and Zephyr pursued and raped the Greek maiden Chloris,
Venus -who banished him to the mountains because of then made her his bride.
11
Caught in his embrace, she
his huge genitals. When the nymph Lotis scorned his turned into FLORA, goddess of flowers. Flora enjoyed
advances during one of his father's feasts 2
- a scene perpetual spring in a garden of countless flowers and
depicted by Giovanni Bellini in Feast of the Gods (1514) fruit, where the THREE GRACES (see page 21) twined
- he tried to ravish her as she slept, but she was woken garlands for their hair; she brought color to the earth
 NYMPHS. SATYRS. AND MINOR GODS 63

Panpipes: see Syrinx

by scattering seeds. In Poussin's Kingdom of Flora (1631),

she appears with Hyacinthus, Narcissus, Crocus, Ajax, The Nine Muses
and Adonis - youths who were turned into flowers.

Other benign figures include Jupiter and Juno's The MUSES lived on Mount Helicon near a miracu-
daughter JUVENTAS, goddess of perpetual youth. In lous fountain created by a blow from Pegasus's hoof.

Juventas with Jupiter in the Guise of an Eagle (c. 1820), They brought artistic inspiration - thus a "museum"
Adolph Diez portrays her as Jupiter's cup-bearer. IRIS became an institution dedicated to literature, learn-

was goddess of the rainbow, descending to Earth to give ing, and the arts - and still suggests a place where

mortals messages from the gods. She is also seen in the antiquities are housed. In Parnassus (c.1510), Raphael

realm of the dream god Hypnos. shows the Muses with ancient and modern poets.

Many minor gods were personifications of abstract

ideas or natural phenomena. A cornucopia may repre- NAME MEANING ASSOCIATION

sent the favors that FORTUNE so unevenly meted out,
Calliope Beautiful voice Epic poem
while a spinning wheel or globe refers to her incon-
Clio Fame History
stancy. She may stand on gaming dice or have billowing
"sails" of drapery, referring to the variable winds of 1 I. lie Loveh Lyric poetry

chance. VICTORY usually flies down holding a palm Euterpe Music

[05

branch and a laurel crown, which she places on the

Melpomene Singing Tragic drama
heads of those triumphant in war, athletics or poetry.
She appears in Ingres's Apotheosis of Homer (1827). Polyhymnia Man) songs Mime and sacred
Kill -

HISTORY is a female figure with books, tablets or

scrolls, and in An Allegory of History (c.1770), Anton IcipsK llOlC [oyful dan< < Dam i-

Mengs shows her with Fame, Time, and the double- 1 halia Good cheer/ Comic drama
Pleim
headed JANUS, guardian of the threshold. Janus had 7

two faces so he could look ahead and behind. He gave Crania < elestial Vstronom]

his name to January and his knowledge of the past and

the future meant he was associated with wisdom.
Daughter of Chaos, NIGHT was the mother of DAY;
together they represented passing lime and death. Owls
and bats draw Night's chariot, and she may wear a star-

spangled cloak or a crown of poppies, and carry one

black and one while child. In Michelangelo's Night
(r. 1530), she appears with a mask and a crescent moon.
She was the mother of the Fates, of Death, and of
NEMESIS, goddess of vengeance, who may stand on a

wheel with a scourge hanging from her girdle. Diner's Andrea Mantegna's Parnassus (detail; seepages J l 23
Nemesis (1501-1502) holds a bridle for the undisci- shows the Muses singing and dancing in n circle.

plined and a cup to reward the virtuous.

Castor and Pollux: set- Zodiac (page 209); Faunus: sec Bacchus 'Ovid Metamorphoses 1:689-712 <-hu\ Fasti I 393-4 II Ovid
(page- 14); History: sec Time (page 2.44); Iris: sec Rainbow Metamorphoses EX:346-48 'Ovid Fasti V:693-720 Virgil ieneid

(page 24:5); Night: sec Death (page 2 lf>) [:50-65 "Ovid Fasti V:183-228 ibid. 1:89-1 15
 + IYTH UiD I I

^ Heroes and Monsters

Classical

been depicted
tales <>l

in art,
quests and heroic
appearing both as narrative cycles
trials have often were turned into snakes, disappearing into the shelter
of a neighboring grove with their bodies entwined.
and as allegorical references to virtuous qualities. The The hero PERSEUS (see pages 32-33) gained fame
destruction of terrifying monsters is a recurring motif. for killing MEDUSA and for rescuing ANDROMEDA.
Apollo's oracle advised CADMUS to follow a heifer Medusa was one of three sisters renowned for their

with a moon-shaped sign on her flank, for she would beauty and especially their lovely hair.-' After Neptune
lead him to the place where he was to found Thebes. robbed her of her virginity in one of Minerva's temples,
Obeying his instructions, Cadmus reached a forest the goddess punished Medusa by changing her into a

where the dragon of Mars lived: hideous gorgon with a mass of

a monster with "a golden crest, snakes for hair. She then incised
fire flashing from its eyes, its Medusa's image on her shield,
body all puffed up with poison, as depicted by Caravaggio
and ... its mouth set with a (c.1598). One glance at

triple row of teeth." 1

Cadmus Medusa's face was enough to

was unaware of the danger and turn a human to stone, but

sent his men into the forest to Perseus managed to decapitate

get water, where they soon met her and used her head to petrify

their fate - a scene depicted by his enemies. On his way home,

Cornells van Haarlem in The he rescued Andromeda from
Followers of Cadmus Devoured by Cetus the sea monster, turning
a Dragon (1588). In revenge, In Perseus Rescuing Andromeda (detail; see the seaweed into CORAL when
Cadmus fought a furious battle pages 32-33), Piero di Cosimo portrays the sea he laid down Medusa's head.
monster Cetus in an unusually comical fashion.
with the monster and killed it, at Coral was thus thought to

which point Minerva appeared protect against evil, and Vasari

and told him to plow the earth and sow the dragon's depicted the scene on a cabinet door of the Studiolo of
teeth as seeds. First spearheads appeared, then plumed Francesco I in the Palazza Vecchio, Florence (c.1572) to
helmets, then figures weighed down with weapons - indicate its precious contents.
one of whom warned Cadmus to "keep clear of family The winged horse PEGASUS sprang from Medusa's
conflict." The warriors then fought each other until blood. It carried Perseus on his adventures and accom-
only five remained, and with these five Sparti (sown panied BELLEROPHON on various exploits. Queen
men) Cadmus founded the Greek city of Thebes. Anteia of Argos loved Bellerophon and begged him to
Cadmus subsequently married Harmonia, daughter satisfy her passion - when he refused, she told her
of Mars and Venus, and among his wedding presents husband that he had tried to ravish her.' The king sent

from the gods was a beautiful but unlucky necklace Bellerophon to the court of Lycia with a message

made by Vulcan. Although the couple produced many requesting his death, and the hero was charged with the
children, the house of Cadmus was ill-fated: one of task of destroying the monstrous CHIMERA, which was
Jupiter's thunderbolts consumed their daughter devastating the country. 4 Foisted on humankind by the
Semele; Cadmus's grandson Actaeon was destroyed by gods, it had a lion's head, a serpent's tail, and the body
his own hounds; and his descendant Oedipus blinded of a goat, while its breath came out in blasts of flame.
and banished himself (see box, opposite). Cadmus and Bellerophon managed to kill the beast with Pegasus's

Harmonia finally left Thebes bowed down with old age help. In subsequent tasks he fought and defeated the
and sorrow, but as a reward for killing the dragon they fierce tribe of the Solymi and the AMAZONS, a band of
 HEROES AND MONSTERS 65

Bow and Arrow: see Amazons

A Monstrous Riddler
The hero OEDIPUS was the son of Jocasta and King Laius of Thebes. After an
oracle warned Laius that his son would kill him, the boy was abandoned on a

hillside at birth, but was rescued by a shepherd and grew up in Corinth. Later,

goaded by friends about his parentage, Oedipus asked the oracle of Delphi who
his true parents were, and was told never to return home for he would kill his

father and marry his mother. Fleeing from the only home he knew, Oedipus

met Laius, who ordered the youth to make way for his chariot. A fight ensued
and Oedipus killed him. Oedipus then entered Thebes, which was being terror-

ized by the SPHINX, a monster with a woman's head and a lion's body. She asked
passers-by: "Which animal walks on four feet in the morning, on two at noon
and on three in the evening?", eating anyone who failed to solve her riddle.
Oedipus gave the right answer: a man - who crawls as a baby, stands upright in

manhood, and walks with a stick in old age. 1

His rewards were the kingdom of

Thebes and Jocasta's hand. When a plague broke out, an oracle predicted that

it would not cease until Laius's killer was revealed. Finally, Oedipus discovered
the truth about his parents and, tormented, put out his own eyes and banished
himself to Attica. The Greeks adopted the Sphinx as a symbol of wisdom and, Ingres 's Oedipus and the Sphinx
from the Renaissance, her image was used to embellish furniture. (detail; 1808) shows the hern in an

'Apollodorus The Library III v 8

inquisitive pose, his weapons lowered.

female warriors who lived near the Black Sea. The (1636-37). Theseus then set oil for Athens, overcoming
Greek word amazon means "without breast," because robbers and wild beasts on the way. He found Aegeus
the women cut off their right breasts so that they could living with Medea, who attempted to destroy the vouth
draw their bows more easily. The Amazons invaded before his identity became known. She told Aegeus that
Athens but were driven back by THESEUS and Theseus was an imposter who plotted to kill him, but
Hercules.'' Rubens' Bailie of the Amazons and Greeks the king recognized his sword just as he was about to
( r. 1 6 1 7 ) shows the violent battle of the sexes in which hand his son a cup of poison.
the women were overcome. In his most celebrated adventure, Theseus offered
Theseus, son of King Aegeus of Athens, appears in himself as a sacrifice to the dreaded MINOTAUR of
art as a muscular figure similar to Hercules. He was Crete (see page 31). After killing the beast, he escaped
mistakenly believed to be Neptune's son, but Aegeus from the labyrinth and sailed off with the king's daugh-
had hidden a sword and sandals under a heavy rock to ter, Ariadne, later abandoning her on the island of
test his son's strength and prove his identity - a scene Naxos. Reaching home, he forgot to hoist the sails of
depicted by Poussin in Theseus Finding I lis Fathers Sword victory to notify his father of his safe return, causing

Cadmus: see Actaeon (page 76), Minerva (page 59), Semele 'Ovid Metamorphoses 111:1-137 and [V:563-603 ibid. 1\ 774-803
(page 43), Vulcan (page 13); Medusa: see Neptune (page 58) 'Homer /Had VI: 160-2 11 'Homei ///,/,/ VI: lso-s:> Plutarch
Theseus: see Hercules (page 68), Medea (page 67) / ives Theseus
 +

^ I

I [<
lvsses

»mei 's epi< poem the Odyssey tells the stor) <>t the hero- Meanwhile, Ulysses' son telemachus had set off in

wanderei L'LYSSES (Odysseus in the Greek). Son of King search of his father, protected by Minerva in disguise as

Laertes ol [thai a, I Flysses initially sought beautiful I felen his guardian Mentor. Giambattista Tiepolo shows them
.in Ins bride, Inii finally relinquished his suit to Menelaus striding out togedier in Telemachus and Mentor (1696-1770).
ol Sparta and married faithful PENELOPE. Bound by When Ulysses finally returned home laden with gifts

oath to protect Helen, he initially feigned madness after from the Phaeacians, Minerva warned him that Penelope
Paris i .lined her off to Troy, but later fought to retrieve was being plagued by disreputable suitors who courted
her in the Trojan War. her as though he were dead. Penelope had no idea if

After the sack of Troy, Ulysses made an epic journey Ulysses had survived and, to protect herself, had agreed
home, aided by Minerva. He came first to an island where to marry as soon as she had finished weaving a shroud for

POLYPHEMUS tended sheep. This monstrous, one-eyed

1

Laertes, which she spun by day and unpicked by night -

( ac lops was Neptune's son, and he sealed Ulysses and his fooling her suitors for three years. She is usually seen

crew in a cave and began to eat them. They escaped by weaving, as in Giovanni Stradano's depiction in the

giving Polyphemus wine until he fell down senseless, driv- Palazzo Vecchio, Florence (mid-sixteenth century).

ing a burning stake into his eye, then clinging to his Ulysses was determined to reclaim his rightful position,

sheep as he let them out the next morning. Turner's so he disguised himself as a beggar and hatched a plot
Ulysses Deriding Polyphemus (1829) shows Ulysses' boat with Telemachus. Armed with his great bow, he joined an

pulling away as nereids guide his ship; Polyphemus forms archery contest in which Penelope was the prize and,

part of a mountain seen through the clouds. In revenge, with Telemachus's help, slew all the suitors. He was thus
Neptune made Ulysses' journey long and hazardous. reunited with both Penelope and Laertes.'

When Ulysses landed on the island of the sorceress Scenes from Ulysses' life may occupy a narrative cycle,

CIRCE, some of his men fell prey to her potions and were as in PellegrinoTibaldi's frescoes (1550s), or form part of

turned into swine. 2

Fortified with an antidote from a decorative scheme, such as those of Pintoricchio from

Mercury, Ulysses made her restore them, although Circe the Palazzo Petrucci (c.1509).

then persuaded him to stay for a year, feasting on meat 'Homer Odyssey IX 187-474 -ibid. X 'ibid. XXI; XXII

and mellow wine. She fascinated painters such as

Waterhouse, who in Circe Invidiosa (1892) shows her

poisoning the sea in anger when Ulysses leaves.

After journeying to the land of the dead to learn his

fate, Ulysses sailed past the SIRENS, whose sweet singing

lured sailors to their deaths on the rocks. In The Sirens

(1882), Gustave Moreau shows them as lovely maidens

with crowns. Ulysses landed safely but his hungry crew

ignored his command and killed the cattle of Helios; in

punishment, Jupiter destroyed Ulysses' men and ship

with a thunderbolt. The beautiful sea nymph Calypso

detained him for another seven years and, after leaving

her, he survived a storm with the help of the sea goddess
Ino. Arriving in the land of the Phaeacians, he was then Waterhouse 's Ulysses and the Sirens (detail; 1891) shows
discovered by Princess Nausicaa, as seen in Rubens' Ulysses tied to his ship's mast. His crew have plugged their ears

Landscape with Ulysses and Nausicaa (r.1635). with ivax so that they are unable to hear the Sirens singing.
'
 HEROES AND MONSTERS 67

Oak Tree: see Jason

Aegeus to throw himself into the sea in grief Cupid pierced the king's daughter MEDEA
(which was subsequently called the Aegean with his arrow; the sorceress fell in love with

Sea). Theseus thus succeeded to the throne of Athens, Jason immediately and helped him with her magic
and was a liberal and popular monarch - but he was powers. Jason completed
5
all the tasks successfullv and
consistently unsuccessful in love. He married Ariadne's found the Golden Fleece hanging on a huge oak tree;

sister Phaedra, but she fell in love with HIPPOLYTUS, he managed to remove his prize safelv after Medea
Theseus 's son by the Amazon, Antiope. When the beau- charmed the dragon with her sweet voice and sprinkled
tiful youth rejected her, she told Theseus that he had a potion in its eyes. Consumed with passion for Jason,

tried to seduce her, a scene depicted by Pierre-Narcisse Medea then accompanied him as he sailed for home.
Guerin in Phaedra and Hippolytus (nineteenth century). These stories appealed to Gustave Moreau, who painted
Theseus then sought Neptune's help in punishing the Jason arid Medea (1865) and The Return of the Argonauts

boy, and Hippolytus was trampled by his own horses. (1897). When Jason reached Thessalv. he found Aeson
Among his other adventures, Theseus fought off the on the brink of death, but Medea restored him with her
CENTAURS (see page 28) who invaded the wedding of spells. Pelias was bv now bowed down with age. and
his friend Pirithous, king of the Lapiths. Theseus and seeking to avenge his usurpation of the throne. Medea
Pirithous also descended into the Underworld to carry convinced his daughters that he could be young again.
away Proserpina but were stopped by Pluto. In punish- In some tales she persuaded them to empty his veins of
ment, Pirithous was placed on his father Ixion's wheel, blood so she could fill them with youthful essence, in

and Theseus was tied to a huge stone until he was others she told them to cut Pelias up and boil him -
rescued by Hercules. 1

On his return to Alliens. Theseus either way, he died. His throne restored, the ungrateful

discovered that Menestheus had usurped his throne, so fason then abandoned Medea and married the daugh-
he fled to the island of Scyros. Here, the king of the ter of the king of Corinth. The union was short-lived.

island pushed him down a steep precipice to his death, for the furious Medea killed his bride, his father-in-law.

fearing that such a powerful hero would usurp him. and her own children/ Turner showed her practicing
Theseus 's father Aegeus had given santuary to Medea her bla< k ai is in his Vision n/ Medea i 1828).

after she became estranged from an earlier hero, Medea was surpassed in honor In hybrid monsters ol

JASON, son of Aeson, king of Iolcus in Thessalv. After part-female form. These included the sphinx and the
Aeson's brother Pelias usurped the throne, he sent HARPY - a monster with a woman's hue and breasts,

Jason away to be educated by the centaur Chiron, but and a bird's body and wings. I lai pies defiled everything

when Jason reached maturity, he undertook a quest for the) touched and were thought to In- the gods' grasp-

the Golden Fleece in return lor his rightful monarchy. ing administrators; t In \ also snatched the soul awa\ at

This precious fleece hung in a grove in Colchis on the death. In his Allegory oj the lull of Ignorant Humanity,
Black Sea, guarded by a dragon, fason and his crew, the Mantegna (1431-1506) shows them supporting the fat

ARGONAUTS, who included Hercules and HYLAS (see figure of Ignorance, who sits on a globe flanked bv
page 35), sailed there in the Argo, passing through the Ingratitude and Avarice. The) also appeal as decorative
dangerous Svmplegades Straits with Minerva's help. motifs on furniture - the harp) table-leg in Cesare da
King Aeetes of Colchis agreed to surrender the fleece Sesto's Salome with the I lead oj John tin Baptist ( 1512-16)
if Jason carried out certain difficult tasks. Fortunately, contributes to the painting's sinistei atmosphere.

Harpy: see Avarice (page 250);Jason: sec Centaur (page 28), Vpollodorus II:v 12 Vpollonius of Rhodes Vrgonautica
Cupid (page 72), Minerva (page 59); Theseus: see Hercules ibid. 'Ovid Metamorphoses VII: 1-403 and Euripides M
(page 68), Ixion (page 78), Proserpina (page 78)
 + «.(> Ill \Sh I H.I Mi

^ Hercules and his Labors

Son
with
ol [upitei .Hid

superhuman
Alcmena, HERCULES was endowed
strength; Jupiter's wife Juno sent two
Cornucopia: see At helous

Minerva's golden castanets and shooting them

with his poisoned arrows. After capturing the sav-
"

snakes to kill him as a child but he strangled them with age, fire-breathing CRETAN BULL, he tamed the
bare hands. She plagued him further as an adult and, man-eating HORSES OF DIOMEDES by killing King
di iven mad by her, he threw his children into a fire.
1

As Diomedes and feeding his flesh to his mares.

a punishment, he went to serve King Eurystheus, who For his ninth task, Hercules fought a pitched battle
set him 12 tasks, which he completed with Minerva's with the Amazons to win the GIRDLE OF HIPPOLYTA,
help.- Scenes from his labors often made reference to a their queen. He then slew the three-bodied monster
patron's power, as in Vasari's Labors Geryon, his two-headed dog and his
of Hercules (c. 1560), painted for giant herdsman, and shipped the
Duke Cosimo I. Hercules' story may OXEN OF GERYON to Greece, mak-
also be treated as an allegory of ing the founding of Rome possible

good vanquishing evil, and he may by killing the monster Cacus on the
personify strength, endurance, and way.
3
Next, he obtained the APPLES
courage. He is usually shown as a OF THE HESPERIDES by killing a
muscular figure with a lionskin and 100-headed dragon, and finally, he
a club, and the statue known as the wrestled with Pluto's guard dog
Farnese Hercules found in 1540, CERBERUS.
provided an excellent prototype. In later adventures, Hercules slew

For his first labor, Hercules the centaur EURYTION after he

trapped the NEMEAN LION. It was found him raping a girl,
4
and
invulnerable to weapons, so he rescued HESIONE of Troy from a

choked it, skinned it, and donned sea monster. He also fought the
5

its protective pelt. Next, he tackled Spranger's Hercules, Deianeira and the river god ACHELOUS for the hand
the monstrous LERNEAN HYDRA, Centaur Nessus (detail; 1580) shows the of Princess Deianeira. Achelous
hero rescuing his wife, clad in his lionskin.
which had nine, self-regenerating turned into a snake, then into a bull
heads - including an immortal one. - but Hercules flung himself around
Hercules cut off its heads, cauterized the stumps, its neck and broke off a horn, which some say became
buried the immortal head, then dipped his arrows in its the cornucopia. 6 After NESSUS tried to abduct
poisonous blood. Next, he spent a year hunting the Deianeira and Hercules shot him with one of his
ARCADIAN STAG, which was sacred to Diana. He then arrows, the dying centaur gave her a shirt soaked in his

captured the ERYMANTHIAN BOAR by driving it into poisoned blood, pretending it was a love charm. Later,
deep snow and trapping it in his net. Deianeira sent Hercules the shirt to try and win him
For his fifth task, Hercules diverted two rivers to clear back from Princess Iole, causing him to go mad with

a huge pile of dung in the AUGEAN STABLES, produced the pain. Jupiter rescued him from his funeral pyre,

by the 3,000 cattle of King Elis. He then chased away the and on Mount Olympus he was reconciled with Juno,
murderous STYMPHALIAN BIRDS by scaring them with marrying her daughter Juventas. 7

2
Arcadian Stag: see Diana (page 61); Cerberus: see Pluto (page 'Philostratus the Elder Imagines 11:23 Apollodorus The Library
78); Eurytion: see Centaur (page 28), Girdle of Hippolyta: see II:iv. 8-12 and II:v. 1-12 Virgil Aeneid VIII: 193-272 and Ovid
.Amazons (page 64); Hercules: see Juno (pages 16-17), Fasti 11:543-87
4
Hyginus Fabulae XXX "Apollodoi us The
6
Minerva (page 59) Library H:v 9 Ovid Metamorphoses IX: 1-97 T
ibid. IX:229-73
 HERCULES AND HIS LABORS / THE TROJAN WAR 69

The Trojan War Stag: see Iphigenia

The Trojan War began after THE JUDGMENT OF PARIS When the Greeks finally landed near Trov, they laid

when PARIS judged Venus to be the most beautiful siege to the city in a war that lasted 10 years. The gods
goddess and won HELEN as his prize, carrying her off to played an active part in the hostilities: Juno, Minerva,
Troy. One of Fra Angelico's followers decorated a piece and Neptune supporting the Greeks; Apollo, Mars, and
of furniture with The Abduction of Helen (c.1450), while Venus the Trojans. Jupiter incited and checked both
Jacques Louis David shows her blinded by infatuation in sides, sending down thunderbolts and lightning, and
The Love of Paris and Helen ( 1 788) Unfortunately, Helen
. intervening in the destinies of those involved.

was already married to King MENELAUS of Sparta; and At the outset, Achilles withdrew from battle after
led by Menelaus and his brother King AGAMEMNON, Agamemnon insulted him bv appropriating his mistress

the Greeks set out in their ships to follow the eloping Briseis.
5
Thetis begged Jupiter to avenge her son - a

pair. When the Greek ships were temporarily halted scene shown in Ingres's Jupiter and Thetis (see pages
during their voyage, Agamemnon offered his daughter 36-37) - and the Greeks subsequently suffered a series
IPHIGENIA as a sacrifice to the gods at Aulis to induce of defeats, enabling the Trojan prince HECTOR to

them to bring wind to his fleet.

1

He brought her to the breach their defences and set fire to their encampment
altar, surrounded by weeping priests, under the and one of their ships. Still sulking. Achilles agreed to

pretence that she was to marry ACHILLES - as shown in

Bertholet Flemalle's The Sacrifice of Iphigenia (1646—47).

Just as she was about to be killed, the goddess Diana

mercifully cast a veil of cloud over the eyes of the

assembled company and substituted a stag in her place.

Son of Peleus and THETIS (see page 36), Achilles
had been educated by the centaur Chiron,* and in The
Education of Achilles (1782) Regnault shows him learn-

ing how to draw a bow. Thetis knew her son's destiny

was to die in war, so she dipped him in the river Styx to

render him invulnerable, 3 but the heel she was holding

remained dry and this was his one weak spot. Thetis

even tried to stop Achilles from joining the war by

disguising him as a girl and hiding him at the court of

King Lycomedes, where he fell in love with the king's

daughter Deidamia and fathered a son, Neoptolemus.

The warrior Ulysses revealed Achilles' disguise and
persuaded him to fight when, laying gifts before the
court, he noticed Achilles' disregard for feminine luxu-
ries and his fondness for weapons.' Rubens portrayed
these scenes in the Achilles Tapestries (1630s), along with In The Judgment ot Paris (detail; see pages 18 7 "». Rubens
other tales of Achilles' exploits in the war. depicts Paris as a shepherd </\ //< considers ln<~ decision.

Achilles: see Centaur (page 28), Diana (page 61); Thetis: sec 'Ovid Metamoiphoses \Il:'_'t-:vS and Euripides Iphigenia in Tauris

Styx (page 78) Thilostratus the Klder [1:2 Statins AchilU Id I 269 and 1 [yginus
FabulaeXCW 'ibid. 5
Homer Iliad 1:172-87
 W in \s

^ let Ins c losrsi friend PATROCLUS

the Trojans. But Patroclus fought too long
take his place against

and was
at the disappearance of their
Carnation: see Ajax

enemies, the Trojans

flung open their gates and dragged the horse into
killed l>\ the hero Hector, son of King Priam of Troy. In Minerva's temple. That night, Sinon released the
an. Patroclus ma] be depicted escorting Briseis to men inside and they killed the Trojan sentries,

Agamemnon, while images such as Jacques Louis opened the city gates, and set Trov ablaze.
David's Funeral of Patroclus (1780) show the enormous After this overwhelming defeat, the lesser Ajax raped
funeral pyre that Achilles huilt for him. Stirred into Cassandra near an image of Minerva - an outrage
action again and wearing a magnificent suit of armor depicted by Solomon Joseph Solomon in Ajax
forged by Vulcan, Achilles rejoined the fighting and Abducting Cassandra (1886). Cassandra then became
avenged Patroclus by killing Hector in single combat; Agamemnon's concubine, until she was killed by his
he then drove around the walls of Troy in his chariot, wife Clytemnestra. Achilles' ghost also requested that

dragging Hector's body by the ankles. Paintings may 1

Cassandra's sister POLYXENA be sacrificed to honor his

show King Priam in Achilles' camp under Mercuy's tomb, for although the couple had fallen in love during
protection, begging for Hector's body, or Hector's wife the war, Hector had refused to let her marry an enemy
and son grieving over his corpse, which Apollo saved of the Trojans. In The Sacrifice of Polyxena, Giovanni
from damage and decay. Battista Pittoni (1687-1767) shows her being led with
Hector had previously reproached Paris for failing to dignity to Achilles' tomb, where, preferring death to

take part in the war, but Paris avenged Hector's death enslavement, she asked Neoptolemus to kill her.
3

when he fired an arrow at Achilles' heel and killed him. LAOCOON, a Trojan priest, had also tried to warn his

The Greek warriors Ulysses and the greater AJAX people about the wooden horse but he too had been
(Achilles' cousin) then vied for the dead hero's armor ignored/ He died while sacrificing a bull to Neptune on
until Minerva intervened and awarded the prize to the shore. Two giant sea snakes swam up, twining first

Ulysses.- Furious, Ajax plotted to kill Ulysses' comman- around his sons before encircling the priest himself,

ders in revenge, but Minerva thwarted his assault by and although Laocoon strove frantically to wrench the
driving him mad so that he slaughtered a flock of sheep. knots apart, the monsters crushed them all to death.

When his sanity returned, Ajax was so humiliated that The expressive marble rendition of this scene (second

he thrust his sword into his side. Hyacinths grew where century ce) kept in the Vatican, Rome, has been greatly
his blood dripped on the earth - although Poussin admired and copied since it was discovered in 1506.
shows a carnation in the Kingdom of Flora (1631). Many scenes from the Trojan War were depicted in

The most famous and decisive incident of the war the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, and
came when the Greeks built a hollow WOODEN HORSE; some of these can be seen in Giambattista Tiepolo's

Domenico Tiepolo shows them constructing it in The Room of The Iliad (c. 1757). Popular episodes were the

Building of the Trojan Horse (1773-74). The Greeks wrath of Achilles, in which Minerva holds the hero by
pretended that the horse was an offering for the gods to his golden locks as he draws his sword against
ensure their safe homeward voyage, but in fact they Agamemnon;'' Briseis being taken from Achilles; 6
installed their best men inside while the others hid Diomedes wounding Venus as she tries to save Aeneas; 7
from sight. King Priam's daughter CASSANDRA tried to Achilles dragging Hector's body around the walls of
8
warn the Trojans of their impending doom, for she had Troy; Priam begging Achilles to return Hector's body;

the power of prophecy - but she had previously refused and Andromache grieving over her husband's corpse.
Apollo, who made sure that no one believed her predic- Paris and his fellow Trojans are sometimes shown wear-
tions. Tricked by the Greek captive Sinon into thinking ing PHRYGIAN HATS - conical structures with the top

that the horse was dedicated to Minerva and rejoicing turned over at the front - which were worn bv natives of
 THE TROJAN WAB 71 +

Bull: see Laocoon

the ancient country of Phrygia in Asia Minor. Aeneas and remind him of his destinv. Ignoring Dido's
The Trojan hero AENEAS, son of Venus and Anchises, anguished pleas, Aeneas set sail, and the distraught
was destined to be the forefather of the Romans. After queen built a funeral pyre and fell on the sword left bv
the sack of Troy, he led his family away from the burn- her heartless lover. Juno then took pity on Dido and
ing city, carrying his father and the sacred relics and sent Iris to release her spirit, and as she flew across the

images of their household gods, and holding his son sky, Iris trailed a thousand colors sparkling like dew in
14
Ascanius by the hand.' Sculpted by Bernini, the subject
1

the sun. Aeneas looked back to see the citv aglow with
was popular in Rome because it illustrated the noble the flames of Dido's pyre.

values of family respect and piety. Aeneas was variously After reaching Italy, Aeneas visited the Cumaean
aided and thwarted by the gods during his journey - Sibyl and asked to see his deceased father one more
11
although the obstacles thrown in his way were often time. Bearing a golden bough for Proserpina, he
offset by Jupiter's guidance. His quest to find Italy led descended into the shadows of the Underworld, pass-

him over land and sea, through storms whipped up by ing Disease, Fear, Hunger, Evil, Poverty, Sin. and War.
Juno and calmed by Neptune, to the island of Delos. Crossing the River Styx, Aeneas found his father in the

Here, the king and priest, Anins," showed him the holy Fields of Elysium, where An< hises foretold how he
site where Apollo was born, as seen in Claude Lorrain's would marry Lavinia, and how their son Silvius would
Landscape ivilh Aeneas at Delos (see pages 192-93). fulfil Aeneas's destinv through his descendant Romulus
Later, the Trojans landed at Carthage, where Venus - the founder of Rome.
told Aeneas how Queen DIDO had founded the ( it\. Aeneas and his people then continued then jonrne\
Fearing an outbreak of war, to l.atiiim. where they wen
Venus engaged Cupid to welcomed 1>\ King I.atinus.

contrive a love affair between Lavinia's father. But at Juno's

the pair;
1 '-'

Turner's Dido and intervention hostilities began

Aeneas (1814) shows them when Ascanius shol a sta<^ from
setting out to hunt witli a the royal herd - a scene painted

magnificent re-creation of l>\ Claude Lorrain in Landscape

Carthage in the distance, while a with Ascanius Shooting the Stag of

painting of the same title by Silvia 1 1682). Aeneas was forced

Giovanni Romanelli (1610-62) to engage in a series of wars.

depicts them running from a which lie fought wearing a suit

storm to shelter in a cave, where of armor fashioned 1)\ Vul< an

their love was consummated. 13 (see pages 12—13) and carrying

The blissful couple spent the /// his landscape- with Aeneas al Delos (detail; a shield embellished with
whole winter together, but seepages l
l>
2 93), ('/audi shows Aeneas with his images oi the events that would
fathei (Did son grouped with Anius, wearing white.
Jupiter sent Mercury to rebuke shape the future of Rome.

Aeneas: see Furies (page 56), Proserpina (page 78), Romulus Homer Uiad XXII:395-515 Ovid Metamorphoses XIH:l-398
(page 202). Sibyl (page 60); Ajax: see Mora (page 62); Xm:439-80 Virgil Aeneid II Homei flia<iI:190-99
•ibid.

Dido: see Iris (page (tf); Hector: see Apollo (page <>(>). ibid. 1:343-56 ibid. V:31 1-362 Hbid. \\l\ 169-804
:

Vulcan (page 13) 'Virgil Aeneid [1:705-730 chid Metamorph \ses XIH:625-35
Virgil Aeneid 1:335-70 ibid. l:b:>7-72:< ibid. PV:160-73
ibid. [V634-705 ibid. \l
+ u> m \\

Love, Mortal and Divine

rales i>t low .tiid passion, triumph and defeat and the The mortal CORONIS,-' beautiful daughter of King

tenderness ol both human and divine affections have Coroneus, was strolling on the sand when the sea god
provided some of the most memorable of the classical Neptune saw her and fell in love. As she did not recip-
myths and have furnished artists throughout the ages rocate, he resolved to take her by force, but she fled
with immensely powerful themes. Disguise and meta- and prayed to the gods for help. Minerva, goddess of
morphosis - or magical changes of form - often play a wisdom, took pity on her and turned her into a crow. In

major pan in the unfolding of these stirring episodes. Neptune Pursuing Coronis (1665-70), Giulio Carpioni
Main of the Olympian gods had mortal lovers, shows her with wings, flying away from Neptune's grasp.
including the goddess of love herself, Venus, who fell in Mercury, the messenger god, fell similarly in love with

love with the mortal ADONIS (see page 50). Venus 's the maiden HERSE as she was returning home with her
son Cupid (see box, below) fell in love with the mortal sisters from a festival of Minerva. Mercury flew down to

PSYCHE (see page 49); and Diana, goddess of hunting Earth, but Herse's envious sister Aglauros blocked the

and the moon, fell in love with Jupiter's son, threshold of Herse's room. Mercury turned Aglauros
ENDYMION, a supremely beautiful youth. Jupiter into a blackened statue. In Mercury, Herse, and Aglauros
granted his son a wish, and he chose eternal sleep, (1767), Louis Lagrenee shows the lovers on a bed, while

remaining immortal and ageless.' Diana may be Aglauros peers around the curtain.
depicted gazing at him as she visited him by night (see The sun god Apollo loved the Spartan youth
opposite). Girodet's 1792 The Sleep of Endymion shows HYACINTHUS' beyond all other mortals. They were
the idealized youth asleep, watched over by Cupid. competing at throwing the discus when Apollo's struck

The Winged Archer

CUPID (known to the Greeks as (1528) depicts Cupid engrossed in a

Eros) was the son of Venus; his father book that is held out by Mercury,

may have been Jupiter, Vulcan or which suggests that, having dis-

Mars. He is usually shown as a carded his bow and arrows, he has

winged archer or a beautiful young renounced sensual love in favor of

boy who, according to Ovid, carried learning.

two kinds of arrow - a golden one to Cupid was once stung by a bee as

kindle love and a lead one to put he was pilfering honey from a hive;

love to flight.' He is sometimes when he asked Venus how such a tiny

shown blindfolded - implying that creature could cause such pain, she

love is blind - or tying a knot, sym- replied that he too was tiny yet

bolically bonding a pair of lovers. His inflicted far worse wounds. 2

role is frequently mischievous: he 'Ovid Metamorphoses 1:468

Theocritus Idylls XIX
may be seen teasing one of Jupiter's
many lovers or being chastised by
Minerva, Diana or Venus, who once
Cupid sports a swollen left cheek in
confiscated his arrows. Lucas Cranach's Venus with Cupid
Correggio's Education of Cupid the Honey Thief (detail; 1540).
 LOVE. MORTAL AND DIVINE 73

Swan: see Leda Harp: see An dope

Hyacinthus, killing him. In an alter- GANYMEDE, 5

he again chose the
native version, jealous Zephyr, the
1
form of a bird, swooping down as an
wind who loved Hyacinthus, blew eagle in order to snatch the vouth

the discus at his head. Apollo trans- up into the air. Jupiter then flew
formed the youth's blood into the with Ganymede to Mount Olvmpus,
purple hyacinth, which returns to where the bov became his cup-
life every year. In Poussin's Kingdom bearer. In his painting of the event,

of Flora (1631) Hyacinthus stares at Rembrandt (1606-69) humorouslv

the flower that bears his name. depicted the young boy as a squeal-
The most amorous of the gods ing and incontinent baby.

was Jupiter who visited the objects of ANTIOPE, daughter of the king of
his desire in a variety of disguises in Thebes,' was ravished bv Jupiter in

order to fool his jealous wife Juno. the form of a satvr - Amphion and
His disguises often took animal Zethus were born from the union.
form, as in the story of EUROPA (see Antiope fled to avoid the rage of her
page 53) whom he bore away dis- father, who killed himself in despair.

guised as a bull. She was then imprisoned by her

Jupiter appeared to LEDA, the uncle and tormented bv his wife,
wife of Tyndareus, king of Sparta, in Injanneck's Diana and Endymion Dirce. Following her eventual
the form of a swan. Leda subse- (detail; 18th century) a dog symbolizes the escape, her grown-up sons took
devotion of the goddess to her beloved.
quently laid two eggs - from one revenge bv deposing her uncle and
hatched Clytemnestra and Castor, having Dirce torn apart on the
and from the other, Helen of Troy and Pollux. Accounts horns of a bull. The twins ruled Thebes and built its

vary as to the paternity of these children, as Leda is said walls - Amphion played the harp so beautifully that the
to have slept with her husband on the same night as stones fell into place on their own. This scene was cap-
7

with Jupiter; most often the latter pair are said to have tured by Giambattista Tiepolo in Amphion Building the

been the offspring of the god. Michelangelo's cartoon Walk of Thebes with His Song ( c. 1 720).
and lost painting of 1530 showing Leda erotically emb- A master of devious strategies, Jupiter even used
racing the swan provided the basis for several paintings. inanimate forms to steal an embrace from the victims of
Correggio's picture of c.1534 similarly emphasizes the his passion: to possessDANAE (see page 40). Jupiter
sexual nature of the encounter. Leonardo da Vinci's became a shower of gold; with SEMELE (see page 43) he
slightly earlier treatment of the theme, which is now appeared in his true form - as fire; and with the unfor-
lost but exists in copies by other artists, shows Leda tunate IO, he spread dark clouds over himself to rob
standing with the swan while her infants play on the her of her virginity. To hide the deed Jupiter turned Io
ground, hatched from eggs. into a sleek heifer. Juno admired the creature and
When Jupiter fell in love with the shepherd boy asked Jupiter if she could have it. Jupiter agreed and

Adonis: see Venus (page 1 1); Danae: see Jupiter (page 57), 'Apollodorus The Library l:\ii 5 !
Ovid Metamorphoses II

Perseus (page 32); Endymion: see Diana (page til); 569-587 'ibid. X: 162-219 and Philostratus the Elder Imagines
Europa: see Continents (page 229); Leda: see Castor and 1:24 'Lucian Dialogue of the Gods 16 Ovid Metamorphoses
Pollux (page 62), Helen (page 69) X:155-161 "Hvginus Fabuhu WW and Chid Metamorph
VL111 Thilostratus die Elder Imagines 1:H>
& [una instructed the monstei
eyes, i<> guard the beast When
^rgus, who had
he could no longer
LOO
Peacock:

shreds. P\

ment and, thinking

ramus came upon the blood-stained
his beloved dead, plunged a
gar-

In mi lo's suffering, the god Mercurj lulled the vigilant sword into his side. Thisbe found him dying and took
Vrgus !'> sleep and (in oil his head. Juno set the mon- her own life. Their blood turned the fruit of the mul-
ster's 100 eyes in the peacock's tail and forgave her berry tree red for evermore. In Landscape with Pyramus
husband, lb resumed her human form and bore Jupiter and Thisbe (1651) Poussin shows Thisbe rushing to the

.1 son. Isolated incidents from the story have been fatally wounded Pyramus against a stormy landscape.

depicted in art, including Mercury sending Argus to When the divinity of the goddess of love, Venus, was

sleep, and Io being embraced by a black cloud, as in denied by the race of Propoetides, the infuriated god-
Correggio's painting of 1531 (see opposite). dess turned all their women into prostitutes. On seeing '

Love's tragic and painful consequences did not nec- their wicked lives, PYGMALION vowed to remain celi-
essarily require immortal involvement. Even purely bate. He carved a snowy ivory statue, more beautiful
human love stories often ended in sadness - none more than any living woman, and fell deeply in love with his
acutely than that of ORPHEUS AND EURYDICE. own creation. He would stroke and embrace it, and woo
Orpheus,' whose wonderful lyre-playing could charm it as if it were alive. At the Festival of Venus, he prayed
animals and inanimate objects, fell in love with the to the goddess to bring his statue to life; she consented
wood nymph Eurydice. In Orpheus Charming the Beasts and was present at their marriage. The subject was of

(1628) Roelandt Savery shows Orpheus playing to ani- tremendous interest to eighteenth- and nineteenth-
mals in the shade of trees. At the pair's wedding, omens century painters: Francois Boucher, for example,
foretold an unhappy outcome. As the innocent new painted Pygmalion (1742); in Pygmalion and Galatea
bride wandered in the meadows, a serpent bit her ankle (1870), Jean-Leon Gerome shows Pygmalion embrac-
and she died. Poussin captured the ill-fated wedding in ing his statue; and Edward Burne-Jones painted the
Landscape with Orpheus and Eurydice (1650). series Pygmalion and the Image (1868-70).
Following Orpheus's repeated pleas - which were ARIADNE, daughter of King Minos of
1
Crete, was let

accompanied by him singing and playing his lyre - the down by a mortal lover, only to be rescued by a god. She
king and queen of the Underworld restored Eurydice fell in love with Theseus, who dared to encounter the
to him, charging him not to look back at her until the savage Minotaur, risking death for the reward of glory.
pair had reached the upper realms. Just before they He slew the monster in the heart of its labyrinth and
emerged into daylight, however, Orpheus did look was able to retrace his steps with Ariadne's help: she
back. Eurydice immediately slipped back down into had given him a ball of thread to unwind as he entered
the depths. the maze and then follow back to its source on his
Another tragic tale is that of PYRAMUS AND THISBE, return journey. They sailed to the island of Naxos,
who grew up next door to each other and fell in love. 2 where the god Bacchus was worshipped, but Theseus
Their parents forbade their marriage, however, and the cruelly abandoned Ariadne on the shore. Accounts

lovers communicated through a slender chink in the differ about her first meeting with Bacchus. One
wall between their houses, cursing the wall for prevent- describes her asleep when he appeared; another
ing their embrace. They determined to escape at night recounts that she was lamenting her fate, incredulous at
and planned to meet outside the city, near a mulberry Theseus 's empty vows. Bacchus, afire with love, greeted
tree by a tomb. Thisbe slipped out first, but, near the her with his companions/' He turned Ariadne's crown
appointed tree, was frightened by a bloodied lion arriv- into a circle of stars, which brought her eternal glory,

ing from a recent kill. As she fled to a cave, her veil and in some accounts they were wed. In Bacchus and

slipped from her shoulders and the lion tore it to Ariadne (1518-23) Titian has the god leaping down
 LOVE. MORTAL AND DIVINE -5 +

Lion: see Pyramus and Thisbe

from his chariot to claim her, followed by his rowdy which he had been taught to play bv Pan; Daphnis is

throng; while in Sebastiano Ricci's Bacchus and Ariadne also credited with inventing the bucolic or pastoral

(r.1716), the goddess Hymen presides over their mar- poem. In one pastoral romance, the nvmph 7
CHLOE
riage as Bacchus gently takes Ariadne by the hand. fell in love with Daphnis and thev married. In Daphnis
Pastoral and bucolic settings are common in classical and Chloe (1545-50) Paris Bordone shows the voung
tales of love and loss. POMONA" was a wood nymph who couple with Cupid.
was devoted to the cultivation of fruit trees, from which The theme of NARCISSUS is one that has attracted

she derived her name (poma means "fruit" in Latin). To artists since the Renaissance. The young man was so

keep satyrs out she fenced herself inside her orchards, beautiful that many nymphs fell in love with him, vet he
but VERTUMNUS (a satyr, though he may not be scorned them all. One of them placed a curse on him
depicted as such) fell in love with her and adopted var- so that, by falling in love with himself. Narcissus would

ious disguises to approach her: a suffer the same torment as thev had.
rough harvester, a soldier, a vine- One day, as Narcissus leaned down
yard worker, and a fisherman. to drink water from a clear, shining

Dressed as an old woman, he pool, he became enchanted by his

entered her garden, lavishly praised own reflection. Nothing would draw
her fruit trees then tried to per- him from the spot, so he wasted

suade her to court Vertumnus, away. Nymphs mourned his death,

likening marriage to a tree that sup- but when thev searched for his bodv
ports a vine - but to no avail. Finally, they found in its place the flower

he threw off his disguise and the thai bears his name. Narcissus is

nymph, entranced by his beauty, was often depicted gazing into the pool
smitten with a passion equal to his - Salvador Dali created a memo-
own. This bucolic subject was rable image in which his body is

chosen for the decoration of villas: transformed into the flower.

for example, the Villa Medici at ECHO was one of the nymphs who
Poggio a Caiano, which was deco- fell in love with Nfarcissus, She had
rated by Pontormo; the scene of the been punished b\ Juno for detain-
disguised Vertumnus wooing ing her with chatter when she could
Pomona was chosen by other artists, have caught her husband fupiter
including Domenico Fetti in his being unfaithful. As punishment.
Verlumnus and Pomona ( c. 1 62 1 -23 ) Echo could only repeat the last

The nymph DAPHNIS, son of words ol what was said to her.

Mercury, was a cowherd among the Unable to converse with her loved-
woods and sweet springs of Sicily. A /// Correggio's [o (detail; 1531), the one, she wasted awav until only her
gifted musician, he pleased the god- maiden succumbs to the embrace of the voice remained. In paintings, she
black (loud thai disguises Jupiter.
dess Diana with his shepherd's pipe, often gazes wistfull) at Narcissus.

Ariadne: sec Bacchus (page 14), Minotaur (page 'M). Theseus 'Ovid Metamorphoses X:l-85 ibid. IV:55-166 ibid. X:243-97
(page 65); Pomona and Vertnnmus: sec Satvr (page 27) 'Catullus Poems 1 \1Y and Philostratus the Elder Imagines 1:15
6
Ovid HeroidesX Ovid Metamorphoses XTV:623-771 Longus
Daphnis and Chloe
-'

Tales of Transformation
Metamorphosis - a change in nature and appearance - Unfortunately, Apollo continued to ignore Clyde, who
was used bj the gods either to punish or reward mor- turned into a sunflower which adoringly turned its head
tals. \ major theme in classical myth, famously explored to follow the sun. Frederic, Lord Leigh ton depicts her
1>\ the Roman poet Ovid in his Metamorphoses, divinely in Clytie (1890-92) stretching her arms to the rising sun.
instigated transformation provided the artists of the Similar release was granted to CAENIS who was
Renaissance and later ages with dynamic subjects. famous for her beauty but refused to marry. As she wan-
Transformation was often used by the gods in their dered on a lonely shore, she was ravished by Neptune,
own rivalries. The nymph ARETHUSA was cooling her- who then granted her any request. Determined never
self in clear waters when her beauty attracted the river to endure such injury again, Caenis asked to become a

god Alpheus. He chased her and

1

as she cried for help man and was transformed into CAENEUS. Caeneus
she was rescued by the goddess attended the wedding at which
Diana, who hid her in a cloud. the centaurs fought the Lapiths.

Alpheus waited for the nymph He killed many centaurs until

to reappear, but to thwart him he was finally overwhelmed and
Diana turned Arethusa into an miraculously escaped as a bird.
underground stream. Named after his parents
The nymph DAPHNE was also Aphrodite and Hermes (Venus
saved from an amorous god by and Mercury Roman myth)
in

metamorphosis. Cupid pierced HERMAPHRODITUS bathed in a

her with a lead arrow, which remote pool where the nymph
puts love to flight, but struck the SALMACIS dwelled. She immedi-

god Apollo with the golden ately longed to possess him and4

arrow of new love.

2
Daphne fled as Hermaphroditus stepped into
to evade the god's advances and the water, she wound herself

as she called for help, her around him and prayed never to

breasts became enclosed in be separated from her love.

bark, her hair turned into leaves Their bodies fused, joining male
and her feet became rooted in and female as a hermaphrodite.
the ground (see right). Daphne As Apollo tries to seize Daphne in Pollaiuolo's Spranger shows a voluptuous
had turned into a laurel tree. Yet Daphne and Apollo (c. 1470-80), leaves sprout Salmacis watching the young
still Apollo loved her; he made a from the nymph 's arms as they turn into branches.
god undress in Salmacis and

crown from her branches and Hermaphroditus ( c. 1 590)

wound twigs around his quivers and lyre. The tale was The use of metamorphosis as a punishment for pride

popular in Renaissance and Baroque art and inspired or other impiety displayed the gods' most vindictive
Bernini to sculpt Apollo and Daphne (1622-25). behavior. ACTAEON was the grandson of Cadmus,
The goddess Juno, always eager to foil the amorous founder of Thebes. Straying deep into the woods while
adventures of her husband Jupiter, changed the nymph hunting one day, he spied Diana bathing in a pool with
CALLISTO (see pages 44-45) into a bear. But in some her nymphs; she was outraged that he had seen her
cases, metamorphosis occurs as a release from earthly naked and turned him into a stag."' Actaeon fled,

troubles. CLYTIE loved Apollo but he scorned her in amazed by his own speed, but as he paused to look at
favor of another. Clyde made the affair known to her his reflection, his hounds caught him and gorged on
rival's father, who buried his daughter alive.' his flesh. In Diana and Actaeon (1556-59) Titian shows
 TALES OF TRANSFORMATION 77

Goose: see Philemon and Baucis Spider: see Arachne

him astounded by Diana's beauty, and in The Death of

Actaeon (c.1565) he flees from the vengeful huntress.

ARACHNE's sin was to deny the superiority of a god.

She was famous for her spinning skills" and even gained
the praise of her teacher, the goddess Minerva. But
Arachne denied that she had ever been taught to spin

and challenged Minerva to a contest. In Minerva and

Arachne (1579) Tintoretto shows Minerva watching the
mortal Arachne's flawless work. Furious at her rival's

success, Minerva beat Arachne until she tried to hang

herself. She then took pity on the girl, turning her into
a spider so that she could spin eternally. Peruzzi's The Nymph Callisto (detad; see pages 44-45/ shows her

The goddess Aurora, snubbed by the mortal raring across the sk\ in a chariot, where she was placed by Jupiter

after her own son almost killed her in her guise as a bear.
CEPHALUS, whom she had abducted, 7
gained her
revenge by changing his appearance and planting
doubt in his mind. When Cephalus returned home to forgot to thank Venus, whose sympathy quickly turned
his wife PROCRIS, he offered her a bribe to become his to anger. She induced the lovers to defile a spot sacred

mistress. When Procris hesitated, Cephalus revealed his to the goddess Cybele, who promptlv turned the couple
identity and she fled in shame, but he soon begged for into lions and harnessed them to her chariot.
her forgiveness. Later, Cephalus spoke endearingly to But metamorphosis could be a gift, as well as a pun-
the cooling winds while hunting and was thought to be ishment, from the gods. When Jupiter and Mercury dis-

wooing a nymph. Procris refused to believe the rumor guised themselves as mortals to observe mankind, they
without proof. The next day, as Cephalus called to the were turned away from 1.000 homes.' Finally, thej

winds again, he heard a moan from a bush. Thinking it arrived at the cottage of the elderly PHILEMON and his

was an animal, he hurled his javelin and speared the wife BAUCIS, who offered to kill their only goose in

hidden Procris. She died in his arms - a scene painted honor of their guests. After turning the cottage into a

by Veronese (r. 1528-88) in Cephalus and Procris. temple, the gods destroyed the inhospitable land with
The beautiful ATALANTA could run faster than any marshy waters. The couple asked to serve the gods as
man, but Apollo warned her that her husband would be priests and to die together; both wishes were granted,
8
her downfall. She devised a competition for her many and when the) died, they were tinned into trees grow-
suitors, declaring that she would marry the man who ing side by side. Artists focused on the couple's hospi-
could outrun her and that those who failed would die. tality, and in Jupiter and Mercury with Philemon and Baucis
Neptune's great-grandson Hippomenes took up the (1620-25), a painter ol the school of Rubens showed
challenge. He asked Venus for help and she gave him the gods sitting at the table with the goose nearby.
three golden apples with which to distract Atalanta. Jupiter also rewarded the nymph AMALTHEA. who fed
Atalanta could not resist fetching the apples and she him as an infant on the milk of a she-goat. He gave her
lost the race, as seen in Atalanta and Hippomenes a goat's horn as the cornucopia, claiming it would give

(c. 1612) by Guido Reni. Unfortunately, Hippomenes her all she desired, and later turned her into a si.u.

Actaeon: see Cadmus (page 64); Arachne: see Minerva Ovid MetamorphosesV:572-64:l -ibid. 1:452-^567 ibid.

(page 59); Atalanta: see Cybele (page 56); Caeneus: see IV: 190-273 'ibid. IV:274-388 4bid. 111:138-252 ibid. VI: 1-1 45
Centaur (page 28); Cephalus: see Aurora (page 22) ibid. \ 11:661-865 ibid. X:560-707 ibid. Y11I:61 1-724
^ The Underworld c 4.
Pomegranate: see Proserpina

HADES was the Greek <_i<

><1 <>f the I nderworld, his Ceres and promised to return her daughter if she had
Roman equivalent being Pluto or Dis. Later, Hades eaten nothing in the Underworld. Unfortunately,
became the name of the I 'nderworld itself- a gloomv. Pluto's queen had tasted a few pomegranate seeds and
subterranean region inhabited bv departed souls. was condemned to spend half of each year in Hades.
Situated on the far shore of the River STYX (or hate), it CHARON the ferryman rowed the dead across the
was reached through natural chasms. Minos judged the River Styx. He was "a ragged figure ... with eyes which

dead souls, sending most to the dreary Plain of were stark points of flame and a dim garment knotted
\s|)hodel. The virtuous ended up in the Fields of and hanging from his shoulders."- He also appears in

1 hsinm. while Tartarus, place of unbearable torments, Christian paintings such as Michelangelo's Last

was the destiny of those who had outraged the gods - Judgment (1536-41). Cerberus, a gigantic, multiheaded
tht- equivalent of the Christian perception of Hell. dog, guarded the entrance to Hades; he is Pluto's

PLUTO ruled the Underworld but was unable to find attribute and may be shown with a serpent's tail.

a bride until he saw PROSERPINA (Persephone) gath- TITYUS, son of the Earth, whose bodv stretched over
ering flowers and dragged her off to be his queen. 1

nine acres, was sent to Tartarus for assaulting Latona;

Bernini's statue Rape of Proserpine (1622) captures the there, vultures plucked continually at his liver, while he
horror of the abduction, while Pieter Brueghel the was powerless to drive them off.
1

TANTALUS was
Younger shows her in Tartarus in the Rape of Persephone accused of feeding his son to the gods, stealing their
(sixteenth century)- Her mother Ceres sought her over nectar, and giving away their secrets; his punishment
land and sea until, angered by her vain search, she was to stand chin-deep in a pool, "tantalized" by the
caused the Earth to lie barren. Eventually, a nymph waters that receded when he stooped to drink and bv
revealed that her daughter was now Pluto's sad consort, the fruit dangling above his head. SISYPHUS, the devi- 4

at which point Proserpina's father Jupiter took pin on ous king of Corinth, was condemned to push a boulder
eternally up a hill,
1
as portrayed by Titian in Sisyphus
(r. 1548-49), while LXTON was tied to a wheel turned by
a strong wind" after he tried to seduce Juno - a scene 7

painted bv van Couenbergh and Rubens.

The goddess HECATE was associated with the
Underworld and black magic. At night she was believed
to hold burning torches at crossroads, accompanied by
ghosts and hell-hounds. Later, she was depicted as

having three bodies, which stood back-to-back looking

in different directions. She is mentioned in

Shakespeare's Macbeth and was illustrated by William

Blake in his engravings of the play.

Patenters Charon (detail; 1515-24) depicts the repellent oarsman

punting his boat across the River Styx; after he had ferried his

passengers to the other side, he would demand a coin for his services.

Hades: see Hell (page 120); Ixion: see Juno (pages 16-17); 'Ovid MetamorphosesV:546-571 ^Virgil Aeneid Vl:300-305
Proserpina: see Ceres (page 57), Pomegranate (page 240); ibid. \1:595-600 ^Horner Odyssey XL582-93 ibid. XI:593-600
Tityus: see Latona (page 58) "Ovid Metamorphoses 1Y:461 Hvginus FabulaeLXU
 THE UNDERWORLD CRIMES AND TRANSGRESSIONS 79 +

Crimes and Transgressions

Tales of pride and folly were recurring themes in classi- punished appropriately. Danaus agreed that his 50
cal mythology, and the fates meted out to those guilty of daughters, the DANAIDS, should marrv the sons of his

such sins provided inspiration for many paintings. estranged brother Egyptus. He gave each a dagger and,
NIOBE boasted that her children were more beautiful on their wedding night, all but one slew their spouses.
than Apollo and Diana, so the gods killed them one by In Tartarus, they were condemned to fill vessels full of
one. 1

When Niobe implored the gods to save her holes. 4

Rodin's sculpture Danaids (1885) shows a
youngest, Jupiter took pity and turned her into a statue Danai'd collapsed in despair. ORESTES killed his

that wept unending tears. Richard Wilson depicted mother and her lover to avenge the murder of his

Apollo and Diana shooting Niobe's children from the father, Agamemnon.' Tormented bv 1

grief, he was
clouds in The Destruction of Niobe's Children (r. 1760). pursued by the Furies until he was acquitted. Academic
Covetousness was the downfall of DAMOCLES who painters favored kev events in these tragedies, and in

praised King Dionysius's wealth, pronouncing him the The Dispute Between Orestes and Pylades (1614). Pieter
happiest of men. The king thought this presumptuous Eastman depicts Orestes and his friend arguing over
and invited Damocles to experience such happiness for who should sacrifice himself to the gods.

himself, placing him on the throne with a sword above Offending a god was the most dangerous transgres-
his head, held by a single hair, to illustrate the worries sion, often incurring hideous punishments. When
of a man in a position of power. Folly was also severeh Neptune was angered by mankind's transgressions and
punished as in the cases of Midas and Icarus. Granted a flooded the- land. DEUCALION AND PYRRHA esc aped in

wish by Bacchus, King MIDAS asked that everything he an ark, floating for nine days.' An oracle advised them
2
touched be turned to gold, not realizing that his food alui the- water subsided and. descending with \eiled
and wine would also be transformed. In Midas Washing heads, the) tluew stones behind them, which took
at the Source of the Pactolus (c.1628), Poussin depicts him human form and populated the Faith. The sat\i
1 e

washing away folly in the River Pactolus, turning its MARSYAS competed in flute-playing with the god
sands to gold dust. Later, Apollo gave Midas an ass's \pollo. He lost and was flayed alive for his presump-

ears after he objected to the god's musical victor) ovei tion, A Hellenistic image (third centurj bce) shows
Pan, as seen in Domenichino's The Judgment <>/ M/tltis Marsyas hanging from a tree, while Titian's gruesome

(c.1616-18), one of a series of rural scenes that often painting The Flaying o\ Marsyas ((.1570) shows him
show Apollo in a vengeful mood. DAEDALUS built the being flayed upside- down. In an unfortunate incident.
Labyrinth for King Minos but was imprisoned inside it Vpollo reluctantl) agreed to let Ins sou PHAETHON
for helping Theseus to escape.
1

He made himself and drive his c hariot lor one day, even though onl) he could
his son ICARUS wings from wax and feathers, warning control its fier) steeds. Phaethon was so frightened l>\

Icarus not to lly too close to the sun. But as thev flew to Scorpio's menacing tail that he dropped the reins, c aus-

freedom, the boy foolishly soared too high, the sun ing the horses to plunge so t lose to the Earth that the

melted the wax, and he fell into the sea below. In loiesis caught fire. Hulling a thunderbolt. |upitei
Landscape with the Fall oj Icarus (c.1560), Pieter Bruegel dashed Phaethon into a river, where he was buried b)

the Elder shows a shepherd and a plowman on a cliff, nymphs; his mourning mother and sisuis were trans-

oblivious to the tinv figure hurtling from the skv. formed into trees and then tears mi ned mto amber in

Unnatural crimes angered the gods and were the sun. The tale was populai m Baroque ait.

Daedalus: sec- Minoiani (page 65); Midas: sec Bacchus (page OvidM*tamo#A<w«VI:146-312 ibid XL85-193 ibid.

14), Pan (page 62); Marsyas: sec Satyr (page 27); Orestes: see VIII:183-235 'Apollodorus I.iv.2 Veschylus Orestia Ovid
Agamemnon (page (i'.M, Knries (page 56) Metamorphoses 1:313-415 ibid. 11:1-400
 CHAPTER TWO

THE BIBLE AND THE

LIFE OF CHRIST

Religious imagery dominated medieval art, with

biblical stories continuing to be a major subject

of painting through the Renaissance and Baroque

periods. The Old Testament was a rich source of epic

narratives - from the Creation to the Exodus - and the

deeds and fantastic visions of the great prophets were

often understood to prefigure Christ. Fresco cycles of

the events of the New Testament - especially the Life

and Passion of Christ- were originally intended to help

educate the illiterate. The biblical lives and stories

retold in this chapter explicate the imagery of some of

the world's greatest art.

Anonymous: The Wilton Diptych 82 1 con. iido da Vinci: Virgin and Child with Saint Anne 100
Pieter Brucgcl (he Elder: The Fall oj the Rebel Angels 84 Enguerrand Quarton: Coronation of the Virgin 102
fan van Eyck: The Adoration of the Lamb 80 Hugo van der Goes: Christ Child Adored by Angels 10 1

Hugo van der Goes: The Fall 88 Matthias Grunewald: The Isenheim AUarpiece 100
Raphael: Vision ofEzekiel 90 John Everetl Millais: Christ in the Hum, oj His Parents 108
Fra Angclico: The Last Judgment 92 EHero della Francesca: Baptism of Christ 110
Paul Gauguin: The Vision after the Sermon 94 Stanley Spencer: Resurrection with the Raising oj [airus's Daughter 1 12
Fra Angelico: The Annunciation 96 Diego Velazquez: Christ in the House of Martha and Mar) 114
Giovanni Bellini: Madonna and Child with Saints 95 Rogier van der Weyden: The Entombment 110
 UK B1BO \M' IHf i II MSI

J The Wilton Diptych

J™
^^^^ AnonymOUS O^th century)

Tin- Wilton Diptych takes its name from Wilton

House, England, where it was kept until 1929.
It shows King Richard II of England being
presented bv his patrons - Saints Edmund,
Edward the Confessor, and John the Baptist -

to the Virgin and Christ Child, who are sur-

rounded by their heavenly entourage of

':
angels. The strong likelihood is that the paint-
i

"l
ing, on two small, easily portable oak panels,
was commissioned by Richard himself some F
time around 1395 for his personal use (hence
the emphasis on symbols of kingship). The
f
king's portrait shows him as he would have I

looked at the time of his coronation in 1377.

Prominence is given to his personal symbol of
the white hart (stag), while the tiny globe that
tops the pole with the red cross pennant con-
tains a stylized miniature island realm.

KEY ELEMENT
ANGELS: Angels and archangels are said to be divine
messengers, the Greek word for angel meaning
"bringer of news." They appear frequently throughout
the Old and New Testaments, and not only bring God's
word to humankind but also deliver his protection or

punishment. They are often depicted as young

men with wings and haloes; young winged boys are
called putti.

See also page 118

SEE ALSO PAGE PAGE

Flowers 241 Stag 237

Lamb 8(5-87 The Virgin Mary 130-31

St. John the Baptist 111, 126

ANONYMOUS: THE WILTON DIPTYCH 83
84 THFBIBU UfD THE LIFE OF CHRIST

The Fall of the

Rebel Angels
Pieter Bruegel the Elder (1525/30-69)

This panel, painted in 1562, has at its center

the armored figure of the Archangel Michael.

Wielding his long sword and a shield marked

with the red cross of the Resurrection (a sym-
bol of Christ's final triumph over evil),

Michael beats down Satan and the host of

angelswho in their pride had rebelled against
God. The rebels' precipitous fall from Heaven
is emphasized by the figures tumbling as if in a

vortex from the light at the top of the picture

and by the swirling, buoyant figures of
Michael's victorious white-robed angels. The
fallen angels are metamorphosing into
grotesque demonic forms, with Satan himself
as the dragon trampled under Michael's feet.

KEY ELEMENT
MICHAEL: The Archangel Michael is often depicted
dressed in armor, fighting Satan, who is in the form of
a dragon - for example, by Diirer - or as a beautiful
young man with wings, by artists such as Piero della
Francesca. In scenes of the Last Judgment he
is shown holding scales on which he weighs the souls

of the dead.
See also page 118

SEE ALSO PAGE PAGE

Angels 82, 118 Fish 237

Armor 64 Hell 120
Birds 239 Musical Instruments 207
Dragon 236 Satan 120
BRUECEL: THE FALL OF THE REBEL ANGELS 85
 86 THK BIBLK ANHTHF II RIS1

O The Adoration of
the Lamb
Jan van Eyck (c.1390-1440

The great akarpiece for the cathedral of Saint

Bavo, Ghent, said to have been begun by
Hubert van Eyck (died 1426), was completed
in 1432 by Hubert's younger brother Jan. Its

central panel depicts a vast and varied multi-

tude of the blessed assembled under the rays

of the Holy Spirit to worship Christ, who
appears in the form of the Mystic Lamb stand-

ing on the central altar, flanked by angels and

the Instruments of the Passion. The fountain
shown in the foreground of the painting
alludes to the promise made in the Book of
Revelation that all those who thirst will be
given water from the well of life.

Jan van Eyck was associated with the high

culture that flourished at the court of the
dukes of Burgundy in the early 1400s; his

minute attention to detail in this vast painting

recalls the miniatures in the Burgundian

Books of Hours which were painted in the so-

called International Style at around this time.

However, the landscape that appears in the

background, with its solid rocks and trees and
distant blue hills, is a precursor of the realism
and perspective of later Renaissance art.

KEY ELEMENT
LAMB: In the Old Testament, a lamb or ram was
frequently sacrificed to God and was used in early

Christian and medieval art to represent both the

Passion of Christ and Christ of the Resurrection. In

depictions of the former theme, the lamb's blood may
be shown flowing into a chalice; in the latter, it may
hold a triumphant banner with a red cross on a white
background. The attribute of John the Baptist is a lamb
 VAN EYCK: THE ADORATION OF THE LAMB 87

- a reference to his calling Christ the "Lamb of God," SEE ALSO I'M -1 I' U.I

destroyer of sin.
1

Angels 82, 118 Fountain 206

A lamb may also symbolize one of Christ's flock of
Book of lours
1 2 is I he Lifeol Christ 132-37
followers, under the protection of the Good Shepherd,
Chalice 248 Si . Agnes 1 7
as illustrated in the early Christian mosaics of the
l)o\t' 239 St. John tin- Baptisl ill. L26
Mausoleum of Galla Placida, Ravenna.

John 1:29 'John 10:11

 88 THE BIBlt \M> lilt I II t.isl

O The Fall
Hugo van der Goes (c. 1440-82)

Van der Goes's interpretation <>f the Fall of associated with the Virgin Mary and the
Adam and Eve is one panel of a diptych prob- Holy Spirit respectively, thus hinting at the

ably painted after 1479; the second panel future role of these two in redeeming fallen
depicts the Lamentation over the dead Christ humanity from the consequences of eating the
- together, they invite the viewer to meditate forbidden fruit. Van der Goes also included

on the subject of human sin and the sacrifice these flowers in the Portinari Altarpiece (see
necessary to reverse it. pages 104-05). The serpent, following a misog-
The Garden of Eden around the luscious- ynistic medieval representation of Deceit, is

looking Tree of the Knowledge of Good and given the head of a woman on the body of
Evil is a traditional verdant paradise. However, a lizard. Its elaborate hairstyle (a feature
the iris and columbine shown growing in front associated with prostitutes) contrasts with the
of Adam and Eve are the flowers that are flowing hair of Eve.

KEY ELEMENT
ADAM AND EVE: In the Old Testament, God created The Temptation and the Expulsion from Paradise
Adam from the dust of the Earth 1

in his own likeness introduce the fresco cycle by Masolino and Masaccio,
and breathed life into him; He then placed Adam in The Life of Saint Peter (1426-27; Brancacci Chapel, Santa
the Garden of Eden, and forbade him to eat of the Tree Maria del Carmine, Florence). The Fall may also be
of Knowledge. God created Eve from Adam's rib, to be seen in an Annunciation where it refers to Christ's mis-

his companion. 2
The serpent tempted Eve to know sion to redeem humankind; Adam's skull may appear
good and evil by eating the forbidden fruit, and she in in a Crucifixion scene.

turn persuaded Adam to taste it. At once their eyes were 'Genesis 1:26 'Genesis 2:7-22

opened and, ashamed, they took fig leaves to hide their

nakedness. In punishment for their Original Sin, God
expelled Adam and Eve from the Garden of Eden. SEE ALSO PAGE PAGE

The Creation, the Temptation, and the Fall of Adam

Apple 240 Lamentation 134
and Eve were popular in medieval and Renaissance art
Creation 119 Nude 223
because they represented mankind's need for redemp-
Flowers 241 Snake 238
tion through Christ. These themes were illustrated on
Garden 242 The Virgin Mary 130-31
their own or as a cycle.
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 90 THE BIBU \M> fill II KISI

O Vision of Ezekiel
Raphael (14.83-1520)

This small oil was painted bv Raphael for a itself, is the tradition that Raphael follows in
private patron around 1518. The setting of the this painting.

vision takes its cue from the Book of Ezekiel: Although white-haired like the Hebraic
"... behold, a whirlwind came out of the north, Ancient of Days (Daniel 7:9), the half-naked
a great cloud, and a fire infolding itself, and a figure of God the Father, with the body of a
brightness was about it." (Ezekiel 1:4). God is man in his prime, is a thoroughly Renaissance
shown riding through the air supported by the concept, more closely akin to Jupiter, king of

"four living creatures" of Ezekiel's vision. the gods of pagan antiquity. The stupendous
Christian tradition equates these with the four power of the vision is conveyed by comparison
winged creatures (man or angel, lion, ox, and with the scale of the landscape beneath, in one
eagle) that symbolize the Evangelists in art; corner of which the tiny figure of Ezekiel
and this, rather than the description in Ezekiel himself can be seen caught in a shaft of light.

KEY ELEMENT
GOD: In the New Testament, Christ told his disciples to The attributes of God may be a triangular halo repre-

"teach all nations, baptizing them in the name of the senting the Trinity, a globe in order to represent his

Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost," from 1

capacity as the creator of the world, or an alpha and
which the doctrine of the Holy Trinity derives. omega to signify his position as the beginning and the
One
In artistic representations of the Trinity, the end of all things.

God is shown as Three Persons: God the Father; God 'Matthew 28:19

the Son - usually displaying his wounds; and God the

Holy Ghost - most commonly represented by shafts of

light or by a dove. SEE ALSO PAGE PAGE

In the Renaissance, God the Father came to be

Angels 82 118 Heaven 118
depicted as a static, paternal Figure with long white hair
Bull 236 Jupiter 57
and a beard, as in Masaccio's Trinity (1427-28).
Eagle 239 Landscape 242
Michelangelo's representation of God the Father creat-
Evangelists 169 Lion 238
ing the world (1509-1512; Sistine Chapel, Rome) has
47
Ezekiel 126 Putto
affinities with depictions of Jupiter.
 HE BIBU \M> riU I IKE OF CHRIST

o The Last Judgment

Fra Angelico (0400-1455)

Ellis striking vision of the Last Judgment was KEY ELEMENT

painted in the early 1430s for the church of
LAST JUDGMENT: The Gospels prophesied that all

Santa Maria degli Angeli, Florence. The nations would come before Christ, and "He shall sepa-
perspective of the twin rows of vacant tombs, rate them one from another, as a shepherd divideth
ending in the dark and empty sky, creates a his sheep [the faithful] from the goats [non- .^

dramatic sense of space and foreboding. At believers] . And he shall set the sheep on his

the center, surrounded by a ring of angels, is

right hand, but the goats on the left."
1

In late medieval and Renaissance

Christ in his role as judge, with the Virgin and
churches, the Last Judgment was tra- &
Saint John in their traditional positions to
ditionally depicted on or near the m
either side of him. Below them, the division of wall of the west entrance as a
the blessed and the damned has already taken
place. Angels come to lead the blessed souls

away to the bliss of Heaven, here symbolized

by the circular dance in a paradisal landscape.
On the opposite side, the damned gesticulate

with terror as devils drive them toward the

torments of Hell. 4
 FRAANGELICO: THE LAST JUDGMENT 93

reminder to departing congregations. Christ presides clockwise direction toward Christ's right. On his left the

as judge, seated on a throne with the Apostles flanking damned are sent to Hell. Here, Satan may devour and
him. Near him may be the Virgin as intercessor, Saint excrete sinners, while those suffering specific tortures

Peter with the keys to Heaven, and angels bearing the may be grouped according to their punishment.
Instruments of the Passion. Above Christ may Michelangelo's Last Judgment (1508-1512; Sistine
appear ranks of angels or saints and, below him, Chapel, Rome) is unusual in being placed behind the
Michael holds the scales in which souls are altar. This may have been to warn those who questioned
weighed. Angels sound trumpets to call the supremacy of the Pope after the Reformation.

up the dead. At the bottom of such com- Christ is no longer passive but seems to storm out of the
positions graves may open to release fresco with a condemning gesture.

souls and the blessed may soar up in a 'Matthew 25:32-33

SEE ALSO PAGI PAGE

Angels 82, 118 Hell 120

Apostles 145, 166-69 Michael 84, 118

God 90 St. Peter 147, 168

Heaven 118 The Virgin Man 130-31

9*
Hf BIB1 I \NH IHK I I HIST
 CAUCL'IN: THE VISION AFTER THE SERMON 95

The Vision after

the Sermon
Paul Gauguin (1848-1903)

Gauguin's mysterious masterpiece, depicting a

Breton religious festival, was painted in the

summer of 1888. The subject of the vision is

the wrestling match described in Genesis

between Jacob and the angel. The praving girl

in the left foreground and the priest with

bowed head on the right have their eyes
closed, so perceive the vision inwardly and
profoundly (unlike the other onlookers and
the intruding cow). Jacob's struggle with the
angel was interpreted in various ways by nine-
teenth-century French writers and artists, who
saw it as an allegory either of the growth of
secularism and religious doubt or of human-
ity's relationship with the divine. Gauguin's
treatment may reflect his concept of the
artist's hard-won acquisition of hermetic
knowledge inaccessible to ordinary people.

KEY ELEMENT
JACOB: In the Old Testament, Jacob and Esau were
the twin sons of Isaac and Rebecca. In one episode,
alone 1>\ a brook at night, Jacob wrestled with an angel

until daybreak. Unable to throw him, the angel refused

to tell him his name, but said that Jacob would hence-
forth be called Israel. Jacob then understood that he

had been wrestling with God.

Sec also page 123
•Genesis 25:20-34

SEE ALSO PAGl PAGI

Angels 82, IIS God 90

Colors 2 16 [oseph 1 23
96 THE Bl BIT MID THE LIFE OP CHRIST
 FRAANGELICO: THE ANNUNCIATION 97

The Annunciation
Fra Angelico (0.1400-1455)

The architectural setting of this panel painting of

c. 1435-45 has strong similarities with the artist's

famous Annunciation fresco of the late 1430s for

the convent of San Marco, Florence. The fiery-

robed angel stoops in humility' as he greets the

Virgin whose blue cloak symbolizes the heavenly
role that she is to assume. Despite the interposing

column of the loggia, the crossed hands of the

Virgin and Gabriel mirror each other to create a

sense of harmony. On the left, another angel

oversees the expulsion of Adam and Eve from
Eden after the Fall - the catastrophe that Christ's

incarnation was to remedy. The theme of Man as

the second Eve, regaining what the first had lost,

was common in medieval literature. The swallow

appears as herald of spring and hence new life.

KEY ELEMENT
ANNUNCIATION: The moment in which the Incarnation
of Christ was made known to Mary 1
is one of the most
frequently depicted scenes in Christian art. Often with the
lily of purity nearby, Man is usually seated or kneeling in

meditation, or reading a holy hook, thought to he the Old

Testament prophecy, "Behold, a virgin shall conceive, and
hear a son."- God's hand may he seen dispatching rays of
light and the dove of the Holy Ghost.
'I.ukc 1:31-35 'Isaiah 7:14

SEE ALSO PAGI PAG!

Adam and Eve ss ( harden 'J 12

Angels 82, US Halo 2 is

Architecture 206 1 iK J n
Colors 246 Swallow 239
Dove 239 I he Virgin Mar) 130-31

Gabriel lis
 HE BIBU \\!> TIU I Iff 01 I HKIST

o Madonna and Child with

Giovanni Bellini (c. 1430-1516)
Saints

Bellini's large altarpiece for a chapel in the absorbed in her own thoughts, holding, but
north aisle of the church of San Zaccaria, not looking at, the Child. The Child's hand
Venice, is dated 1505. This type of composi- is raised in blessing but the gesture is not
tion, showing the Virgin with the Child on her directed at the viewer; and although Saints

lap and saints (usually four or six) on Peter and Jerome face forward, their heads are
either side, known as a Sacra Conversazione,
is bowed and their eyes cast down in private

altogether more intimate than the Maesta (see meditation. The two female saints, Catherine
pages 144-45), it was a favorite with Venetian of Alexandria (her wheel is just visible to the

Renaissance artists. left of the throne) and Lucy, are similarly

Bathed in clear golden light and distanced absorbed. Only the more outward-directed
from the viewer by the elaborate architectural gaze of the musician angel invites the viewer to
surround, the Virgin on her high throne is enter into the scene of quiet adoration.

KEY ELEMENT
IMAGES OF THE VIRGIN: The Virgin as the mother artists portrayed the Virgin in domestic settings or a
of God is a central doctrine of the Church and images naturalistic landscape, perhaps even wearing fashion-
of her frequently stress her motherhood. This was able contemporary clothes.

apparent in the Tree of Jesse, which emphasized

Christ's descent from the father of David, via the Virgin

rather than Joseph. A most maternal image was the SEE ALSO PAGE PAGE

Virgin Suckling the Christ Child, depicted until the

Architecture 206 St. Lucy 171
Council of Trent (1545-63) registered its disapproval of
St. Catherine 171 St. Peter 147, 168
the Virgin's nudity. The Franciscans emphasized The Mary 130-31
St. Jerome 151, 170 Virgin
human tenderness, and during the Renaissance many

_J=I
 1^
1
H
^H

^M
 IOO THEBIBIt \NH IMF 1 IKK (IK CHRIST

o Virgin and Child with Saint

Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519)
Anne

Leonardo's painting (r.1510) of the popular Although Saint Anne is shown in her
subject of the Virgin and Christ Child with the usual place at the rear, with the Virgin in front
Virgin's mother, Saint Anne, is far removed of her, the three figures are lively and natural-

from earlier stiff, frontal arrangements of the istic. In a distinct departure from the tradition
family group. Leonardo worked on versions of of presenting Anne as an elderly matron,
this subject in the first years of the sixteenth Leonardo shows her as surprisingly youthful

century: a somewhat different treatment that and attractive. The hapless lamb in the Child's
includes Saint John the Baptist as an infant grasp hints at his own future role as the Lamb

survives as a drawing in the National Gallery, of God, the blameless sacrifice for sin; but
London, and a now-lost cartoon caused a sen- apart from this reference, the playful and inti-

sation when it was exhibited in the Annunziata mate trio in the dreamy landscape wear the
Convent, Florence, in 1501. symbolic significance lightly.

KEY ELEMENT
SAINT ANNE (ANNA): The cult of Anna (first Holy Kinship, by artists such as the Master of Saint
century ce) mother of the Virgin,
, first came to the West Veronica. In 1479 the Carmelites in Frankfurt formed a
with Christian refugees fleeing from Muslim conquests, brotherhood of Saint Anne and commissioned an altar-

and an early image of her (c.650ce) appears in Santa piece devoted to her, illustrating scenes from her life.

Maria Antiqua, Rome, where she is shown with the 1

Golden Legend, The Birth of the Blessed Virgin

Virgin. By the fourteenth century she was a popular fig-

ure, partly because her motherhood at an advanced age

confirmed the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception SEE ALSO PAGE PAGE

of the Virgin. She usually appears with her daughter.

Nativity 132 Landscape 242
Legend' claims that she was married three times and
Holy Family 109 The Virgin Mary 130-31
had three daughters, and she is depicted in the late
Lamb 86-87
Middle Ages with her extended family, known as the
 I02 THK BIB1I \M> I IU 1 IKE OF CHRIST

o Coronation
of the Virgin
Enguerrand Quarton (c. 1410-66)

Quartern's elaborate treatment of the

Coronation of the Virgin as Queen of Heaven
(1453-54) follows a medieval symmetrical for-

mula with the Virgin between God the Father

and God the Son (shown identical) who are
placing the crown upon her head, with the
dove of the Holy Spirit hovering above and
angels and the ranks of heavenly witnesses to

either side. Although the focus is upon the

Virgin's bliss in Heaven, the small-scale scenes

below (the Crucifixion, the cityscapes, and the

scenes from purgatory and Hell) set her in the
context of God's grand redemptive scheme.
All the picture's elements were minutely speci-
fied by Jean de Montagnac (depicted praying
by the Cross), who commissioned the painting.

KEY ELEMENT
CORONATION OF THE VIRGIN: The subject of the
Coronation of the Virgin appeared in late medieval art.

In this, the last scene of the cycle of the Virgin, she is

received into Heaven by Christ where he crowns her as

the Queen of Heaven. Episodes from the last days of

the Virgin on Earth, including her deathbed, the tomb,
and the Apostles, may appear in narrative pictures of

the Coronation. The Virgin is often shown as the inter-

cessor between humankind and God.

SEE ALSO PAGE PAGE

Angels 82 118 Hell 120

Crucifixion 134 Religious Orders 249

Dove 239 Saints 171-79
Heaven 118 The Virgin Man' 130-31

-I
QUARTON: CORONATION OF THE VIRGIN io3
 VAN DER GOES: CHRIST CHILD ADORED BY ANGELS 105 |

Christ Child
Adored by Angels
Hugo van der Goes (c. 1440-82)

The enormous triptych, known as the Portinari

Altarpiece, of which this is the central panel was

painted in Bruges around 1475 for the high

altar of the church of Sant' Egidio, Florence.
Amid the animation of the rich-robed angels
and bumpkin-like shepherds thronging into

the stable, the Virgin contemplates the Christ

Child, who lies in naked humility on the bare
floor, his divinity indicated only by the rays of
light emanating from his bodv. Saint Joseph
stands to one side, a little detached from the
central group of Virgin and babv. The iris and
columbine (the flowers of the Virgin and the
Holy Spirit respectively) in the exquisite still

life in the foreground svmbolize the roles of

the Virgin and the Holy Spirit in Christ's

Nativity. They also appear in van der Goes'

The Fall (see pages 88-89).

KEY ELEMENT
NATIVITY: The birth of Christ, or Nativity, took place

in Bethlehem injudea. The Virgin Man "brought forth

her firstborn son. and wrapped him in swaddling

clothes, and laid him in a manger: because there was no

room lor them in (he inn."' The Infant is usualf) shown
in a humble crib with an ox and ass looking on, as

prophesied by Isaiah. An angel appeared to shepherds

that night and told them of the Savior's birth.

Sec also page KV2 1 uke 2:7

SEE ALSO PAGl PAGI

Angels 82,118 Rowers -11

Bull 236 ["he \ irgin Mar) 130-31

 lo6 THE BIB1I \\l> lilt I1FE0FCHKIST

o The Isenheim Altarpiece

Matthias Griinewald (0420-1528)

Grunewald's massive limewood altarpiece was

painted between 1510 and 1515 for the high
altar of the chnrch of the monastery at

Isenheim, Alsace. The tortured and disfigured

body of Christ on the Cross dwarfs the mourn-
ing group of Saint John, the Virgin, and Mary
Magdalene. Contrasting with the moment of
agony and death, the stolid figure of Saint

John the Baptist invites the viewer to meditate

on Christ's sacrifice and its implications with

the words attributed to him in the Bible: "He
must increase, but I must decrease" (John
3:30). In the panel below, the three Marys
prepare Christ's body for the tomb. On the
wings are Saints Sebastian and Anthony.

KEY ELEMENT
CRUCIFIXION: Christ's Crucifixion took place at

Golgotha ("a place of a skull"), and was watched by a

crowd including his mother and Mary Magdalene. As

the soldiers crucified him, Christ said "Father, forgive
them; for they know not what they do." Just before he
1

died, a sponge soaked in wine and water was offered to

Christ. Afterwards a soldier pierced his side; blood and

water flowed from the wound.
See also page 134 'Luke 23:34

SEE ALSO PAGE PAGE

Chalice 248 Mary Magdalene 135

Cross 248 St. Anthony 176

Instruments of St. John the Baptist 1 1 1 , 126

the Passion 133 St. Sebastian 155

Lamb 86-87 The Virgin Mary 130-31

CRONEWALD: THE ISENHEI.M ALTARPIECE lO"
 lo8 THE BIBU \\l> IIU I I FE OF CHRIST

O Christ in the
House of His Parents
John Everett Millais (1829-96)

Millais's canvas evoked massive hostility when

it was exhibited in London in 1850 and
was denounced by The Times newspaper as

"revolting." As a leading member of the pre-

Raphaelite Brotherhood, the artist was
exemplifying pre-Raphaelite tenets of painstak-
ing realism and directness of emotional appeal
when he painted the Holy Family as poor
English laborers at work in Joseph's carpenter's
shop. But the thin, care-worn Virgin was partic-
ularly offensive to eyes accustomed to attractive

young blondes modeling this role. The boy

Christ has injured his hand on a nail and his

cousin John (later the Baptist) brings water for

the wound. The blood dripping on Christ's

foot foreshadows the Crucifixion, as does the

ladder on the wall behind.

KEY ELEMENT
HOLY FAMILY: During the Renaissance, paintings of
Mary, Joseph, and the Infant Jesus grew out of maternal
images of the Virgin and Child. Michelangelo's Doni
Tondo (c.1504) is an example of this development. The
subject emphasizes the human aspect of the
Incarnation, as the Holy Family are seen doing domes-

tic tasks. In Correggio's Madonna of the Basket (c.1524),

for example, the Virgin has her sewing beside her, while

Joseph is busily at work.

SEE ALSO PAGE PACE

Joseph 130-31 St. John the Baptist 111, 126

Landscape 242 Stigmata 136

The Life of Christ 132-37 The Virgin Mary 130-31

^:l
MILLAIS: CHRIST IN THE HOUSE OF HIS PARENTS 109
 PIERO DELLA FRANCESCA: BAPTISM OF CHRIST ill

Baptism of Christ
Piero dell a Francesca (c.14 15/20-92)

This baptismal scene was painted for the with geometric proportions, light clear colors
priory of San Giovanni Battista in Piero della and solid, monumental figures is seen in
Francesca's native town of Borgo San the trio of watching angels, who in more tradi-

Sepolcro, Umbria, probably around 1450. The tional treatments of the subject often hold
two central figures of Christ and John the Christ's garments as he steps into the River
Baptist stand out from the rest of the picture Jordan. Contrasting with the angels is the
under the level wings of the dove of the Holy frieze-like group of Jewish priests dressed in

Spirit; their stillness and the fact that, alone of fall colors behind the startlinglv pale figure of
all the figures in the painting, they neither another baptismal candidate who is in the act

touch nor overlap one another emphasize the of pulling off his shirt. The reflection of the
extraordinary import of what is taking place. sky in the untroubled water of the river adds to
The artist's characteristic preoccupation the harmonious quality of the scene.

KEY ELEMENTS
BAPTISM: At the age of about 30, Christ was baptized that cometh after me is mightier than I."
J
John the
by Saint John in the River Jordan. At his Baptism "the Baptist is one of the most frequentlv represented saints

heavens were opened unto him [John] and he saw the in Renaissance painting.
Spirit of God descending like a dove. And lo a voice Sec aNo box, page 126
Matthew 3:13-17 "Luke 15-17
from heaven, saying, 'This is my beloved Son, in whom S:

I am well pleased.'"'

SAINT JOHN THE BAPTIST: John was the cousin of

Jesus and son of the priest Zacharias and his wife
Elizabeth. The details of his miraculous birth and his SEE ALSO PAGI PAGI

life are told in the Gospel of Saint Luke. When he grew

Angels 82, US Landscape 2 12
up, John preached in the wilderness that the Kingdom
Dove 239 ["he Life of Christ 1 32-37
of Heaven was at hand. For food he ate wild honey and
Heaven 118 Sacraments 2 is
locusts. He baptized many people, proclaiming: "He
Resurrection with the
Raising of Jairus's Daughter
Stanley Spencer (1891-1959)

This oil, dating from 1947, is typical of transition from death to life that the Cross of

Spencer's vision of the most profound reli- Christ effects. To one side, the dead rise from
gious mysteries taking place in the very underneath the paving stones of the village

ordinary surroundings of contemporary sub- street; on the other, they hasten out of the

urban or small-town England. Through the grassy churchyard through the railings to greet

window, Christ can be glimpsed raising the their friends. The numerous embracing fig-

dead daughter of Jairus from her bed. The ures convey the great joy of the Resurrection,
window bars form a cross, at which Christ's without the terrors of the Last Judgment that
hand and the girl's intersect, symbolizing the accompany it in more traditional treatments.

-i
KEY ELEMENT
MIRACLES: Christ healed mam people and he also miracle of the ( .adarcne Swine, he cast devils out of two
brought the dead to life, as in the Raising of the Widow men into a herd of pigs which then rushed into the sea.
of" Nain's Son 1

and the Raising of the Daughter ol See also page 133 Luke 7:11-15 Mark5:22-24 fohn 11:1-44
'Matthew 15:32-38 Matthew -
Jairns. ' Better known is his Raising of Lazarus who had -

been entombed for lour days in a cave with a stone at

its entrance. Christ ordered the stone to be removed: at SEE ALSO i'm.i PAGE

this, Lazarus came forth, bound in a shroud. Christ

Rowers 241 Passion "t ( hrisl l 33-36
also exorcised those possessed by the Devil - tor exam-
Last Judgment 93
ple, the Daughter of the Woman of Canaan.' In the
 114 IH1 BIBlf \M> mi I 111 OF ( HKIsl

O Christ in the House

of Martha and Mary
Diego Velazquez 0^^-1660)

In this painting of about 1618, the closely

observed figures of the two women in the fore-

ground and the still life on the kitchen table

are typical of the young Velazquez's style and

subject-matter. Unusually, the religious com-
ponent of the composition - Christ comfort-
ably seated in a chair, with Mary and another
listener absorbed in his words - is placed in
the background, and the small, bright scene

glimpsed through the opening in the dark

kitchen wall, seems remote and dream-like,
although both the old woman's pointing
finger and the curve of Martha's arm lead the
viewer's eye to it. Martha's somewhat sullen
expression suggests that the old woman is

either stirring her to envy of her sister (Envy is

often personified in art as an ugly old woman)

or else conveying to her the unwelcome mes-
sage that Mary was not to be deprived of her
opportunity to hear Christ's teachings.

KEY ELEMENT
MARTHA: The sister of Christ's friends Mary
Magdalene and Lazarus, Martha represents the practi-

cal housewife. Luke's Gospel describes how she hos-

pitably received Christ into her house and busied

herself serving him while Mary listened to his words.

When she reproached him for not sending Mary to

help her, Christ replied that Mary had chosen the
better path. 1

Martha is usually shown either at work or

2
 VELAZQUEZ: CHRIST IN THE HOUSE OF MARTHA AND MARY 115

1
1

i
f w^iSk ^^^r\

1 .— ,-JB

Jt- ;; **B»

4, --,.
"j ^
^ W*^
ar.

,:
y fe#
*" v45* V

with items appropriate to her role as a housewife: per- SEE ALSO I'U.l PACI

haps a ladle and pot or a bunch of household keys.

Miracles 113, 133 Fish 237
Martha, Mary, and Lazarus were later set adrift on rafts
Egg 240 Mar) Magdalene 135
without food, but they landed safely near Marseilles.-' At
1'IIW 250
that time a ferocious dragon was terrorizing the neigh-
boring community of Tarascon, but Martha subdued
the beast with holy water and a cross.

See also box, page 135 'Luke 10:88-42 'Golden Legend, St. Martha
ii». IMKBIBIf \Mi IHM IFEOFCHRIST
 VAN DER WEYDEN: THE ENTOMBMENT 117

The Entombment
Rogier van der Weyden (1399/1400-1464)

Van der Weyden is believed to have painted the tomb suggests an altar on which Christ is

this Entombment of Christ while visiting Italy the sacrifice, with the sarcophagus itself just
in 1450. The painting depicts the moment visible inside the tomb behind the group.
between the Deposition or Descent from the Joseph of Arimathea and Nicodemus support
Cross and the actual laying in the tomb: the the dead body while the Virgin and Saint John
mourners are the same as those shown in a the Evangelist bend over his hands and Saint
Deposition scene, but the group has moved Mary Magdalene kneels in the foreground, her
from Calvary (the three crosses are visible on pot of ointment prominently placed in front of
the distant skyline) to the garden location of the tomb slab. The two distant figures who can
the rock-cut tomb which Joseph of Arimathea be seen on the path leading to the garden gate
had made available for Christ's burial. are the other holy women coming to anoint

Lying on the ground, the stone slab to seal the body for the grave.

KEY ELEMENTS
DEPOSITION AND ENTOMBMENT: In scenes of wrapped Christ in clean linen and laid the bodv in his

the Deposition or Descent from the Cross, Joseph of own tomb, which had been "hewn out in the rock." He
Arimathea and the Pharisee Nicodemus are present rolled a stone over the entrance and then departed. 1

and minister to Christ. They are also seen at the Matthew 27:57-60

Entombment, placing his wrapped and anointed body

in the sepulchre. After Joseph and Nicodemus had left,

Mary Magdalene and Mary, the mother of Joseph and

John, remained outside the tomb keeping vigil. SEE ALSO PAGI I'M .1

Crucifixion 134 St. Man Magdalene 135

JOSEPH OF ARIMATHEA: The wealthy Joseph of
Garden 242 St. John the Evangelist 166
Arimathea was a follower of Christ and appears in the
Landscape 2 12 Stigmata 136
Gospels as the man who asked Pilate's permission to
Nicodemus 136
remove Christ's body after the Crucifixion. Joseph
 1 8 THE BIBl.t \M' UU I lit 01 I HRIST

I | In the Beginning Rose: see Angels

In European paintings HEAVEN, where GOD (see page types.' The Assumption of the Virgin (c.1474) by # j/
90) abides with the angels and saints, is often repre- Botticini, part of the Palmieri Allarpiece, shows the
sented as a vast blue arch with stars or clouds, or a three orders of angels, each with its three ranks.

heavenly garden. It may also be indicated by gates In the first hierarchy, Seraphim surround the throne
through which divine light shines. In Nardo di Cione of God and are often red in color; Cherubim know and
and Andrea Orcagna's Paradise (1357) Heaven consists worship God, and are depicted as gold or blue; and
of a huge crowd of saints and angels. Thrones, wearing judges' robes, support his seat and
In Christian theology, ANGELS (see also page 83) are represent divine justice. The second hierarchy governs
grouped in three hierarchical orders, each of three the stars and the elements. It consists of Dominions,
depicted with crowns, scepters or orbs; Virtues that
have white lilies or red roses, themselves symbols of the
The Tower of Babel Passion of Christ; and Powers, militant figures who fight

ubiquitous devils. The third hierarchy maintains con-

The story of the Tower of Babel has been interpreted tact between Heaven and Earth and executes God's will.

as a means of explaining the existence of different Princedoms oversee territories; archangels - the inde-
languages and nations. The Bible states that human- pendent figures Michael, Gabriel, Raphael, and Uriel -
ity originally shared a common language, but when and angels bring God's messages to humankind.
the Babylonians tried to build a tower in order to The Archangel GABRIEL brings news of birth. In the
reach the heavens God disrupted this presumptuous Old Testament he explains the visions of Daniel; 2 in the
project by making the workers speak in many New Testament he is identified with the angel who
tongues so that they might not understand each announced the birth of John the Baptist to Zacharias,
other. 1

He then scattered them abroad, so the tower

and of Christ to the Virgin Mary. Gabriel often presents
was left unfinished. Pieter Bruegel the Elder painted
the Virgin with the lily of purity, which may, therefore,
The Tower of Babel as an image of the folly and over-
be considered his attribute.
weening ambition of man.
Depictions of MICHAEL (see also page 84) may show
'Genesis 11:1-9
him as a young man with wings (often in white or in

armor, with lance and shield) standing over a dragon.

He was the prince of angels and the military leader who
threw the Devil from Heaven. Domenico Beccafumi's
Archangel Michael and the Fall of the Rebel Angels (c.1524)

shows Lucifer and his cohorts vanquished by Michael

and metamorphosing into demons as they tumble

down to Hell.

Like the other archangels, RAPHAEL is often shown

as a winged youth. His name means "God heals" - he
acts as a guardian angel and is traditionally a protector

of the young and of travelers. He served as a guide for

Tobias, in whose company he is usually seen. Tobias

Pieler Bruegel the Elder's The Tower of Babel (detail; may hold a fish and Raphael ajar containing the fish

1563) presents a fantastic structure not unlike the gall with which he restored Tobias' father's sight. He is

Colosseum in Rome. shown with these attributes in Botticini's The Three

Archangels and Tobias (pre-1470).
 IN THE BEGINNING 119

Lamb: see Cain and Abel Olive Branch: see Noah

According to the Bible, the CREATION took seven Michelangelo's Creation of Adam (detail), painted in 1511)

days.
1
Michelangelo chose this story for the central sec- for the ceiling oj the Sistine Chapel in Rome, accompanu \ \< - m s

depicting the other stupes of the Creation, the I all, and the Flood.
tion of the Sistine Chapel ceiling (Vatican, Rome)
because it gave him the opportunity for dramatic nar-
rative and potent images (see detail, above). These 1828. An Old Testament patriarch descended from

opening passages from Genesis were illustrated rela- Adam and Eve, NOAH alone won God's favor when he
tively rarely compared to the themes of the Creation of regretted that he had made humankind and resolved to

ADAM AND EVE (see page 88) and the Fall. destroy the race in a great flood. But he instructed

The sons of Adam and Eve, CAIN AND ABEL, both Noah to build an ark to house his family, and a male
made offerings to God; but Abel's sacrificial lamb was and female of every living creature. 4 When Noah
favored above Cain's crops, and in a jealous rage Cain entered the ark he was in his 600th year, and he has
slew his brother. For his crime God cursed him and sent been consistently portrayed as an elderly man with a
him to a land east of Eden. The Italian sculptor white beard. In late medieval and Renaissance art,

Lorenzo Ghiberti (1378-1455) used episodes from scenes from the story of Noah appear in cycles of the
their story for a gilded bronze panel of the doors of the Old Testament illustrated by Ghiberti and by
Baptistery in Florence. Titian painted a violent inter- Michelangelo. Isolated scenes were also painted, partic-
pretation: Cam Slaying Abel (r. 1540). ularly the animals entering the ark, as in Jan Brueghel
Other stories from Genesis which have been widelv the Elder's The Entry of the Animals into Noah's Ark
portrayed are those of Noah and Job. A blameless and (1613). The dove retui ning with the olive leaf, .1 sign of

upright man, JOB became the subject of an experiment peace and reconciliation between humankind and
devised by God and the Devil to test the strength of his God, was painted by John Everett Millais in The Return

faith. His afflictions were illustrated bv William Blake in OJ the Dove In the Ark (1851).

Noah: see Dove (page 239), Olive (page 241) 'Pseudo Dionysius Celestial Hierarchy Daniel 8 16
Michael: see Satan (page 120) (.cm sis 1 and 2:1-3 '(ienesis (i:3-19

Raphael: see Tobias (page 129)

 120 THK BlBlt \\H I UK I II \ in riiHIM

I | Hell and the Apocalypse

In the New testament, Chrisi speaks the Last Judgment Satan is repre-
<>! HELL as the unquenchable fire sented as the Lord of Hell, an
reserved for unbelievers, proclaim- incarnation of evil, who feeds on
ing that he "will send his angels, and sinners and is surrounded by
they will gather ... all the evil doers, demons and the condemned, as in

.uid throw them into a furnace of Taddeo di Bartolo's fresco (four-

fire and there shall be wailing and teenth century; Collegiata, San
gnashing of teeth."' The infernal Gimignano). Satan may be repre-
realm may be filled with flames and sented as a dragon, a serpent or a
monsters or composed of successive hybrid with horns, pointed ears, a
circles of the damned, as described tail, claws, cloven hooves, the wings

in Dante's Inferno, illustrated closely of a bat, and the face of an animal.

by Botticelli. In Michelangelo's Last Common to both ancient Hebrew
Judgment (1536-41; Sistine Chapel, and Christian literature, prophetic
Vatican, Rome) Charon, ferryman writing hailed the end of the world
of the Underworld, and Minos, and the triumph of good over evil.

judge of the dead, are borrowed In the New Testament, the APOCA-
from Hades, the ancient Greek pre- LYPSE is most closely associated
decessor of Hell. At the LAST with the Revelation ascribed to

JUDGMENT (see pages 92-93) God Saint John the Evangelist. During

will condemn those who have not Fra Angelica's Last Judgment (detail; the Middle Ages, scenes from
lived according to the seven acts of see pages 92-93) presents a bleak view Revelation illustrated manuscripts
mercy, saying, "Depart from me, ye of the torments of Hell. and
and stained-glass windows, fea-

cursed, into everlasting fire, pre- tured in frescoes and carvings on

pared for the devil and his angels."-' In depictions of the Romanesque churches. Diirer made a series of wood-

Last Judgment, Hell is always to the bottom right of the cuts, The Apocalypse (1498), and El Greco painted The
composition - that is, on Christ's left - so that the good Opening of the Fifth Seal (r.1610) which revealed the souls
can rise on his favored right side. The entrance to Hell of those slain for preaching the word of God.
may be depicted as the gaping jaws of the huge sea According to an apocryphal gospel," after the
monster LEVIATHAN, which usually takes the form of a Entombment Christ went down to Hell where he
crocodile, whale or sea serpent. 3
In El Greco's Allegory released the dead from their chains and lit up the dark
of the Holy League (1576-77) it represents Satan and the places. As part of this DESCENT INTO HELL Christ sent

descent into Hell. Satan to Hades but raised Adam, and bade the others to

SATAN was a rebel angel who rose up in pride against follow him to Paradise. In paintings of the episode,

God, and fell from Heaven. Thereafter his sole aim was Christ is usually depicted in white, holding the banner
to foster evil. As an angel, his name had been Lucifer.
4
of the Resurrection. The Devil may be a small black fig-

He was associated with the false god Beelzebub, called ure recoiling at Christ's majesty or crushed by the gates
by the Gospels "the prince of the devils."
5
In images of on which Christ stands.

Hell: see Charon, Hades (page 78) 'Matthew 13:41,42 -Matthew 25:41 Job 41 'Isaiah 14:12

Apocalypse: see St. John the Evangelist (page 166) Matthew 12:24 "Gospel of Nicodemus II: Descent of Christ
into the Underworld
 HELL AND THE APOCALYPSE/ MOSES AND THE EXODUS 121

Moses and the Exodus Trumpet: see Jericho

The prophet MOSES was the Israelites' greatest leader. Isolated incidents from Moses' life might be chosen
He freed them from captivity in Egypt, received the Ten in art for aesthetic reasons; in Moses Defending the

Commandments from God, and is said to have written Daughters ofjethro (c.1523) Rosso Fiorentino was able to

the first five books of the Old Testament. He is often show muscular figures wrestling; the elegance of the

depicted as a vigorous elderly man, with a long flowing Pharaoh's daughter finding the infant Moses appealed
white beard. Shafts of light may radiate from either side to both Poussin and Tiepolo; Turner's The Fifth Plague
of his head, for "the skin of his face shone" 1

when he of Egypt (1800) is set against a stormy landscape.

received the word of God. These shafts are sometimes The most frequently depicted episodes from the life

represented as horns, owing to an early mistranslation of Moses include the aforementioned finding of the
from Hebrew into Latin, in which "shone" was taken to infant Moses in a basket; Moses trampling the crown
mean He may also hold the tablets on which
"horned." which the Pharaoh had placed on his head - a scene
the Ten Commandments were written, or a staff. which came to represent the salvation of his people; the

Episodes from the life of Moses were depicted with burning bush through which God told Moses to lead his

other Old Testament prophets, as in the frescoes in the people out of Egypt; the parting of the Red Sea; and the
Collegiata, San Gimignano by Bartolo di Fredi (died Ten Commandments.
1410). When God sent fiery serpents to punish the After Moses' death JOSHUA led his people to the

Israelites,
2
Moses raised a BRAZEN SERPENT on a pole River Jordan, across which priests carried the Ark of the

to heal them, prefiguring the Crucifixion. 3 Other Covenant. As their feet touched the water, it separated,

scenes from the life of Moses were also paired with letting the people through. In memory of this miracle,

those from Christ's, such as Tintoretto's The Fall of Joshua asked 12 men to take 12 stones from where the
Manna and The Last Supper (both 1593). As Moses set priests had stood on the water and set them up on the
down the law of the old covenant, so Christ dispensed far bank. 1

Here lay the well-defended citv of JERICHO

the new. This was clearly indicated in frescoes by several in the land of Canaan which, at God's command,
artists, including Botticelli and Perugino (both in the Joshua and the Israelites besieged for six days. Ever) da\
Sistine Chapel, Vatican, Rome). As God's appointed seven priests marched around the city with seven trum-
vicar on Earth, Saint Peter was often likened to Moses. pets before the Ark of the Covenant, but on the seventh
day the) went around seven times, then blew the trum-
pets. At that, the walls of the citv collapsed. These
scenes were recorded in Ghiberti's Joshua door panel
for the Baptistery in Florence. John Mai tin's huge and
dramatic Joshua Commanding the Sun to Stand Still Over
Gideon (1816) shows how God allowed the Israelites

time to avenge themselves on their enemy, the Amorites

- of whom a great number were slaughtered."

hi his Allegorj ol the Old and New Testaments (detail;

c.1530) Holbein contrasts tin /7<n sfcj against which Moses receives
tin Commandments with tin- limpid light which bathes tin Wrgin.

Moses: see St. Peter (page 147 and box, page 168) Exodus34:30 Numbers 21:5-9 'John 3:14
Joshua3and4 Joshua 6:1-20 foshua 10:12-28

_
 I UK BIBI.h \M> THt III) '•! I HRIST

o Lives of the Patriarchs

The Old Testament Patriarchs - the heads of families
From Adam down to Abraham, Jacob, and his sons -
Ram:

Abraham's wife Sarah bore no children and offered

her handmaid HAGAR to Abraham
see Isaac

so that he might
-

provided excellent opportunities for artists to explore have a son - thus ISHMAEL was conceived. However,
matters <>l morality and faith through the tests and Hagar began to despise Sarah. As a result, Hagar was
n i. ils ilu\ endured. driven into the wilderness. An angel told her to return
Father of many Hebrew nations, ABRAHAM was told to her mistress, and predicted that Ishmael would be "a
l>\ ( .od to leave his birthplace and set out with SARAH, wild man; his hand will be against every man, and every
his wife, and LOT, his nephew.' Abraham settled in the man's hand against him;"' yet God promised that he
land of Canaan, while Lot settled in Sodom and laid would beget 12 princes and rule a great nation.

claim to the well-watered plain of Jordan. Eventually, despite their old age, a son, ISAAC, was

Lot's story provided artists with gruesomely fascinat- born to Sarah and Abraham. The baby's arrival had
ing subject matter. Having settled in Sodom, he played been prophesied by three angels to whom Abraham
host to two angels, but the people of Sodom threatened had shown hospitality. Jealous of Isaac, Ishmael and his
to violate his guests. Urged by the angels to "escape for mother were banished. As they began to die of thirst, an
thy life; look not behind thee," Lot and his family fled - angel led them to water.
but, as God destroyed Sodom and nearby Gomorrah, To test his faith, God demanded that Abraham sacri-

his wife looked back and was turned into a pillar of salt. fice Isaac and, early in the morning, Abraham saddled
This dramatic escape has been depicted by many artists, his ass with wood for the burned offering, and took
including Guido Reni in Lot and His Daughters Leaving Isaac to the appointed place. Just as Abraham was about
Sodom (c. 1615) . In their desperation to bear children, to slay his son on an altar, an angel intervened and a
Lot's daughters made ram was substituted for the sacrifice. 5

their father drunk and Artists have represented many episodes from the life

slept with him, giving birth of Abraham. In The Angel Appearing to Sarah ( 1 725-26)
to the ancestors of the Tiepolo shows an aged Sarah before the angel; and
Moabites and Ammonites.' Claude Lorrain (1600-1682) painted picturesque land-
In Lot and his Daughters scapes with Hagar and the angel. However, the Sacrifice
(r. 1545) Bonifazio de' of Isaac was the most frequently chosen theme, since
Pitati, like many other Abraham was seen as the paragon of unquestioning
artists, shows Lot in his faith in God, and Isaac as a precursor to Christ: God sac-
drunkenness with his rificed his son as Abraham was prepared to, the wood of

daughters, while Sodom the burned offering representing the Cross. In 1401

and Gomorrah burn in the this was the subject of the competition to decorate the
background. great portals of the Baptistery in Florence, for which

both Ghiberti's and Brunelleschi's panels still exist.

Caravaggio's Sacrifice of Isaac (1603) shows the scene

Andrea Mantegna's Abraham
with his customary drama, while Ferdinand Olivier
Sacrificing Isaac (detail;
c. 1490-95) depicts the
(died 1841), in Abraham and Isaac, shows the two on
moment of God's intervention. their way to the sacrifice.

2
'Genesis 12:1-5 Genesis 13:10-13 'Genesis 19
5
'Genesis 16:12 Genesis 22:1-13
 LIVES OF THE PATRIARCHS 123

The Story of Joseph

Isaac and his wife REBECCA had twin sons: 1

JACOB (see Having been released back into the Pharaoh's house-
page 95) and ESAU. Jacob became a herdsman and his hold, Joseph interpreted the Pharaoh's dream that seven

mother's favorite, Esau a hunter and his father's favorite. fat cattle were devoured by seven lean ones, and that
Rebecca contrived that Jacob should receive his father's seven fat sheaves of corn were eaten by seven thin ones.

blessing in Esau's place by disguising Jacob as his brother The dream meant that seven years of plenty would be fol-

to confuse the old and nearly blind Isaac. When Esau dis- lowed by seven years of famine - Joseph advised that
covered this, he swore to kill his twin. reserves should be set aside to provide food during the

Having fled his brother's wrath, Jacob dreamed of a years of shortage. Joseph was rewarded for his prophecy

ladder stretching from Heaven to Earth to enable with the Pharaoh's ring, fine linen, and a golden chain.
angels to travel between the He was also appointed gover-

two. A ladder may therefore nor of Egypt.

appear in art as Jacob's identify- When the famine came,
ing attribute. Jacob sent his sons, except for

Jacob had many children with Benjamin (whom he now

his wives Rachel and Leah. Of favored), to buy corn in Egypt
Jacob's 12 sons, JOSEPH was his The brothers bowed down
favorite and the one to whom before Joseph, in respect for

he gave a coat of many colors. the Pharaoh's governor,

With the exception of without recognizing him. In

BENJAMIN (the only brother return for corn. Joseph

to have the same mother In The Story of Joseph (detail) Bartolommeo di demanded that Benjamin be
as Joseph), the other sons Giovanni (active 1483—1511) showed Joseph with brought to Egypt, keeping
envied Joseph their father's Potiphar's wife (left) and in prison (right). another brother. Simeon, .is

favoritism. Joseph had a dream hostage.

that his sheaf of corn stood upright, while his brothers' On their return to Egypt with Benjamin. Joseph tor-

bowed down, and that the sun, moon, and 1 1 stars paid mented his brothers still further. He placed a silver cup
homage to his star. The dream further fuelled the broth- in Benjamin's sack, and then declared that there had
ers' jealousy and one day, when they were tending their been a theft. Joseph's steward found the cup. accused

sheep, they stripped Joseph of his coat, threw him in an Benjamin of being the culprit, and brought the brothers
empty well, and then sold him as a slave for 20 pieces of before Joseph. At last Joseph revealed his identity. He was
silver to merchants journeying into Egypt. The coat of reconciled with his brothers and invited them and Jacob

many colors was taken back to their father covered in to live with him in Egypt.
6

goat's blood, so Jacob would believe that Joseph had been The stories of the initiall) ill-treated Joseph, his rise to

devoured by a wild animal. Egypt's highest office, his wisdom, and his conciliator)

In Egypt Joseph was sold to Potiphar, an officer of the magnanimity, were highly popular, especialh in late

Pharaoh, who made him overseer of his house. Potiphar's medieval and Renaissance art. The\ were used in fresco

covetous wife "cast her eyes upon Joseph and she said, cycles, furniture and tapestn design, and easel paintings.

'Lie with me.'" When he refused she accused him ol Individual scenes were also depicted, as in Ora/io
trying to molest her. Potiphar threw Joseph into prison. Gentileschi's Joseph and Potiphar's Wife (c.1630).

When the Pharaoh's baker and butler were later impris- Genesis 25:20-34 Genesis37 Genesis 39:1-20 Genesis40
Genesis tl:l-tt "Genesis 22:1-13
oned with him, he interpreted their dreams.
1
 me BIBII \M> 111! III! 01 I HRIS1

I 1 Kings, Queens, and Prophets

Intermediaries between (.<>d and tin- Israelites, the offered a challenge of single combat. David volun-

rulers and prophets of the Old Testament are widely teered for the contest. Refusing the armor that Saul
depicted in art. Their stories and legends, featuring offered him, he picked five smooth stones from a brook
wars, intrigues, and fantastic visions are among the for his sling. David killed Goliath with the first stone,

most vivid in the Bible. which sunk deep into the giant's forehead; he then
SAUL was chosen by God and anointed 1

by SAMUEL, stood upon the fallen body, took Goliath's sword, and
the last of the ruling judges, as the first king of the 12 cut off his head. 3 The Philistines fled. The victorious

tribes of Israel. He waged a series of wars, but God youth featured in both Renaissance and Baroque sculp-
rejected him for his leniency toward the Amalekites. ture. The statues by Donatello, Michelangelo, and
Said found comfort with DAVID, the court musician, Bernini show different interpretations of David the
who played the harp so well that Saul made him his giant-slayer. In The Triumph of David (r.1632) Poussin
armor-bearer.-' Rembrandt's David Harping Before Saul shows the Israelites celebrating David's triumphal entry
(c. 1650) shows sympathy with the melancholic king. into Jerusalem with Goliath's head. David's success

David has many guises. He may be seen as a personi- incurred the envy and wrath of Saul, and the young
fication of physical prowess and courage or as a con- hero fled for his life. In The Cave of Adullam (1658)

queror of evil. As the royal musician to King Saul, he Claude Lorrain shows the cave in which David hid.

appeared on the frontispieces of medieval psalters. On the eve of a subsequent battle with the Philistines,

Seen as a prefiguration of Christ, he was Christ's ances- Saul consulted the WITCH OF ENDOR. By the witch's

tor through the line of Jesse, David's father. magic Samuel, who by now had died, manifested him-
When Saul led the Israelite army into battle against self and confirmed that Saul would be defeated and his

the Philistines, their champion, the giant Goliath, three sons killed. Salvator Rosa illustrated the scene in

Bathsheba

The beautiful Bathsheba was bathing when she was seen by David as

he walked on his roof. She was the wife of one of his generals, Uriah
the Hittite, who was away fighting at that time. David desired her

and sent messengers to bring her to him. Consequently she con-

ceived a child. David hoped to disguise their adultery by recalling

Uriah from the war, but Uriah would not sleep with his wife. David

then instructed his commander to place Uriah "in the forefront of

the hottest battle, and draw back from him, so that he may be struck

down and die."' The order was obeyed and Uriah was killed. David

married Bathsheba, but their child died in punishment for their sin.

Their second child was Solomon. Painters usually depict Bathsheba

at her bath in various degrees of modesty, but Jacopo Amigoni
(1682-1752), in Bathsheba, shows her responsive to the message
brought to her by David's slave. In Bathsheba Bathing (detail; 1654)
'II Samuel 1 1 Rembrandt emphasizes Bathsheba's youth and
beauty by juxtaposing her with her aged servant.

_
 KINGS. QUEENS, AND PROPHETS 125

•espe*
Sword: see Saul Raven: see Elijah

The Spirit of Samuel Called up Before Saul by the Witch of she brought a magnificent array of spices, gold, and
Endor (1668). When the prophecy came true, Saul precious stones as gifts.
6
Their meeting was depicted by

I
fell on his own sword, as shown in Pieter Bruegel the Ghiberti (Baptistery, Florence). In legend, on her way 7

Elder's panoramic The Suicide of Saul (1562). to visit Solomon, the queen recognized and worshipped
David was 30 years old when Saul died and he the wood of the True Cross.

became king. He had 17 sons, one of whom, Amnon, One of the five Major Prophets of the Old Testament
raped his half-sister Tamar, and yet the king would not (along with Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel),
punish him. Another son, Absalom, brooded for two ELIJAH spoke against AHAB, king of Israel, when Ahab
years about his brother's crime, before inviting Amnon and his wife JEZEBEL went to take possession of a vine-

to a feast. Here, in order to avenge his sister, Absalom yard that Ahab coveted. Jezebel, who has come to be
murdered Amnon. Mattia Preti depicted this incident known as the archetvpal wicked woman, had contrived
in The Feast of Absalom (c. 1660). to have the previous owner Xaboth stoned to death for
SOLOMON was the son of David and BATHSHEBA blasphemy. At the vineyard thev encountered Elijah,
(see box, opposite), and succeeded his father. He was whom God had sent to meet them. Elijah said to them:
renowned for his wisdom, a gift from God, which was "In the place where dogs licked the blood of Xaboth
exemplified in the Judgment of Solomon' - when two shall dogs lick thy blood, even thine ... and the dogs
harlots who had given birth claimed to be the mother shall eat Jezebel. "* The scene was depicted by Frederic.

of the one surviving child. In The Judgment 0/ Solomon Lord Leigh ton, in Jezebel and Ahab ( 1863).

(1649) Poussin shows how, to end their dispute, the During a drought God sent Elijah east to live bv a

king ordered the baby to be cut in two. He recognized brook where ravens fed him. When the brook dried up
the true mother as the one who abandoned her claim. he met a widow of the citv of Zarephath whom he found
The sixteenth-century artist Pacchiarotti painted this gathering sticks. She gave him food - in gratitude,
1

scene (see detail, page 127). Elijah cured her child of his sickness. After three vears
'

Solomon had a long, prosperous reign, preferring to of drought and famine, Elijah assembled 450 priests of
amass wealth than to wage war. He built a palace and Baal - the pagan cult championed bv fezebel - on
the Temple of Jerusalem, which was covered with gold Mount Carmel. Both Elijah and the priests of Baal built

and sumptuous ornaments. Its spiral columns, in the fires, which were to be ignited bv their respective gods.
Solomonic style, were brought to Rome and provided a The priests' fire refused to ignite, but Elijah's sparked
model for Raphael's Healing of the Lame Man at the into flames immediately. The priests were put to death,

Beautiful Gate (c.1514), and the inspiration for Bernini's thus appeasing the god of Israel, and the rains

canopy over the high altar of Saint Peter's, Rome. returned.'" Fearing Jezebel's revenge. Elijah fled into

Solomon had 700 wives and 300 concubines."' Many of the desert and prayed for his own death. He slept under
them worshipped pagan gods, whose cults he also fol- a juniper tree and was fed In an angel.
lowed. Luca Giordano's Altar of Solomon (c. 1735) shows Elijah appears in art as a bearded old man. Rubens
him worshipping a statue, surrounded by women. shows him in his fierv chariot in The Chariot of Elijah
The QUEEN OF SHEBA came to Jerusalem to see if (c. 1620). The prophet in the desert fed bv ravens or b)
the rumors she had heard about King Solomon's wealth the angel was also a favorite subject, as in Giovanni
were true. Like the Magi worshipping the Christ Child, Lanfranco's The Prophet Elijah Awakened in the Desert by

David: see Tree of Jesse (page 132) 'I Samuel 10:1 'ibid. 16:16-23 s
ibid. 17:20-51 'I Kings 3:16-28
Queen of Sheba/Solomon: see also [rue Cross (pages 136-37) ibid. 11:1-11 ibid. 10:1-12 Gold Legend, The Finding of the
9
Holy Cross 1 Kings 21:1-23 'ibid. 17:6-22 ibid. 18:l l i-tl
 lit KIBI ^ \M> UU I IM ut CHRISI

o an Angel
< .ii melite
( 162 1-25). Elijah was a popular subject for the
( >rder, who < lahn him as their founder.
While
• Camel: see

in captivity in

God's throne surrounded by a winged

Si |<>hn the Baptist

Babylon, EZEKIEL had a vision of

lion, a winged
In the hook bearing his name, ISAIAH foretold the man, a bull, and an eagle.
1
These four beasts were to

i oming of Christ: "Behold, a virgin shall conceive and become the attributes of the Evangelists. In the Vision of

bear a son ... and the child shall know to refuse evil and Ezekiel (r. 1518) Raphael shows God hovering above
shall choose the good." 1

He also prophesied that "there them. Another of Ezekiel's visions was of a valley of dry
shall come forth a rod out of the stem of Jesse, and a bones, which God covered in flesh; the bones came
branch shall grow out of his roots."- The Tree of Jesse, together and life was breathed into them so that they
the father of David, names the ancestors of Christ. stood like a great army. This was seen as a foretelling of
Isaiah is depicted in a similar way to other prophets as the Resurrection of the Dead at the Last Judgment.
1

an old man with a long beard, holding a book or scroll The Babylonian kings Nebuchadnezzar and his son
which is sometimes inscribed with his name. BELSHAZZAR prized DANIEL's ability to interpret
JEREMIAH preached against the sins of the people dreams and omens. At a great feast, where Belshazzar
and foresaw that great suffering was needed for salva- and his guests drank wine from golden vessels taken

tion. In Jeremiah Foreseeing the Destruction of Jerusalem from the Temple of Jerusalem, the fingers of a hand
(1630), Rembrandt depicted him as an old man appeared and wrote on the wall of the palace,
lamenting the city's destruction by the Babylonians. "MENE, MENE, TEKEL, UPHARSIN." This scene was

Saint John the Baptist

An elderly priest, Zacharias, and his hair, and with a girdle of a skin about

wife, Elizabeth, had no children. One his loins." When Christ came to be

day an angel announced that they baptized, "the heavens were opened
would have a son, named John, who unto him [John] and he saw the
would be great in the eyes of the Spirit of God descending like a

Lord. Zacharias doubted the angel's dove." 1

He may appear as a small

words and in punishment was struck child in paintings of the Virgin and
dumb. When their child was born, Child, because he foretold the advent

Zacharias was asked what the baby of Christ. John is often shown as a

should be called; he wrote "John," wild and unkempt figure, who wears
and immediately his speech was a shaggy tunic and holds a long, thin

restored. At the Annunciation to the cross. He may also carry a lamb, in

Virgin, an angel told Mary about the reference to his words, "Behold the

miraculous conception of John, and Lamb of God, which taketh away the
2
Mary went to stay with Elizabeth, her sin of the world."

cousin - an episode known as the 'Luke 1:5-64 -John 1:29

Visitation. When he grew up, John

preached in the wilderness that the
In Piero delta Francesca's Baptism of
Kingdom of Heaven was at hand. Christ (detail; see pages 110-11) John
"And John was clothed with camel's baptizes Christ beside the River ford an.
 KINGS. QUEENS. AND PROPHETS 127

One-Horned Goat: see Daniel

dramatically painted by tempest as a result of Jonah's

Rembrandt in Belshazzar's Feast disobedience, and although the
(c.1636-38). Daniel was sum- sailors rowed hard, they could
moned to interpret the words. not reach land. So they cast
He foresaw the fall of his king. Jonah into the sea, whereupon
Belshazzar was slain that night the storm ceased. "Now the
and his kingdom divided. 5
Lord had prepared a great fish

Among Daniel's visions was to swallow up Jonah. And Jonah

that of a ram fighting with a one- was in the belly of the fish three
horned goat. The Archangel days and three nights." Jonah
Gabriel explained that the two repented and the fish disgorged
animals represented future him unharmed. 14

The storv of

war and oppression, and com- Jonah and the whale was taken
forted Daniel as he sank to the as a prefiguration of Christ and
ground in despair.
1
'
Rembrandt the Resurrection, because when
depicted this scene in The Vision The Judgment of Solomon (detail) by the Pharisees demanded a sign

of Daniel (c.1650). Pacchiarotti (1474-1539/40) shows tin' wise king from Christ, he said that, like
mediating in a dispute over the 7naternity of a baby.
A more popular episode in art Jonah, "so shall the Son of Man
was that of Daniel being thrown be three days and three nights
into a lions' den, as a result of his enemies' scheming. in the heart of the Earth." 1

"
Michelangelo's massive
When he suffered no harm, the king ordered those who image of Jonah and his whale appears above the altar in

had accused Daniel to be thrown to the lions instead. 7 the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican, Rome.
Daniel in the Lions' Den (r. 1615) by Rubens shows him Regarded by the Evangelists as the last in the line of
giving thanks to God for allowing him to survive. prophets, and the only one whose deeds feature in the
While Daniel was in the lions' den, it is said that the New Testament, SAINT JOHN THE BAPTIST (see page
prophet HABAKKUK brought him pottage (a thick 1 1 1 and box, opposite) is frequently remembered for

soup). Habakkuk was transported from Judea by an his encounter with SALOME. She danced at a banquet
angel who "carried him by the hair of his head and ... to celebrate the birthday of Herod, her stepfather. Her
set him in Babylon over the den." Habakkuk delivered s
dance pleased him so much that he promised to give
his food to Daniel and was then returned to Judea by her whatever she requested as a reward. John the
the angel. Bernini (1598-1680) sculpted a depiction of Baptist had preached against Herod's marriage to

this story, while Donatello's sculpture The Prophet Salome's mother, Herodias, so she instructed her
Habbakuk (c. 1423-36) shows his harrowed features as daughter to demand John's head. He was duh decapi-
he prays for revenge on the oppressors of his people. tated and his head brought to Herod on a platter. In
God ordered JONAH to visit the corrupt city of cycles of the life of |ohn the Baptist the decorative
Nineveh to warn of its impending destruction; but the episode of the dance of Salome often occupied a

prophet feared the reaction of the city's people and prominent position, as in Fra Filippo Lippi's mid-
took a boat in a different direction. God sent a mighty fifteen th-c en tun frescoes (Prato Cathedral).

Daniel: see Susannah (page 129) Isaiah 7:14-16 Isaiah 11:1 Ezekiel 1:10 'Ezekiel 37:1-10
Ezekiel: see Evangelists (page 169) ''Daniel 5 Daniel 8:3-27 Daniel 6:12-2 1 ^poi rypha, Bel
and the Dragon Jonah L and 2 Matthew 12:40
 Ht B!BI I \M> [III I III 01 I IIRIST

G Heroes and Heroines of Israel

Throughout the Old Testament and Apocrypha there
arc countless stories featuring the courage, determina-
The
sity
story of ESTHER shows
powerful rhetoric can be as effective
that in the face of adver-

as physical

tion, and ingenuity of individual Israelite men and strength. When Ahasuerus, king of Persia, dismissed his
women. Their deeds helped to protect their fellow queen after she refused to appear at a feast in his sump-
Israelites from persecution hy oppressors, both in their tuous palace (which boasted marble pillars and beds of
homeland and abroad, and have provided artists with gold and silver), he chose Esther as his new wife. Esther
vivid subject matter for paintings that show heroism in had been brought up by her cousin, Mordecai, who told

its different forms. her to keep the secret of their

The Philistines had ruled the Jewish faith.
2
Mordecai soon
Israelites for 40 years when an discovered that the king's
angel told Manoah and his wife favorite attendant, Haman, had
that they would conceive a son, obtained permission to kill all

instructing them to name the the Jews, so he sat outside the

bov SAMSON and warning that king's gate until he could warn
his hair must never be cut. Esther of their impending fate.

Samson was endowed with great The penalty for entering the
physical strength: as a youngster inner court for an unsolicited
he slew a lion with his bare audience with the king was
hands, and when the Philistines death, but Esther dared to do
captured him, he killed 1,000 so. When the king lowered his

men with a donkey's jawbone. scepter as a sign of acceptance,

Samson fell in love with Delilah she invited him to a banquet
who, bribed by the Philistine where she made an impassioned
kings, sought to discover the speech on behalf of the Jews. As
secret of his strength. After Rubens Samson and Delilah
' (detail; c.1609) a result, Haman was hanged,
Samson finally revealed the shows Samson 's betrayal, illustrating how even the Mordecai received high office
strong can be rendered powerless by deception.
truth about his hair, Delilah and wealth, and the enemies of
lulled him to sleep and called the Jews were put to death. 1

upon the Philistines to shave his head. This done, they Esther is shown both as a richly dressed queen and as

put out his eyes, chained him and put him to work at a an example of virtuous womanhood; Veronese used her
prison mill, where his hair began to grow again. Later, story to depict sumptuous costumes and settings.

the Philistine lords brought Samson out to entertain an Less opulent than Esther, but blessed with great
audience, including their five kings, placing him loyalty and determination, RUTH was a non-Jew from
between the pillars of the building. Samson brought the land of Moab, but married into a Jewish family.

down the pillars and the building, killing himself and a After her husband and father-in-law died, she accompa-
multitude of Philistines. 1

He is usually represented as a nied her mother-in-law, Naomi, to Bethlehem,

muscular figure with long hair and the attribute of a steadfastly refusing to abandon her.
4
Ruth asked the
broken pillar, and may be shown betrayed by Delilah. Israelite Boaz if she might glean in his fields, and he
Rembrandt painted a gory image of The Blinding of told his reapers to leave her extra corn. Poussin used
Samson (1636); the annunciation of Samson's birth and the scene to illustrate summer in The Meeting Between

the angel ascending in the flames of Manoah's offering Ruth and Boaz (1660-64). Eventually, they married, and
were also sometimes chosen as subjects for paintings. the line of David evolved from their union.

—t
 HEROES AND HEROINES OF ISRAEL 129

Sparrow: see Tobias

In the Apocrypha, TOBIAS was the son of Tobit, who Chasseriau 's The Toilet of

lived in the Assyrian capital of Nineveh and defied the Esther (detail; 1841) shows
Esther preparing herselffor her
law by helping his fellow Jews in exile. One night Tobit
meeting with King Ahasuerus.
gave a Jew a proper burial. Afterwards, as he slept,
sparrow droppings fell into his eyes and blinded him. 5
Fearing death, he sent Tobias to get the money he had Renaissance and Baroque
left in Media - accompanied by the Archangel Raphael periods; and Artemisia
in disguise and his dog. When Tobias went to wash in Gentileschi and Christo-
the River Tigris, "a fish leaped out ... and would have fano Allori both painted
devoured him;" Raphael told Tobias to catch the fish famous interpretations.

and conserve the heart, liver, and gall. Arriving at the She is usually shown
house of his cousin Raguel and Raguel's daughter holding Holofernes 's head
Sarah, Tobias burned the heart and liver, banishing the - sometimes eroticallv.

demon that had caused the death of Sarah's seven pre- Similarly bloodv, the
vious husbands. Raphael brought the money, Tobias story of JAEL in the Book of
and Sarah married, and they returned to Nineveh, Judges is sometimes con-
curing Tobit's blindness with the fish's gall." fused with that of Judith.
Tobias and his protector were popular subjects in fif- When Jabin, king of Canaan, ruled over the Israelites,

teenth-century Florence. The archangel is often the Sisera was the captain of his armies. Jael invited Sisera

main figure, and in Tobias and 1

'he An gel by a follower of into her tent, gave him drink, and let him rest, then
Verrocchio (1460s), Raphael (with a dog and a pot con- "took a nail of the tent, and took a hammer in her hand
taining the fish's gall) leads Tobias, who holds a fish. ... and smote the nail into his temples." Although not a
Rembrandt painted The Angel Leaving Tobias (1637). Jew, she was seen as a heroic liberator of the Israelites.
Another apocryphal figure, JUDITH was seen as the Unlike main of the other Israelite heroes and hero-
female counterpart of David (the shepherd who ines, SUSANNAH's courage was in the face of sexual,

became king of Israel). Holofernes, captain of the rather than religious, oppression. She was married to
Assyrians, was ordered to go west with a huge army, the honorable Joachim, who often entertained two
killing anyone who did not yield to his king's command judges in his house. Lusting aftei Susannah, the) con-
- and in Judea he prepared to make war with the spired to watch her bathing in her garden. When she
people of Israel. Hearing of her people's plight, Judith was alone, the judges threatened to accuse her of adul-
bathed and put on her finest clothes and jewels, then tery unless she lax with them; Susannah replied that she
entered the enemy's camp carrying wine and food. She 7
would prefer to be lalseh accused than sin in the e\es

pretended that she had come to betray her people; of the lord. At her ensuing trial she was condemned to

seduced by her beauty, Holofernes gave a feast in her death, hut Cod sent Daniel to expose the truth, and the
honor. Unfortunately for him, he drank too much wine, elders were sentenced and Susannah set free, from the
at which point Judith smote his head from his body and Renaissance onwards, artists often painted her bathing
triumphantly bore it back to her people as the terrified as a\\ opportunity to show a beautiful female nude, as in
8
Assyrians fled. She was a popular subject in the Tintoretto's Susannah and the Elders I 1557).

Ruth: see David (pages 124-25) Judges 16:1-30 Esther2:2-10 Esther7:l-10 'Ruth 1:16-17
Susannah: see Daniel (pages 126-27) 'Apocrypha, [obit 2:9-10 "ibid. 11:11-13 Apocrypha, Judith
Tobias: see Raphael (page 118) 10:3-^5 "ibid. 13 Judges 1:21 Apocrypha, Storj of Susannah
 l3o THE BIBIt \M» lilt 1 IN 01 I IIKIM

I ] The Virgin Mary

Western an abounds with ri< hl\ varied images ofthe chosen or faithful can shelter. This image was often
\IR(,IN iscc page 98) or Madonna, the mother of painted for lay confraternities of misericordia, or com-
Christ In certain respects the Chris! Child maybe seen passion, which gave aid to the sick.

as hei attribute. She was depicted in large fresco cycles The MATER DOLOROSA, or Virgin Mourning, shows
and aitarpieces, as well as in small devotional works. her weeping alone or over the dead body of Christ. The
Her popularity as a subject is partly explained by the SEVEN SORROWS OF THE VIRGIN are often presented

Church doctrine that emphasized as vignettes around her grieving fig-

her virginity as a foil to the sin of ure. They are: the prophecy of
lust. Mary's virginity may be Simeon that "This child is set for the

reflected in a symbolic walled gar- fall and rising again of many in

den, the Hortus Conclusus, presented Israel and for a sign that is spoken
as an example for saints and mar- against and a sword will pierce
tyrs. She may be seen standing on through your own soul also;"
2
the
a serpent or dragon, whereby Flight into Egypt; the Loss of the

she vanquishes sin. The SACRA Holy Child in the Temple; the
CONVERSAZIONE, or "holy conver- Meeting on the Road to Calvary; the

sation," is a type of devotional Crucifixion; the Deposition; and the

altarpiece that was developed Entombment.
f.1440, in which various saints flank The PIETA developed out of the
the Madonna and Child, with the Lamentation over Christ's body, and
Madonna often shown enthroned, is prefigured in images of the Christ
in the same pictorial space, rather In The Presentation ofthe Virgin Child lying in his mother's lap,
than in separate panels. An example in the Temple (detail; c.1538) Titian seemingly dead.
depicts the child Mary as a tiny, yet
is Domenico Veneziano's Saint Lucy According to legend 1
Mary was
intrepid, figure.
Altarpiece or Madonna and Child with born to JOACHIM and ANNA
Saints (1445). In the early 1700s (see page 100), as a result of
Pope Paul V proclaimed a new interpretation of Mary, Immaculate Conception, which meant that she was pro-

derived from the Book of Revelation: "And there tected from all stain of original sin. From the age of

appeared a great wonder in heaven; a woman clothed three Maty behaved like an adult, dedicating herself to

with the Sun, and the Moon under her feet, and upon prayer and weaving. She was taken to the Temple to be
her head a crown of 12 stars."
1

This became a highly brought up by priests and walked up the flight of stairs

popular devotional image, especially with the Jesuits. to the altar unaided. She made a vow to God that she

The Virgin was believed to have important powers of would remain a virgin, and when she was about 12 years
intercession, which partly accounts for the popularity of old the perplexed priests held a council to decide how
her image and for the number of churches dedicated to to find her a suitable spouse. Under instruction from an
her. She may be present with Saint John the Baptist in angel, JOSEPH and other suitors came to lay rods on an
the Last Judgment, and in private commissions the altar; the suitor whose rod flowered would marry her.
donors may be shown being presented to her by saints. Miraculously, Joseph's rod flowered and brought down
She was also a protector: artists painted her in thanks- the Holy Ghost in the form of a dove. In painting, the

giving for deliverance from the plague or after a rejected suitors may be seen angrily breaking their rods

military victory, and she is sometimes depicted as the over their knees. Joseph and Mary celebrated their
Virgin of Mercy opening her cloak, under which the betrothal, and Man,' returned to her parents.
 THE VIRCIN MARY l.3l

r
House: see Loretto Dragon: see Images of the \ irgin

Joseph appears in fresco cycles of the Life of the already born. One of the midwives, Salome, doubted
Virgin and Christ, and in individual scenes of the Flight the miracle of the Virgin Birth and asked to examine
into Egypt and the Holy Family. He is usually depicted her. When she touched Man, her hand withered up.

as a kindly old man concerned only for his family's wel- She repented and, touching the infant Christ, her hand
fare. The idea that Joseph was an elderly man may have was restored. Salome holds her hand over Christ in the

come from an Apocryphal Gospel which claims that he Master of Flemalle's Nativity (c\1425); and the Virgin
had been married previously, had six children and died may be attended by the midwives in pictures of the
4
aged 111. His attribute is often the flowering rod. Adoration of the Magi. Another story tells how, during
Scenes from the Virgin's early life were illustrated in the Flight into Egypt, Christ tamed the beasts of the

cycles of mosaics, panels, and frescoes, most notably by desert and commanded the branches of a palm tree to

Giotto (Arena Chapel, Padua). Isolated scenes were bend down so that Mary could eat, while a stream
also chosen, such as the Presentation of the Virgin in the sprang from its roots to quench her thirst. This is shown
Temple (see detail, opposite) by Titian, or the Sposalizio in Correggio"s Madonna delta Scodella (1530).
(or Marriage of the Virgin to Joseph; 1504) by Raphael. Later medieval legend tells of an emotional scene
The most frequently depicted scene from the when Christ and his mother part. This subject was par-
Virgin's adult life is the ANNUNCIATION (see page 97). ticularly popular in Germain; in Altdorfer's Christ

She may also be depicted in devotional images or in Taking Leave oj his Mother (r. 1520). Saint John the
cycles of her own or Christ's life, including the Nativity, Evangelist stands nearby and the Virgin faints at the

the Adoration, and the Flight into Egypt. Another moment of separation.
scene sometimes illustrated is the DORMITION - in LORETTO. on the Adriatic

which Mary's body was placed by the Apostles in the coast of Italy, was a major place of
innermost of three caves near the Mount of Olives pilgrimage because, according to
where angels appeared with Moses, Elijah, Enoch, and legend, the house of the Virgin's
Christ, and the Virgin's body and soul were carried to birth was miraculously trans-

Paradise. At the ASSUMPTION of the Virgin - a popular ported there from the Holv Land
subject, gloriously depicted by Titian (r. 1518) - she in 1201. Caravaggio's Madonna of

rose to become the Queen of Heaven. This image of the Pilgrims (1604-1605) was com-
her in glory derives from Byzantine prototypes, where missioned to imitate a statue-

she is seen enthroned as a monumental figure. The known as the Madonna of

Italian Maesta or Virgin and Child in Majesty, might Loretto. Tiepolo's Holy House oj

include saints and angels shown smaller than the Virgin Loretto (r. 1742) shows the house
to reflect the hierarchy of importance; and the CORO- with the Virgin on its roof being
NATION OF THE VIRGIN (see page 102) shows Mary carried through the air l>\ angels.
being received into Heaven bv her divine son who
crowns her Queen of Heaven.
as
In Botticelli's Madonna ol the
Other, more obscure, episodes from the Virgin's life
Magnificat (detail; 1482) Mary and
are infrequently depicted. One- story tells of Joseph the Christ Child hold n pomegranate,
bringing two midwives to Mary, only to find Christ symbolizing the Resurrection.

Seven Sorrows of the Virgin: see Life of Christ (pages 132-37) 'Revelation 12:1 'Luke 2:34-35 Vpocrypha, Gospel of
Pseudo Matthew and Golden Legend, The Birth ol the Virgin

'Apocrypha, 1 1m oi \ ol foseph the Cat penter

 M> lilt I It h Ml ( HKISI

o The
I In I

miI>|(( ts foi
ilc ol
Life of Christ
( In 1st. .is told in the four Gospels, provided

innumerable painted narrative series and

King HEROD
Palm Tree: sir Knir\ into Jerusalem

planned
"King of the Jews," and an angel urged Joseph
to destro\ the newborn
to

separate devotional images. Most of the episodes are escape: this came to be known as the FLIGHT INTO
told In .ill loin Gospels, but not always in the same EGYPT. Meanwhile, Herod ordered all children under

sequenc e. ( Ihrisl is also present in scenes from the lives the age of two to be slaughtered in the MASSACRE OF
of the Virgin, Saint Peter, and the other Apostles. THE INNOCENTS. 1

Giotto painted these two scenes in

In the Old Testament Isaiah prophesied that "there the Arena Chapel, Padua, using a window to divide

shall come forth a rod out of the stem of Jesse and a them in order to avoid the compositional problem that,

branch shall grow out of his roots: And the spirit of the in the sequence, if the HOLY FAMILY (see page 108)
Lord shall rest upon him." 1

In the Middle Ages, there- walked from left to right they would appear to be walk-

fore, the ancestry of Christ, stretching back to Jesse, ing into the massacre. In Tintoretto's version, in the

father of David, was shown as a genealogical tree, called Scuola di San Rocco, Venice, the Holy Family walks for-

the TREE OF JESSE, the names of his forebears appear- ward as if to come out of the canvas.
ing on the numerous branches. Luke 2 traces Christ's After the death of Herod, an angel told Joseph to

ancestry right back to Adam. Jacobus de Voragine make the return to Israel with his family; they were

(1230-98), author of the Golden Legend, claims that directed to Galilee and settled in Nazareth. After his

both the Virgin and Christ were descended from the BAPTISM (see page 111) Christ went to the Sea of
house of David. The maternal ' line of Christ's ancestry Galilee, where he preached and began to gather his dis-

is shown in paintings of Saint Anne and the Holy ciples. The first were the fishermen Simon, called Peter,

Kinship. Taddeo Gaddi's The Tree of the Cross (c. 1355-60) and his brother Andrew. Later, in Christ's Charge to

shows branches growing from the Peter, he declared, "... upon this rock
Crucifixion, decorated with medal- I will build my church ... And I will

lions of the four Evangelists and 12 give unto thee the keys of the king-
prophets. dom of heaven.""' In the Calling of
At the NATIVITY (see page 105) Matthew, Christ summoned Levi, a

three MAGI (also known as the Wise tax gatherer, as he sat in the customs
Men or Kings) came from the East, house; he was subsequently known as

following a star, to worship the Infant Matthew. Christ also called James
and offered him gold, frankincense, (known as the Great), his brother

and myrrh; they were usually John, Bartholomew, James the Less,
depicted as a young, a middle-aged, Jude, Philip, Simon, Thomas, and
and an elderly man. This scene was Judas Iscariot.
very popular in fifteenth-century Christ'sTEACHINGS were often in
Florence, where the most lucrative the form of parables. The parable of
trades were textiles and banking. the Sower" told how some seed (his
Unlike other scenes from the Life of teaching) fell on stony ground but
Christ, the subject allowed the depic- some brought forth fruit. The Good
tion of sumptuous costumes and, as Samaritan described an act of charity
the Church condemned usury, the by a Gentile who stopped to tend a
idea of the gift of gold might both Bellini's Madonna and Child with wounded man, who should have
ease a banker's conscience and Saints (detail; see pages 98-99) is in been his enemy. The Prodigal Son"
7

the church of San Zaccaria, Venice.

encourage donations to the Church. emphasized God's forgiveness of

-I
 THE LIFE OF CHRIST l33

Donkey: see Entry into Jerusalem

repentant sinners. Artists chose the column of the Flagellation, the

particular moment in a parable that crown of thorns, the spear or lance,
had emotional or appeal. and the 30 pieces of sum

*§i
artistic silver (the

For example, Diirer's engraving of paid to Judas for betraying Christ).

The Prodigal Son (1495) shows The narrative usually begins with the

the repentant sinner surrounded ENTRY INTO JERUSALEM. Christ

by swine, kneeling in humility

t
rode into Jerusalem on a humble
and wringing
heavenward.
Christ healed
his hands

many
as

sick
he gazes

people as
^aUk donkey leading
greeted bv a multitude.
their garments
a colt and was
Some spread
in his way, others cut

he preached. The MIRACLES (see down branches from olive and palm
also page 113) occurred
such as Christ Healing a Leper;'' The
in scenes
I^BhJ trees," strewed

praised him. Some

them in his path,

artists
and
have also
Pool of Bethesda, 1
" where Christ Christ's injury in MUlais's Christ in the included the storv of Zaccheus, who
cured a handicapped man; and J louse of His Parents, (detail; seepages climbed a tree in order to see Christ,
108—109) prefigures the Crucifixion.
Christ Healing the Blind." Of the and later gave half his goods to the

many other miracles in Christ's life, poor. In Jerusalem Christ disputed

the most popular among painters were: the Marriage at with the chief priests, and the) wished to arrest him but
Cana, 12
when he commanded six pots to be filled with feared the multitude-, who viewed him as a prophet. He
water which turned into wine; the Calming of the denounced the Pharisees as hypocrites" and foresaw
Waters," in which he was at sea with his disciples and that the Temple would be destroyed. The) gathered al

stilled a great storm; and the TRANSFIGURATION, in the house of the high priest, C.iiaphas. and plotted

which Christ took Peter, James, and John up a high Christ's downfall. One ol the 12 disciples, fudas
mountain and shone as "white as the light:" the Iscariot, went to them and said, "What will ye give inc.

prophets Moses and Elijah appeared, and a voice from and I will deliver him unto you?", and the) offered him
Heaven said, "This is my beloved Son, in whom I am 30 pieces of silver.
well pleased." Meanwhile a man had brought his epilep- To celebrate the Passover, Christ gathered the disci-

tic son to be cured by the disciples, but they failed; on ples together. At this, the LAST SUPPER. Christ

his return, Christ eluded them for having little faith and announced, "One of you shall betray me." and the)
healed the boy himself. Unusually, in Transfiguration were exceeding!) sorrowful, and began every one of
(1518-20) Raphael showed the Transfiguration and the them to say unto Him 'Lord is it [?'" He instigated the

incident of the epileptic boy happening simultaneously. sacrament of Hoi) Communion l>\ blessing the bread

The PASSION OF CHRIST is described by all lour and wine, which were theicattei to represent his flesh

Gospels, although not always in exactly the same detail and blood, sacrificed to redeem humankind. The Lasl

and sequence. In ait the scenes are depicted individu- Supper was an appropriate Subject for monastic refec-
ally as devotional images or as entire narrative cycles. tories; the moment usualh chosen was the breaking ol

The central episodes have given rise to the INSTRU- bread and drinking of wine." However, Leonardo da
MENTS OF THE PASSION, including the Cross, the Vinci's LastSuppei (<1 195) shows the instant of Christ's

'Isaiah 11:1-2 2
Luke 3:23-28 'Golden Legend, TheLifeofthe 9
Matthew8:l-3 "John 5:2-8 Matthew 9:27-30
Blessed Virgin 'Matthew 2:13-16 Matthew 6:18-19 John2:l-10 Matthew 14:23-31 fohn 12:13 Luke 19:1-8
"Mattlu-w 13:3-9 Luke 10:30-35 B
Luke 15:11-32 5
Matthew 23:13 Matthew 26:1 1-15 Matthew 26:20-29
 HI BIBII \M> lilt III! 01 I HHISI

Chalice: sec Betrayal

announcement <>l his BETRAYAL and the vari- The Road to Calvary (the Via Dolorosa) pre-

ous emotional reactions of the disciples. Jusi sents Christ earning the Cross to the place of

before his .nicsi Chrisl wenl with the disciples to the his CRUCIFIXION, accompanied by a great crowd.

Garden of Gethsemane and took Peter, James, and Soldiers cast lots for his garments and inscribed over his

John aside, asking them to keep watch while he prayed. head: "Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews" (INRI). Two
However, the) fell asleep. Paintings of the Agony in the thieves were crucified with him, one who had repented
Garden often show the three sleeping disciples, while on his right, and one who had not on his left. The
Christ has a vision of the Chalice of the Eucharist or the impenitent thief mocked him along with the crowd, but
Instruments of the Passion; in the middle distance was rebuked by the other, to whom Christ said, "Today

Judas may be seen leading an armed multitude toward thou shalt be with me in paradise."
1

Among the crowd

Christ. Depictions of Jesus' arrest often show Judas of onlookers were his mother Mary, Mary Magdalene
identifying Jesus to his captors with a kiss, and may also (see box, opposite), another woman called Mary, and
feature one of the disciples - Peter, according to John - John, the disciple most loved by Christ. All these

cutting off the ear of a servant of the high priest. 1

characters may be seen in depictions of the Crucifixion

In his TRIAL Christ avowed in front of the high priest (see also page 106).
Caiaphas that he was the Son of God. Caiaphas accused Although the LAMENTATION does not appear in the

him of blasphemy and condemned him to death. The Gospels, in art this scene of mourners around the body
Mocking of Christ followed, in which Pilate's servants of Christ follows the DEPOSITION, or Descent from the
spat in his face, buffeted him, and hit him with the Cross, and precedes the ENTOMBMENT (see page 117),
palms of their hands.'2 According to a tradition of the where Christ's wrapped and anointed body was placed
Passover, Pontius Pilate, the Roman governor, was able in the sepulchre. In scenes of the Lamentation, Christ
to release one prisoner chosen by the people. He is usually laid on the ground at the foot of the Cross and
brought Christ to them, saying, Ecce Homo ("Behold the Marys weep near the body. The Virgin Mary may be
the man"),'
1

and asked them whom they would choose fainting, while Mary Magdalene may clasp the feet of

to release - Christ or the thief Barabbas. The chief

priests incited the crowd to favor Barabbas, and they
demanded that Christ be crucified. Pilate washed his

hands before them, saying "I am innocent of the blood

of this just person." Pilate ordered Christ to be whipped
- a scene, known as the Flagellation, which has inspired
many paintings. His soldiers then dressed him in a

scarlet (or purple) robe, gave him a reed, placed a

crown of thorns on his head, and mockingly hailed

him, "King of the Jews."

Fra Angelico's Last Supper (detail; 1442) shows Christ handing

out bread and offering wine to the assembled disciples shortly before
his betrayal and arrest in the Garden of Gethsemane.

Lamentation: see Seven Sorrows of the Virgin (page 130) 'Matthew 26:36-51 -Mark 14:57-65 John 19:5 *Luke 23:33-43
 THE LIFE OF CHRIST l3 =

Christ's Compassion and the Story of Mary Magdalene

Manv of the stories in the Gospels involve groups at the her more spiritual sister sat listening to Jesus, so Martha
margins of the society of the time, such as the sick, sin- asked, "Lord dost thou not care that my sister hath left

ners, and children. By word and deed Christ repeatedly me to serve alone?" Christ replied that, of the two. Man
urged his audiences not to overlook these people. was concerned with more important matters."

In the Sermon on the Mount, Christ 1

summarized his Having been present at his Crucifixion, Man

doctrine, including the eight Beatitudes (conditions of Magdalene was the first to see Christ after the

blessedness) beginning, "Blessed are the poor in spirit; Resurrection. Initiallv she mistook him for a gardener

for theirs is the kingdom of but then recognized him. and

heaven." Later, at the Supper in the Christ bade her, "Touch me not, for
House of Matthew, Christ was I am not yet ascended to my Father;

rebuked for eating with sinners, to but go to my brethren and sav to

which he replied, "They that be them, I ascend unto my Father."'

whole need not a physician, but This Noli me tangere theme (see
2
they that are sick." Christ's attitude detail, page 136) was painted both
to repentant sinners was exempli- as part of the narrative sequence
fied in the Woman Taken in and as an episode b\ itself - for

Adultery. The Pharisees brought example, by Titian.

her to Christ to gain his approval According to legend." Man.

for stoning her to death - his reply Manha. and their brother Lazarus.

was, "He that is without sin among were set adrift at sea. landing near

you, let him first cast a stone at Mai sci lies She made main < onveitS

her.'"
1
Another time, his disciples and performed miracles, then
rebuked those who brought chil- In Man Magdalene by Rogiervan der retired into the wilderness where

dren to him, but Christ said, "Suffer Weyden ( / 399-1464) Mary holds her she ate nothing but was nourished
identifying attribute - a jar of ointment.
little children, and forbid them not b\ angels. \ hermit witnessed
to come unto me; for of such is the angels descending and lifting bet

kingdom of heaven."' Christ Blessing Little Children up seven times a day, and when she died a c hoil <>! angels

occurs in northern European painting from the sixteenth brought her to church to be blessed.
century onwards. In scenes from the Life and Passion of Christ. Man is

Another potent image of penitence and forgiveness was often p. tinted with long blond hair, wearing red.

MARY MAGDALENE washing Christ's feel with her tears; Masaccio shows hei distraught at the Crucifixion. Hei

she then wiped them with hei hail and anointed them. most common attribute is hei jai ol ointment: Ko^ui van
This took place in the house of a Pharisee, who could not dei Weyden shows her earning this in his mid-fifteenth-

understand how Christ could allow Mary, a sinner century Braque Triptych. Mar) is also depi< ted as a

believed to be a reformed prostitute, to approach him. penitent both young and old; Donatello carved hei as a

Christ simply said to her, "Thy sins are forgiven." haggard eldeih figure, her long hail covering her naked

Mary Magdalene became one of Christ's most devoted body. She ma\ also be seen contemplating a skull, a cru-

followers, and was sometimes thought to be the sister of cifix or an open book, oi in divine rapture.

MARTHA (see also pages 1 14—15), a bus\ housewife, with Matthew 5-7 Matthew9:12 John8:l-ll Matthew 19:13-14

whom she is contrasted. In the episode House Luke 7:36-48 Luke 10:38-42 [ohn 20:17 'GoUh
at the of
s/ \i,m Magdal
Mary and Martha, Martha was bus\ serving guests while
 HI BIHl \ \M> IIU I Iff u( < HHISI

o (

hei
lii ist in

washing them
a gesture reminiscenl of
at the house of
and be not faithless,

Thomas reached out and touched

but believing."

Simon the Pharisee. JOSEPH OF Christ's wounds, and only then was
ARI.MATHEA (see page 117), John he convinced. This formed the basis

the Bvangelist, and NICODEMUS for the popular image of Doubting

may also be present. The Pieta Thomas. Christ then commanded
("pity"), a much-depicted version of his disciples to teach all nations and
the Lamentation, usually represents baptize them. Known as the STIG-

the Virgin alone supporting the MATA, the five marks from the
dead Christ on her lap. In northern wounds Christ received at the
Europe, pictorial emphasis was Crucifixion in the hands, feet, and
placed on the harrowing qualities of side were said to have transferred

the subject. However, Michel- In (Hotto's Noli me Tangere, (detail; themselves to Saints Francis of Assisi
angelo's early Pieta (1499) conveys a c.1305) the risen Christ orders Mary and Catherine of Siena, because of

gentle pathos, harmoniously plac- Magdalene not to touch him.

their exceptional devotion.

ing Christ (as a fully grown man) in The ASCENSION occurred 40

the lap of his mother; in other Pietas, Christ may be on days after the Resurrection. Christ was with his disciples
the ground to avoid compositional difficulties. outside Jerusalem when he was taken up in a cloud, and
The STATIONS OF THE CROSS record significant as they watched, two angels appeared to tell them that

moments of the Passion of Christ on the Road to they too would be received in Heaven. 3

Calvary. In the Middle Ages, images appropriate to Certain types of representation of Christ have been
these moments were ranged at intervals in a church for given specific labels. The MAN OF SORROWS, from
devotional purposes. Later, scenes from the Crucifixion Isaiah's prophecy that the Messiah would be "despised
were added, so that the whole series comprised: Christ and rejected of men; a man of sorrows, and acquainted
condemned to death; Christ carrying the Cross; his
4
with grief," depicts Christ displaying his wounds. The
three falls; his encounter with the Virgin; Simon the image is not part of the narrative of the Passion of
Cyrenian helping him to carry the Cross; Veronica's Christ, although in paintings it may include symbols
veil; Christ speaking to the daughters of Jerusalem; from before and after the Crucifixion. For example,
Christ stripped of his garments; Christ nailed to the Christ may be standing in the sepulchre, crowned with
Cross; the release of his spirit; the Deposition; and lastly thorns, gesturing to his wounds.

the Entombment. The PANTOCRATOR (from the Greek, meaning "all-

The RESURRECTION of Christ was confirmed by his ruling") was the image of Christ as the Almighty, and
appearance, first to Mary Magdalene and then to his originated in Byzantine iconography. According to this

disciples. On the third day after the Crucifixion the convention Christ usually looked straight at the viewer,

holy women, without the Virgin, went to the tomb and his expression stern. He blesses with his right hand and
found that the stone had been rolled away. On entering may hold the Gospel in his left. The influence of this

they discovered two angels clothed in brilliant white, image is seen in the late thirteenth-century mosaics in

who asked, "Why seek ye the living among the dead? He the Baptistery, Florence, in which Christ sits in judg-

is not here but has risen." 1

The 11 remaining disciples ment: he draws up those who are chosen with his right

went to Galilee, and when they saw Christ they wor- hand and with his left hand he condemns the sinful.

shipped him. To Thomas, who doubted, he said, Relics of the life of Christ have inspired many leg-

"Reach hither thy finger ... and thrust it into my side; ends, and the Cross of Christ - the TRUE CROSS - is no
 THE LIFE OF CHRIST l37

Gospel: see Pantocrator Branch: see True Cross

exception. In his Golden Legend Jacobus de Voragine Some two centuries later," Khosrow, king of Persia,
records that when Adam grew old his son, Seth, went to conquered Jerusalem and captured another part of the
the gates of Paradise and begged for some healing oint- True Cross. In the name of the Cross the emperor
ment. The Archangel Michael appeared and gave him
5
Heraclius defeated him and ordered'the Persians to

a branch, supposedly from the Tree of Knowledge. Seth embrace the Christian faith. On his return to

returned to find his father dead and planted the Jerusalem, Heraclius was told by an angel to humble
branch over his grave. It grew into a tree which was cut himself. In The Emperor Heraclius Carries the Cross to

down to build a house for King Solomon, but the trunk Jerusalem (fifteenth century) Michele Lambertini shows

could not be accommodated, and so was laid across a him entering the city barefoot, earning the Cross.
stream to serve as a bridge. On her visit to Solomon, the The stor\ T

of the True Cross links the Fall of Man to

Queen of Sheba, who had had a vision that the Saviour the Redemption. It was painted in the late Middle Ages
would one day hang upon this trunk, approached the and earlv Renaissance, especially in churches that pos-

"bridge" and knelt to worship it. She told Solomon that sessed a relic of the Cross, such as Santa Croce.
a man would come to destroy the kingdom of the Jews, Florence. Here Agnolo Caddi painted frescoes of the

and Solomon ordered the wood to be buried deep in narrative in the Chancel. The storv provided artists with

the earth. When the time of Christ's Passion drew near, a cast of celebrities and a variety of settings. Episodes
the wood floated to the surface of a pool and was used were not necessarily painted in sequence. Piero della
to make his Cross. Francesca, in his Legend of the True Cross (r. 1450). put

In the fourth century, the Roman emperor the battle scenes of Heraclius against the Persians oppo-

Constantine was converted to Christianity and baptized. site each other in the lowest tier of the evele to create a
His mother, Helena, went to Jerusalem to seek a relic of balanced decorative scheme.
the True Cross. Three crosses were found and held over
a young man's corpse: the True Cross was the one which
The bottom panel oj Grunewald's Isenheim Altai piece, (detail;
restored him to life. Helena returned home with part of seepages 106-107 i represents the three Marys preparing Christ's
the supposed relic, now held in Saint Peter's, Rome. bo(l\ jut ilir tomb.

Stations of the Cross: see Si. Veronica (page 153); Stigmata: see 'Luke 24:1-7 !John 20:27 Vets 1:9-11 Isaiah 5
Si. Catherine of Siena (page 164), St. Francis <>l Assisi (page 'Golden Legend, I hi Finding of tht Hoi) ( ross

ITS): True Cross: see Queen ol Sheba, Solomon (page 125) Cold, ii Legend, The Exaltation of tht I Ids I
 i3q

CHAPTER THREE

SAINTS AND THEIR

MIRACLES

Christian art drew many of its heroes and heroines

from a mid-thirteenth-century book called the Golden

Legend by Jacobus de Voragine, which recounted the

lives and deeds of the early saints. Its tales of voyages,

miracles, martyrdoms, and wonder-working relics

remained hugely popular for the next 300 years. But

the saints who populate thousands of paintings are

often confusing figures today - how, for example, did

Saint Nicholas come to be the model for Father

Christmas? This chapter identifies the major saints in

art and gives succinct information on their lives, works,

and attributes.

Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio: The Martyrdom Domenico 1 heotocopulos, called Kl Greco: Saint Veronica
of Saint Matthew 140 with the Holy \eil 152
Vittore Carpaccio: Saint Stephen Preaching 142 Giovanni Bellini: Sacred Allegory 154
Duccio di Buoninsegna: The Maesta 144 Sandro Botticelli: San Marco Altai- 156
Masaccio and Filippino I.ippi: The Raisingoj the Hans Memling: Saint Christophei

Son o/ Theophilus L46 Spinello Arelino: The Heavy Stone 160

Raphael: The Miraculous Draught oj Fishes MS Paolo L'ccello: Saint George and the Dragon lt>'_'

Vittore Carpaccio: Saint Jerome and the Lion Girolamo di Benvenuto: Saint Catherine oj Sana Inta
in the Monastery 150 with Christ to Release Talmenna 164
140 V Mi UIKIK MIRV I l>
 CARAVAGCIO: THE MARTYRDOM OF SAINT MATTHEW 141

The Martyrdom of Saint Matthew

Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio (1571-1610)

This large, dramatic canvas was painted in the muscular body of the executioner and the
1599-1600 for the Contarelli Chapel in San helpless, sprawling old man, who is dressed as
Luigi dei Francesi, Rome. Saint Matthew's dan- a priest. Matthew's body forms the shape of a
gling arm and the contorted, weirdly lit figures cross at his murderer's feet. Unseen bv the
in the foreground bring the viewer right into executioner, an angel holds out a palm frond,
the violent scene. The lighting of the two emblem of martyrdom, which the saint is

central figures throws into powerful contrast reaching up to grasp.

KEY ELEMENT
SAINT MATTHEW: The attribute of the Apostle have the coins or purse of his former trade; in Florence,

Matthew, or Levi, is an angel or winged man. Matthew he was the patron saint of money changers or bankers.
was a tax gatherer for the Roman government. One day Matthew 0:9 (,<Me>i Legend. Si. Matthew

Christ called him "and saith unto him, Follow me. And
he arose, and followed him." There 1

is no authenticated
account of the rest of his life, but legend 1 relates that he
'

preached in Ethiopia, where the king lusted after a SEE ALSO PAGl I'U.l

Christian virgin. Matthew reprimanded him for desir-

Angels 82, 118 Crucifixion L06, 134
ing to violate a bride of Christ, and for this he was
Apostles 1 15, 166-69 Evangelists 169
martyred by the sword or axe. Matthew may be shown
( loins 230 Palm 241
writing his Gospel, usually guided by an angel. He ma)
.!> THHH \IIRV I is
 CARPACCIO: SAINT STEPHEN PREACHING 143

Saint Stephen
Preaching
Vittore Carpaccio (1460/65-1525/26)

Carpaccio's cycle of paintings on the life of

Saint Stephen for the Scuola di San Stefano,
Venice, was begun in 1511. Carpaccio shows
Stephen dressed in the robes of a contempo-
rary deacon preaching to a gathering of
attentive listeners. He stands on the base of an
antique statue, symbolizing the overthrow of
paganism by Christianity. The veiled figure at

the back of the cluster of seated women

alludes to the presentation of the synagogue in
Christian allegory as a blindfolded woman,
deaf and blind to the message of the Gospels;
the men behind her are probably to be identi-
fied as the Jewish council members who
accused Stephen of blasphemy. Behind
Stephen the octagonal baptistery alludes to

the imminent triumph of Christianity.

KEY ELEMENT
SAINT STEPHEN: Stephen (died c.35ce) was

venerated as the firsl Christian deacon and martyr.

Legend tells thai when his relic > wei e brought to Rome.
they were placed in the tomb of Saint Laurence in the

church dedicated to him. Apparently, when the tomb

was opened. Laurence moved to make room for

Stephen. In Italian and French Renaissance art,

Stephen can be seen as .1 young deacon with his

attribute of a stone-, the instrument of his martyrdom.

In Fra Vngelico's narrative cycle in the Nicholas V
chapel, Rome, he is paired with Saint Laurence.

SEE ALSO PAGl PAG]

\u hitecture 206 Mai tyrs 171-7M

Halo 'J IS St. Lauren* e IT.-.

Stag 237
 ID THEIR MIRACLES

® The Maesta
Duccio di Buoninsegna (c.ia6o-c.i3i8)

Duccio painted his great masterpiece of the

Virgin in Majesty as the reredos (screen) for
the high altar of Siena cathedral, where it was
installed in 1311 amidst the acclaim of the
city's populace. The subject of the Maesta- the
Virgin and Child enthroned in the midst of a

heavenly retinue - was very popular in thir-

teenth- and fourteenth-century Italy, and

Duccio's renowned painting was instrumental
in setting the trend. While the golden back-
ground, the formal pose of the Virgin and
Child, the elaborate throne, and the full-face

paintings of 10 of the 12 Apostles in the niches

along the top all record the early Sienese
painters' debt to their Byzantine predecessors,

the grouping and individuality of the angels

and saints around the throne reveal a fresher,

less hieratic approach. Duccio's Maesta was

conceived very much as an expression of civic

identity: the four patron saints of Siena

- Ansano, Savino, Crescenzio, and Vittore -
kneel in the foreground and the Latin inscrip-
tion below the throne requests the Virgin to

grant peace to Siena and life to the painter.

Behind the row of kneeling saints, the are (from left to right) Jude, Simon, Philip,
second row contains three saints and two James the Great, Andrew (right side),

angels (nearest to the throne) on each side. Matthew, James the Less, Bartholomew,
The saints shown here are (from left to right) Thomas, and Matthias. Each Apostle's name
Catherine of Alexandria, Paul, John the appears in abbreviated form.
Evangelist (to the right of the throne),
John the Baptist, Peter, and Agnes, each one
recognizable by his or her attribute. The 10
Apostles shown at the top of the composition
 DUCCIO: THE MAESTA 145

KEY ELEMENT
APOSTLES: Following Christ's Resurrection, 11 of the SEE ALSO PACE I'M.

12 disciples became the Apostles, or messengers of his

Angels 82 US St. John the
gospel: Andrew, Bartholomew, James the Great, James
Halo -J IS Baptist 111. 126
the Less, John, Jude, Matthew, Peter, Philip, Simon, and
Si \irnes 171 St. John the Evangelist 166
Thomas. The twelfth Apostle was Matthias, who Si. Andrew 148 St. Paul 168
replacedjudas Iscariot. The early missionaries Paul and St. Catherine of St. Peter 147. 168
Barnabas may also be included in the group. Alexandria 171 [lie Virgin Mar) 130-31
Sec also pages 1 66-69
 [HEIR MIRA<

(q\ The Raising of the Son of Theophilus

Masaccio (1401-1428) and Filippino Lippi (14^/58-1504)

Masao i<> was commissioned to paint a fresco subsequent enthronement of Peter as their

cycle depicting the life of Saint Peter for the bishop. Masaccio's fresco probably included
Brancacci Chapel in the Church of Santa portraits of Brancacci family members among
Maria del Carmine, Florence, in the mid- the witnesses to the miracle. However, it was
14208. Saint Peter appears twice in this scene reworked by Lippi in the 1480s, and many of
which combines two incidents that took place the original figures were replaced by portraits
when the Apostle was on a missionary journey of Lippi's own contemporaries. The bones
in Antioch: his bringing back to life of the son around the kneeling boy (one of Lippi's fig-

of the sceptical governor, Theophilus (seated ures) suggest that he had been dead for a long

in the niche on the left), and the citizens' time before Peter raised him.
 MASACCIO AND LIPPI: THE RAISING OF THE SON OF THEOPHILUS 147

KEY ELEMENT
SAINT PETER: Peter, the Prince of the Apostles, held Peter is shown as a rigorous old man with curly white

a unique position among the disciples of Christ, and in hair and a beard; he often wears a yellow cloak over
painting he stands in the favored place on Christ's green or blue. His usual attribute is a pair of keys.

right. His significance was demonstrated on numerous See also box, page 168 John 21:16

occasions in the Gospels - for example, when Christ

agreed to let him walk upon the water. After the

Resurrection, Christ appeared to Peter and instructed SEE ALSO PAGE PAGE

him to "feed my sheep." 1

He became missionary to the

Architecture 206 Miracles 113, 133
Jews, as Saint Paul was to the Gentiles, and he is con-
Halo 248 Religious Orders 249
sidered to have been the first Bishop of Rome.
 14H M> 1IIHH MIRACLES

® The Miraculous
Draught of Fishes
Raphael (1483-1520)

Christ's miracle of the Draught of Fishes is the

first subject in the set of 10 designs for
tapestries which Pope Leo X commissioned
from Raphael for the Sistine Chapel in Rome.
Raphael produced the designs in 1515-16,
and they were copied by other weavers and
became widely known throughout Europe.
This first design shows the miraculous catch of
fish that followed Christ's instruction to the
fishermen to let down their nets after a night's

fruitless toil, and his summoning the two

brothers, Simon (called Peter) and Andrew, to

become "fishers of men" (Luke 5:10). The fig-

ure of Christ is seated quietly to the extreme

right but is nonetheless the dramatic focus of
the picture - the gestures of Peter and Andrew
direct the viewer's attention to him.

KEY ELEMENT
SAINT ANDREW: Accounts of Andrew's life (died

r.60cE) after the death of Christ are uncertain but,

according to legend, he traveled into Russia, preach-

1

ing, performing miracles, and converting. Among

those whom Andrew converted was the wife of the pro-
consul who, unable to make the saint worship false
gods, had him bound with ropes to the X-shaped cross
which became his attribute.

'Golden Legend, St. Andrew

SEE ALSO PAGE PAGE

Apostles 145, 166-69 Halo 248

Crane 239 The Life of Christ 132-37

Fish 237 St. Peter 147, 168

150 SAIN Is U*D IIIHK MIRACLES

^-/
CARPACCIO: SAINT JEROME AND THE LION IN THE MONASTERY 151

Saint Jerome and the

Lion in the Monastery
Vittore Carpaccio (1460/65-1525/26)

Carpaccio painted two incidents from the

legend of Saint Jerome in about 1502 as part of

his decorative scheme for the Scuola di San

Giorgio degli Schiavoni in Venice. This picture
shows the episode in which a lion came into
Saint Jerome's monastery, limping from a
thorn in its foot - Carpaccio depicts it grimac-
ing with pain, standing on three legs. The
monks fled from it in panic, but Jerome wel-
comed the creature, healed it, and set it to

performing useful tasks. The sanctity and

safety of the monastery is conveyed by the pres-
ence of timid and harmless creatures such as

deer and pheasant. The turbaned figures are

probably an allusion to Venice's wars with the
Ottoman Turks; like the savage lion, the Turks
could be pacified and brought within civilized

bounds by the power of the Christian faith.

KEY ELEMENT
SAINT JEROME: Jerome was one of the Latin Doctors

of the Chinch, with Saints Ambrose, Augustine, and

Gregory the Great In the fifteenth century a popular
image was that of Jerome as an old hermit in the wilder-

ness praying in front of a crucifix or beating his breast

with a stone, wearing a cardinal's hat. with a lion

nearby, as shown by Cosimo Tura (died 1495).

Sec also |>.>;4<' 1 70

SEE ALSO I' M.I PAGI

HlKls 239 I. ion 238

Stag 237 Peato. k 239

Foul latin Doctors 170

•UK MIRACLES
 ELCRECO: SAINT VERONICA WITH THE HOLY VEIL 153

Saint Veronica with the Holy Veil

Domenico Theotocopulos, called El Greco (c. 1540-1614)

El Greco returned several times to the subject by Eastern Orthodox Christians, with which El
of the Holy Veil. The contemplative and aris- Greco, as a Cretan, would have been familiar.
tocratic Saint Veronica of this version, dating Like the Holy Veil, the Orthodox Mandylion
from about 1579, averts her gaze to allow the was a cloth upon which Christ's likeness was
viewer to concentrate on the image on the miraculously impressed when he held it to his

cloth she displays. The head of Christ looks face and was therefore considered an authen-
directly out at the viewer, and although he tic likeness. Both the Mandylion and the Holy
wears the crown of thorns, under which drops Veil were important devotional objects in

of blood appear, his calm, refined features are medieval Christendom, but the image of the
not disfigured by wounds or pain. Holy Veil more usually showed only the face
This conception of Christ's human features itself, with sweat and blood rolling down it,
has similarities with the dignified acheiropoietos thus compelling the viewer to meditate upon
image (meaning "not made by hand") revered Christ's sufferings.

KEY ELEMENT
SAINT VERONICA: In the Apocryphal Gospels, 1

amid the ugly crowd pressing around Christ before his

Veronica is named as the woman with the issue of blood Crucifixion, standing out because of her elegance, as

who was cured by touching the hem of Christ's robe. depicted by Bosch (r.1450-1516).
She was also known to possess a portrait of Christ, 'Apocrypha, Gospel of Nicodemus

which legend relates she obtained when she dabbed the

sweat off his face with a piece of linen as he carried the
Cross to Calvary - his image miraculously remained on
the cloth. This so-called Veil of Veronica found its way
to Rome and became an important relic in Saint Peter's SEE ALSO I'U.l 1'U.b

basilica. Veronica's name could be derived from vera

Miracles 113,133 Stations of the Cross 136
icon, meaning "true icon." The saint may be seen hold-
Passion of Christ 133-36 Stigmata 136
ing up the veil, as in El Greco's painting; or she may be
10 IMKIK MIKV I ts
v
BELLINI: SACRED ALLECORY 155

Sacred Allegory
Giovanni Bellini (0.1430-1516)

Although its true meaning is uncertain,

Bellini's Allegory (Y.1487) has been interpreted
variously as a debate on the four daughters of
God (Mercy, Truth, Justice, and Peace) or a
meditation on the Redemption. The apples
shaken from the tree may represent innocence
before the Fall. On the left of the heavenly
courtyard the Virgin sits on a throne, over
which hang the Eucharistic grapes. Leaning
on the balustrade are Saint Peter, and Saint

Paul, who brandishes his sword at the retreat-

ing figure of a turbaned infidel. On the right

stand Job, representing the righteous of the
Old Testament, and Saint Sebastian, who is

pierced bv an arrow. Over the water Saint

Anthonv Abbot descends the stairs from the
Cross to the centaur who directed him to Saint

Paul the Hermit.

KEY ELEMENT
SAINT SEBASTIAN: According to legend, Sebastian

(third century CE) was a Christian officer in the Roman

Praetorian Guard who persuaded two fellow officers to

die rather than renounce Christ. Sebastian was invoked

against plague because at his martyrdom he survived

the wounds inflicted by a large number of arrows. 1 le is

often portrayed as a handsome naked youth, riddled

with arrows, looking heavenward for inspiration.

SEE ALSO PAG] PAGl

Apple 240 St. Paul 168

Arrow 'J 16 St. Petei L68

fob 119 Sword •_'th

St. Anlhoin L76 flic Virgin Man 130-31

lte>^
 BOTTICELLI: SAN MARCO ALTARPIECE 157

San Marco Altarpiece

Sandro Botticelli (1444/45-1510)

The Florentine goldsmiths' guild commis- (Revelation 12:1), which foretells the
sioned Botticelli in about 1480 to paint this Coronation of the Virgin.
altarpiece for their chapel in San Marco, dedi- Behind these two figures stand two Fathers

cated to their patron Saint Eligius. The saint, of the Church: Saint Augustine, also in

dressed in bishop's robes and holding a bishop's robes, absorbed in writing in his

crosier, stands on the right in the group of book, and Saint Jerome, wearing the red hat
four saints, looking directly out of the picture and robe of a cardinal, who gazes upward with
with his right hand raised in blessing. By an expression of wonder. Ringed by cherubim
contrast, Saint John the Evangelist gestures and seraphim and dancing, rose-strewing
energetically toward the scene overhead, at the angels, the Virgin receives her crown from
same time holding up a little book with blank God the Father, who wears the three-tiered
pages, indicating that he is about to make his papal mitre. The golden rays of Heaven allude
prophecy of the woman crowned with stars to Botticelli's goldsmith patrons.

KEY ELEMENT
SAINT ELIGIUS: Eligius, or Eloi (r.588-660cK), the legs off a horse in order to shoe it more easilv. After he

patron saint of metalworkers, was trained at a mint in had completed his work, he miraculously restored the
Limoges and became a talented engraver. He founded legs to the horse's body.

a monastery at Solignac and a convent in Paris. In

64 Ice he became Bishop of Noyon and Tournai. His

attributes are an anvil, or the tongs with which he is said

to have held the Devil by the nose when the fiend SEE ALSO I'U.I l'A( X
visited his workshop disguised as a young woman.
Angels 82, 118 God 90
Nanni di Banco's sculpture of around 1411 in the niche
Coronation of St. Augustine 170
belonging to smiths on the- exterior of Orsanmichclr,
the Virgin 102 St. Jerome 170
Florence, shows Eligius as a bishop. The relief below
Rowers 24 St. John the Evangelist 166
the sculpture depicts the legend of how he sawed the
- \M> I HUH MIRACLES

_
 MEMLING: SAINT CHRISTOPHER 159

Saint Christopher
Hans Memling (c. 1440-94)

In 1484 Willem Moreel commissioned a trip-

tych from Memling as the altarpiece for a
chantry chapel in the church of Saint James,
Bruges. The central panel depicts Saint Maur
(as a Benedictine monk) and Saint Giles (with
a tame deer), with Christopher between them
carrying the Christ Child. In a cave in the rock
a hermit holds up a lantern to guide travelers

over the perilous ford. The tiny Child on the

saint's shoulders lifts his right hand in bless-

ing. Christopher's raised eyes express his real-

ization of the identity of his burden at the

same moment as his staff miraculously sprouts

green leaves. Memling conveys Christopher's

giant stature bv showing his legs underwater
on a lower level than the surrounding ground.

KEY ELEMENT
SAINT CHRISTOPHER: A Canaanite of prodigious
size and strength, Saint Christopher converted to
Christianity in order to serve the mightiest sovereign. A
hermit told him to help those who wished to cross a

dangerous river. One da) a child begged to be taken

over the river, so Christopher lifted him onto his shoul-

ders and strode into the water. The water became more
and more turbulent and the child became as heav) a>

lead. Upon reaching the other bank the child revealed

himself as Christ, who was carrying the weight of the

whole world. He told Christopher to plant his staff, and

the next morning it bore leaves and fruit.

See also page 1 76

SEE ALSO PAGl l'\».t

Arrow 246 Si Giles 177

Halo 2 18 237

The Life <>i Christ 132-37

 SPINELLO: THE HEAVY STONE 161

The Heavy Stone

Spinello Aretino (c. 1346-14.10)

In 1387 Spinello Aretino painted a series of the Great, he also enjoyed a great reputation
frescoes on the subject of the life of Saint as a miracle-worker and exorcist.

Benedict in the sacristy of the church of San Spinello's scene here depicts an incident in

Miniato al Monte, overlooking Florence. As the building of Benedict's first monaster)' at

the founder of the West's first great monastic Monte Cassino. The white-robed monks are
Order, Benedict was frequently depicted in his frustrated by the heaviness of a stone they are

role of a builder of monasteries; the fresco using in the construction, because the Devil
cycle in the cloister at Monte Oliveto (shown in traditional style with tail, black bat-
Maggiore, near Siena, for example, has later, like wings, and claw-feet) is sitting on the slab,

more sophisticated treatments of the theme. making it impossible to move. Saint Benedict
On the basis of the legends told about him in raises his hand to drive off the fiend, who is

the sixth-century Dialogues of Saint Gregory shown hurrying away.

KEY ELEMENT
SAINT BENEDICT: Benedict (r.480-547cK)' was born saint ordered a raven to flv off with it. and a building

in Umbria and sent to Rome to study, but abandoned collapsed on the priest. Benedict threatened two nuns
the dissolute life of the city to become a hermit. In with prompt excommunication if they would not stop

about 529ce he founded his Order, the first in Europe, gossiping. They died a few days later without having

at Monte Cassino. His reputation spread, and his advice heeded his threat, and were buried in the church. At
was sought by King Totila the Ostrogoth. He was buried Mass the deacon ordered .ill to leave who were not in

in the same grave as his sister, Saint Scholastica. communion, and the two nuns were seen to come out
Little more is recorded about his life, but there are of their tombs and depart.
numerous legends. Benedict's nurse followed him to Benedict exorcized those who were possessed In the
Rome, where she borrowed a sieve - when it broke into Devil and cured those inflicted with diseases. 1 le is usu-

pieces Benedict miraculously restored it. As a hermit, ally shown as elderly with a white beard. He may wear
he was fed by a monk who let him know whenever food the black habit of his original Order or the white ol the

had been left for him by ringing a bell on the end of a reformed Older. He may be seen with a raven or crow,

string. He asked a community to observe a stricter life, oi a broken tray.

and so they apparently tried to poison him, whereupon Golden Legend, St. Benedict

Benedict blessed the glass containing the poison, which

shattered as if struck by a stone. Maurus and Placidus
were young men in his care. When Placidus fell into a

fast-flowing river, Benedict enabled Maurus to rescue SEE ALSO PAGl PAGI

his friend by walking on the surface of the water,

Halo 248 Satan 120
pulling him out by the hair. A malicious priest tried to
Relieious Orders 249
feed Benedict with a poisoned loaf of bread, but the
SDTHEIR SMK'
 LCCELLO: SAINT GEORGE AND THE DRACON l63

Saint George
and the Dragon
Paolo Uccello (c. 1397-1475)

This small oil painting probably dates from

around 1460. Uccello's depiction of the
legend of Saint George and the Dragon is

highly decorative: the unruffled cardboard-

cutout princess, dressed in the height of
fashion, already seems to have the lurid green
dragon well under control before Saint
George comes charging in on his white horse.

Contrasting with the stylized landscape and

sky, Uccello's treatment of the horse reveals his
trademark interest in dramatic perspective.
The impression given bv the carefully spaced
and balanced figures is of the assured victorv
of the forces of good over evil, rather than of a
liie-or-death struggle between them.

KEY ELEMENT
SAINT GEORGE: George is said to have been mar-
tyred in Palestine in the early fourth century CE, but no
historical evidence <>l his life exists. Carpaccio's mural

cycle in the Scuola di San Giorgio, Venice (c.1505),

depicts the legend of 1

George as a soldier who traveled

to Libya where a dragon was terrifying the populace.

When the king's daughter was chosen as an offering to

appease the dragon, George, mounted on his horse and

aimed witli the sign ol the Cross, wounded tin- beast.

The maiden"s girdle was tied around die dragon's neck

And site led it to the i it\ whereupon the king and his

people were baptized and George killed the dragon.

Sec also page 1 7(> (,ol,li>i Legend, *>

G

SEE ALSO PAGl PAGI

\i mot '_'
it'. 1 ands< ape 242

Dragon 236
 '

Saint Catherine of
<§>
Siena Intercedes
with Christ to
Release Palmerina
Girolamo di Benvenuto 0^0-^42)

Girolamo di Benvenuto worked mainly in and

around Siena, and Saint Catherine, patron
saint of the city, is a frequent subject of his
paintings. This small panel, the date of which
is uncertain, shows an episode from her
legend involving another Dominican nun
called Palmerina. Despite Catherine's efforts

to achieve reconciliation with her, Palmerina

nursed an implacable hostility toward the
saint, but when she fell mortally ill Catherine
prayed that Palmerina should not be con-
demned to eternal punishment by dying
without repenting.
The first part of the panel shows Christ, sur-
rounded by cherubim, appearing to Catherine
as she prays, and warning her that Palmerina is

doomed; behind the saint is the Devil, who tra-

ditionally attended the deathbeds of the

unrighteous in order to seize their souls,
holding up a long scroll of Palmerina's sins.

Catherine's entreaties eventually persuaded

Christ not to permit Palmerina to die until she
had become truly penitent, thus thwarting the

Devil of his prey. The righthand scene shows KEY ELEMENT

Catherine and a monk attending the holy
SAINT CATHERINE OF SIENA: Catherine
deathbed of Palmerina, who eventually made (c. 1347-80) resisted her parents' attempts to make her
full confession of her sins and died reconciled marry, and joined the Dominican Order to tend the

with the saint. poor and sick. She had many mystical experiences: in

one, Christ offered her a choice of two crowns, one of

gold and one of thorns, and she took the latter; in

another, she received the stigmata; and, like Catherine

of Alexandria, she had a mystical marriage with Christ.

_
 DI BENVF.NUTO: SAINT CATHERINE OF SIENA INTERCEDES WITH CHRIST 16 =

Throughout her life she worked toward the strength- SEE ALSO PAGl PAGl

ening and purification of the Papacy. Catherine is now 241

Angels 82, lis Lil)
a patron saint of Italy and most highly revered in her
Candle 247 Religious Orders 2 19
native city of Siena, where Domenico Beccafumi 120
Halo 248 Satan
(r. 1 486—1551) painted her receiving the stigmata in a
The Life of Christ 132-37 Stigmata 136
white habit, probably to reflect her purity. In other
paintings she wears the black and white of her Order
and may have a lilv or rosary or show her stigmata.
 rHEIR M

(n\ Apostles, Disciples, and Evangelists

\tiii the Resurrection, Christ's 12 disciples became the grims wore his emblem, a cockle shell. Saint James is

Apostles, 01 messengers of his gospel, except for Judas often shown as a pilgrim himself with a cockle shell on
Is< .u lot (see box, below), who was replaced by Matthias. his hat or on his cloak.
Risking their lives they are reputed to have traveled to James's brother, SAINT JOHN THE EVANGELIST,
regions as far afield as Spain and India, spreading (died late first century CE) was the youngest of Christ's
Christ's teachings. disciples. He appears as a young man in numerous
SAINT JAMES THE GREAT (died 44ce) was the son of scenes of the New Testament. John has been identified
Zebedee. He and his brother John were fishermen who, as the unnamed "disciple whom Jesus loved," who wept
with Peter, were the favorite disciples of Christ. They on his shoulder at the Last Supper, and to whom Christ

witnessed his Transfiguration and the Agony in the entrusted the care of his mother after his death. In the 2

Garden of Gethsemane, and they are usually shown in Acts of the Apostles, John is described preaching with
paintings of these scenes. According to legend, King Peter. They were imprisoned together, and eventually
Herod Agrippa ordered the martyrdom of James: he John was exiled to the island of Patmos. He is said to

was decapitated by the sword. 1

have spent his last years at Ephesus, where he died.

In the seventh century a legend arose claiming that Poussin painted him as an old man writing (1640), for

James went to Spain and was a successful evangelist. he is traditionally held to be the author of the Fourth
This tradition is a relatively late one, but contributed to Gospel and the Book of Revelation.
the growth of his Spanish cult; he became the patron According to legend,
3
John was returning to Ephesus
saint of Spain. In the Middle Ages his shrine at at the same time as the body of his dear friend Drusiana
Compostela was one of the major places of pilgrimage, was being carried out for burial. John ordered her bier
where many miracles were said to have taken place; pil- to be set down and her body unbound; then he said,

Judas Iscariot

JUDAS ISCARIOT appears in numer- the priests, and hanged himself in

ous cycles of the Passion as the shame.' He is rarely mentioned

disciple who betrayed Christ to the elsewhere, except to note that he

chief priests for 30 pieces of silver. was the group's treasurer.

He sits isolated in scenes of the Last Caravaggio's The Taking of Christ

Supper. When Christ announced (1602) was one of many treatments

that he would be betrayed, Judas of the Betrayal. Judas, usually

asked, "Is it I?", to which Christ unattractive, may wear a yellow

replied, "Thou hast said." 1

While cloak and his attribute may be a

Christ prayed in the Garden of money bag, or the rope with which

Gethsemane, and Peter, James, and he hanged himself.

John failed to keep watch, Judas 'Matthew 26:25 2
Matthew 26:47-48
'Matthew 27:3-5
brought in the priests' soldiers, and
2
singled out his master with a kiss.
In Giotto's The Payment of Judas
After Christ's trial, Judas repented, (detail; c.1305) a demon (left) goads
returned die 30 pieces of silver to Judas into betraying Christ.

^
 APOSTLES. DISCIPLES. AND EVANGELISTS 167

Rope: see Judas Iscariot

"Drusiana, may my Lord Jesus Christ raise you In St. Luke Drawing a Portrait

to life! Arise, go to your house and prepare of the Virgin (detail; c. 1450) by
van der Weyden, Luke sketches
food for me!" As Filippino Lippi depicted, Drusiana
Mary as she feeds the Christ Child.
rose as if from sleep and did as he ordered (c.1490;
Strozzi Chapel, Santa Maria Novella, Florence). John's
attribute is an eagle, a representation of divine inspira- theme appears in many cvcles

tion, which is found in his Cospel. Also, he often holds of stories following the
a chalice full of snakes, alluding to the poison that he Resurrection, as well as in

drank without feeling any ill effects. The Ghent Altarpiece paintings of the episode in

(c.1430) by Jan van Eyck shows him with this attribute. isolation such as Caravaggio's

SAINT PHILIP (died C.80CE) appears rarely in the vivid representation in The
Gospels. He doubted that Christ could feed the 5,000 Incredulity of Saint Thomas
with only five loaves of bread and five fishes,' and he (r. 1601), in which Christ
may be shown holding the loaves or in close proximity draws Thomas's finger to the
to them. At the Last Supper Philip asked Christ to wound in his chest
"show us the Father," and Christ replied "I am in the Thomas is also said to have

Father and the Father in me." Philip participated in the doubted the Assumption of
gathering of Christ's disciples after the Ascension. the Virgin, but "suddenly the girdle that had encircled
Details of his later life are vague: legend tells of how he her body fell intact into his hands." and he believed.' In

preached to the pagans of Scythia who put him in 1111 the supposed girdle was brought to the Cathedral

chains and ordered him to make a sacrifice before a of Prato in Tuscany, where relevant scenes were fres-
statue of Mars. A dragon emerged from the base of the coed by Agnolo Gaddi in the 1390s, and Donatello and
statue, killed the pagan priest's son and two tribunes, Michelozzo caned a pulpit for the chapel in which the
and made everyone else ill with its stench. Filippino relic is displayed.

Lippi illustrated Philip repelling the dragon (1503). SAINT JAMES THE LESS (died C.62CE), so-called in

Later Philip went to Hierapolis, where he was crucified. order to avoid confusion with fames the Great, was
Little is known of SAINT BARTHOLOMEW. referred to as "the fold's brother" in the New
According to one version,' he preached, exorcized Testament, and in art he may, therefore, resemble
demons, and baptized in India, then Armenia. Here he Christ. He was probabh the first Bishop of Jerusalem,
refused to worship pagan gods and was flayed alive. I lis when- the contemporary historian Josephus records
attribute is the knife with which he was skinned - thai he was stoned to death. 1 [owever, later legend says

shown, for example, by Tiepolo (1722). th.ii he was instructed to preach about Chrisl from the
SAINT THOMAS, or "Didymus" the twin, is known lor roof of the Temple and that for this he was thrown from
doubting the Resurrection: he declared that unless "I the roof, Stoned, and clubbed to death. One man
shall see in his hands the prints of the nails, and put mv snatched up a fullei 's bat, used forbearing cloth, aimed
finger into the prints of the nails, and thrust tin hand .i heavj blow ,u (anus's head, and split his skull. James
into his side, I will not believe." Christ instructed him to may be shown as a bishop. 11^ attribute is a club, or a

do so, and he was convinced/ The "Doubting Thomas" llai fuller's bat.

^Golden Legend, Stjames the (nut John 19:25-27 Golden Legend, St. Bartholomew John 20:25-29
'Golden Legend, St. John the Evangelist John 6:5-7 ( hlden I egend, I lit Assumption of the Virgin
[a
'Acts 1:K? ^Golden Legend, St. Philip Golden Legend, St. fames th,
 • I II UK MIH'.

® Paul and Peter

Paul .ind Peter, the most important Apostles, traveled SAINT PETER (died r.64< l i (see also page 147) features
wide!) to bring ( hristianit) to the Jews and the Gentiles, in some of the most dramatic episodes in the Gospels,

and founded the Church. Images and scenes From their including the Transfiguration and the Betrayal. One of
lives iii.u appeal paired in painting. the first to be called, Christ said about Peter: "upon this

Before his conversion SAINT PAUL (died r.67r.E) was rock I will build my church." As 1
part of a cycle of the Life

known .is Saul and was a strict Pharisee, who conspired in of Saint Peter, Masaccio frescoed the story of the Tribute

the persecution of Christians. On the road to Damascus Money (Brancacci Chapel, Santa Maria del Carmine,

he had a vision: "suddenly there shined round about him Florence). At Capernaum the tax-gatherer asked Peter if

a light from heaven; and he fell to the earth and heard a Christ had paid the tribute money. Christ told Peter to
voice saying unto him, 'Saul, cast his line into the sea: the

Saul, why persecutest thou first fish he hooked would have

me?'"' He was subsequently a coin in its mouth to pay the
converted and baptized as Paul. tax.
5
During the persecutions of
In 1621 Caravaggio painted a Herod Peter was thrown into

dramatic picture of his conver- prison. Raphael's fresco in the

sion for the church of Santa Stanza d'Eliodoro in the

Maria del Popolo, Rome. In Vatican illustrates how an angel

painting, Paul may have a high put the guards to sleep, the
forehead and a bushy beard, chains fell from Peter's hands,

and hold the sword of his mar- and he was led to freedom."

tyrdom or a book, the emblem Tradition claims that Peter

of his missionary work. went to Rome, where he

Paul had to escape from his In The Tribute Money (detail, c.1427) Masaccio formed the first Christian com-
Jewish enemies in Damascus by places Peter (left) and Christ (right) in the forefroyit munity. Legend 7
tells of how
night and was lowered over the of discussions with the tax-gatherer (far right). the sorcerer Simon Magus fol-

city wall in a basket. In lowed him, and his black arts

Jerusalem he met Peter and the disciples and began his won favor with the emperor Nero. Simon boasted that he
life as a missionary. Raphael's cartoons for tapestries for could raise the dead and could fly from the top of a tall

the Sistine Chapel in Rome show some episodes from the tower; Solimena shows him tumbling to his death
Acts of Peter and Paul. For example, Raphael shows Paul (1689-90; San Paolo Maggiore, Naples). As Peter was

and Barnabas in Cyprus being summoned by the Roman fleeing from Rome, Christ appeared, burdened with his

deputy Sergius Paulus, who wished to hear the word of cross. Peter asked Domine, quo vadis? ("Lord, where goest

God. However, the sorcerer Elymas sought to prevent the thou?"), to which Christ replied "To Rome, to be cruci-

encounter. Paul struck him blind and Sergius Paulus was fied again." Annibale Carracci shows the surprised saint
2
converted. In Athens Paul saw a city devoted to idolatry. with Christ pointing the way ((.1600). Peter returned to

He disputed daily in the market, where he encountered Rome, where he was arrested and imprisoned. He was
philosophers who took him to the tribunal in order to crucified head down at his request, to differentiate him-

hear his doctrine. His sermons won over some of self from Christ, and was buried in the catacombs directly
the crowd, including DIONYSIUS THE AREOPAGITE.' below the present site of the dome of Saint Peter's.

Raphael shows Dionysius's conversion in Saint Paul 'Acts 9:3-4 -Acts 13:6-12 Acts 17:16-34 'Matthew 16:18-19
•Matthew 17:24-27 "Acts 12:1-12 'Golden Legend, St. Peter
Preaching at Athens (c. 1 5 1 5)
 APOSTLES. DISCIPLES. AND EVANGELISTS 169

Saw: see St. Simon Scroll: see Evangelists

According to the Golden Legend by Jacobus de him and announced that he stood on the spot where a
Voragine, SAINT 1
SIMON (known as the Zealot or city would rise in his honor. Some 400 vears later, set-

W the Canaanite) and SAINT JUDE (the patron saint tlers began to drive in the foundations of Venice. In
of lost causes, also known as Thaddeus) were broth- 829ce two Venetian merchants induced priests to let

ers ofJames the Less. The stories of Simon andjude are them secretly remove Saint Mark's relics from Alexan-
closely related - they traveled together to Persia where dria; they managed to conceal them from officials

they preached and performed miracles and baptisms, under a consignment of salted pork and transported
and both were martyred there. The instruments sup- them to Venice. A basilica was built in Venice, and his
posed to have inflicted their deaths became their relics were enclosed within a column of marble. With
attributes: in Simon's case a cross or a saw; in Jude's a the passing of time their exact location was forgotten;

club, halberd (axe) or lance. but one day, during a fast, stones bounced out of the
Although neither of them was among the original 12 column and revealed the casket of the saint's relics.

disciples, SAINT BARNABAS and Saint Paul (see box, Mark is, therefore, particularlv venerated in Venice,

opposite) came to be considered as Apostles. Barnabas where scenes of his life were painted bv Tintoretto and
preached with Paul in Antioch," and was also a mission- others, and the winged lion was adopted as an emblem
ary in his native Cyprus, where he is venerated as Father of the city.

of the Church and where, as Veronese shows (c.1556), The Venetians popularized stories regarding the
he apparently cured the sick by laying the Cospel of saint's miraculous interventions on behalf of those who
Saint Matthew over them. He was said to have been invoked his help.' In one, a servant made a pilgrimage

either burned alive or stoned to death.' to the- body of Saint Mark without asking his master's

As well as being subjects in their own right, the permission. Tintoretto, in his depiction of the tale

EVANGELISTS (the authors of the Gospels - Matthew, (1548), shows how, when the man returned, his master
Mark, Luke, and John) may be depicted holding their wanted his eves put out. his feet cut off, his legs broken.
Gospels or writing them, or they may have scrolls. Like and his teeth smashed. He was thrown to the ground
the Doctors of the Church, they conveniently fill eccle- but, because- he had prayed to Saint Mark, the sharp
siastical architectural spaces or the frames or wings of pointed sticks used to inflict his punishment broke into

paintings when font figures are required. pieces and the iron tools melted or became blunt. Both
SAINT MARK (died r.74ci ) traveled to Rome, where master and servant repented.
he is thought to have written his Gospel aided by Saint I he Evangelist SAINT LUKE was a physician and may
Peter. He then traveled to Cyprus and Alexandria, have traveled with Saint Paul to Italy. Although in

where he is said to have become the first bishop, and to medieval tradition it was thought that he was martyred,
have been battered and stoned to death. I le is depicted he probably died of old age in Greece. Legend claims
as a middle-aged, dark-haired, bearded man, often that he was a painter, who produced several portraits ol

shown writing his Gospel, and his attribute is the the Virgin. Fifteenth- and sixteenth-centur) Flemish
winged lion. paintings In artists such as Rogiei van del \\e\dcn (see

According to legend, Mark was once caught in a detail, page 107) show him in this role. Luke is the

storm off the Adriatic coast and was blown onto the patron saint of painters as well as lawyers, doctors, and
islands of the Venetian Lagoon; an angel appeared to pharmacists. His attribute- is the winged ox.

Apostles, Disciples, and Evangelists: sec- St. Andrew (page I IN) Golden Legend, SS Simon and Jude Arts I

Evangelists: sec Ezekiel (page 126), St. John the Evangelist 'Golden Legend, St. Barnabas 'Golden Legend, St. Mark
(page 166), St. Matthew (page 141)
 '.< I HUH Mil''

® Fathers of the Church

Foui particular!) venerated theologians <>l the earrj Carpaccio painted scenes from Jerome's
Whip see St Ambrose

life in

Church have special status: Saints Ambrose, Jerome, the Scuola di San Giorgio, Venice.

lugustine, and Gregory the Great Known as the FOUR SAINT AUGUSTINE (354-430CE) became
LATIN DOCTORS, the) may be depicted in medieval Bishop of Hippo in his native Numidia, now
religious painting as a group, engaged in writing. Algeria, where he formed a monastic community. In his

SAINT AMBROSE (died 397ce) studied law in Rome youth he had been impressed by Saint Ambrose, and
and was made prefect of Milan, the administrative cen- he, in turn, became highly influential with works such
ter of the western Empire. He was later elected Bishop as Confessions and City of God. In the church dedicated to
of Milan, even before he had been baptized. Augustine in San Gimignano, Benozzo Gozzoli frescoed
A sixth-century mosaic in San Ambrogio, Milan, scenes from his life in Rome, Milan, and Hippo, empha-
shows Ambrose as a middle-aged man in classical dress. sizing his scholarly nature (1465). A predella panel bv

However, he is more frequently seen as a bishop, as in Botticelli (1488; Uffizi, Florence) illustrates the legend
the wings of a mid-fifteenth-century triptych by Antonio that Augustine came across a boy trying to pour the
Yivarini and Giovanni d'Alemagna. He may also appear ocean into a hole in the sand. When Augustine com-
with the twin brothers, Saints Gervase and Protase, who mented that this was impossible, the child replied, "No
according to legend were martyred for their
1

faith and more so than for you to explain the mysteries on which
revealed the site of their relics to Ambrose in a vision. you are meditating." Augustine often appears as a

In the early sixteenth century, Ambrogio Bergognone scholar reading or teaching, as a bishop, or in the black

painted scenes from Ambrose's life, beginning with the habit of his Order; he may have a flaming heart, some-

saint as a baby in his cradle with bees buzzing over his times pierced by an arrow.

face, without harming him, and his father predicting SAINT GREGORY THE GREAT (r.540-604(.E) - a
his illustrious future.- In other paintings he may have a remarkable administrator and a prolific writer - was
bee hive, symbolizing his future eloquence, and a book elected Pope in 590ce. In the same year, a virulent

with the words, "be nourished by food, but the food of plague swept through Rome. As Gregory led a proces-
angels not human" - an allusion to his name, since sion past Hadrian's mausoleum, he had a vision of the

ambrosia is the food of the gods. He may also be shown Archangel Michael sheathing his sword to indicate that

holding a whip, with which he is said to have driven the the plague would cease. A chapel was built and the
Arians, a heretic sect, out of Italy. mausoleum was renamed the Castel Sant'Angelo.
SAINT JEROME (r.341-420c.E) (see also page 151) Gregory is thought to have been concerned with litur-

dedicated much of his life to translating the Scriptures gical music and to have established the Gregorian
into Latin (the "Vulgate"). He may be depicted as a chant. He is usually shown as an elderly pope, often
scholar surrounded by books in his study, a room usu- with the three other Doctors of the Church. He may
ally furnished as it would have been in the artist's time; have the dove of the Holy Spirit whispering in his ear to

Antonello da Messina's depiction (c. 1475-76) is an inspire his writings. Some Flemish and German paint-

example. Or he may be dressed as a cardinal - although ings of the Renaissance recreate the legend of the Mass

the office did not exist in his time - holding the Bible, of Saint Gregorv, showing Christ as the Man of Sorrows
or a model of a church to represent his status as a with the Instruments of his Passion appearing to
Doctor of the Church. Between 1502 and 1507 Gregorv above the altar as he conducted Mass.

St. Ambrose: see Bee (page 236); St. Gregory the Great: see 'Golden Legend, SS Gervasius and Protasius

Dove (box, page 239), Instruments of the Passion (page 133), -Golden Legend, Si. Ambrose
Man of Sorrows (page 136)
 FATHERS OF THE CHURCH / FEMALE SAINTS OF THE EARLY CHURCH 171

Female Saints of the Early Church

In the three or four centuries after the Life of Christ, SAINT AGNES can often be 1
identified in paintings bv

Christianity spread throughout the Roman Empire, giv- her attribute, a lamb, which she probablv acquired
ing rise to numerous legends of martyrs, both male and because agnus, Latin for lamb, sounds like her name.
female. Female saints were often chosen as subjects in She is generally represented as a young girl with long

art for their resolve to dedicate themselves to Christ hair. The son of a Roman prefect fell in love with Agnes
and refuse physical love and earthly wealth despite but she scorned his promise of wealth, declaring that
often horrific consequences. she had become a bride of Christ. When she refused to
In the third century CE the noble SAINT AGATHA 1

worship the pagan goddess Vesta, the prefect had her

was pursued by Quintianus, the lecherous Roman con- stripped and taken nude to a brothel, but miraculouslv

sular official in Sicily, but nothing would persuade her her hair grew and covered her nakedness. An angel
to give in to his demands, as her resolve was with Christ. appeared in the brothel and provided her with a cloak

Infuriated, Quintianus threw her in prison in Catania, of heavenlv light which converted evervone inside. Her
tortured her, and cut off her breasts. Saint Peter executioners were burned by the flames they intended
appeared and restored her, but she was then rolled for her. A knife was finally plunged into her throat and
naked over live coals, and died in prison. Breasts are she died aged 13. She appears as an elegant figure hold-
Agatha's attribute, and in paintings she- is often shown ing her lamb, for example in Duccio's Maesta (see pages
carrying them on a plate. Because of 144 —15). Emerantiana, her half-sister.

their shape, she was adopted as the was stoned to death and may appear
patron saint of bell founders. with her in paintings, often with a pile

Like Agatha, SAINT LUCY (died of stones in her lap.

<-.304cf.) was martyred in Sicily. The noble and beautiful SAINT

Angered by her Christian faith, her CATHERINE OF ALEXANDRIA lived

suitor handed her over Roman to the in the fourth century. She argued
Consul. When she was condemned to with Emperor Maxentius th.it he
a brothel to be violated, she was made should cease persecuting Christians.
miraculously immovable, even by He invited 50 masters of logic and
oxen. She survived being drenched in rhetoric to challenge her and
urine and oil and set alight, only to be Catherine converted them all

killed by a sword thrust into her through her reasoning and faith in

throat. Her name, implying light, Christ. Alter repeated attempts to

explains why her attribute is a lamp. punish her. the Emperor constructed
In another legend, one of her suitors a wheel with iron saws .xud sharp-

ceaselessly praised her eyes, so she pointed nails on which Catherine was
tore them out and sent them to him. to be tortured. However, sin- prayed
Consequently, she may be shown with Bellini's Madonna and Child with to (hh\. and an angel shattered the
a pair of eves on a dish. Tiepolo shows Saints all In//; seepages 98 99 \//<>;r\ wheel, which became hei attribute.
I in v unit Jerome with theii respe<
her taking her last communion Scenes from hei life were illustrated
attributes: a lamp and a honk.
(1748-50; Santi Apostoli, Venice). l>\ Masolino in about 1420. A popular

St. Agatha: see Breast (page 245) 'Golden Legend, St. Agatha *Golden Legend, Si. Lucy
St. Agues: sec- Lamb (page 237) Golden Legend, St [gnes •
St. Catherine

St. Lucy: see Eyes (page 244) 0j [It \<:>iilri(l

 iHK MIR/

® episode not covered !>\ Masolino was die story of her

mystical marriage to Christ Apparently, Catherine was third window made
Unicorn: sec
,

in
St.

disguised as a doctor, and was converted. She had a

Justina ol Amioch

her tower to represent the divine

converted t>\ a hermit who gave her an image of the light of the Trinity. On discovering her new faith, her
virgin and Child. The image prompted a vision in father informed the authorities, who ordered him to

which the Christ Child placed a ring on her finger. cut off her head, but he was struck dead by a bolt of

Veronese is one of several artists who depicted the lightning before he could do so, and subsequently it

betrothal of the richly dressed saint (r.1575). became the custom to invoke Barbara against sudden
Frequently pictured with Catherine as an attendant death. She is depicted as a young, elegant maiden and
saint in paintings of the Virgin, SAINT MARGARET OF her attribute is a tower, as seen in Memling's Donne
ANTIOCH was a Christian maiden Triptych (r.1475).

harassed by the prefect of Antioch. The history of SAINT URSULA is

After refusing to become his concu- uncertain, but she was venerated by

bine, she was tortured and thrown the early fifth century and appears
into prison. 1

Here, the Devil in several Italian and German paint-

appeared to her in the form of a ings. Legend cites her as the

hideous dragon and swallowed her Christian daughter of the king of

up, but the power of the cross she Brittany, whose hand was sought by
was wearing split the dragon in two, Conon, the pagan son of the king of
leaving her unharmed. She was sub- Anglia. She accepted on condition
sequently beheaded, but not before that he should be baptized, that she
she had prayed that, just as she had should be provided with 10 virgin
been safely delivered from the companions, that the 1 1 of them
dragon's belly, so healthy children should each have a retinue of 1,000
would be born to all women who Part of a series on her life, Puvis de virgins, and that all should make a
invoked her aid when faced with a Chavanness St. Genevieve as a Child at pilgrimage to Rome. Conditions
Prayer (detail, 1879) shows onlookers
difficult labor. She consequently were agreed and the pilgrimage
marveling at the young girl's devotion.
became the patron saint of child- undertaken. On their journey home
birth. A dragon is her attribute, and they were besieged by the Huns
she may be depicted trampling it underfoot. who, like wolves ravaging a flock of sheep, slew them all.

Also in Antioch, the sorcerer Cyprian (third century Their leader tried to pursuade Ursula to marry him but
CE) wanted to seduce SAINT JUSTINA OF ANTIOCH.- she refused, and he shot her with an arrow. Ursula is

He invoked the Devil to win her over, but three times usually depicted as a young girl. She may be holding the
was unsuccessful: Justina made the sign of the Cross martyr's palm, an arrow, a pilgrim's staff, or a white flag
and the Devil fled. Realizing that Christ was greater with the red cross of victory. She may also appear with a

than the Devil, Cyprian was converted and baptized. ship or, reflecting her royal birth, a crown or ermine-
Justina and Cyprian were martyred at Nicomedia and lined cloak, with which she may be protecting her

may be shown together in art. A unicorn, symbol of numerous virgins. Scenes from the life of Saint Ursula
chastity, isjustina's attribute. were painted in the late Middle Ages and Renaissance,
The beautiful SAINT BARBARA' was locked in a tower particularly in Venice and the Veneto. The most famous
- possibly in Egypt in the third century CE - by her example of such a narrative cycle was painted by
heathen father to keep her from her many suitors. Carpaccio in around 1495; he set episodes such as the
She managed, however, to admit a Christian priest, departure of the pilgrims against contemporary

^
 FEMALE SAINTS OF THE EARLY CHURCH l"3

Axe: see St. Cecilia Basket of Fruit and Flowers: see St. Dorothea

Venetian Renaissance settings. In 1641 Claude With Christ's blessing she survived until her martyr-
Lorrain chose to paint the single scene of Ursula's dom, when she was shot by arrows. She is venerated at
Embarkation, probably because it provided him with Bolsena in northern Italy, which claims to have her
a sea-port setting at dawn. relics. Her attribute is a millstone depicted hanging

The devotion God shown by SAINT GENEVIEVE

to from her neck, as seen in Signorelli's Virgin and Child
(<-.420-500ce) was noticed when she was only eight with Saints (c.1515).

years old and tending a flock of sheep. Her prayers The Roman widow SAINT FELICITY (died 165(E)
apparently repelled the advance on Paris of Attila the and her seven sons refused to worship pagan idols.

Hun. She arranged for food for the starving during the Felicity watched her children being put to death one bv
Frankish siege of Paris, and the enemy leader listened one before she was either beheaded or plunged in a vat

to her pleas for clemency. As a result of her efforts on of boiling oil. In Saint Felicity ( 1463) Xeri di Bicci shows
behalf of the city, she became known as the patroness of her as a matronly nun surrounded by her children, with
Paris and may be shown holding its keys. Her story was the predella panel representing their martyrdom.

illustrated in the 1870s by Pierre Puvis de Chavannes SAINT DOROTHEA' (died r.303(E) was persecuted

(originally in the Pantheon, Paris). with other Christians in Cappadocia. Two women, who
SAINT CECILIA' is said to have been a Roman noble- had abandoned Christianity, were sent to make her
woman of the second or third century, who was raised recant, but instead she reconverted them, for which she

as a Christian. She revealed that she was a bride of was beheaded. On the way to her martyrdom a man
Christ to her pagan husband, Valerian, on their wed- asked her to send flowers and fruit from heaven.
ding night. Because she converted him, Cecilia and Miraculously, a child appeared with a basket of fruit and
Valerian were given two crowns of permanently fragrant roses. Dorothea may appear before the Virgin and
roses and lilies by an angel. When she refused to wor- Child in a garden, with the basket, her attribute - as in

ship pagan gods, Cecilia was put into a boiling bath for an early fifteenth-century painting from the School of
a night and a day but remained unharmed. Three blows Gentile da Fabriano in the Ducal Palace of L'rbino.
of the axe failed to behead her; and, lingering on the SAINT THECLA (first century ( l ) was said to have
point of death lor three days, she gave all her posses- been converted to Christianiu In Saint Paul; breaking
sions to the poor. The Master of Saint Cecilia painted oil her engagement to a young man. she became a

scenes from her life in the late thirteenth, or early four- bride of Christ. Persecuted for her faith, she survived

teenth, century; 300 years later Stefano Maderno torture In lire and exposure to wild beasts in the

carved her lifeless body. Her attributes are musical amphitheater, eventually becoming a hermit. In her old
instruments, particularly the organ, which she mav be age a chasm opened up to block her persecutors' path.
playing or holding (as in Raphael's image of her from She is honored as the first female martyr by the (.reek
1514) and the lily of purity. Church although, as with man) eat K saints, it is not cer-
Like Cecilia, SAINT CHRISTINA is believed to have tain that she existed. Churches were dedicated to her in

been a Roman noblewoman. Legend tells of the suf- Italy, such as the Cathedral of Este, where a painting bj
fering she endured for her faith, including being Tiepolo (c.1759) shows hei interceding on behalf oi

thrown into a lake with a millstone around her neck. the town for release from the plague.

St. Cecilia: see Lily (page 'ill ), Musical Instruments (page '_'H7> Golden Legend, v \dargam intioch

St. Margaret of Antioch: see Dragon (box, page 236) Golden Legend, St. Justina Golden Legend, St. Barbara
b
Golden Legend, St. < ecilia Golden Legend, St. Christina
1

Golden I egend, St. Dorothea

 •
HK Ml H I

(q\ Male Saints of the Early Church

Saint was the ride given to the Apostles, the Evangelists, Saint Eustace (c.1430) Pisanello shows Eustace dressed
and the numerous martyrs who died during the Roman as a young nobleman, slopped in his tracks before the
persecutions. Pope Alexander III (1159-81) gave the stag while hunting in the depths of a forest.

I'.ip.io the exclusive right to canonize others, such as The noble SAINT JULIAN (the Hospitaller) 3 was one
popes and monarchs. Both the miraculous exploits and day hunting a stag, which turned round and foretold
the often hideous martyrdoms of the early saints made that Julian would kill his parents. To avert the tragedy,

them popular snhjects, not only dining the late Middle Julian fled. He served a prince and married a widow,

Vges and Renaissance, hut throughout the history of whose dowry was a castle. Meanwhile his parents,

Western painting. searching for their son, arrived at the castle; Julian was
Pope Clement I (SAINT CLEMENT) (died c.lOlCE) is not at home, but his wife gave them the matrimonial
thought to have been a Bishop of Rome, but little is bed to sleep in. When Julian returned, he saw the
known of his life. While preaching, converting, and shapes of two people in his bed. Thinking his wife had
baptizing, Clement caused a among the pagans,
riot taken a lover, he unwittingly murdered his parents. To
and was sent to join prisoners condemned to hard labor atone for his crime, Julian and his wife founded a hos-
in the Crimea; directed by a lamb, he struck the earth, pice for the poor and ailing. Castagno frescoed Julian
whereupon a stream of water flowed out to quench the as a humble young man (1454-55; SS Annunziata,
prisoners' thirst. He was thrown into the sea with an Florence), while Christofano Allori depicted his hospi-

anchor tied around his neck, but the sea later receded tality (1613). His attribute may be a stag. He is the

to reveal a small temple containing his body. Scenes patron saint of ferrymen, travelers, and innkeepers.
from his life were frescoed from the sixth century in SAINT DENYS, Denis or Dionysius of Paris, is the

San Clemente, Rome. Giambattista Tiepolo showed the patron saint of France, sometimes confused with the
saint as an elderly pope with tiara and triple-armed biblical Dionysius the Areopagite. Although Italian by
cross before a vision of the Trinity. Clement's attribute birth, he worked as a missionary in Gaul and became
is sometimes an anchor. Bishop of Paris. He was said to have been beheaded
Several of the early saints were members of the f.258cE on Montmartre (Martyrs' Hill) and to have car-

Roman army. These include SAINT SEBASTIAN ried his own head to his burial place, 2.5 miles (4 km)
(see page 155) and SAINT LONGINUS - the Roman from Paris. The abbey of Saint Denys, which became
centurion who pierced Christ's side at the Crucifixion the burial place of the kings of France, was built on the
and was immediately converted, saying, "Truly this was site. In around 1416 Henri Bellechose depicted Denys
the Son of God." His 1

attribute is, therefore, the spear. as a young bishop receiving his last communion from
The weapon is one of the relics of Saint Peter's, Rome, Christ, and later being decapitated. In altarpieces the
where Bernini's sculpture (1629-38) shows Longinus, saint may stand holding his severed head.

arms outstretched, at the moment of his conversion. Legend' how in Syria the Christian twin
relates

According to legend,-' SAINT EUSTACE (said to have brothers SAINTS COSMAS AND DAMIAN (thought to
died 118ce) was a general in Emperor Trajan's army. have died either r.287c:E or <.303ce) learned the art of
While he was out hunting he came across a stag of great medicine and healed men, women, and animals with-
size and beauty. Eustace gave chase and, when the stag out payment. They refused to make sacrifice to pagan
came to a halt, he saw a crucifix between its antlers, gods and were tortured, bound in chains, and thrown
shining brighter than the sun. The stag is said to have into the sea; but an angel pulled them out and sat them
approached Eustace, commanding him to convert to before the judge who had condemned them. The twins
(
'.hi istianitv. A similar story is told of Saint Hubert, with were thrown into a huge fire, but they remained
whom Eustace is sometimes confused. In The Vision of unharmed while the flames leaped out and burned the
 MALE SAINTS OF THE EARLY CHURCH 175

Anchor: see St. Clement

Saint Nicholas

All that is known of SAINT NICHOLAS is popular, as seen in Fra Angelico's predella to

that he was Bishop of Myra in Asia Minor the Perugia Polyptych. He is usually painted

during the fourth century. Various leg- as a bishop, and his attribute is three

ends' have grown up around him, golden balls at his feet, as shown in

including that of a noble but poor Raphael's Ansidei Madonna (r.1505).

man who was thinking of prostituting He is patron saint of sailors and of

his three virgin daughters because he children, and also the origin of Father

was unable to provide them with a Christmas, an identification probably

dowry; Nicholas threw three golden derived from his patronage of chil-

balls or bags of gold through the win- dren and his charitable acts of

dow of their house while they slept presenting gifts bv night.

and withdrew unseen, thereby saving Golden Legend, Si. Nicholas

them from their fate. Another legend

tells of seamen threatened by a violent
The right-hand pawl of Gerard David's
storm invoking Nicholas; he
triptychThe Legend of St Nicholas
appeared, and assisted them with the
(c.1500-1510) shows Nicholas restoring
rigging until the storm died down. three boys whom an innkeeper had killed,

These two stories were particularly (til ii/j, and salted as food for his table.

heathens. They were then sentenced to be stoned to around a windlass. The windlass became his attribute:

death, but the stones turned back and wounded the and. because similar mac limes are used on board ship.
throwers; then arrows were bred at them, but the Erasmus became one of the patron saints ol sailors.

arrows turned around and pierced the archers. Cosmas SAINT CHRISTOPHER (see also page 159) recruited
and Damian - the patron saints of physicians (along many converts and was cruellj tortured because of bis
with Luke) and of the Medici family of Florence - are faith. At one time 100 bowmen shot arrows .it him but
sometimes depicted as young martyrs in dot tors' robes, not .1 single one touched him; suddenlv one turned
perhaps with a phial or other medical instruments. back and struck bis persecutor, the king ol I vc ia. 111 the

Scenes from their lives were painted in the predella eve. blinding him. Christopher was beheaded, but he
panels of the San Marco altarpiecc bv Fra Angelico. had foretold that his blood would restore the tyrant's

SAINT ERASMUS, Elmo or Ki mo (died c.303( ) was I sight, and when this came true the king was converted

thought to have been a bishop in Syria. In 1029 Poussin to Christianity.

depicted his gruesome martyrdom, showing him lying It is known that SAINT LAURENCE (Lorenzo) was .1

naked on a stone slab, his vestments beside him, as bru- deacon and that be was martyred in Rome in 258CE.

tal pagans put him to death bv winding his intestines Legend claims that he was entrusted bv Pope Sixnis II

St. Denys: sec Dionysius the Areopagite (box, page 168) Matthew 27:54 Golden Legend, St. Eustace
St. Eustace St. Julian: see Slag (page 237) Goldt n I egt '-/. St. Julian 'Golden Legend, SS Cosmas and Damian
St. Longinus: see Crucifixion (pages 106 and 134) Golden I egend, Si. Lawn nee
 - \\l> IIIHR MIHV

(Q)
I hi\ (html /row Mending's St c.30 l( i i
was brought up as a Christian by his nurse, and
Christopher (seepages 158- was openly preaching the faith by the age of 19, in spite
T9l shows Si (Hits with his
of persecutions under Emperor Diocletian. He was
attributes: a deer and an arrow.
whipped, thrown into a pot of boiling oil and finally

beheaded. A patron saint of Siena, he appears as a

with the Church's treasure, young man with a banner and a cross, primarily in the

which he then distributed art of that school. With Saint Margaret, his image by
among the poor. When Lippo Memmi flanks the altarpiece of Simone Martini's

Laurence was ordered by Annunciation (1333), which was originally intended for
the prefect of Rome to the chapel dedicated to Ansanus in the Cathedral of

bring the treasure, he gath- Siena, and is now in the Uffizi, Florence.

ered together all the poor According to legend,

1

SAINT ANTHONY (the Great

and sick before the prefect or Abbot) (251-356ce) gave all his possessions to the

and, gesturing to them, poor when he was 18 years old, in order to live as a her-
said, "See here the eternal mit in the desert near the Nile. Other hermits joined
treasure, which never him there; hence he is often regarded as the founder of
diminishes but increases." monasticism. In the desert he suffered countless tor-

Laurence was killed by ments by demons. A popular theme in art was the saint
being laid on an iron grid tempted by lust: Veronese painted him struggling
above roasting coals. The with the Devil as a sensual female scratches his hand
martyrdom is shown in with her extremely long fingernails; Cezanne concen-
Bronzino's painting of 1569. Scenes from his life were trated on the enticing voluptuous nudes. As Anthony
also painted by Fra Angelico in the Chapel of Nicholas was apparently over 100 when he died, he is depicted as
V in the Vatican. Laurence was one of the patron saints a bearded old man with a crutch, wearing a hooded
of Florence and of the Medicis; he appears in many robe. Artists, including Pisanello, show him with a pig
paintings commissioned by the family. He is usually and a bell - alluding to the fact that monks of his Order
seen dressed as a deacon with a censer, or he may be had special dispensation to let their pigs graze freely,

shown holding a plate of coins in reference to the alms and that they rang handbells to attract donations.

he distributed. His most common attribute, however, is Little historical evidence exists concerning SAINT
the gridiron of his martyrdom. BLAISE (thought to have died f.316c:E). His cult spread

Little is known of the lives of SAINTS CRISPIN AND during the eighth century, and legend- has it that he
CRISPINIAN - two brothers who were being venerated was Bishop of Cappadocia. He is said to have cured sick
in France by the sixth century. Shoemakers by trade, animals, and is still invoked to do so. Sano di Pietro

they apparently came from Rome in the third century depicted a scene in which the saint ordered a wolf to
CE to preach at Soissons until they were martyred for take back a pig that it had stolen from a widow. Saint
their faith by being beaten, boiled in oil, and flayed. In Blaise also cured a boy with a fishbone stuck in his

a fresco painting of the late fourteenth century in the throat, and hence he is also protector against human ill-

Oratorio di San Stefano by Lentate sul Seveso they are nesses, especially sore throats. He was tortured in

seen as young laymen. They are the patron saints of various ways, notably with wool-carders' iron combs,

leather workers and their attribute is a shoe or a shoe- which became his attribute; finally, he was beheaded.
maker's model of a foot. SAINT GEORGE (see also page 163) is best known
A nobleman of Siena, SAINT ANSANUS (died for slaving a winged dragon - a story which represents
 MALE SAINTS OF THE EARLY CHURCH 177

I
f Fleur-de-lys: see St. Martin Shoe: see SS Crispin and Crispinian

the triumph of Christianity over evil. Like Christ of the Croce, Florence. Sylvester is usually dressed as a pope;

Resurrection, George may hold a white banner with a his attributes may be a chained dragon or a bull.

red cross. George's cult was brought to Europe by the Born in Antioch, SAINT JOHN CHRYSOSTOM
crusaders, and in about 1348 Edward III of England (c.347-407ce), whose name means "Mouth of Gold,"
adopted him as the patron of the Order of the Garter. was elected Archbishop of Constantinople in 398ce.

He is the protector of England. One story tells how he had a child bv a princess, for

A young officer in the Roman army, SAINT MARTIN which he was required to pay penance bv crawling on
OF TOURS (r.315-97cE) was born in Hungary. While all fours like an animal; this scene was engraved bv

billeted in France, he converted to Christianity. Diirer. Renowned for his eloquence, John is counted as

Legend 4
relates that one bitter night Martin came upon one of the FOUR GREEK DOCTORS of the Eastern
a naked beggar and divided his own cloak in two with Church, along with Saints Athanasius, Basil, and
his sword in order to cover the man; Christ then Gregory Xazianzen. He mav also appear with the four
appeared to him, which led to his baptism. He became Latin Doctors of the Western Church - for example,

a recluse and founded the first monastery in Gaul. sculpted under Bernini's Chair of Saint Peter (1657-66:

Martin hid when the people of Tours sought to elect Saint Peter's, Rome).
him their bishop, as he wished to continue the solitary The Bishop of Modena, SAINT GEMINIANUS (fourth

life, but a cackling goose gave away his hiding place. century < 1 ) was a friend of Saint Ambrose and was
Reluctantly he took up office, but continued to live out- renowned as a healer. Legend has it that he went to

side the city walls. Scenes from his life by Simone Constantinople to exorcize a demon from the

Martini (e. 1317) decorate the chapel dedicated to him Emperor's daughter, and so he mav be shown with a
in San Francesco, Assisi. He is particularly venerated in demon at his feet Attila the Hun had a vision of the

France. He is depicted as a bishop with the French saint, as a result of which he halted his attack on
fleur-de-lys on his cope, or occasionally with a goose, or Modena. He was depicted bv Sebastiano Mainardi as a

as a soldier on horseback in the act of dividing his cloak bishop holding a model of San Gimignano. the main-
for the beggar. towered town which adopted his name (c.1500; Sam'
SAINT SYLVESTER' (died 335CE) was one of the ear- Agostino, San Gimignano).
liest popes, elected in 313. Little is known about him for Little is known of SAINT GILES, who may have been
certain, but he is said to have baptized Emperor a hermit near Aries, in the south of France, some time
Constantine. In a dispute with 12 learned Jewish before the ninth century CE. He was highly popular in

doctors about Christianity he was challenged to restore the late Middle Ages, and over 150 churches in England
a dead bull to life. When he did so, the doctors were dedicated to him. The Master <>f Saint Giles

converted. In another story he closed the throat of a (c.1500) shows the best-known episode of his life when
dragon whose breath had killed two wise men in the a deer, which had been pursued In hunters, came to

Forum. In 1248, in (he Chapel of San Sylvestro Giles for protection. Aiming for the deer, one of the
(Quattro Coronati, Rome), scenes of Sylvester and hunters accidentalh shot (.iles instead. Consequently
Constantine were frescoed as an assertion of papal pri- Giles bet ante known as the patron saint of cripples. The
macy. Scenes from the life of Sylvester bv Maso di Banco deer is his attribute; ht' maj also be shown with .\\t

(1340) can be seen in the Bardi di Vernio Chapel, Santa arrow in his arm.

St. Giles: see Stag (page 237) Golden Legend, SS Vnthony and Paul the Hermit
St. John Chrysostom: see Four Latin Doctors (p.it;c I TIM Golden Legend, St. Blaist Goldet Legend, St. G
St. Sylvester: sec Hull (page 2'M\) , Dragon (page 236) ^Golden Legend, St. Martin Golden Legend, St. Sylvester
 it IIIHR MIR

(q\ Later Saints and Martyrs

In the late Middle Vges man) ol the most influential heretics: the Domini Canis or "Hound of the Lord."
monastic Orders were established. Their founders and Such dogs appear in the foreground of Andrea da
moM prominent members were commonly portrayed in Firenze's fresco (r.1365; Spanish Chapel of Santa Maria

art - often in paintings commissioned bv members of Novella, Florence), in which Dominic appears to have
their Order. Individual cities and churches also com- sent them out to catch wolves in the same way that the

missioned paintings of their patron or titular saint. Dominicans set out to convert non-believers.
SAINT BERNARD OF CLAIRVAUX' (r. 1090-1 153) SAINT FRANCIS OF ASSISF (r. 1 181-1226) was the
expanded and reformed the Cistercian Order - son of a wealthy merchant. He led an extravagant life

founded in 1098 by two Benedictine monks - and estab- until, aged about 20, after several illnesses and a mili-

lished a successful house at Clairvaux, in eastern tary expedition, he devoted himself to God. In 1224,
France. He attacked the luxury of the clergy and the while praying in the hills, he received the "stigmata,"
abuses of the Roman curia, and was a great spiritual the marks of the five wounds of Christ, which never left

leader who was heeded by kings of England and France. him. Francis was also renowned for an episode in which
In the late Fifteenth century Filippino Lippi and he preached to the birds.

Perugino painted his vision of the Virgin: he appears as Saint Francis is seen as a tonsured middle-aged man,
a young tonsured monk looking up from his lectern in wearing the brown habit of his Order, and a rope girdle
the white robes of his Order. Ambrogio Bergognone with three knots representing the vows of Poverty,

shows him (r. 1490) with a dragon chained at his feet to Chastity, and Obedience. He may be depicted barefoot
represent his supression of heresy. holding the lily of purity or showing his stigmata. In
SAINT DOMINIC- (r. 11 70-1 221) was the founder of Spanish Counter-Reformation art he is often shown at

the Dominican Order. He appears in numerous altar- prayer. Zurbaran represents him kneeling in medita-
pieces in chapels devoted to his Order. He wears the tion, holding a skull (r. 1630-32). Several panel
black-and-white robe of the Dominicans and he may paintings and cycles showing episodes from the life of
hold the rosary - which it is said the Virgin presented to Saint Francis are displayed in monasteries of his Order.

him in a vision - or a lily of purity. The presence of a SAINT CLARE OF ASSISI (r.1194-1253) was strongly

black-and-white dog, reflecting the colors of his habit, influenced by Saint Francis. Rejecting her noble family
was a reference to his position as the inquisitor of and offers of marriage, she persuaded him to place

her in the care of Benedictine nuns. Later she was

joined by her sister and widowed mother, and in 1212
they founded their own community. Clare's image, with

scenes from her life, was painted 30 years after her

death in the church of Santa Chiara, Assisi, where she
appears in a grey tunic. Her attribute is the lily or a
monstrance: legend claims that while besieged by the
infidel she placed one or other of these outside her
convent, and the enemy fled.

SAINT PETER MARTYR (1205-52) heard Saint

Dominic preach and joined his Order, becoming an

St. Francis Preaching to the Birds (detail; 1296-97) is part

of the 28-scene fresco cycle of the Legend of St. Francis painted by

Giotto and his assistants for the church of San Francesco in Assisi.
 LATER SAINTS AND MARTYRS 179

Skull: see St. Francis of Assisi - I Black-and- White Dog: see St. Dominic

outstanding preacher in his own right. He became Chapel in the Dominican church of Santa Maria
Inquisitor-General and vigorously suppressed heresy. As Novella in Florence, painted by Andrea da Firenze in
Bellini shows (see detail), he was assassinated along the mid-fourteenth century. He mav be seen with his
with one of the friars who accompanied him on his way books and have a star on his chest, or hold a lily.

from Como to Milan. His

4
murderer later repented and Velazquez shows him supported bv angels in front
became a strict Dominican. An important saint for the of a fire (r.1631), a reference to the episode in which

Dominicans, Peter Martyr wears the he used a burning log to chase

black-and-white habit of the Order off a woman who had come to

and often has an open wound in his tempt him.

head, or a knife firmly planted in his SAINT IGNATIUS LOYOLA
skull, as depicted by Cima da (1491-1556) founded the Jesuit

Conegliano (r.1504). Order. He studied at the University

SAINT BONAVENTURA (r.1221- of Paris, where he inspired faith in
74) studied, taught, and preached seven students who intended to

in Paris. He joined the Franciscan become missionaries to the

Order and in 1257 became its head Moslems. Membership of the Jesuit

or Minister-General. In 1273 he was Order grew to thousands, and mis-

made Gardinal-Bishop of Albano, sionaries were sent throughout

but maintained a simple way of life. Europe and further afield to edu-

He wrote extensively, including a cate non-believers and halt the

biography of Saint Francis. In about In The Assassination of St. Peter Martyi spread of Protestantism. The Sacred
1629 Zurbanin showed him address- {detail; 1509) Bellini captures the ferocity Heart crowned with thorns, the
oj the ambush <>n Petet and his retinue.
ing the assembly at the Council of flaming heart, and the monogram
Lyons, but he is usually seen study- IHS, are the Jesuit emblems with

ing, dressed as a Franciscan or a bishop; he may have a which Ignatius is depicted. He wears the black habit

cardinal's hat. of the Order and a biretta. I le may be shown in a vari-

SAINT THOMAS AQUINAS (r. 1225-74), one of the etj oi settings — for example, as a missionary, taking his

great Doctors of the medieval Church, joined the vows, studying or performing miracles.

Dominican Order in around 1244. His noble famil) u.ts SAINT TERESA OF AVTLA (1515-82) founded the first

outraged that he chose to be a mendicant friar and had ol many convents of reformed or "disc ale c-d" (barefoot)

him imprisoned for a year, but this only reinforced his Carmelites. Teresa frequently had mystical \isions.

resolve. Released, he studied at Paris and Cologne, then which site recorded. In one an angel appeared: "In his
devoted the rest of his life to teaching in Paris and sev- hands I saw a great golden spear, and at the iron tip

eral cities in Italy, and also to writing his Summa there appeared to be a point of fire. This he plunged
Theologica (1266-73), which became the basis of much into tm he. ut several times ... and left me utterly con-

of the Catholic doctrine. He is depicted in the sumed In the great love of God." fhis divine

Dominican habit, and his importance as a theologian is experience was famously sculpted by Bernini ( 1645-52;
represented in the chapter house known as the Spanish Com. no Chapel, Santa Maria della Vlttoria, Rome).

Later Saints and Martyrs: sec Christianitx (pages 2 IS- I'M; Golden Legend, St. Bernard l
Golden Legend, St. Dominic
St. Dominic: see Dog (page 'I'M), St. Catherine of Siena Golden Legend, St. Francis
]
Golden Legend, V'. Peter Martyr
r
(pages 164-6. >); St. Francis of Assisi: see Stigmata (page 136) t, i, sa oj Avila 29
 101

CHAPTER FOUR

HISTORY, LITERATURE,
AND THE ARTS

The Classical Age produced real heroes as well as

legendary ones - the soldiers, statesmen, scientists,

and scholars of ancient Greece and Rome. Their

achievements, and those of more recent historical

figures, gave artists a rich source of subject matter. This

chapter tells the stories that lie behind paintings depict-

ing battles, scenes of victory and defeat, voyages,

discoveries, and many other historic episodes. It also

explores the ways in which painters and sculptors

enriched their works by alluding in them to other art

forms, such as literature, architecture, and music.

Albrecht Altdorfer: The Battle of Issus 182 Claude l.orrain: Landscape with Aeneas at I 192

Eugene Delacroix: The Death of Sardanapalus 181 French School: /'» Consolatione Philosophise 194

Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres: Napoleon I 186 Hans Holbein the Younger: The Ambassadors 196

Jacques Louis David: The Oath oj the Horatii 188 Rembrandt The Anatomy Lesson 198

William Blake: Antaeus Selling Down Dante and Virgil

in the Last Circle oj Hell 1<)0

 ALTDORFER: THE BATTLE OF ISSUS l83

The Battle of Issus

Albrecht Altdorfer (c. 1480-1538)

The Bavarian artist Albrecht Altdorfer lived in Alexander the Great conquered the Persians
Regensburg on the River Danube, and in 1511 in 333bc;e - otherwise, judging from the armor
he traveled down river and south to the Alps. and the town in the distance, the setting would
He was deeply impressed by the scenery and appear to date from the sixteenth century.
became one of the first painters to depict land- To evoke the feel of the massive number of
scapes with imagination and emotion rather people involved, Altdorfer painted a bird's-eve
than regarding them simply as a convenient view. We look down on a swirling mass of tiny

backdrop for a picture. figures and across to an alpine landscape,

He painted the large Battle of Issus (1529) for above which the sun breaks dramaticallv
Duke William IV of Bavaria, as part of a series through the clouds and puts the moon to

of famous battle scenes taken from classical flight. Alexander can be seen fighting in the

antiquity. Only the plaque suspended from foremost ranks at the center of the action,
the sky identifies the battle as that in which chasing the Persian King Darius in his chariot.

KEY ELEMENT
ALEXANDER THE GREAT: King Alexander of The Family q) Darius Before Alexander (c.1550). At first,

Macedonia (356-323BCE) is perhaps the most famous of Darius's mother mistook the taller Hephaesdon for hei

all ancient conquerors. He was Aristotle's pupil, conqueror, but Alexander put her at ease b\ saying that
commanded a cavalry at the age of 18, and went on to Hephaestion was another Alexander. Alexander then
overthrow the Persians, occupy Egypt, and found pursued Darius but found the Persian on the point of

Alexandria. At the Temple of Apollo, the Delphic Sibyl

1

death, fatally wounded b\ his own men - and as Dai ins

told him that he was invincible. He is often depicted on died. Alexander paid homage to his enenvj bj covering
his horse Bucephalas - usually shown as a white his body with his cloak.

charger - which responded only to his gentle control. Famed for his restraint. Alexander believed that it

When Alexander's army sacked the Greek citv of was better to rule through goodwill rather than b\

Thebes, his captain raped the noblewoman Timoclea force, and tried to fuse diverse customs. He married
and demanded her money. She led the captain to a Roxana, who. in some accounts, was said to he the
well into which she claimed she had thrown her daughter ol Darius, and in others, the daughtei ol a

valuables and, as he looked over, pushed him in. In chieftain of conquered Asia.

Timoclea Brought Before Alexander Pietro della Yecchia Plume li / ives Vlexandei

(c.1602-1678) shows Alexander releasing Timoclea in

recognition oilier resourcefulness and dignity.

After the Battle of Issus, Alexander showed similar

nobility and graciousness in dealing with the defeated SEE ALSO PAGl PAGf

Darius and his family. Although his army pillaged the

Aristotle 21 (8 Sibyl 60
Persian (amp, Alexander treated Darius's mother, wile.
\i mm 2 H» W.u
and two daughters with respect. Veronese shows him
Lands* ape 2 12
and his friend Hephaestion visiting the family in
184 ' 1 UK \Rl>
 DELACROIX: THE DEATH OF SARDANAPALUS 185

The Death of
Sardanapalus
Eugene Delacroix (i
7 y8-i863)

In 1821, the poet Byron wrote a tragedy based

on the tale of Sardanapalus, which inspired
Delacroix to paint this large, dramatic compo-
sition six years later. As his enemies prepare to

break through a broken wall, Sardanapalus

reclines on his bed, contemplating a scene of
carnage and confusion. Apart from the medi-
tative king and the servant earning the poison
for his suicide, the figures writhe erotically in

an orgy of violence and despair. Delacroix's

painting is a landmark of the Romantic move-
ment in early nineteenth-century France; it

has dynamic energy, shimmers with gold,

pearls, and precious stones and is painted with
rich color, applied with a vigorous brush.

KEY ELEMENT
SARDANAPALUS: According to legend, Sardanapalus

was the king of Assyria in tin- seventh century bce,

where he- lived a life of luxury and debauchery. When

he was besieged in his capital tor two years b) the

Medes. an Indo-European tribe, he determined not to

surrender and decided that the cit\ and all its riches

should he destroyed. As he prepared to take poison.

Sardanapalus gave orders that lus wives, his servants.

and his treasures he burned with him on a huge lnnei al

pyre, along with his favorite concubine Myrrha - who
was to he given the honor of mingling hei ashes with
his. The resulting inferno burned tor 15 <la\s.

'Diocioi us nt Sic il\ [1:27

SEE ALSO I'M. I'M. I

Elephant 237 Nude 223

1 u\m\ 23 1
 INGRES: NAPOLEON I 187

Napoleon I
Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres (1780-1867)

Napoleon sits on his imperial throne in the brought to Paris among the looted trophies of
traditional pose of the supreme god Jupiter, war (the lower half of the central panel is

whose eagle is cleverly woven into the carpet - shown on pages 86-87).
the signs of the zodiac on the edge of the It is not known whether Napoleon commis-
carpet refer to Jupiter's kingdom in the sky. sioned this picture or whether Ingres painted
The emperor wears full regalia and a laurel it in the hope of gaining official recognition,
crown, and he holds a scepter, the hand of but when exhibited it was universally criticized.

justice, and Charlemagne's sword. The image The figure was not considered a true likeness

(1806) is static and iconic, and contempo- of Napoleon, the painting's stvle was con-
raries realized that Ingres had likened the demned as archaic, and the image of an
emperor both to Jupiter and to the famous absolute ruler was thought to be inappropriate
figure of God the Father from Jan van Eyck's to who preferred to think of
those their

Ghent Alterpiece (r.1432), which had been emperor as a man of the people.

KEY ELEMENT
NAPOLEON I: In 1799, after the French Revolution, Distributing the Eagles (1810) and Napoleon in His Study

Napoleon achieved supreme power and instituted a (1812). Another artist who contributed to the
military dictatorship. He ruled as emperor from Napoleonic myth was Antoinejean Gros (1771-1835).
1804-1815. By 1810, he had conquered most of whose paintings often depicted important events in

Europe, hut his empire began to crumble alter a Napoleon's late militaiy career. Napoleon Visiting the

disastrous invasion of Russia in 1812. Finally, on Pesthouse at fa/pi (1804) is a notable example of the
June 18, 1815, Napoleon was defeated at the Battle of dramatic power of his woi k.

Waterloo, when he abdicated and was exiled to the

island of Saint Helena.

Napoleon's persistent determination to succeed can

be seen in the art he commissioned, which was designed SEE ALSO PAG! PACE

to assert the empire's strength and power. In The

Eagle 239 Si eptei 217
Coronation (1805-1807), Jacques Louis David combined
[upiter 57 /(Xll.ll 209
elements of Italian Renaissance painting and official
Laurel 215
monarchical portraiture; he also painted Napoleon
188 HISTofO \M' I in \KIS

5=.
 DAVID: THE OATH OF THE HORATII 189

The Oath
of the Horatii
Jacques Louis David (1748-1825)

David's first major work (1784) shows a scene

from the tale of the Horatii brothers, who were
prepared to sacrifice their lives for Rome. The
story was also the subject of a tragedy by plav-

wright Pierre Corneille, and David's painting

was conceived to imitate actors on a stage. The
theatrical stances of the brothers, with legs

apart and arms raised, echo one another in

single accord as thev make their oath and their

father presents them with their swords. Their

taut muscles and masculine resolve contrast

vividly with the emotional poses of their

mother and sisters. The Crown commissioned
this painting, and the heroic patriotism was
intended to improve public morality.

KEY ELEMENT
HORATII AND CURIATI1: Two warring families, the

Roman Horatii and the Latin Cnriatii of Alba, each had

three sons equally matched in age and strength. Their
kings sought to end hostilities In suggesting that these

young nun fight, so both sets of brothers took an oath

that the losing side would submit peacefully to the

other. In combat, the fust advantage- fell to the Cnriatii

who. though wounded, killed two Horatii. The surviv-

ing Roman fled, followed 1>\ the three Cnriatii. each of

whom ran at a different speed - and it was thus that he

managed to fight each in turn, emerging as the victor.

I.ivi /'/;/ History "I Honi, l:\\i\-\\\

SEE ALSO PAG1 PAG1

An hitecture 206 Man us 1 minis 202

Armor 246 \liu his Si aevola 202

Dei ins Mus 202 War 227

E]LL<Lr 3J
 BLAKE: ANTAEUS SETTINC DOVi'N DANTE AND VIRGIL 191

Antaeus Setting Down Dante

and Virgil in the Last Circle of Hell
William Blake (1757-1827)

Blake left several projects unfinished at his rebellion against Jupiter represented the sin of

death, including a set of illustrations for pride. Unlike his brothers, the giant Antaeus
Dante's Divina Commedia. In the poem, Virgil took no part in the war. He was invincible as
leads the author through Hell - described by long as he remained in contact with his mother
Dante as a series of circles to which the various when Hercules lifted
Earth, but was destroved
types of sinners are assigned. This watercolor him up and squeezed him to death in mid-air.
(1821-27) illustrates Inferno 31:112-43 and In the picture, Antaeus gently lowers the poets
shows Dante and Virgil reaching the last circle over the edge of an abyss, his size emphasized
of Hell - the residing place of the giants whose by the disparity of scale and his awkward pose.

KEY ELEMENT
DANTE: The Florentine writer and poet Dante regions, while Beatrice guides him through Paradise,

Alighieri (1265-1321) was one of the founders of the their journey taking the- reader down through the 24

modern Italian language. In La Vita Nuova (The New circles of Hell, up the two terraces and seven
Life) of 1292, he tells of his idealized love for a girl cornices <>i Mount Purgatory to earthly Paradise, and
named Beatrice, whom he first saw aged nine, dressed finally beyond the planets and the stars to God.
in a delicate crimson dress tied with a girdle. lie spot- The Divina Commedia contains main political and
ted her again nine years later, walking with two women religious allegories and references to Dante's personal

and dressed in the purest white; she greeted him, "and experiences. It provided inspiration for numerous
such was the virtue of her greeting thai I seemed to artists, including Botticelli. In The Barque of Dante
experience the height of bliss."' Their last encounter (1822), Delacroix shows Dante and Virgil descending
was at a wedding feast - she died prematurely soon into the- Underworld, while Raphael followed what
afterwards. Inconsolable, Dante continued to contem- is thought to be a contemporary portrait when he
plate her beauty and goodness while his friends grew depicted Dante with Virgil in Parnassus (c.1510).
concerned at his grief. Rossetti translated La Vila Nuova Dante / a Vita Nuova 111:1-1

and painted several of its scenes, and his The First

Anniversary oj the Death of Beatrice (1853) shows Dante

drawing an angel, oblivions to the presence of Others.
Dante is probably best known for his Divina SEE ALSO I'M 1 PAGt

Coin media (Divine Comedy), an epic poem describing

Hell 120 Seven Deadly Sins 250
humankind's destiny on Earth and in the afterlife. The
1 [ercules 68 I golino 204
poem has three parts: the Inferno (Hell), the Purgatorio
[upitei 57 Virgil 192
(Purgatory) and the Paradiso (Paradise). The classical
Paolo and Fn incesca 204
poet Virgil leads the author through the first two
 \m \kis

Landscape with
Aeneas at Delos
Claude Lorrain 0600-1682)

[Tie figures in Claude's painting (1672) may

serin to he subordinated by his interest in the

landscape, but their identity transports us to an

idyllic world of antique grandeur. Aeneas
sought out Apollo's oracle on the sacred island
of Delos during his voyage from Troy; in this

scene, the king and priest of Delos, Anius,

welcomes Aeneas, his father Anchises, and his

son Ascanius. Anius also points to an olive and

a palm tree at the center, to which Latona clung
as she gave birth to the twins Apollo and Diana.
Claude shows Apollo's shrine as that noble and
ancient monument of Rome, the Pantheon,
where Aeneas was told that his descendants

would rule over the Earth's widest bounds. The

poetic composition of the scene, with its

balance of horizontals and verticals, transparent

air and spacious view to the far horizon, evokes

the pastoral serenity of the Golden Age.

KEY ELEMENT
VIRGIL: The Roman poet Virgil (70-19bce) was
considered the prince of Latin poets, and is most
famous for his epic poem The Aeneid, which recounts
the wanderings of Aeneas from Troy to Italy. In Virgil
Reading /V Aeneid to Augustus and Octavia (1787), Jean-
Joseph Taillasson shows him reading a passage to the

emperor and his sister. Virgil also wrote pastoral poems.

SEE ALSO PAGE PAGE

Aeneas 71 Diana 61

Ages of the World 57 Landscape 242

Apollo 18,60 Latona 58
Architecture 206 Oracles 60
CLAUDE LORRAIN: LANDSCAPE WITH AENEAS AT DELOS 193
 FRENCH SCHOOL: DE CONSOLATIONE PHILOSOPHIAE 195

De Consolatione Philosophiae
French School (15th century)

The Roman philosopher Ancius Manlius ing of Philosophy, who stands beside him wear-
Severinus Boethius (r:.480-c.525cE) was consul ing a magnificent headdress. Outside his
under Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths. comfortable-looking cell, the figure of Fortune
Unfortunately, he was imprisoned on a charge spins her wheel - which Boethius explained

of conspiracy and put to death. He wrote his was to elevate the fallen and belittle the proud.
famous treatise The Consolation of Philosophy as As the wheel spins clockwise, a hopeful figure
he awaited his execution, and in it he rises toward the top, where a man in ermine-
describes how the allegorical figure of trimmed robes sits with other regalia of
Philosophy appeared to him holding a scepter kingship; but a king's luck may not last forever
and a book. In the illuminated page shown and, like the figure at the bottom of the wheel,
here (r.1460-70), Boethius seems to be dream- he mav be destined to lose his crown.

KEY ELEMENT
PHILOSOPHY: Praised as the highest intellectual SEE ALSO PAGl PAGI

pursuit, Philosophy was concerned with the cause and

\k hitecture 206 Sceptei 247
nature of things, investigating these by means of
Aristotle 208 Socrates 208
reasoned argument. By applying wisdom, truth, and
Fortune 63 Truth 244
knowledge, it thus gave rise to true judgment.
Philosophy may be personified as a woman enthroned,
who may hold a book. It may also be represented bv

images of the great philosophers of antiquity.

rm \kts
 HOLBEIN: THE AMBASSADORS 197

The Ambassadors
Hans Holbein the Younger (c. 7497-7543;

One of the most outstanding portrait painters objects connected with the Liberal Arts reflect

of sixteenth-century Europe, Holbein came to their cultured minds. On the top shelf are
London in search of a post at the court of King items relating to astronomy and instruments
Henry VIII, which he finally achieved in 1537. for measuring time and space; below, are a
This remarkable double portrait (1533) shows Lutheran hymnal, a globe showing the
Jean de Dinteville on the left (who was sent by recently discovered America, two instruments
the French king to safeguard relations with for making geometrical calculations, and a

Henry), and his friend, the cleric George de lute. The items are painted with a breathtaking
Selve. Their luxurious attire reflects their polit- realism, yet, as the broken lute string suggests,

ical and religious positions: de Dinteville wears they belong to the vanities of life. In the fore-

pink satin and velvet, lined with lynx; de Selve ground, an anamorphic skull - distorted when
is dressed in brown damask. An inscription on viewed straight on, but taking shape when seen
de Selve's book tells us that he is 25, while de from below right - hints at inevitable death,
Dinteville's age, 29, is embossed on his dagger. while a tiny crucifix in the top left corner
Between the two men, shelves littered with suggests there is hope of eternal life.

KEY ELEMENT
LIBERAL ARTS: The seven Liberal Arts were the scroll, a sword, and the globe of her universal domain.
subjects of secular education in the Middle Ages and Logic may be shown with a scorpion or snake, perhaps
the Renaissance. They comprised the trivium— grammar, signifying the penetrating nature of the subject.

rhetoric, and logic - and the quadrivium - astronomy, Arithmetic is often seen calculating with her ringers
geometry, arithmetic, and music. The sages of antiquity and may hold an abacus or tables covered with figures.

may represent the subjects or accompany their person- Geometry ma) be pictured with a measuring rod. a set

ifications: Priscian and Donatus are linked with square, a pair of compasses or othei instruments of the-

grammar, Cicero with rhetoric, Aristotle with logic, se lence. Astronomy m,u point to the sk\ and hold an
Pythagoras with arithmetic, Euclid with geometry, astrolabe or a globe marked with the constellations.

Ptolemy with astronomy, and the biblical character Music may be shown playing instruments and singing.
Tubal-Cain with music. They are pictured in the
frescoes by Andrea da Firen/.e (c.1343-1377) in Santa

Maria Novella, Florence.

Female personifications of the subjects may have a SEE ALSO PAGl PAGI

book and inscriptions to identify them. Grammar, the

Aristotle 208 Gramma] 208
foundation of all subjects, may be seen with writing
Book of Hours 2 is Musical Instruments 207
instruments, a fountain from which scholars drink, fruit
Compasses 247 Pythagoras 208
that she offers to a child, or a rod for chastisement; and
( i u< ifix 2 is Skull
she may point to the narrow door of knowledge.
Euclid 208 Snake
Rhetoric, a subject studied in adolescence, max hold a
I
98 • \M> 1 HI \KI>
 REMBRANDT: THE ANATOMY LESSON 199

The Anatomy Lesson

Rembrandt (1606-1669)

This canvas (1632) commemorates a dissec-

tion by Dr. Nicolaes Tulp, and was Rembrandt's

first major commission after he arrived in

Amsterdam. Identified by his simple collar,

large hat, and saintly expression, Tulp holds

the tendons of the arm with forceps; with his

other hand, he demonstrates how the muscles

bend the fingers - the principal tools of both
surgeons and painters. This type of group
portrait was popular with brotherhoods and
guilds, and traditionally showed the members
lined up in a row. Rembrandt's scene is far

more animated - the attendants cluster

together in a pyramid and, as one holds a list

of those present and others look at Dr. Andreas

Vesalius's famous treatise in the bottom right

corner, they seem engrossed in Tulp's words.

Their pale faces and the corpse's skin stand

out starkly against the dark background.

KEY ELEMENT
DOCTOR: In the Low Countries, doctors of medicine
were sometimes ridiculed, as seen in Bosch's Cure for

Folly (c.1490), which shows a doctor chilling a man's

skull to release malign spirits. In Jan Steen's The

Doctor's Visit (1663-65) - another popular theme - a

doc tor attends a woman who appears to he either love-

sick or pregnant. A piece of ribbon is often evident in

such scenes, as a diagnosis was made from the- smell

created when the ribbon was burned. The doctor ma\

also be seen testing the woman's pulse, which was
supposed to quicken in the presence ol her lover.

SEE ALSO PAGl PAG1

Architecture 206
Death 245
aoo •
ntt \ms

Kings, Queens, and Emperors

From ancient Greece to the present day, artists have presented The Judgment of Cambyses (1498) as an
been fascinated l>\ figures of authority, depicting the extreme example of justice: King CAMBYSES' (sixth

k( \ events in their lives and reigns - their coronations, century bce) ordered a corrupt judge, Sisamnes, to be
theii triumphs and defeats, and their deaths. executed and flayed - the seat on which he presided
ALEXANDER THE GREAT (see page 183) is often was then covered with strips of his skin as an example to
shown helmeted and in armor to indicate his status as a others. In 1827, Delacroix chose the Assyrian king

mighty conqueror. His official court painter, APELLES, SARDANAPALUS as the subject for a dramatic painting
was considered the greatest of classical artists, and one of violent despair (see pages 184-85). CANDAULES, a

story relates how his painting of a horse was so life-like king of Lydia, wished to prove that his wife was the most
that it made a real horse neigh. He wrote treatises on beautiful woman in the world, so he asked GYGES, his

art, but neither these nor any of his paintings have sur- favorite bodyguard, to watch her undressing. Jacob
vived. He is said to have fallen in love with Alexander's Jordaens' King Candaules of Lydia Showing His Wife to

favorite courtesan, CAMPASPE, while painting her in Gyges (seventeenth century) depicts the naked queen
the nude; whereupon, Alexander presented her to about to climb into bed, while the two men peep
him. Giambattista Tiepolo painted himself as Apelles
1
around the curtain. The story tells how she noticed
and his wife as Campaspe in Alexander and Campaspe in Gyges slipping away and in outrage made him choose
the Studio of Apelles ( 1 725-26) either to die or to kill the king. Gyges chose the latter,

Stories of Persian rulers, whose lands Alexander thereby usurping the king's wife and territory.
3

conquered in the fourth century bce, were popular The founder of the Persian Empire was CYRUS THE
subjects for several centuries of painters. Gerard David GREAT. Before his birth it was predicted that Cyrus

Equestrian Monuments

A portrait of a man on a horse expresses power, conquest, and authority. There

were countless equestrian monuments in ancient Rome, but few remain.

However, the monument of Marcus Aurelius (second century CE), now in the

Capitoline Museum, Rome, survived because it was erroneously thought to be

a statue of Constantine, the first Christian emperor (see opposite). In the late

Middle Ages, the equestrian portrait was used for funerary monuments of mil-
itary leaders, a tradition that continued with Paolo Uccello's trompe-Vceil fresco

of the mercenary leader Sir John Hawkwood (c.1436). Donatello's statue of

Hawkwood in Padua (1443-48) was nicknamed Gattamelata (the "honeyed cat")

and revived the classical tradition of placing free-standing statues in public

areas. Since the Renaissance, numerous European monarchs and illustrious

figures in authority have commissioned their portraits on horseback in paint-

ings and statues. A horse striding forward suggests that the horseman is in con-

trol; a rearing horse may be used to symbolize the passionate nature of its rider.

In Pierre Mignard's Equestrian Portrait of Louis XIV Crowned by Victory

(c.1692), the palm and laurel wreath signify his conquest of the landscape behind him.
 KINCS. QUEENS. AND EMPERORS 201

Bed: see Candaules and Gyges

would overthrow his grandfather ASTYAGES, king of lovers committed suicide - Antonv bv the sword and
the Medes.' In an attempt to defy fate, Astyages ordered Cleopatra by the bite of an asp concealed in a basket of
his faithful servant Harpagus to kill the infant Cyrus. In figs. Her death was the subject of manv paintings,

Harpagus Bringing Cyrus to the Shepherds (1706-1708), such as Guido Reni's Cleopatra (c.1630).
Sebastiano Ricci illustrated Harpagus, unable to obey Augustus's victory cleared the way for him to become
the king, giving Cyrus to a cowherd and his wife. When the first emperor of Rome. His successors and their

Astyages by chance recognized his 10-year-old grand- exploits are common subjects in art. TRAJAN
son, he punished his servant but was persuaded to let (98-1 17ce) was said to have met a widow who
the boy live, despite the dream. When Cyrus reached demanded justice for the death of her son.' The 1

manhood, he usurped the cruel Astyages and inherited emperor, moved with compassion, saw to it that the boy
the empire of the Medes. He gained control of Asia was avenged. The subject of Trajan and the widow was
Minor, captured Babylon and, in 530BCE, caused heavy painted as an example of justice.
losses to the Asian tribe ruled by Queen TOMYRIS. The The first Christian emperor, CONSTANTINE
queen then marched against Cyrus, slaughtered his (c.274-337( i ), was often depicted at the moment of his

army, and searched for his body among the dead. In conversion. Bernini carved him on a rearing horse in

Queen Tomyris and the Head of Cyrus (r. 1620) Rubens front of the flaming cross in Constantine (1654—70).

depicted the episode in which she placed his head in a Alternatively, his conversion may be shown as occurring
bowl of blood saying, "Have your fill of the blood for in a dream, as in Piero della Francesca's fresco The Dream
which you thirsted." of Constantine (1155). Ciulio Romano painted scenes
A later great queen, CLEOPATRA (68-30BCE), has from the emperor's life in the Sala di Constantino frescoes

been immortalized in art by numerous painters. Among (1520-24); and Constantine was also the subject of a set
them, Andrea del Sarto, in Egypt's Tribute to Caesai of tapestries designed bv Rubens in 1622.

(1521), showed the dues Egypt had to pay to Julius |nst over a centurv after Constantine. ATTILA THE
Caesar after he restored Cleopatra to the Egyptian HUN (e.406-453CE), furious that Rome failed to pa\

throne. The queen's affair with Caesar was followed bv tribute to him, invaded Gaul and attempted to capture
her famous relationship with MARK ANTONY, enemy of the citv of Rome. Raphael's Repulse of Attila (1513)
Caesar's successor AUGUSTUS. shows Saints Peter and Paul appearing in the skv to halt

Giambattista Tiepolo's frescoes The Meeting of the invasion on behalf of the Church.
Cleopatra and Antony 1750) and The Banquet
( <>/ Cleopatra More recent European monarchs, including LOUIS
(1750) show the sumptuous banquet which Anton) XTV (see painting, opposite) and NAPOLEON I (see

held to welcome Cleopatra. She told her host, however, page 1ST), were- often depicted as Roman emperors,
that she could produce a dish far more costly than he and dining the Renaissance the Roman custom of
had provided and, removing a pearl from her earring, TRIUMPHS was revived, both in practice and as a sub-

she dissolved it in vinegar and drank it. The union of let t foi paintings. These triumphal man lies were an
Antony and Cleopatra was opposed by Octavian opportunit) l<>i victorious leaders to displaj their booty

(63BCE-14CE), who had adopted the title Augustus and captives. Contemporar) and classical figures, as

(meaning venerable) in 27BCE. When lie destroyed well as mythological characters and personifications of
Antony and Cleopatra's fleet at Actium in 31BCE, the the virtues were all represented in triumphal painting

Attila the Hun: sec St. Paul (box. page 168), St. Petei Pliny the Elder Natural History XXXS 85-89 Herodotus \ 25
(paj;i- I 17 .iiul box, page lb8); Campaspe: sec vxistotle Herodotus 1:8-12 Herodotus 1 108-129 and 214 ''Golden

(page 208); Cleopatra: sec Julius Caesai (page '-'02) Legend, St. Gregory
 lilt \KIS

Victory and Virtue in Ancient Rome

Rom. in soliders «in<i statesmen were noted for their celebrated Roman consul who devoted himself to the
examplar) virtue and provided artists in latei years with service of the state.
1
Rubens made designs for seven

the perfed subject-matter For the exploration of tapestries depicting scenes from his life, including the

themes «>i morality. episode in which, in 338bce, he threw himself into the
I lu- legendar) founder of Rome was ROMULUS who, thickest part of the battle against the Latins to spur on
with liis twin brother REMUS, was suckled by a she-wolf. his army. Similar self-sacrifice was shown by the
1 ventualh they traced out the city walls on the Palatine HORATII AND CURIATII (see page 189), by MUCIUS
hill with a sacred plough, but quareled over the plans. SCAEVOLA - who thrust his right hand into a fire as a

Remus was slain bv Romulus, who gave his name to the proof of Roman fearlessness - and by MARCUS CUR-
new city, founded in 753bce. The she-wolf became one TIUS. Misinterpreting an oracle in 360bce, Curtius,
of the symbols of Rome and, along with the intials thinking he was saving the city, threw himself into a
SPQR - Senatus Populusque Romanus ("The Senate and hole in the Roman forum. The hole immediately closed
People of Rome"), was inscribed on the standards of over his head. Veronese (c. 1528-88) used the subject in
ancient Rome and is seen in re-creations of the era, his ceiling decoration Marcus Curtius.

such as Mantegna's Triumphs of Caesar (1486-1506). Modesty and integrity were regarded as primary
The FASCES - a bundle of wooden rods wound virtues of the model Roman citizen. Francesco Salviati

around an axe and fastened with a strap - symbolized (1510-63) painted frescoes depicting episodes from the
Roman authority or power and was carried by lictors life of the fourth-century bce statesman Marcus Furius
(attendants) before superior magistrates. It repre- CAMILLUS. Poussin also chose the wise and just
sented the punishments of whipping and beheading, Camillus as a subject - in Camillus and the Schoolmaster of

and was associated with the harsh punitive measures Falerii (1637) he illustrated the scene in which
adopted by such statesmen as MANLIUS TORQUATUS Camillus, astounded by the treachery of an Etruscan
and Lucius Junius BRUTUS. During the war against the schoolmaster, commanded his men to remove the
Latins in 340bce, the Roman consuls, of whom Manlius man's clothes, tie his hands, and let his students drive
was one, forbade single combat with the enemy' When him back to the city with rods and scourges. The
his son disobeyed the ruling, Manlius ordered his exe- Falerians acknowledged Camillus's act of justice and
cution. Ferdinand Bol illustrated the event in Manlius surrendered their city. Marcus Porcius CATO
Torquatus Beheading His Son (1663) for the Council (94— 46bce), 4 a supporter of the Republic, took his own
Chamber of the Admiralty in Amsterdam. life after the death of Pompey rather than live under
Brutus, 2
the nephew of King Tarquinius Superbus, the tyranny of JULIUS CAESAR: he read Plato's dialogue
was one of the first two consuls of the Republic along on the soul twice, and then plunged his sword into his

with Tarquinius Collatinus. He led an uprising which breast. The integrity of Cato was highlighted by Charles
ousted his uncle and established the Roman Republic. Lebrun in The Death of Cato (e.1646). Caesar's ambition
Two of his sons were plotting to restore the Tarquin to remain sole ruler of the empire brought about the
monarchy, but their plans were overheard and incrimi- Republican plot. On March 15th 44bce he was stabbed
nating letters discovered. Brutus, a man of unbending to death by Marcus Junius Brutus and his collaborators

resolve, condemned them and watched, unflinching, as at the Theater of Pompey in Rome. In his Triumph of
they were flogged and beheaded. Jacques Louis David's Caesar (1486-1506), Mantegna chooses Caesar's mili-

Victors Bringing Brutus the Bodies of His Sons (1789) shows tary prowess, rather than his tragic end, as his subject.

Brutus unmoved as the women weep profusely at the Caesar's ambition was contrasted by the modesty
outcome of his patriotic deed. and continence of two Roman figures. The
earlier fifth-

Patriotism was also exemplified by DECIUS MUS, a century BCE consul CINCINNATUS was given sole

_
 VICTORY AND VIRTUE IN ANCIENT ROME 2o3

Wolf: see Romulus and Remus

Roman Wives and Matrons

Rome's women were as much Tarquinius Collatinus, who served

admired for their virtuous acts as in the army of Sextus, was raped by

were its famous statesmen. During her husband's commander.

the wars between the Romans and Lucretia confessed her disgrace to

the Etruscans, the noble woman her husband before plunging a

CLOELIA was taken hostage by the knife into her heart. Titian depicts

Etruscan king Porsenna. She the violent rape in Tarquin and

escaped and crossed the River Lucretia (1568-71). Similar marital

Tiber, but was returned to fidelitv was shown by AGRIPPINA.

Porsenna. Impressed by her who dearlv loved her husband
courage, he released her with the Germanicus. After he was poisoned
companions of her choice. Jacques by political enemies in Syria, his

Stella (1596-1657) shows her on Lorenzo Lotto's A Lady with a Drawing grieving wife brought his ashes back

the bank of the Tiber about to ofl.ucretia (c. 1530) shows a 16th- to Italy, as Benjamin West showed in

transport her companions a< ross.

century woman pointing to a drawing of Agrippina Landing at Brundisium
the famously faithful Roman wife.
LUCRETIA, the beautiful wife of with the Ashes of Germanicus (1768).

leadership when the city fell under siege, but modestly goddess Cybele brought to Rome, as it had been proph-
retired to his farm immediately after the battle. The esied thai the presence of this bust would be
event was depicted by Giovanni Romanelli in instrumental in the defeat of Hannibal. The theme was
Representative of the Senate Offering the Dictatorship to shown in Mantegna's Introduction o/ the Cult of Cybele into

Cincinnatus (1655-68). The second-ccnturv i« i general Rome (1506).

Cornelius SCIPIO Africanus defeated the Carthaginian Scipio was a popular subject in ait. After a victor)

leader HANNIBAL (247-182BCE) who marched an army .it New Cartilage, lie captured a beautiful young
reported to consist of 90,000 infantry, 12,000 cavalrv, girl who was betrothed to the young Allucius. Hearing
and a number of elephants across the Alps in 218b< i , of this, he restored the girl to her betrothed and
during the Second Punic War against Rome. In Snow requested only that Allucius be a friend to Rome: he
Sturm: Hannibal and His Army (Crossing the Alps (1812) gave the girl's ransom to the couple as a wedding gift.

Turner shows how the mighty army, which astounded The theme was painted to signif) self-control, as well

the Romans, also had to battle with the forces of nature. as the generosit) ol a noble and virtuous general
Scenes of Scipio's triumph may allude to contempo- toward the innocent. Sebastiano Ricci in The Contim
rary victories, and may be used for public decorations nj Scipio (c.1695) chose to set the tense scene before

to accompany a dignitary's ceremonial entry into a city. Scipio's magnanimous act - when the gh I's fate was still

The virtuous Scipio also had a bust of the mother in tlu- balance.

Julius Caesar: see Cleopatra (page 201) 1 iv) TheHistory of RomeYlWvm 'Plutarch Lives, Popicola
Scipio: see Cvbele (page 56) 1 iw ///< History of Rome X:xxviii 'Plutarch Lives, Cato

I ivj Hu History oj Rom \\\ I:i

204 •
nu ^RTS

Figures of World Literature Key: see Ugolino

Western literature begins with the Greek epic poet, grandsons in a tower, and the kev was thrown away.

homer, the accepted author of the Iliad And Odyssey As they starved, his sons cried, "'Father, we should
who lived some time before the seventh century bce. In grieve far less, if thou wouldst eat of us." They all

Parnassus (c.1510) Raphael depicted him with Dante died of hunger. In Ugolino (1882), Rodin shows an

and Virgil as a dignified old man wearing a laurel emaciated Ugolino kneeling over his dying grandsons.
wreath. Homer was blind, so he is frequently shown In Dante's poem FRANCESCA de Rimini tells the poet
(lu taring his works to a scribe. A legendary predecessor Virgil her story.
3
She was the daughter of a friend of
of I lomer, the poet ARION 1

reputedly played the lyre so Dante and married the deformed Gianciotto, son of the
beautifully that he would make birds and wild lord of Rimini, but fell in love with PAOLO, her hus-

animals halt in their tracks. When he fell overboard band's younger brother. Their punishment was to drift
while sailing from Italy, he was rescued by a dolphin forever on the wind in the second circle of Hell. This
which had been charmed by his music. Durer shows tragic theme was taken up in the nineteenth century. In
him in Arion (r.1514) with his harp on the back of a Paolo and Francesco (1855) Rossetti shows Paolo kissing

curious-looking fish. Francesca as they read together.

The poet SAPPHO (seventh century bce), who lived In around 1483, Botticelli produced a series of pan-

on the island of Lesbos and was famous for her poetry els entitled The Story ofNastagio degli Onesti. Painted as a
and beauty,- fell in love with Phaon, who refused her, warning to women who scorn their lovers, they tell the
whereupon she threw herself into the sea. Sappho and story by the poet Boccaccio (1313-75) of the wealthy

Phaon are shown together in Jacques Louis David's NASTAGIO degli Onesti who fell in love with a beautiful

Sappho and Phaon (1809), and Gustave Moreau painted girl of higher birth. 4
She rejected him and, brooding
Sappho Leaping into the Sea (1880). over the cruelty of his beloved, he wandered through
The Roman VIRGIL (see page 192) and the the woods. There he saw the ghost of a knight on
Florentine DANTE Alighieri (see page 191) - both epic horseback, who told Nastagio that his love had also

poets - were shown together not only by Raphael in his been unrequited and that he had taken his own life in

Parnassus but also by Delacroix in The Barque of Dante despair. His beloved had died shortly afterwards with-

(1822). In Dante's epic Divina Commedia (1307-21), out repenting of her cruelty, so he cut out her cold
Count UGOLINO was imprisoned with his sons and heart with the rapier he had used on himself. Yet she

rose as if unharmed, and the chase began again.

Nastagio invited his own love and her family to a ban-

quet in the woods, where they witnessed the scene and

she agreed to marry him.
Orlando Furioso, an epic poem by Ariosto
(1474-1533), published in 1516 in Ferrara, recounts the
legend of Charlemagne, the Saracen invasion of France,
and the conflict between Christians and Muslims. The
poem takes the form of a parody of medieval romances,
with combative knights, damsels in distress, monsters,
and witchcraft. ORLANDO, or Roland, was driven mad

Poussin.5 Tancred and Erminia (detail; c. 1635) shows an episode

from Jerusalem Delivered by Tasso in which Erminia cuts a lock of
her hair to staunch the flow of Tancred"s blood.
 FICURES OF WORLD LITERATURE 20 =

Hippogriff: see Ruggiero

by his love for the beautiful but (1817-27) shows the lovers tied to
fickle ANGELICA. She was promised the stake. Tasso also tells of the
to either Orlando or his cousin, Christian hero RTNALDO who was
depending upon which of them lulled to sleep by the Saracen sorcer-

slaughtered more Saracens." She ess ARMIDA, who planned to kill him
fled from her suitors, and had many but was suddenly overcome bv his
adventures. In Angelica and the beauty. 6 In Rinaldo and Armida
Hermit, Rubens (1577-1640) shows (c. 1630), Poussin shows Cupid hold-
how a lustful hermit put her to sleep ing back the hand in which Armida
with a magic potion, but when he clutches a dagger; and in another
tried to satisfy his desire with the version he depicts her carrying
sleeping maiden he found he was Rinaldo awav to her casde.
too old to perform. Ingres' Ruggiero Another hero from the same
Delivering Angelica (1819) illustrates poem, TANCRED. was loved by
how Angelica was chained to a rock ERMINIA, a Saracen princess who
on the Isle of Tears to feed the ore, a escaped the besieged citv of
huge sea monster. She was seen Jerusalem and fell asleep in the
there by RUGGIERO, or Roger, a woods. Ei in nia withi the Shepherds b\

Saracen champion, who flew down Domenichino (1581-1641) shows

on a hippogriff (a mythical creature Gustave Moreau '&
painting of Sappho how she awoke to the sound of a
with the hindquarters of a horse and (detail; 1H71-72) depicted the Greek poet shepherd and his sons singing.
in a tragically elegant pose.
the wings and head of an eagle) to Tancred accepted a challenge to

slay the monster and save her. fight the Saracen giant Argantes, but
Another poet of the fifteenth century, the English Sir although he killed his opponent he was himself heavily
Thomas Malory (died 1471), provided artists with wounded. Filled witli fear for her lover, Krniinia ran to

equally romantic subjects in his l.e Morte d'Arthur and his side with his squire Yafrino. At first thev believed him
Chretien de Dines, which told the legends of King dead, as Guercino's Tancred and Erminia (1618-19)
ARTHUR. The Arthurian legends embody the chivalric shows. Seeing his lips give a sigh, however, Erminia cut
qualities that appealed to English medieval revivalist • )l I her amber hair to stop the flow of his blood, and the)
painters such as William Morris and Dante Gabriel carried him back alive to the Crusaders' (.imp. 7
Rossetli in the latter half of the nineteenth century. Other literary characters of the sixteenth and
The epic poem Jerusalem Deliveredhy Torquato Tasso seventeenth centuries which have featured in great

(1544-95) is a religious work about the First Crusade. It paintings are Miguel de Cervantes' DON QUEXOTE.
features several characters sometimes depicted in an, Giovanni Guarini's AMARYTLIS and MIRTILLO,
OLINDO who (hose lo die- with his love
including painted bv van Dyck (1599-1641 I, and the Dutch play-

SOPHRONIA when she was ordered lo be burned al the wright Pieter Hood's GRANIDA and DAIFILO, painted
stake. Friedrich Overbeck's Olindo and Sophronia bv Gerrit van Honthorst in 1625.

Arion: see Lyre (page 207) Ovid Fasti 11:79-129 Ovid HeroidsX\ Dante fa/mioV:88-142
Homer: sec Laurel (page 215) Boccaccio Ihraiiwivii 5th 1>.i\. 8th Storj Ariosto Orlando
Furioso I:\iii-\i and X:Xcii-cxiii rasso Jerusalem Delivered

XIV:lxvi—lxx Lasso Jerusalem Delivered XLX:ciii-cxii

 \HIS

Architecture, Drama, and Music

Painters «>t .ill eras have drawn upon the artistic inspi- Saint Matthew, the bankers' guild. Saint John the

ration <>f an liii<( is. thespians, and music i.ms to enrich Baptist was the patron saint of the cloth merchants'

theii own works. guild, as well as of Florence itself.

[Tie symbolic meaning of ARCHITECTURE in paint- Certain individual architectural features may carry

ing depends on both context and particular significance in paintings. For

contemporar) st\le. In fifteenth- example, a FOUNTAIN may symbolize

century Flemish art the nave of a the waters of eternal life, as in van
( lunch may be Romanesque with a Eyck's Adoration of the Lamb (see pages

Gothh east end. brightly lit through 86-87); it may also represent purifica-

tall narrow windows, to represent the tion, as in the legend of the unicorn. A
coming of the new order with the birth popular myth in the fifteenth century
of Christ. The capitals of pillars near was the Fountain of Youth: it was
Christ may be carved with scenes of the thought that when aged people drank
Fall of Man to illustrate that he came to from it they were immediately rejuve-

redeem Original Sin. In the Arena nated. Bernini's flamboyantly sculpted

Chapel, Padua, Giotto painted the Fountain of the Four Rivers (1648) in
Virtues within Gothic canopies, while Rome represents the continents.

the Vices are framed by Romanesque A COLUMN may indicate strength

arches. Buildings in ruin are often and is thus found with a figure of Fort-

found in scenes of the Adoration of the Fra Angelico's The Annunciation itude and on coats of arms. The
Magi and the Nativity, and imply the (detail; see pages 96-97) places the emperors Trajan and Marcus Aurelius
Virgin amid Corinthian columns. Rome
delapidation of the old order and the erected columns in carved with
establishment of the new order with scenes of their wars. Some biblical

the advent of Christ. Elaborately carved architectural scenes also feature columns: Samson broke the col-

elements in scenes of the Passion emphasize the high umns supporting a building and thereby killed many of
status of Christ's tormentors, especially Pilate, in con- the enemy; and Christ was whipped on a column at the
trast to the poverty of Christ and his Apostles. Flagellation. The spiral columns originating in the

The Florentine Renaissance rejected the Gothic style palace of King Solomon are known as Solomonic. The
favored north of the Alps and readopted classical ele- use of the Orders on columns may be significant: the

ments of architecture. In Rome, enthusiasm for the plain Doric signifies simplicity and restraint; Ionic
classical period inspired reconstructions of the past, as scrolls suggest learning; and the highly carved
shown in Raphael's cartoons of Saint Paul Preaching at Corinthian or Composite Orders signify important fig-

Athens (1515) and The Blinding of Ely mas (c.1515). As ures or settings and are also used for rich decoration.
well as providing a historical setting, classical architec- Later inclusions of classically inspired buildings might
ture may affirm a noble heritage. signify nostalgia for the past or, in the eighteenth cen-

In the early Renaissance the GUILDS OF FLORENCE tury, might advertize the fact that the learned patron
were leading patrons of the building and decoration of had visited classical sites on the Grand Tour.

many of the city's principal monuments. They commis- Whereas architectural elements were generally used

sioned statues of their patron saints to fill the niches of as symbolic embellishments to paintings, the theater
Orsanmichele, the guilds' church. These included was more likely to form the central theme. The
Saint George, patron saint of the armorers' guild; Saint COMMEDIA DELL'ARTE was an Italian dramatic tradi-

Luke, the lawyers'; Saint Mark, the linen-workers'; and tion, popular from the sixteenth to the eighteenth
 ARCHITECTURE. DRAMA. AND MUSIC 207

Lute: see Musical Instruments

century, which influenced many European play- Captain, Scaramouche, who brags of his riches and suc-
wrights and modern pantomimes, and provided cess as a lover; an aged Doctor who believes he offers
inspiration for such artists as Domenico Tiepolo wisdom but only utters empty rhetoric; Pantalone who
(1727-1804) and Watteau (1684-1721). The principal wears wide, loose trousers and is an earnest but comic
figures wore half-masks; gestures, speech, and costumes figure; greedy, bad-tempered Punchinello who enjovs
identified their characters and became loosely stan- harming others, and is the forerunner of Punch in

dardized for easy recognition. The repertoire, however, "Punch and Judy;" simple-minded Harlequin who is set

relied upon improvization, allowing for contemporary curious tasks, tries his best but never fully succeeds; and
social satire; and included acrobatics, mime, and dance. lastlv Columbine, Pantalone's daughter.
Appealing to all levels of society, the plots concerned ill- The role of the MASK in the Commedia dell'Arte was

fated lovers and mistaken identities. Stock characters inspired bv the ancient Greek theater, in which actors

included zanni, or servants, who are either witless or wore comic or tragic masks. These masks are the
conniving and cause various misunderstandings; a attributes of the comic and tragic muses Melpomene
Captain, who vainly boasts of his military success and and Thalia. A mask implies concealment and may thus
thinks his queen is in love with him; a variant of the be an attribute of Deceit.

Musical Instruments

The Greek word for "music" literally to Pan. and the LYRE to Apollo, god of

meanr. "the an of the Muses," and music and lyric poetry.

MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS are their In allegory, the civilized ryre ma\ be

attributes. Certain instruments have spe- contrasted with weapons of war, and
cial associations through their sound and musical instruments ma\ represent the

appearance: the TRUMPET is heraldic, sense- <>l he mi ing.

proclaiming a messenger or calling up In paintings, the inclusion of certain

the dead; the HARP suggests the divine, insti laments c ould indicate modernity: as
and is often played by choirs of angels; with, foi example, the small portable
the earthy BAGPIPE belonged to the ORGAN, popular during the fourteenth

lower classes and was played by shep- century; and the VIOL, which was devel-

herds; medieval pipes and the small oped during the Renaissance and
round-backed LUTE we're minstrels' appears in Giovanni Bellini's San
instruments and accompanied folk /ti< i una Altarpiet e (c.l 5( 15 )

dances; and TAMBOURINES and cymbals

provided the accompaniment t<> orgiastic
In Mantegna's Parnassus (detai
Bacchanalian dancing. The SYRINX pages 21 -25), the god Apollo plays his

(reed pipes of uneven length) was sacred lyre, symbolizing peact and harmony.

Column: see Passion of Chris! (pages 133—36), Samson Muses (box, page 63); Musical Instruments: see Muses
(page 128), Solomon (page 125), Trajan (page 201); Fountain: (box, page 63), St. ( ce ilia (page l
"i

see Unicom (box, page 236) Mask: see Deceil (page 211),
;
ao8 tin \Ris

Q
The World of Learning Lantern: see Diogenes of Sinope 1

Vllegorica] representations ol the seven LIBERAL ARTS Animals. Metaphysics, Poetics, Rhetoric, Politics,

ie< pai were popular firom the Middle ^gesand and Ethics. He was the great sage of reason and

Renaissance onwards. GRAMMAR, one of the learned Raphael gave him place of honor alongside
disciplines, was traditionally depicted as a sage, or a Plato in The School of Athens (r.1510). A medieval legend

teachei with .1 whip for discipline. In the seventeenth relates that, while teaching Alexander the Great,

centur) a new image emerged, showing Grammar as a Aristotle expounded that women were the downfall of

woman watering plants: "Just as plants are nourished by men and tried to persuade Alexander to abandon his

moderate application of water in succession, in the same favorite courtesan, Campaspe (who in some accounts is

fashion, the mind is made to grow by properly adapted called Phyllis). In revenge, Campaspe charmed Aristotle

tasks." This idea was taken up by Laurent de la Hyre in and insisted that he carry her on his back to prove his
his Allegorical Figure of Grammar ( 1 650) love. The subject was often painted on furniture along
The representation of PHILOSOPHY (see page 195) with related themes, such as Samson and Delilah.

in art was a popular theme. Doctors of Philosophy may The Greek philosopher PYTHAGORAS (r.582-

be recognized by their gowns, loose-fitting caps, or lec- 507bce) may appear as a personification of arithmetic
turer's wands; they may carry a book or mark off the in representations of the Liberal Arts. Salvator Rosa

points of an argument on their fingers. depicted DEMOCRITUS (460-370bce), in Democritus in

The celebrated Greek philosopher SOCRATES Meditation (1651), among human and animal skeletons,

( 469-399 bce), who taught by a sequence of questions meditating on the futility of life. Nicknamed the "laugh-

and answers, believed that wisdom lay in the recognition ing philosopher," Democritus derided the vanities and

of one's ignorance. The Greek Assembly charged him follies of humankind, 2 and was contrasted with the
with corrupting youth, and he was condemned to death haughty and melancholic philosopher HERACLITUS
by drinking a cup of hem- (active c\500bce). In The School of Athens, Raphael gave
lock. Jacques Louis David's the latter the likeness of Michelangelo.

Death of Socrates (1787) The Cynic philosopher and ascetic DIOGENES OF

shows him surrounded by SINOPE (c\412-323bce) was chosen as a subject by

grieving students, as he Jacob Jordaens in his 1642 painting Diogenes in the

calmly drinks from the cup. Market Place. He illustrates the story of the philosopher's
Socrates' pupil PLATO search for an honest man at the market: Diogenes is

(c.427-347bce) in turn shown in daylight, carrying a lantern, which represents

taught ARISTOTLE (384- his search for truth. He rejected all luxuries to the
322bce) who founded the extent of making his home in a large earthenware tub,
Peripatetic School in and cast off all worldly goods except his cloak and a
Athens, named after his drinking bowl. As Poussin shows in his painting
habit of walking up and Landscape with Diogenes (1648), when he saw a young
down while teaching. He man drinking from the river with his hands, Diogenes
wrote on Logic, Physics, even gave up his bowl. The Stoic philosopher SENECA
the Soul, the Heavens, (4bce-65ce) was tutor to Emperor Nero. When Nero
accused him of conspiracy, he was ordered to take his
own life.
3
Jacques Louis David's Death of Seneca (1773)
In this detail from Apollonio di
depicts how, with calm dignity, he opened his veins.
Giovanni 's mid- 15th-century
birthtray, The Triumph of Famous mathematicians have also been represented
Love, Campaspe rides Aristotle. in art. EUCLID (c.330-c.260bce) may represent geome-
 THE WORLD OF LEARNING 209

Bath: see Archimedes

The Zodiac

Astrology was particularly popular from the fourteenth to

SIGN EMBLEM GOD GODDESS
sixteenth century. Professors were appointed at universi-

ties and astrologers were consulted by statesmen, popes, Aries Ram Mars

and princes. The Earth was believed to be a fixed element

Taurus Bull Jupiter as a bull
surrounded by an unstable atmosphere composed of
Gemini Twins Castor and Pollux
spheres of increasing size, which contained the planets
Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. Cancer Crab Phaethon

These moved at different speeds and were controlled by

Leo Lion Hercules
angels. Beyond the farthest sphere was a static region
Virgo Virgin Ceres with corn
which housed the stars. The 12 bands of the zodiac fitted

into the planetary spheres. Libia Scales Ceres with fruit

Astrology was endorsed by Christianity because it was

Scorpio Scorpion Bacchus
thought to be directed by God. The aspect of the
Sagittarius Archer Centaur
heavenly bodies, such as the position of a planet in a

sign of the zodiac, was held to be mirrored in a person's Capricorn Goat Amalthea

physical and mental well-being. Each sign of the zodiac

Aquarius Water-bearer Janus
has a particular emblem and a classical figure associated
Pisces Fishes Venus and Cupid
with it (see table, right).

try, as in Raphael's School of Athens. ARCHIMEDES through the imaginary "philosopher's stone." which
(287-2 12bck), famous for shouting "Eureka" ("I have was thought to be the Elixir of Life. The art was prac-
found it") when he realized how to test the purity of ticed in monasteries during the Middle Ages by
metal from observing the volume of bath water dis- alchemists who believed that their experiments would

placed by his body, was said to have been so engrossed receive divine guidance. In art, the alchemist is usually

in a mathematical problem that he did not notice that seen at his furnace surrounded by flasks and crucibles.
his city, Syracuse, had been taken by the Romans. When Vasari and his associates illustrated such a practitioner
commanded by a soldier to come before the Roman in The Alchemist's Laboratory (c. 1570).

general Marcellus, he refused until the problem had HERMES TRISMEGISTUS ("thrice greatest") was the

been solved. The soldier drew his sword and ran the name given to the author of a set of writings on mysti-

mathematician through. Sebastiano Ricci (1659-1734) cism and alchemy. They probably belong to the third
depicted this scene in Archimedes and the Hero of Syracuse. century CE, but in the Renaissance wen- believed to be

ALCHEMY was based on the Aristotelian idea that by a contemporan of Moses, and to contain wisdom

there was a "prime matter" for all substances. It is best (lose to God. An image of Eermes Trismegistus
1 as a sage

known for the practice of turning base metals into gold. was inlaid on the floor of the nave in Siena Cathedral.

Aristotle: see Alexander the- Great (page 183), Campaspe 'Plutarch Moralia, The Education of Child'
(page 200), Samson (page 128) Juvenal Satires \:M l.u itus I n nab W tSO-64
 211

CHAPTER FIVE

SYMBOLS AND
ALLEGORIES

This chapter covers the emblematic meanings of

images that appear in Western art - from animal

symbols such as doves and snakes, other aspects of

nature such as flowers and landscapes, to everyday

objects such as candles and dice. These symbols were

not only deployed in isolation, but were also combined

to build up complex visual allegories on subjects such

as marriage, the four seasons, and the Seven Deadly

Sins. In allegorical paintings, artists often drew upon
the gods and goddesses of classical mythology to

personify human qualities or natural phenomena.

Jan van Evck: The Amolfini Marriage '212 Pablo Picasso: Guernica 226
Laurent de la Hyre: Allegory oj tin
1
Regain of Anne of Austria 214 Peter Paul Rubens: The Four Continents 22S
Giuseppe Arcimboldo: Summer 216 Quentin Massys: The Moneylender and His \\il> 230
Jean Antoine Watteau: Embarkation for the Island oj Cythera 2 1 Andrea Mantegna: Pallas Expelling tin Vices /ram the

Agnolo Bronzino: An Allegory with Venus and Cupid 220 Garden nf Virtue 232
Marc Chagall: To My Wife 222 Jan Steen: Beware of Luxury 23 i

Jean Cousin the Elder: Eva Prima Pandora 224

The Arnolfini Marriage
Jan van Eyck (c.1390-1440

This small mil-length double portrait records glazed windows, oranges, fur-lined clothes, the
1101 only a couple exchanging their wedding mirror decorated with tiny scenes of the
\<>ws but also the interior of a wealthy Passion of Christ, the caned bedhead, the rich
merchant's home in early fifteenth-century draperies, and the carpet are all evidence of
Bruges. The artist has witnessed the union of this merchant's success. Everything points to a
this couple by inscribing in Latin Johannes de happy marriage - the faithful dog between
eyck fait hie 1434 (Jan van Eyck was here 1434) them, the cleanliness of the room, the rosary
on the far wall. He has painted objects of the hanging on the wall, the groom's gesture of
everyday world with such staggering precision acceptance, the bride's modestly bowed head,
that even the convex mirror reflects the room and her forthcoming child, which will be born
and visitors entering. on their comfortable double bed under the
The painting may be taken as an allegory of auspices of the carved image of Saint Margaret
ideal marriage. Prosperity abounds - the - patron saint of childbirth.

KEY ELEMENTS
DOG: Many diverse qualities are ascribed to dogs in art. MARRIAGE: One of the seven sacraments of the
Creatures of fidelity and loyalty, they are depicted on Catholic Church, the ideal marriage is sometimes
medieval tombs lying at the feet of their masters, and in represented by that of the Virgin and Joseph.
portraits they represent similar qualities. Dogs may also Faithfulness within matrimony is often symbolized by a
have the role of guardians - in classical myth, for exam- personification of Faith - one of the three Theological
ple, the three-headed Cerberus stood at the entrance to Virtues - who may hold a book, a lighted candle and a
the Underworld. They may even be used to express heart, a cross or a chalice.

carnal desire or to signify greed - as in the fable of the

dog which, holding a cake in its jaws, looked down into

water and lost the cake in an attempt to catch its reflec- SEE ALSO PAGE PAGE

tion. A dog is the attribute of Saint Roch, and

Candle 247 Sacraments 248
black-and-white dogs in Dominican scenes are, in a pun
Fruit 240 St. Margaret of Antioch 172
on the Order's name, depicted as Domini Canes or
The Life of Christ 1 32-37 Virtues 250
"Hounds of the Lord;" they may be seen chasing wolves,
Rosary 248
which represent heretics.
li M f

vkr
1 '
^v

if'

B(
 DE LAHYRE: ALLECORY OF THE REGENCY OF ANNE OF AUSTRIA 21'

Allegory of the Regency

of Anne of Austria
Laurent de la Eyre (1606-1656)

A female personification of France sits in the weapons of war into the fire as a sign of peace.

center of this large composition wearing classi- The classical temple depicted in the back-
cal drapery and holding a palm of victory and ground, together with the horn, cornucopia,
a globe covered with fleurs-de-lys (from the and fruit below France's feet, represent the
twelfth century, this heraldic lily with three bountiful and civilized benefits of peace.
petals bound at the base featured on the De la Hyre's painting is dated 1648 and has
French royal coat of arms). The winged figure sometimes been interpreted as an allegory of
standing behind France is about to crown her the Treaty of Westphalia (signed in that year,
with a laurel wreath, and may represent the treaty brought an end to the Thirty Years'

Victory, Virtue, or perhaps Fortitude or War). Alternatively, the work has been seen as
Constancy - as the column behind her sug- an allegory of the Regency of Anne of Austria
gests. Above these figures, Fame celebrates the - her son Louis XIV was aged onlv five when
glories of France by blowing on a horn, while a his father died, and Anne ruled France on his

young boy on the right appears to be throwing behalf from 1643 to 1661.

KEY ELEMENT
LAUREL: In classical mythology, the bay leaf of the SEE ALSO PAG) PAGI

laurel tree became sacred to Apollo when divine powers

Architecture 206 Fortitude 250
turned the mortal Daphne into a laurel. This transfor-
Breast 245 Fruii 240
mation was designed to save her from Apollo's embrace
Column 206 Musical Instruments 207
after Cupid struck the god with his arrow of love.
( !ornu< opia I'll Palm 24
Daphne was pierced with the arrow that puts love to
Daphne 76 Peace 244
flight,
1

and in paintings she is usually seen fleeing

Fame 24 1

Apollo's advances as her arms metamorphose into

branches. Those worthy of honor wore a crown or
wreath of laurel leaves, and for poets, this gave rise to

the term "poet laureate." Victorious generals of ancient

Rome are often depicted crowned with laurel.

'Ovid Metamorphoses 1 452-567
 ARCIMBOLDO: SUMMER 217

Summer
Giuseppe Arcimboldo 0527-93;

The Milanese artist Giuseppe Arcimboldo was

employed as a portrait painter at the court of

the Habsburg emperors in Prague. He was also

noted for painting a type of "capriccio" - an
inventive conceit that was much in demand.
These pictures look like heads or figures when
seen from a distance but, on closer inspection,
are made up of fruit, vegetables or other
objects. Arcimboldo created an image of
Agriculture from spades, plows, scythes, and
other farm tools, while his 1573 figure of
Summer is formed from the season's produce.
This double imager)', transforming one thing
into another, inspired the works of the
Surrealist painter Salvador Dali.

KEY ELEMENT
STILL LIFE: The painting of inanimate objects or

"still lifes" emerged as a subject in its own right during

the seventeenth century, and was particularly popular

in Holland, which had a tradition of delight in the

everyday world. However, this art form can be traced

back to classical antiquity, when the celebrated Zenxis

reputedly painted a bunch oi grapes so naturalisticallv

that birds tried to eat them. Carefully arranged, with

controlled lighting, the objects may be significant - but

above all, these works were a displax ol the artist's virtu-

osity. Both humble and extravagant objects were

included, the latter often carrying implications of

wealth or aspiration.

SEE ALSO PAGl PAGI

Com 240 I ands< ape 2 12

Fruit 240 Seasons 243

1 [arvest 242
n8

Embarkation for the

Island of Cjthera
Jean Antvine Watte au (1684-172O

( ythera was an island paradise where love pre-

vailed. In Watteau's enchanted landscape of
1717, couples act out the stages of love, from
persnasion to submission and accord. On the
right, a man propositions a girl as Cupid tugs
her skirt, another helps a woman to her feet,

while his friend draws a lady forward as she

hesitates. To the left, beside a gilded boat with
oarsmen ready to depart, the women - who
appear equally enamored - are shown encour-
aging the men. Watteau's style was well suited
to visions of an idealized world where beautiful
women in shimmering fabrics are courted by
elegant gentlemen. The autumnal colors give

the painting a melancholy air, perhaps reflect-

ing Watteau's recognition of the transcience of

life - consumption killed him at the age of 37.
Another interpretation suggests that the lovers

are already on Cythera and are preparing,

reluctantly, to return to the everyday world.

KEY ELEMENT
FETE CHAMPETRE: Scenes of the wealthy pursuing
romantic pleasures in an idealized pastoral landscape
were known as Fetes Champetres, and were popular in

eighteenth-century France. Fashionably dressed couples

amuse themselves by dancing, playing music or talking,

and an air of gentle ennui may pervade the scene.

SEE ALSO PAGE PAGE

Cupid 72 Putto 47
Dog 212 Rose 241

Nude 223 Venus 11

WATTEAL: EMBARKATION FOR THE ISLAND OF CYTHERA 219
 BRONZINO: AN ALLEGORY WITH VENUS AND CUPID 221

An Allegory with Venus and Cupid

Agnolo Bronzino (1503-15??)

Bronzino served as court painter to Cosimo I, foot. To the right, a playful boy prepares to

Grand Duke of Tuscany. This painting of throw rose petals, seemingly unaware that he
around 1540-50 is a masterpiece of variety and has trodden on thorns and that one has
intrigue as male and female figures of all ages pierced his right foot. Behind him a pretty' girl

are arranged in a shallow depth across the holds out a honeycomb - but her sweet gesture
canvas, causing the eye to zigzag over the is a deception because in her other hand she
surface of the composition. Together they holds the sting of her reptilian tail.

form an allegory that refers to the destructive In the background, Old Father Time,
power of love. watched by a mask-like figure and earning his

In the center, a naked Venus clutches her hourglass on his winged back, either tries to

golden apple, the prize that brought about the cover up the group or to reveal their harmful
Trojan War; with her right hand she disarms powers; and on the left, a man clutches his
her son Cupid, who embraces her erotically - head and screams in agony, tormented by a
almost crushing the dove of peace with his diseased mind.

KEY ELEMENTS
DECEIT: In Bronzino's allegorical picture, Deceit or of fools are shipped off to the Land of Fools without a
Fraud has the face of a beautiful young girl, the lower pilot or directions. This satire on human vice and folly

body and tail of a reptile, and the feet of a lion. Deceit inspired allegorical illustrations such as Bosch's Ship of

may also be represented by a mask - for example, an Fools (c.1495).

old woman wearing the face of a young girl.

FOLLY: From the Middle Ages to the seventeenth SEE ALSO PAGI PAGI

century, jesters were the licensed fools of royalty and

Apple 240 Mask 207
the aristocracy. Giotto's Folly (r. 1310) is a fat youth wear-
Arrow 246 Nude 223
ing a feathered crown and a tattered tunic, holding a
Cupid 72 Rust I'll
club. Bronzino's Folly is the grinning young boy with
Discord 01 Time 24 1

bells around his ankles like a jester about to throw

Dow 239 Venus 11
petals over Venus. In Das Narrenschifj (1494) by the
Judgment ol Paris 38
German satirist Sebastian Brant (1458-1521). a variety
 CHAGALL: TO MY WIFE 22.3

To My Wife
Marc Chagall (1887-1985)

Chagall was extremely prolific and his pictures

are steeped in folklore and memories of his

Jewish upbringing in Russia. By 1914 his work

was internationally renowned, but although its

imaginative qualities attracted the Surrealists,

he refused the invitation to join them. He met
Bella Rosenfeld in 1909 and married her in

1915, celebrating their blissful union in

hundreds of paintings, including this one

of 1933-44. She was his manager, muse, and
guardian angel, and together they fled

Moscow, Leningrad, Paris, and Berlin to escape

the terrors of Bolshevik and Fascist Europe.

KEY ELEMENT
NUDE: In the mythical Golden Age. humankind lived

in harmony with nature and clothes were unnecessary

likewise, Adam and Eve wandered naked in Eden with-

out feeling shame. Nudes can represent power, delight.

fecundity, shame, poverty, or truth and were intended
to transport the viewer into a world of the imagination.

The female form may express the abundance of nature

and the source of life and may be endowed with charms
that accorded with current taste and fashion; the ideal-

ized male may be given strength and grace. Even if the

subject warns against the dangers of love, the figures

ma) be profoundly sensual.

SEE ALSO PAGl PAGl

Angel 1 amb 237

Fish 237 Moon 242

Flowers I'll Musical Instruments 207

Fruit 240 I imc 244

Goat 237 Umbrella 247

HIES
 COUSIN: EVA PRIMA PANDORA 225

Eva Prima Pandora

Jean Cousin the Elder (0.1500-0.1560)

Few works are attributed to Jean Cousin the

Elder, although it is recorded that he designed
fortifications, mended a clock, and repaired a
statue for the cathedral of his birthplace - Sens
in southwest France. He combined influences
from Dutch art, the Italian Mannerists, and the
School of Fontainebleau in his paintings, and
this elongated nude of r.1550 unites mythical
and Christian themes. In mythology, Pandora
brought evil to the world; she is Eve's counter-

part and is shown here holding the biblical

apple of temptation, while the skull on which

she reclines seems to look up as a reminder of
mortality. The image is a powerful message of
the dangers of women.

KEY ELEMENT
SKULL: Monks and saints used skulls as a meditation
aid. for they were- a reminder of death, and in Dutch
still lifes skulls were included as a memento man - as in

Harmen Steenwyck's Allegory of the Vanities ofHuman Life

(1612). An old man often holds one in allegories of the

Ages ol Man. while the skull in Frans Hals' Young Man

Holding a Skull (1626-28) represents time passing.
Crucifixion scenes may also show a skull, for the site

was named Golgotha ("a place of a skull"). And as leg-

end claimed that (

'hi ist was crucified on the spot where
Adam was buried, Adam's uncovered skull max indicate
Christ's sacrifice lor the redemption of humankind.

SEE ALSO PAGl I'M.

Adam and Eve 88 Landscape 242

Ages of Man 2 15 Nude 223

Apple 240 Pandora

Guernica
Pablo Picasso d88i-i 97 3)

Picasso's emotive canvas of 1937 was a public and the crucifixion pose of the fallen warrior

protest against the Nazi bombing of the are all generic images of war and death. The
Basque town of Guernica in the same year, and bull represents brutality, while the horse rep-

it bursts with personal symbols of suffering and resents the anguish of the innocent. Together,
violence. To the right, figures flee a burning these agonized figures form a kind of collage,
building from which a woman falls; to the left, silhouetted against the darkness and starkly lit

a wailing mother holds her child, while a tri- by a woman with a lamp and an eye with a
umphant bull tramples on a fallen warrior. lightbulb for a pupil. The newsprint quality of

The broken sword, the flower, the dove, the the monochrome and the stark contrast of
skull (hidden within the body of the horse), light and dark enhance the powerful impact.
KEY ELEMENT
WAR: Representations of the futility and horror of war SEE ALSO I'U.l PAGI

include Durer's engraving Knight, Death and the Devil

Breast 'J 15 Eyes 244
(1513), which shows a warrior riding forth oblivious to
Bull 236 Flowers 241
his grim companions. Rubens presented his Allegory oj
Death 245 I amp 247
Peace and War 1630)
( as an argument against conflict in
Skull 225
Dove 239
Europe, while his Consequences oj War 1638) shows how
(

War, led by Disaster, tramples over the civilized arts. In

contrast, paintings may show the missionary zeal of the

(
'.rusades or depict a war conducted in the cause of free-
dom, as in Delacroix's Liberty Leading the People ( 1830).
IRIF.S
 RUBENS: THE FOUR CONTINENTS 229,

The Four Continents

Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640)

A prolific artist and an active diplomat, Rubens

traveled widely and was friendly with many
European rulers - two of whom knighted him.
He was also highly educated, often including
classical references in his allegorical paintings.

This canvas of 1615 is thought to represent the

four continents of Africa, Asia, Europe, and
America. The upturned urns are attributes of
the ancient gods who inhabited the countries'
rivers - the gods are seen lazing under a
canopy, attended by naked women. A tigress

represents the River Tigris, while putti play

with a crocodile, the svmbol of the Nile.

KEY ELEMENT
CONTINENTS: The four continents were popular sub-

jects with Baroque artists - for example Tiepolo's grand

ceiling fresco Apollo and the Continents (c 1750). Jesuits

also favored the subject, for it visualized their intention

to spread the Catholic faith. The continents were often

personified as river gods, and may appear with indige-

nous animals or recline on urns from which water flows

- a veiled head indicating that a river's source was
unknown. Africa may wear coral, be shown with a
sphinx, a lion or an elephant; the Vmericas may dress

as a hunter with a feathered headpiece, while coins

represent rich natural resources; Asia may appear with

a camel, a rhinoceros, an elephant, palm trees, jewels or

exotic perfumes; Europe may be a bull or a horse, maj
hold a cornucopia or crown of supremacy, and is some-
times surrounded by figures representing the arts.

SEE ALSO PAGl PAGI

( loi n 240 Nude 223

( n>< odile 238 PllttO 17

1 uropa 53
The Moneylender and His Wife
Quentin Massys (^64/65-1530)

\i his peak, Quentin Massys (also Matsys or (Leviticus 19:36). The moneylender looks
Metsys) was the leading painter in Antwerp, intently at the level of his scales as he checks
Belgium. His house, with its polychrome statue the weight of some gold coins, while a cluster

aiid impressive frescoed facade, was one of the of pearls rests nearby. His wife leans toward
main sights of the town. Massys spent much of him, distracted from her reading as she deli-

his career painting altarpieces, but he also cately turns the page of her gilded prayer

produced several satirical paintings featuring book; she may momentarily share the same
tax collectors, bankers, and avaricious mer- preoccupation as her husband, but she must
chants, depicting these figures' surroundings balance the activities of daily life with spiritual
with typical Flemish delight. concerns. To remind us of the Scriptures, a
In the seventeenth century, the frame of this convex mirror placed prominently in the fore-

particular canvas of 1514 was inscribed "Let ground reflects a window, forming the shape
the balance be just and the weights be equal" of a traditional Christian cross.

KEY ELEMENTS
COINS: Money or coins often suggest avarice, bribery both these figures. Scales may also denote the zodiacal
or corruption; for according to the Bible, "the love of sign of Libra, or be pictured with relevant trades.

money is the root of all evil."

1

The Apostle Matthew was 'I Timothy 6:10

originally a tax-collector and may be seen with other

figures counting money. Christ may be pictured turning
the moneylenders out of the temple or paying the trib-

ute money to the pharisee, while Judas Iscariot may be SEE ALSO PAGE PAGE

seen betraying Christ for 30 pieces of silver.

Cross 248 St. Matthew 141

Judas Iscariot 166 Michael 84, 118

SCALES: Justice weighs right against wrong with a pair
Justice 250 Zodiac 209
of scales, while Saint Michael uses them to weigh souls
Last Judgment 92-93
at the Last Judgment - so scales are the attribute of
MASSYS:THE MONEYLENDER AND HIS WIFE 23l
 MANTECNA: PALLAS EXPELLING THE VICES 233

Pallas Expelling
the Vices from the
Garden of Virtue
Andrea Mantegna (c.1431-1506)

Mantegna painted this canvas (r.1499-1502)

for the Duchess of Mantua, flattering her by
likening her to Pallas Minerva. Pallas rushes in
on the left, driving a swarm of cupids and
other figures before her and gazing at the sky
where Temperance, Justice, and Fortitude
float on a cloud. Behind her, a figure turns

into a tree, around which a scroll begs the

Virtues to banish the Vices. On the right,
Ingratitude and saggy-breasted Avarice earn
obese Ignorance, followed by a satyr, and a
centaur earning a nude - who may represent
sensual love. An ape with bags of evil across his
shoulders symbolizes Immortal Hatred,
Malice, and Fraud, while Sloth leads armless
Idleness on a rope. The women in blue and
green with Pallas may be Diana and Chastitv.

KEY ELEMENT
BATTLE OF VIRTUES AND VICES: Opposing vices
and virtues may be shown in battle, such as Faitli against

Idolatry, Humility against Pride, and Chastit) against

Lust; or they may be set against one another in niches -

as under Giotto's narrative frescoes. From the Renais-

sance Minerva, Apollo, Diana, and Mercury may Fight

lor die Virtues, and Venus and Cupid for the Vices, as

in Perugino's Battle Between Love and Chastity (1505).

SEE ALSO PAG! PAGI

Ape 236 Garden 242

Armor •_'
16 Minerva 59

Centaur 28 Nude 223

Cupid 72 Sat\r 27

Diana 61 Virtues
Beware of Luxury
Jan Steen (16*6-79)

Packed with references to proverbs, Steen's

painting of a 1663 shows a sleeping housewife

Mil rounded by examples of intemperance and
( arelessness. Two lovers - indicated by the

man's leg over the woman's knee - drink wine,

while the man laughs at a remonstrating
woman and ignores the man with a duck on
his shoulder (a quacker, or quaker). Nor does
he heed the sword and crutches - objects of
punishment - in the basket above. Wine spills

from an overturned pitcher and an uncorked

barrel on the left, an unattended child has
dropped his bowl, and a dog gobbles up food
on the table. In the background, a young boy
smokes, a girl steals from a cupboard, a foolish
monkey stops the clock, and a roast has fallen
into the fire. Meanwhile, a pig sniffs roses
dropped by the lover - a Dutch equivalent of
"pearls before swine" - and playing cards act as

a reminder of the dangers of gambling.

KEY ELEMENTS
LUXURY: Many seventeenth-century Dutch artists

depicted luxury, showing richly dressed figures at tables

covered with sumptuous objects. These paintings
warned of the vanity of earthly possessions and waste-
fulness, and Jan van de Velde's Death Surprising a Young

Couple (r.1620) bears the inscription: "We often sit in

luxury, while Death is closer than we know."

SEE ALSO PAGE PAGE

Ape 236 Intemperance 251

Cards 246 Lust 250
Coins 230 Pig 237
Dog 212 Rose 241
STEEN: BEWARE OF LUXURY 285
The Animal World Beehive: see Bee

\« K.ss the world and throughout history, animals have artists "ape" or imitate nature; and in the nineteenth-

been accorded powerful mythological, cultural, and century, caricaturists mocked students as apes imitating

religious significance. In mythology, Orpheus tamed their masters.

the .mini. iK with his music; in the Old Testament, God A less satirical but nevertheless comic role is assumed
iu (1 ilu animals in the Garden of Eden, Adam in mythology by the ASS who is often considered lazy or

named them, and Noah gathered them in pairs for the stupid. But at the Nativity, it is the humble ox and ass

\i k In se stories represent a time when humans lived

1 that recognize Christ as the Son of God. An ass with a

in harmony with animals. And yet humankind has also millstone around its neck implies obedience, as in the

slaughtered animals on a massive scale in sacrifice to stories of the Sacrifice of Isaac, the Virgin on the Flight
the gods, believing that revenge would follow if they did into Egypt, and Christ on the Entry into Jerusalem.
not give offerings to the divine world. The BEE, the beehive, and honey appear frequently
Medieval bestiaries outlined the characteristics of in myth. Cupid was stung by a bee while stealing a
real and imagined animals, and endowed them with honeycomb - the scene is amusingly depicted in a
great moral symbolism. The APE, or monkey, for exam- painting by Lucas Cranach (see page 72).
ple, often represents the base instincts of humans and Goya and Picasso are among those painters who have
is used to satirize human affectation, folly, and vanity. In been fascinated by the confrontation between toreador
Molenaer's Lady World (1633) a monkey slips its paw and BULL. To the ancient Greeks this animal signified
into a slipper as a representation of lust; in The Monkey potency and power, not ferocity: the god Jupiter
Painter (1740) Chardin uses the animal to reveal how disguised himself as a bull in order to rape Europa - for

Mythical Creatures

The encounters of early travelers with unfamiliar animals fired the imagi-

nations of generations of writers and artists, giving rise to the creation of

many fabulous beasts. One such creature is the DRAGON, often depicted as

a gigantic, winged reptile with huge jaws, a barbed tail, eagle's legs, and
sharp claws. In Christian iconography the dragon may represent the Devil,

who appeared to Saint Margaret of Antioch in this form. The tale of Saint

George and the Dragon was popular in fifteenth-century Italian art, where
the beast may represent the infidel vanquished by the Christian knight.

Far less fearsome than the dragon is the UNICORN - a magnificent white

pony with a goat's beard and a horn in the center of its head. With this horn
it purifies waters poisoned by a serpent so that animals can drink. It is

strong and swift, but can be caught by a virgin, whose purity it senses and in

whose lap it will rest. Tapestries now hanging in the Metropolitan Museum,

New York, show it being hunted and captured, while those at the Cluny

Museum, Paris, may be an allegory of the five senses. Both series have

In Martin Srhongauer's The Mystical chivalric references, as the creature was associated with courtly love, and
Hunt (detail; c.1475), the unicorn is was likened to a man who becomes the helpless servant of the lady he loves.
depicted with the Virgin Mary, symbolizing Dragon: see Perseus (pages 32-33), St. George (pages 163 and 176-77)
her extreme purity. Unicorn: see St. Justina of Antioch (page 172)
 THE ANIMAL WORLD 23?

Star: see Camel

this reason, a bull may represent the the Greek word for fish, Ichthus,

continent of Europe. Similar roles contains the initial letters of Jesus

are afforded the CROCODILE, CHristos, THeou Uios, Soter (Jesus

which is sometimes used to depict Christ, Son of God, Savior). The

Africa or Asia, and the ELEPHANT, variety of fish caught in the biblical
which appears in Old Testament episode of The Miraculous Draught
scenes to evoke the East. The of Fishes (see pages 148-49) stood
elephant can also symbolize the for the many types of people who
continent of Africa. would embrace Christianity
In many paintings a CAT may be Another potent symbol in

shown as a peaceful, domestic Christian art is the STAG, which may

animal, but a stealthy cat about to In van lark's The Arnolfini Marriage drink at the spring of life-giving
pounce suggests that trouble is lurk- (detail; see pages 212-13) the small dog waters 5 - as seen in mosaics from
symbolizes the couple's faithfulness.
ing. In Manet's Olympia (1863) a Galla Placida. The animal is the
black cat, with arched back and attribute of Saints Eustace, Giles,
bristling tail, announces an intruder into the courte- Hubert, and Julian. In secular art, Edwin Landseer's
san's domain. A black cat, or witch's familiar, is aggressive Monarch of the den (1851) echoes the proud,
associated with evil. Faithfulness is the virtue most self-satisfied character of the Victorian ruling class.

frequently associated with the cat's traditional adversary Stags were also frequently used bv royalty and bv the
the DOG (see page 212). Dogs can also be guardians or aristocracy as a heraldic device - a white hart was

symbolize greed. adopted as Richard II of England's emblem, and is seen

Many animals have biblical associations in art, espe- on the badges of the angels in the Wilton Diptych (see

cially the LAMB, which was used to represent Christ (see pages 86-87). In classical mythology, the stag or hart
pages 86-87). It may also symbolize one of Christ's flock was hunted by Diana." She even changed Actaeon into
of followers under the protection of (he Good a stag for intruding on her as she bathed.

Shepherd, 1

as illustrated in the early Christian mosaics Both Christian and mythological significance is also

of the Mausoleum of Galla Placida, Ravenna, Italy. In attributed to the GOAT. The animal was sacred to the

Old Testament scenes a CAMEL is often included to give Roman supreme god Jupiter, who was suckled by a she-
authenticity to the setting. This animal was considered goat. Goats max also be associated with Pan or Bacchus
royal, and is seen with the Magi following the star. Saint and his lust\ satyrs. In the Christian world, the Israelites

John the Baptist is often depicted wearing a tunic of sacrificed goats to the Lord, while the scapegoat took

camel hair. According to the Old Testament, God told tin- sins of the world into the wilderness. 7 William
Moses and Aaron to "speak unto the children of Israel, Holman Hunt painted a forlorn image of The Scapegoat

saying: These are the beasts which ye shall eat among all in 1854—55. In the Gospel of Saint Matthew, goats are
the beasts that are on the earth." 4 The meat of the PIG likened to the unbelievers - and when all nations

was not included as it was deemed unclean. Pigs were gather before Christ, "he shall separate them one
considered greedy animals and prone to lust. from another, as a shepherd divideth his sheep from
"~
An early symbol of Christianity was the FISH because the goats.

Ass: see Isaac (page 122); Bee: see Saint Ambrose (page 169), 'Genesis 1:24-25 Genesis 6:19 John 10:11 'Leviticus 11:2-7
Cupid (page 72); Bull: see Kuropa (page 53); Elephant: see Psalms 12 I Virgil Aew«dVII:480-500 Leviticus 16:10
Hannibal (page 203). Continents (page 229) Matthew 25:32
 Caduceus: see Snake

I Ik LION has an ancient and significant role as the Mercury by Apollo, the caduceus remains an
kingoi beasts, representing strengths ourage, and forti- emblem of the medical profession to this day. A
tude, .ind has long been included in royal and brazen serpent was also used by Moses to cure
.11 isitK i.uii emblems. It is a ferocious beast and to over- Israelites of snake bites.

( ome 11 may be seen as proof of superhuman strength - In the classical world, the snake was also thought to

as in the stories of Samson and David in the Old be wise, an idea continued in the Gospels: "Be ye there-
l< Maim in and the classical tales of the hero Hercules. fore wise as serpents, and harmless as doves."- But in the

A lion lying peacefully with other animals suggests a Old Testament, the serpent had been synonymous with
Paradise or Golden Age without conflict; Daniel in the evil, and its wisdom was the cunning of the Devil: "the

lions' den represents God's redemption of his people. serpent was more subtil than any beast of the field.
s
In

Vigilance is another of the lion's perceived qualities, representations of the Temptation the snake is often

as stated in the Old Testament: "the lion which is the given the head of a woman, because Eve, tempted by
mightiest among beasts and does not turn back before the snake, gave the forbidden fruit to Adam, and
any."' It may therefore be the guardian of doorways or woman is thus considered to be a temptress. In paint-

support church pulpits as a pillar of vigilance. ings of the Immaculate Conception, the Virgin may
In mythology, lions draw the chariot of Cybele, the stand on a snake to show triumph over evil.

personification of Mother Earth. In Christian icono- The snake has been a phallic symbol since the earli-

graphy a lion is an attribute of Saint Jerome. A winged est times. The Devil and his demons are often shown
lion symbolizes Saint Mark, patron saint of Venice; the with snake-like sexual organs. A snake may be
city therefore adopted this image as their religious and poisonous too, and the attribute of Saint John the
political emblem. Evangelist is a chalice full of snakes, based on the
From ancient times it was believed that the SNAKE legend that he drank poison without suffering any
had great tenacity for life and possessed medicinal harm. The idea of "a snake lurking in the grass' N
powers. A serpent coiled around a staff, the caduceus, is suggests hidden danger even in the midst of peaceful

the attribute of Aesculapius, god of medicine. Given to nature, such as at the ill-starred wedding of Orpheus
and Eurydice.
An asp was the traditional emblem of Egypt, conspic-
uous on the royal diadem. No one bitten by an asp
survived, and it was, therefore, an appropriate symbol

of the invincibility of Egyptian rule. Cleopatra commit-

ted suicide with an asp's bite.

The SALAMANDER was a mythical, lizard-like reptile

thought to live in, and be impervious to, fire. It nour-

ished the good and destroyed the bad, and was adopted
as an emblem of Francis I of France.

In Carpaccio s St. Jerome and the Lion in the Monastery

(detail; see pages 150-51 ) the lion follows the saint faithfully.

Lion: see Daniel (page 126), David (page 124), Cybele (page 'Proverbs 30:30 2
Matthew 10:16 'Genesis 3:1-14
56), Hercules (page 68), St. Jerome (pages 151 and 170); •Virgil Eclogues 111:92-93

Snake: see Adam and Eve (page 88), Caduceus (page 247)
 THE ANIMAL WORLD 289

Birds

In classical augur)', the flight of It was believed 1

that a PELICAN nourished its voung
flocks of hirds was read as a with its own blood, and the bird was therefore used to

sign from the gods. For exam- represent self-sacrifice and charity. It was likened to

ple the CROW and the RAVEN Christ, whose blood brought salvation.

were considered unlucky, while With its strength, speed, and soaring flight, the EAGLE
the SWALLOW and the STORK is appropriately the attribute of the supreme Roman god
were thought to he lucky. In Jupiter and a symbol of the planet Jupiter. It was adopted
early Christian art a hird as the Roman insignia and was later used to represent the

suggested the "winged soul" or Holy Roman Empire, the United States of America, and
the spirit, recalling an idea other nations and dynasties. The attribute of Juno was a

held hy the ancient Egyptians PEACOCK With its sumptuous plumage and decorative
that the soul left the hody as a qualities, it has been much utilized, especially in the Arts

hird at death. and Crafts and Art N'ouveau movements.

In Ingres's Jupiter and The Christ Child may hold a One myth tells how Cygnus mourned the death of his

Thetis (detail; see pages hird, often a GOLDFINCH, as a friend Phaethon and, mistrusting the skies and haung
36-37) an eagle is the sign of his Passion. In fire, he chose to inhabit rivers, where he was changed
attribute of Jupiter.
Raphael's Madonna 0/ the into a SWAN. The fabled "swan song" was thought to be

Goldfinch {c. 1506), Christ sung just before the bird died. Swans are associated with

strokes the hird, but in Michelangelo's Taddei Tondo the Muses and with Apollo; one Greek legend claims that

(c. 1504) he recoils from it. the soul of Apollo, and therefore of all good poets,

The CRANE represents vigilance and appears in turned into a swan. These magnificent birds may be

Raphael's Miraculous Draught of Fishes (see pages 148-49) shown drawing Venus's chariot. Jan Asselijn's The

on the alert for fish that might slip out of the net. A Threatened Swan (niid-se\entrrnth century) was retitled

legendary bird of great beauty, the

1

PHOENK was said to Netherlands Defending Her Sest Against the Enemies of the

transform in its own fire. In early Christian funerary State after the artist acquired the Grand Pensionary of the
sculpture, it is a symbol of the Resurrection and the hope Dutch Republic .is his new patron.
of victory over death. Pliny the Eldei Natural History X:3 |<>lm 13:38 'Physiologus

In mythological paintings, a DOVE sometimes appears

with female deities, especially Venus, as a representation

of love. This bird is also associated with funerary cults and

was believed to carry souls to the afterlife. In the Old
Testament, a dove returned to the ark with an olive leal

in its beak, indicating to Noah that the waters had abated.

In Christianity, the bird symboli/es the Holv Ghost.

The COCK is associated with the dawn of a new day,

because it crows at sunrise. It was thought to be vigilant

and is, therefore, shown on weathervanes. With Saint

Peter a cock indicates his denial ol Christ, who had said

to him, "Wilt thou lay down thy life For m\ sake? Verily,

verilv, I sav unto thee the cock shall not crow, till thou In fan Brueghel's and Rubens' [he Sense ol Smell (detail;

hast denied me tin ice." early 17th century), peacocks stroll in an ornamental garden.
240

The Fruits of the Earth

I he bountj <>t nature is frequently represented in an by Although not specified as such in the Bible, the

.1 cornucopia <>i bowl overflowing with flowers and APPLE is taken to be the forbidden fruit from the Tree

FRUIT; mi< li scenes are often accompanied by Ceres, of Knowledge - perhaps because mains is Latin for both

Idess "1 agriculture, and personifications of Peace, apple and evil. An apple thus represents the Original
Abundance, and Summer. Fruit may be included in Sin and the Fall of Man, and may be the attribute of
STILL LIFE paintings (see page 217) to illustrate the Eve. An apple may also refer to other sins: in Past and
transience of life, while exotic or out-of-season fruits Present (1858), Augustus Egg shows an adulterous
ma\ suggest wealth. Some artists painted fruit purely to mother cast out of her home, an apple creating a paral-
demonstrate their skill. lel with Eve's expulsion from Eden. In contrast, the
Christ Child may hold an apple to signify salvation and
redemption, and in mythological paintings the golden
Shells apple of Discord is the attribute of Venus.
A POMEGRANATE is the attribute of Proserpina
In mythology, a SCALLOP shell was the attribute of (Persephone in the Greek), who was condemned to stay

Venus, who was born from the sea. Neptune and in the Underworld for half of each year after she ate its

Galatea may be depicted riding in chariots formed seeds. The fruit symbolizes the bleakness of autumn and
from shells, while tritons and other figures may use winter and the regeneration of spring and summer -
CONCH shells as trumpets. Rossetti's Proserpina (1874) contemplates the restrictions
In the seventeenth century, OYSTERS were consid- of her life. Christianity adopted the fruit as a symbol of
ered a delicacy and an aphrodisiac. They often the Resurrection, and the Christ Child is sometimes
appear in brothel scenes and may denote a prosti-
shown holding a pomegranate - as in Botticelli's Mad-
tute; oyster-selling was regarded as one of die lowest
onna of the Magnificat (1480s). Christ may also hold a
forms of trade. In Jan Steen's Easy Come, Easy Go
CHERRY, which represents the sweetness of good works.
(1661), an old woman shucks oysters for a man as a
Other classical figures who have foods as their
young girl offers him wine. In Dutch seventeenth-
attributes are Bacchus and Ceres. The VINE and grapes
century still lifes, such as those of Abraham van
are the attributes of Bacchus and Silenus, and of
Beyeren (1620/21-90), exotic shells allude to newly
Autumn, while figures drinking wine in seventeenth-
discovered territories, and display the artist's skill.
century Dutch art are susceptible to lust and sloth. In

Christian art, grapes symbolize the wine of the

Eucharist. Ears or sheaves of CORN are the attribute of

Ceres, and may appear with Summer, Peace or Abund-

ance. In Christian art, they represent Christ's body -

sheaves of corn appear with grapes in Botticelli's

Madonna of the Eucharist (1472).
Many foods have allegorical meanings. BREAD is the

sustainer of life and a symbol of Christ's sacrifice, after

he broke bread at the Last Supper.

1

The EGG may be a

symbol of renewal, but in sixteenth-century Dutch art,

Botticelli's Venus and Mars (detail; seepages 10-11) an egg with two legs and a knife sticking out of the top
shows an impudent satyr trying to wake the god of war is thought to represent a demon. ALMONDS may
with a blast on a conch.
symbolize divine favor, after God chose Aaron as High
Priest by causing his staff to produce "ripe almonds." 2
 THE FRUITS OF THE EARTH 241

Narcissus: see Flowers Ark: see Olive

Heavenly light in an almond-shaped aureole may protect a maiden's chastity, while portraits often
enclose Christ or the Virgin. included roses to enhance a subject's beautv. Rose petals
FLOWERS are the attribute of the classical goddess in religious art may represent Christ's wounds, a red
Flora, while various blooms sprang from those who died rose among thorns signifies the early martyrs and their
of unrequited love: anemones from Adonis, narcissi persecutors, while saints and angels mav hold roses to

from Narcissus, hyacinths from Hyacinthus, violets from indicate heavenly bliss. In images of the Garden of
Attis and sunflowers from Clyde. Flowers also denote Eden, the rose may be pictured growing without thorns.
Paradise, and are used to illustrate the seasons. In When Adam and Eve were expelled from Eden, "they
Christian art, red flowers represent Christ's blood, white sewed fig leaves together and made themselves
flowers the Virgin's purity. aprons. "^ A fig leaf was thus used
Cyclamen, jasmine, violets, and to cover the genitalia of classical
lily-of-the-valley are also con- male nudes. LAUREL leaves (see
nected with the Virgin, while the page 215) symbolize honor,
columbine may symbolize the while MYRTLE was sacred to
Holy Ghost. In still life, flowers Venus and signifies eternal love

may represent the imperman- - in Titian's Sacred and Profane

ence of life; seventeenth- and Love (r.1515), it crowns the
eighteenth-century painters also bridal figure.

depict them as botanical jewels - Evergreen IVY is the attribute

perhaps including rare flowers of Bacchus, often covering his
or those from different seasons, The over-ripe fruit in Caravaggio's The Young wand or crowning his head; it

as in Ambrosius Bosschaert's A Bacchus (detail; seepages 14—15) symbolizes the may also svmbolize immortality.
transient nature 0/ earthly pleasures.
Vase of Flowers ( 1 615-20) In The Long Engagement (1859),
The LILY is the attribute of Arthur Hughes shows i\A cover-
the Virgin and of those associated with her, especially ing the carved initials of a curate and his fiancee. The
Gabriel, Joachim, Joseph, the virgin saints and Saint OLIVE tree was a symbol of peace in both the classical

Dominic. It may be seen at the Annunciation, either and Christian worlds, and was sacred to Minerva. In the

held by Gabriel or in a vase. The PASSION FLOWER was Bible, a dove brought an olive branch to the ark to show
likened to the Instruments of the Passion: its leaves that God had made peace with man, and the Archangel
represent the spear, its tendrils the scourges, and its Gabriel mav also cany one. as in Taddeo di Bartolo's

anthers the five wounds; the stem of the ovary is the Annunciation (c. 1409). PALM leaves originallv signified

column of the Cross, the stigmas the three nails, and the victory, and personifications of Victor) or Fame ma\ be
filaments the crown of thorns. Charles Collins shows a shown bestowing them upon the illustrious. Christianin

nun contemplating the flower in Convent Thoughts later adopted the palm for martyrs who had triumphed
(1850). The ROSE was the first flower to bloom when over death, and it is also associated with Christ's Entry

Venus was born, and heralds spring - themes immortal- into Jerusalem.' CYPRESS trees often grow in cemeter-
ized by Botticelli in Primavera (c.1478) and The Birth of ies, so may be associated with the dead - as in Arnold
Venus (1484-86). In chivalrous art, rose thorns may Bocklin's Island of the Dead (1880).

Apple: see Adam and Eve (page HH); Flowers: see Adonis 'Luke 22:19 'Numbers 17:8 Genesis 3:7 John 12:13
(page 50), Clyde (page 76), Hyacinthus (page 72),
Narcissus (page 75); Myrde: see Venus (page 1 1
Landscape and the Elements Grapes: see Autumn

Until the late sixteenth century, landscape painting garden was confined within the precincts of
in Western an simph, provided a convenient backdrop castles and monasteries; in art it may be shown
f<u outdooi stents. Dining the Renaissance, however, as a Garden of Love, embodying the pleasures
the tletails of these landscapes became increasingly and conventions of a courtier's life. Medieval gardens
naturalistic and since then the interpretation of nature also appear in illustrations of the early fourteenth-

has reflected various aims - either as a subject in its own century poem Le Roman de la Rose, in which the young
right or as an enhancement of a particular theme. poet is led to a Palace of Pleasure to meet Love, only to

1 mdscapes often indicate humankind's relationship be obstructed by Danger, Fear, and Slander. The Virgin
with nature - rural scenes perhaps revealing an inti- is also shown in a walled garden with flowers scattered
macy with nature or consciously ignoring the impact of across the ground - the Hortus Conclusus - in reference

the Industrial Revolution. The pastoral image also to the Immaculate Conception. The Rhinish Master
recalls the mythical Golden Age, when humans and (fifteenth century) shows this in Paradise Garden.

nature existed in harmony and the rivers flowed with In England, gardens laid out for royalty and the aris-

milk and nectar. Cultivated fields and a clement sky may tocracy reflected the latest fashions, but they were also

suggest humankind in control of the environment, an indicator of political and social change. Until the
while stormy scenes usually indicate the superior forces 1750s, avenues, terraces, and hedges were used to form
of nature. The time of day depicted and treatment of geometrical designs and often reflected a hierarchical
light are evocative too - dawn often suggesting hope and authoritarian society. In the eighteenth century,
and evening light casting ominous shadows. this regularity gave way to the open curves of Lancelot
Some landscapes are purely topographical, while "Capability" Brown, who designed parks modeled on
others may present picturesque views with arcadian or the classical landscapes of the French painter Claude

heroic connotations. Watteau was particularly fond of Lorrain, and on literary descriptions of gardens with
FETE CHAMPETRE scenes (see pages 218-19), showing grottoes, walks, fountains, and statues. With the onset
the wealthy in idealized pastoral settings; the of the Romantic movement in nineteenth-century
Impressionists were renowned for painting tamed and painting and literature, it became fashionable to

populated landscapes; Van Gogh, Cezanne, and imitate wild, remote landscapes, and these were often
Gauguin chose to present wild images of nature, more the settings for contemporary Gothic novels.
akin to their own temperaments. The four ELEMENTS - earth, water, fire, and air -
The seasons (see box, opposite) help to convey may be illustrated by relevant objects, such as water
mood: winter communicating bleakness and decay, pouring from an upturned urn or birds flying through
spring and summer the optimism of renewal and vigor, the air, or by figures involved in an appropriate activity.

and autumn the benefits of plenty. A HARVEST scene They may also be represented by the gods of antiquity.

may represent summer and signifies nature's abun- EARTH may be the goddess Ceres or Ops, who may hold
dance. Jean-Francois Millet's The Gleaners (1857) sub- a globe or a cornucopia, while other representations
verts the usual mood, for his peasants are so poor that include Cybele with her lion, and the bountiful Golden
they have to collect the remains left by the harvesters. Age. WATER may be represented by a seascape, a river

In the book of Genesis, the GARDEN of Eden is scene with reeds and fish, by Neptune, god of the sea,

described as an earthly paradise where flowers bloom or a river-god, or by the birth of Venus from the sea.
and animals roam free. God expelled Adam and Eve FIRE may be Vulcan at his forge or the sun, while AIR
from Eden after they ate the forbidden fruit of the Tree may be represented by Boreas, god of the north wind,
of Knowledge, and the theme was highly popular in Zephyr, god of the west wind, or by Juno's peacock.
medieval and Renaissance art. In life, the medieval Luna was the goddess of the MOON and sister of the
 LANDSCAPE AND THE ELEMENTS 243

Fish: see Water

The Cycle of the Year

The SEASONS are often indicated in In the tradition of Italian art, the gods

paintings by farming activities and of antiquity may also represent the

weather: Pieter Bruegel the Elder seasons. Spring is the time to plant, so

painted panels illustrating two-month may be personified as Flora, goddess of

periods, such as Hunters in the Snow flowers, or a young girl with flowers, a

(c. 1560), which represented January spade or a hoe. Summer is the time of

and February. Giuseppe Arcimboldo harvest, and may be Ceres, goddess of

used agricultural produce to form the the harvest, or a girl with shea\es of

figures and faces of the seasons (see corn, fruit or a sickle. Autumn is the

pages 216-17). time for pressing wine, and may be indi-

The seasons are sometimes likened to cated by Bacchus, god of wine, or a fig-

the four Ages of Man. David Teniers ure with grapes. Winter is often

illustrated this in Spring, Summer, represented bv Vulcan, god of the

Autumn, Winter (c.1640). Poussin forge, or an old man warming himself

(1594-1665) incorporated scenes from by a brazier in a snowy landscape.

the Old Testament in his series of the Seasons: see Ages of Man (page 245)
Summer: see Ruth (page 128)
four seasons: Adam and Eve in Paradise

represent SPRING; Ruth and Boaz

Flora 's dress and the carpet offlowers on
symbolize SUMMER; spies returning
which she walks perfectly encapsulate
from the Promised Land are AUTUMN; spring in Botticelli 's Primavera (detail;

and the Flood represents WINTER. see pages 20-21).

Sun. She was connected with the goddess Diana, who is secure his son's immortality, and after the infant had
often identified by a crescent moon in her hair or in the finished drinking, the flow of milk continued - some
sky. The moon may obviously symbolize the night, but it falling to Earth as lilies, some splashing upward to

was also a symbol of chastity associated with the Virgin, create constellations. Tintoretto depicts this scene in

notably in paintings of the Immaculate Conception. The Origin of the Milky Win (e.1570), showing Hercules
The sun and moon together may refer to the unity or waking his unwitting wet-nurse. The RAINBOW is asso-

cycle of time, to the universal, or to a marriage of dual ciated with the goddess Iris who descended from the

natures. Both these heavenly bodies may be shown in skv on a rainbow when she brought messages from the
the sky in scenes of the Crucifixion. The MILKY WAY gods to mortals. In the Bible, a rainbow was sent bv God
stretches in a luminous band across the night skv.
1

and after the Flood as a symbol of reconciliation with

various authors describe its origins. In one account, humankind.- It surrounds Christ's throne in the Last
8
Jupiter held Hercules to sleeping Juno's breast to Judgment, after the vision in Revelation.

Air: see Winds (page 62) Hygnus Poetica AstronomicallAS Genesis 9:13 "Revelation 4:3
Moon: see Diana (page 61)
Rainbow: see Last Judgment (pages 92-93)
The Body and Soul
In the Middle ^ges, the bod) w.i^ believed to contain M-u-nteenth-century art, and may be represented by
four humors relating to the TEMPERAMENTS (from the items such as musical instruments for hearing and flow-

I .urn temperate- to measure), which could be disrupted ers or pipe smoke for smell. In his series Senses (r.1650),

l)\ planetary movements and diet. The dominant Gonzales Coques unusually depicts a man letting blood
humor determined character an excess of blood made drain from his arm to portray touch. The senses are also

people sanguine, yellow bile made them choleric, suggested in Willem Buytewech's Merry Company in the

phlegm made them phlegmatic, while too much black Open Air (c. 1620-22) as a reminder of the vanities of the

bile caused MELANCHOLIA, which was associated with material world. EYES often symbolize the eyes of God,

intellectual pursuits. Melancholia was Saturn's intro- for in the Bible "the eyes of the Lord are over the righ-

spective daughter, and Diirer's Melancholia (1524) teous."

1

The Trinity may be shown as an eye within a tri-

shows her slumped in gloomy contemplation, a book angle, while a pair of eyes is the attribute of Saint Lucy.

unopened in her lap and a pair of compasses unnoticed Christ healing the blind is an allegory of spiritual

in her hand. The SENSES were popular subjects in BLINDNESS, while Pieter Bruegel the Elder's The Blind

Personifications

The representation of concepts and places, including the cornucopia, sheaves of corn, or flowers, or be sur-

four CONTINENTS (see page 229), in human form has rounded by the fruits of the earth, which she nurtures.

been a popular artistic technique for centuries, with She may celebrate the end of her counterpart, WAR (see

humans of different ages and with dif- page 227), or illustrate the benefits of

ferent attributes standing for different peace. The female figure of ABUN-

qualities. TIME is often personified as DANCE represents the prosperity

an old man with an hour-glass or brought about by peace and justice,

scythe, and in Pompeo Batoni's Time and her attribute is usually a CORNU-
(1747) he points to a girl while an old COPIA full of fruit and jewels. She may
woman loses her beauty. The tran- be surrounded by children and once-
sience of time is shown using items that wild animals that have been tamed.

wither or disappear, such as flowers, CONCORD, the harmony between peo-

smoke or bubbles, or by objects remi- ple or nations, may also be expressed
niscent of death. Michelangelo inter- by a woman with a cornucopia or corn.

preted Time as the figures of Dawn, A winged female often indicates

Dusk, Night and Day (c.1530). FAME who bore away the illustrious

TRUTH is Time's daughter, and she Bronzino 's bare-breasted Allegory dead on her wings; by the Renaissance
may stand naked with the attribute of of Happiness (detail; 16th she had acquired a trumpet with
the sun's rays or the sun, or a book in century) holds a cornucopia. which to herald the famous. Bernardo
which truth is written. She may also Strozzi's Fame (c.1635) shows her with a

stand on a globe to signify her superiority to worldly con- gilded trumpet and a plain recorder, representing both

cerns, an idea used by Bernini in his sculpture Truth the good and bad aspects of her proclamations. Deceit is

(1646). The attributes of PEACE, another female person- also often represented as a woman (see page 221), while
ification, are an olive branch and a dove; she mav hold a FOLLY is usually a youth (see page 221 ).
 THE BODY AND SOUL 245

-Vs Flowers: see Senses Pipe: see Senses

Leading the Blind (1568) was inspired by In El Greco 's The Burial of Count
Christ's parable
2
and warns of the perils of Orgaz (detail; 1586-88), an angel in

the sky above the funeral party waits to

choosing an unfit leader. The blindness of secular love
receive the deceased count 's soul.
may be indicated by a blindfolded Cupid, while other
blindfolded figures may personify unprejudiced
Justice (usually a female figure with a sword and scales), life, but Titian's painting The
unpredictable Fortune (if she has a globe or wheel) Three Ages of Man (1510-16) is

or Ignorance. an allegory of prudence, sug-

A HEART symbolizes divine love and understanding, gesting that the present should

for "the Lord looketh on the heart."' Saints may hold a learn from the past.

flaming heart, perhaps pierced by an arrow, and the SLEEP may be personified
attribute of Saint Ignatius Loyola is a heart crowned and shown in a silent cave where
with thorns. A HAND often represents the hand of God poppies bloomed, dispatching
and may release a dove to the Virgin, while a hand pay- his son Morpheus to deliver
ing Judas or holding coins denotes Christ's Betrayal. A dreams." Dreams may be depicted as visions of delight

hand also became an Instrument of the Passion after or honor - the latter portrayed in Henrv Fuseli's

Christ's face was slapped during his mockery, as seen in Nightmare (1781). while in Goya's The Dream of Reason
the fresco by Fra Angelico in San Marco, Florence. Produces Monsters (c. 1790) ii rational ideas are trans-

Many early works showed the Virgin offering her formed into owls, bats, and a cat. A man asleep with
BREAST to the Christ Child, until the Council of Trent women often had a lewd significance, and Gerard
(1545-6S) disapproved. Breasts are also associated with Terborch's Women Drinking Wine with a Sleeping Soldier
Mother Nature and nourishment, while a bared breast (seventeenth century) was a warning against sin.

can be a sign of humility, grief, or anger. A woman DEATH was the brother of Sleep; they may be shown
breastfeeding may personify Charity; the Roman tale of as dark- and light-skinned putti. as in Poussin's Diana

Pero feeding her imprisoned father was popular will) and Endymion (r. 1630). More commonly, Death is rep-

Renaissance artists. A NUDE may represent shame (see resented by a skeleton, sometimes wearing a hooded
page 223), while a nude female figure may represent cloak, and carrying a sword, scythe, sickle, or hour-glass.

FERTILITY, accompanied by a hen with eggs and The Triumph oj Death was a popular subject, and
chicks, or by hares and rabbits. BARE FEET usually indi- Francesco Traini's frescoes at Campo Santo. Pisa i mid-
cate Christ and his disciples, who obeyed his command fourteenth century), depict three noblemen horrified
to "carry neither purse, nor scrip, nor shoes." 4
In decomposing corpses in open coffins. Death ma)
The span of life is divided into the AGES OF MAN. also be a reminder that no one is spared, regardless of

Sometimes there are four, corresponding to the sea- age oi status, and Edvard Munch 's Death and the Maiden
sons, and sometimes three. Children may play near a (1893) shows the fatal embrace of death as the
dead tree to represent the two extremes of the cycle, destroyer of beautv. In Christian art, the SOUL was usu-

youth may be a soldier or a pair of lovers, and a man ally depicted as an infant, either taken to Hell bv
contemplating a SKULL (see page 225) may represent demons or carried to Heaven 1>\ an angel, as in El
old age. Usually the subject implies the transience of Greco's The Burial of ('omit Orgaz (see detail, above).

Eyes: see St. Lucy (page 171) 'Psalms 34 1 :. Matthew 15:14 1 Samuel 16:7 Luke 10:4
Heart: see St. Ignatius Loyola (page 179) Ovid Metamorphoses XL592-615
Melancholia: set- Saturn (page 56)
 KIKS

Objects, Pastimes, and Emblems

1 he .u (nines and obje< In |)k tuied in a scene often have Mars may also be pictured in a net of chains, forged by
parti< ulai signifi< an< e. ARMOR identifies warriors such Vulcan to expose his wife's adultery.

.in Mars, god "I war, his Female counterpart Bellona, Cupid has two kinds of ARROW: the one "which
.iiid \1iihi\.i. goddess of war and wisdom. Fortitude kindles love is golden and shining ... but that which
.Hid Europe ma) wear armor too, as may several puts it to flight is blunt, its shaft tipped with lead." 1

A
( hi istian saints including the Archangel Michael, Saint bow and arrows are also the attributes of Diana and
Liberale, and Saint George, while Pilate and his Roman Apollo, and the belief that Apollo's arrows brought the

soldiers may be seen in armor in paintings of Christ's plague may have influenced the legend of Saint
Passion. Armor and weapons also litter Vulcan's forge, Sebastian, who survived being shot full of arrows
Victor)' and Peace may be seen with a pile of armor, and was therefore invoked against the plague. In

while a putto standing on armor or near a sleeping Renaissance Italy he was often painted bristling with

warrior usually represents love triumphant. In fifteenth- arrows. An angel pierced Saint Teresa's heart with a
century Italy, the ideal career was thought to be dedi- divine arrow that gave her both intense pain and spiri-

cated to both arms and letters, and Berruguete painted tual ecstasy. HUNTING was the sport of rulers and the
the Duke of Urbino reading while dressed in armor in aristocracy, offering the opportunity to display wealth,

Federigo da Montefeltro (1480). CHAINS are used to power, and dynamic configurations of people and
denote a captive, in reality or symbolically, and are asso- animals in a wooded setting. In Christian art, the

ciated with Saints Leonard and Vincent. Venus and unicorn was hunted as a type of Christ, and Saints
Eustace and Hubert may be shown as hunters.

Both the upper- and lower-classes enjoyed playing

Color CARDS in seventeenth-century Europe, but moralists
considered it sinful - so cards usually denote idleness or
Ultramarine was made from lapis lazuli and reflects a vice. Jan Steen put cards in the foreground of Beware of
patron's wealth or the importance of a work. Red was Luxury (see pages 234-35) and The Dissolute Household
also expensive, while purple - made from two costly (r.1660) as a reminder that "cards, women, and drink
pigments - came to be associated with royalty. Other have ruined many a man," and in Card Players Quarreling
colors rarely have symbolic meaning, except for (1664-65) he depicts a fight between gamblers. In his
black, which is linked with death. triptych Past and Present (1858), Augustus Egg used the
The color of peoples' clothes may signify identity, image of children building a collapsing house of cards
especially if figures appear in a series of events; in to show a disintegrating home, but Cezanne simply
Italian art the Virgin usually wears a blue dress,
painted card-players as part of the local life of France. If
whereas in Northern art she may wear red. Figures
Cupid holds an ace of hearts he refers to love
may also wear different colors to distinguish stages in
triumphant, but with a blank playing-card, he symbol-
their life: Mary Magdalene's red dress indicates her
izes the hazards of love. DICE or a single die can repre-
early life as a sinner, and a green one her time as a
sent fate (as in "the die is cast"), and dice used in a
penitent hermit. From the Renaissance to the nine-
game of chance may be the attribute of Fortune. COINS
teenth century, color was mainly used naturalistically,
usually suggest corruption (see page 230).
except in imaginative images, such as paintings of the
A wool-carder's COMB is the attribute of the martyrs
infernal regions. Later artists exploited its decorative
Blaise and Bartholomew, who were flayed alive; the
and emotive qualities, Kandinsky (1866-1944) liken-
latter is seen in Michelangelo's Last Judgment (1536-41)
ing its effect to that of music.
holding the instrument of his torture and his empty
skin - containing a self-portrait of the artist. Degas
 OBJECTS. PASTIMES. AND EMBLEMS 247

Cupid: see Arrow

(1834—1917) painted women combing their infirm; it is the staff of hermits, beggars, and pilgrims,

hair as part of their daily toilet; but other artists and the attribute of Saints Anthony Abbot and
used the image as an indication of vanity, espe- Romuald. Salvador Dali, who had his own strange sym-
cially if the woman holds a mirror or is surrounded by bolic vocabulary, often painted limp objects supported

other worldly effects. Another object owned by women by crutches, as seen in The Enigma of William Tell (1933).
was the CASSONE, a wedding chest from the Italian A SCEPTER is a staff held by a person in authority, espe-

Renaissance. Its panels may be painted cially a monarch or an emperor, and the
with scenes from mythology, the Bible, tip may bear an appropriate emblem or
or ancient history - either suggesting a attribute. An UMBRELLA or parasol was
happy marriage or warning men of the also used as a sign of sovereignty or
captivating power of other women, or protection, and the Holy Roman
women against disobedience. Emperor may be pictured holding one
SCALES (see page 230) are usually over the Pope to indicate their alliance.
the attribute of Justice, while a pair of In the Old Testament, a LAMP signi-

COMPASSES is associated with Melan- fies divine light and wisdom. Caravaggio 1

cholia, and may also be the attribute of may include an external light source to
astronomers, geometricians, and archi- suggest divine illumination, and Christ's

tects. During the Creation, God "set a words' also inspired William Holman
compass on the face of the depth"* to The single candle in van K\ck \ Hunt's The Light of the World (1853-56).
impose order on chaos - as seen in The Arnolfini Marriage But a landscape bathed in a golden glow,
(detail; see pages 212-13) may
William Blake's The Ancient of Days such as Albert Cuyp's Milkmaid and Cattle
stand for the all-seeing Christ.
(c.1794) - so a pair of compasses may Near Dordrecht (r.1650), evokes a rural
also represent the rational. The idyll where mankind is in harmonv with
CADUCEUS - a wand entwined with two snakes, perhaps nature. CANDLES play an important part in many reli-

with wings at its tip - is the attribute of Mercury and is gions. In Christian art, the Eucharist candles represent

carried by messengers as a sign of peace. Aesculapius, Christ's presence at communion, the Paschal candle

god of medicine, may also hold one, for after God the risen Christ at Easter, while the Menorah or seven-

cured Moses' people with a brazen serpent, snakes were branched candelabrum represents Judaism. A candle in
believed to have healing powers. A CLUB is a sign of Dutch seventeenth-centurv still life, however, suggests
strength and may be held by Fortitude. It is also the the transience of life.

attribute of Saint Jude, Saint James the Less, Hercules, A full SAIL or billowing draperv may illustrate the

and Theseus - who killed a robber renowned for batter- winds or suggest prosperity and success, especially in
ing passers-by to death with a brazen club. works depicting triumphs. But the winds are variable, so
A CROOK usually belongs to shepherds and may be a sail may also be the attribute of Fortune, representing

the attribute of Apollo or of Christ (the Good her fickleness. In Christian art. a SHIP may represent a
Shepherd) and his Apostles. Likewise, a bishop's crook- sate haven for the faithful, svmbolized by Noah's ark or
shaped staff or crozier denotes him as the shepherd of the Navicella: the ship in which the disciples were sail-

his spiritual flock. A CRUTCH supports the old or ing when Christ walked on the waters. 5

Armor: see Mars (page 59), Michael (pages 84 and 118); •Ovid Metamorphoses 1:469-72 -Proverbs 8:27 »II Samuel 22:29
Arrow: see St. Sebastian (page 155); Club: see Hercules John 9:5 Matthew 14:24-27
(page 68); Crook: see Crozier (page 249)
248 IRIES

Christianity ,$\ Globe: see Salvatoi Mundi

Symbols <>t Christian though! and practice abound in ( .1 cek cross is symmetrical, while Saint Andrew's cross is

.111 hom the Middle Ages onward. The seven X-shaped. The CRUCIFIX, an image of Christ on the
SACRAMENTS of du- Catholic Chinch - Baptism, cross, specifically represents Christianity. Many hermits
( onfirmation, Ordination. Matrimony (or MARRIAGE, and penitents are shown contemplating one; but it

m( page _'12). the Eucharist, Penance, and Extreme appears most often with Saints Francis, Jerome, John,
I nition - are often represented. Rogier van der Gualbert, Nicholas of Tolentino, and Scholastica, and

Weyden's Seven Sacraments Triptych (r.1451-53) is a rare between a stag's antlers before Saint Eustace. The
depiction from the Renaissance, while Poussin painted letters IHS - an abbreviation of the Greek word for Jesus
two series entitled The Seven Sacraments (1644-48), in - may appear on the cross, and in 1424 the monogram
which John the Baptist and Christ represent Baptism; became Saint Bernardino's attribute after he decided

Confirmation is set in the catacombs and evokes the the initials signified "Jesus Hominum Salvator." It is also

early Christian age; Ordination is Christ giving the keys the emblem of the Jesuit Order, gloriously celebrated in
of Heaven to Saint Peter; Matrimony is the marriage of Baciccia's Adoration of the Name of Jesus (r.1685). INRI
the Virgin and Joseph; the Eucharist is the Last Supper; stands for Iesu Nazarenus Rex Iudaeorum (Jesus of
Penance is Mary Magdalene washing Christ's feet; and Nazareth, king of the Jews), while CHI RHO consists of

a man receiving the Sacrament is Extreme Unction. the first two letters of the Greek Khristos (Christ).
Religious objects, including books, are often present Many ceremonial objects have religious significance

even in paintings of a secular theme. A MISSAL, or book and relate to particular sacraments, incidents or fig-

of the Mass, contains services and prayers for the litur- ures. A CHALICE is the cup of the Eucharist, after Christ
gical year; it may be decorated with scenes of the "took the cup, and ... they all drank of it;" 1

it features in

Crucifixion, Christ in Majesty or other episodes from paintings of the Eucharist and with saints or priests. A
Christ's life. A BOOK OF HOURS contains daily prayers chalice with snakes is the attribute of Saint John the

for the laity; the hours may be illustrated with religious Evangelist. A CORPORAL is the cloth on which the chal-

scenes, the months with seasonal farming activities, ice is placed before consecration; a CIBORIUM is a cup

astrological charts or the pursuits of the aristocracy. with an arched cover, reserved for the Host (or a

The ANGELUS is the prayer for giving thanks for the canopy covering an altar or shrine). Ornate containers
Annunciation, and Jean-Francois Millet's Angelus called RELIQUARIES hold holy relics and were used to

(1859) shows peasants praying in the fields at the sound perform miracles; they appear in the Stories of the Relic of

of the Angelus bell; the scene became widely known the True Cross (c.1496) by Bellini and his studio.

through reproductions and was perversely reinter- SALVATOR MUNDI was the name for an image of
preted by Dali. The ROSARY- a string of beads used to Christ holding a globe, as in Carpaccio's painting
keep count during prayers - may appear in paintings of (c.1510). Christ may point above to the divine, make
the Virgin, as in Bergognone's Virgin and Child (c.1490), the sign of benediction, or wear a crown of thorns. A
or in portraits of Saint Dominic, who instituted its use. HALO is the light shining around the head of the divine
A CROSS has represented Christ's Crucifixion and the and is usually circular, although those of Christ or God
Christian faith since the fifth century. The Latin cross is may be triangular to represent the Trinity; Christ may
the traditional form, a double-armed cross is the sign of also have a cross behind his head for a halo. A larger

a bishop, a triple-armed cross is the sign of the Pope; a AUREOLE is reserved for God, Christ or the Virgin.

Christianity: see Life of Christ (pages 132-37), Virgin Mary 'Mark 14:23-25
(130-31), Saints and Their Miracles (Chapter Three)
 CHRISTIANITY 249

Religious Orders and Clothing

Members of religious Orders and ministers of the Church the Papacy approved them as the Society of Jesus; their
can be identified by their clothing - ministers usually habit is black with a high collar.

being depicted in the highest office they attained. The dress of ministers denotes their rank, distinguish-

Saint Anthony is thought to have founded monasticism ing bishops from priests and deacons. The Pope has a
in the third century. Different HABITS distinguished the TIARA (a conical hat with three crowns) or wears a white
Orders that evolved, while an abbot or abbess carried a CASSOCK (a long tunic) with a short red cloak. Cardinals
PASTORAL STAFF to signify office. The BENEDICTINES, wear a scarlet cassock and a scarlet broad-brimmed hat
founded by SAINT BENEDICT (see page 161) in around with a low crown. Bishops wear a CHASUBLE (a highlv

529, are the oldest European Order, decorated outer garment) and a
and the abbey built at Cluny in 910 MITRE (a tall decorated head-dress
became a major religious center in with a cleft) and earn a CROZDZR -
the Middle Ages. The habit of the the original staff of the Aposdes,

original Order was black. Refor- which became highly elaborate.

mations of the Order created the Deacons may cam a CENSER (an

Cistercians, Carthusians, and incense burner), while the regular

Camaldolese, who all wear white, clergy wear the habit of the Order
and the Vallombrosians, who wear to which they belong. Dress also
pale grey. The Olivetians and reflects the office ministers are

Oratorians are also reformed performing. When celebrating

Benedictines. Mass they wear a chasuble, a STOLE

In about 1060, Saint Augustine tan embroidered band worn
founded the AUGUSTINIANS, stress- around the neck and crossed over
ing communal living and care of the chest) and a MANIPLE (a silk

the poor; their habit is black. When band worn on the arm). A COPE (a

Saint Francis of Assisi founded the large semi-circular cape with a deep
FRANCISCANS in 1210, he called his Spinello's The Heavy Stone (detail; collar) is worn on special occasions

friars /rati (brothers) instead of see pages 160-61) depicts Benedictine and in processions, otherwise a
padri (fathers) to emphasize their monks building the fust monastery at cassock and BIRETTA (a square,
Monte Cassino.
humility. They took vows of chastity, ridged hat) are worn - usually black

poverty, and obedience, renounced for priests and purple for bishops

all forms of ownership, and were noted as missionaries and deacons. Some elements of the liturgical dress were
and preachers. Initially, their hooded habit was grey, common to different ministers - for example, a bishop's

hence the term "grey friars," but it later (hanged to mitre is also worn by the Pope as Bishop of Rome.
brown, bound at the waist with a knotted cord, and they PILGRIMS journeyed to sacred places out of religious

are shown barefoot or wearing simple sandals. Saint devotion or as a penance - sometimes on orders from the

Francis also established a community for poor women: Inquisition. They were expected to return with evidence

the Poor Clares. The DOMINICANS place emphasis on from their destination, such as a cross and palm from the
study and teaching, and were founded by Saint Dominic Holy Land or a COCKLE SHELL from the shrine of Saint

in 1216; they wear a white gown with a black hooded James at Santiago. A cockle shell in the hat denotes a

cloak. The Jesuits believe in charity, education, and pilgrim, who ma) also weai a simple cloak, earn a staff,

moderation. They achieved special status in 1540 when and he barefoot as a sign of humility or poverty.
250 LECOIUES

4 —
Virtues and Vices «pn Scales: see Justice

I In- four natural or CARDINAL VIRTUES of Temper- courageous widow Judith or by the mythical hero
aim . [ustice, Prudence, and Fortitude are the "hinges" Hercules, who was renowned for his strength.

on which all other Virtues hang. They are often person- The three THEOLOGICAL VIRTUES are Faith, Hope,
ified as women. TEMPERANCE is a figure of modera- and Charity; they were sanctified by the medieval
tion; she can be seen with an unsheathed sword, a Church as specifically Christian virtues, imparted by
bridle for enforcing restraint or a pitcher of water with God through Christ. FAITH is resolute and majestic,

which to dilute her wine. JUSTICE usually holds the and may hold a book, a lighted candle, and a heart, a

sword of power and scales of balance, and in the cross or a chalice. HOPE may be a winged figure reach-
sixteenth century was shown blindfolded to symbolize ing up to a crown and looking to the future in expecta-

her impartiality and incorruptibility. She may also tion. CHARITY often holds a cornucopia or bowl of fruit
punish the wicked or give alms to the righteous. and may be seen giving alms, emphasizing the bounty
PRUDENCE may be seen with a book of wisdom or a that she distributes and her kindness. She is "mother of
serpent, 1

and may hold up a mirror to reflect truth. She the virtues," and in many Renaissance paintings she is

often has more than one head, signifying that she depicted as a loving mother with children, perhaps
learns from the past and has foresight. FORTITUDE is a nursing one of them - as in Cranach's Charity (Y.1540).
figure of strength and may be shown with a shield, a She also provided an example for ideal citizens to

lion or a column (see detail, opposite) - a reference to follow, living their lives according to the seven acts of
the biblical character Samson, who pulled down the mercy: "For I was hungered, and ye gave me meat; I was
columns of a building in which he was ordered to enter- thirsty, and ye gave me drink; I was a stranger, and ye
tain the Philistines. She may be represented by the took me in. Naked, and ye clothed me; I was sick, and

The Seven Deadly Sins

Anger, PRIDE, Envy, Lust, GLUTTONY, Sloth, and Avarice are the seven deadly
sins. Those guilty of these sins are condemned to Hell, where demons inflict

punishments related to the crimes. The sins are personified with various

attributes: ANGER may be a woman tearing her clothes, while AVARICE

often holds a purse; in the Inferno (fourteenth century) Dante places

usurers in the seventh ring of Hell. SLOTH may be represented by

scenes of idleness - these were popular in seventeenth-century Dutch

art, and Sloth may be shown as a woman dozing or daydreaming, as

in Nicholaes Maes' Interior with Sleeping Maid and Her Mistress (1660s).

Other artists suggested that LUST brought on slothful sleep, and some
used the ass or pig as symbols of lust. According to Ovid, ENVY lived

in a filthy, sunless house; she was wasted and sickly and her tongue
dripped venom. In The Battle of the Sea Gods (c.1470) Mantegna depicts

her as a scrawny old woman.

In The Table of the Seven Deadly Sins (detail; c. 1480-85), Bosch depicted the sins
around the central figure of Christ; the complete circle represented God's all-seeing eye.
 VIRTUES AND VICES 251

Pitcher: see Temperance Pig: see Lust

ye visited me; I was in prison, and ye came De la Hyre's Allegory of the Regency of Anne of

unto me.'"' The seventh act is burial of the Austria (detail; see pages 214-15) shows a winged
figure representing Virtue or Fortitude.
dead. In the seventeenth century, charita-
ble brotherhoods often commissioned
paintings representing these acts. and even though the people were
Chastity, Poverty, and Obedience are compassionate and intervened, Zaleucus
the monastic vows and may appear as had one of his own eyes taken out and
women. CHASTITY often wears a veil or one of his son's rather than defy the law.
1

holds the palm of the virgin martyrs, and A BATTLE OF VIRTUES AND VICES (see

may be locked in combat with Lust or page 233) shows the virtues fighting the
stand in triumph on a symbol of lust. She vices and defeating them. All kinds of
also appears as Diana, goddess of Chastity, wrongdoing may be personified in these

and may carry a shield to deflect Cupid's paintings, including Cowardice, DECEIT
arrows and a chain for binding love. (see page 221), Idolatry, Inconstancy
Chastity may also be represented by virtu- Infidelity, Injustice, Folly, LUXURY (see

ous Roman women such as Tuccia, or by page 234) and Vanity.

biblical characters such as the demure CALUMNY, or Slander, was painted in
Susannah or Joseph, who refused antiquity by Apelles. The painting was
Potiphar's wife. In Christian art, Saints Benedict and described by the Greek prose writer Lucian (first

Francis may throw themselves into thorny bushes to century CE) as depicting a man with big ears receiving

quell their desires, Saint Anthony may be seen control- evil counsel from Ignorance and Suspicion, while the
ling erotic dreams through prayer, while virtuous figure of beautiful but craftv Calumny holds a lighted

female saints may hold a lily. torch in one hand and drags her victim bv the hair with

Other minor virtues include Humility, Hospitality, the other.' Calumny's guide is pale and filthy Hatred,
Innocence, and FIDELITY, the secular counterpart of her handmaids Envy and Fraud, and behind the group
Faith, who may have a dog sitting at her feet and hold .1 stands Penitence dressed in funeral robes, followed bv

key that signifies her trustworthiness. ABSTINENCE is the young and modest Truth. Botticelli reconstructed
usually illustrated by figures famous for their self- the picture in the fifteenth century on the basis of
restraint, such as King Seleucus, Alexander the Creat, Lucian 's literary description.

and the Roman general Scipio, who refused a young In seventeeth-century Dutch art,INTEMPERANCE
girl betrothed to another. In allegories of Abstinence, a ina\ be a figure who has fallen asleep after too much

wise Minerva may take an adolescent Cupid from the smoking and drinking. Jan Steen's Effects oj Intemperance

arms of a naked woman, as in Pietro da Cortona's fresco (1663) shows the folly of such disorderly behavior: a
in the Rooms of Venus (r. 1640; Pitti Palace, Florence). young boy steals from the drinker's purse, a maid gives

Justice may be portrayed as Zaleucus, tin- magistrate of drink to a parrot, children feed a cat on food meant for
a Greek settlement in Italy (sixth century BCE) who was adults, and a boy casts roses before swine. As a reminder
once required to find his own son guilty of adultery. of the fate of those who lack self-discipline, the birch of

The punishment for the adulteror was to lose both eves; punishment is placed in a basket above Intemperance.

Chastity: see Joseph (page 123), Susannah (page 129); Faith: Ephesians 6:11 'Matthew 25:35-36 Valerius Maximus 6:\

see Heart (page 245); Fidelity: see Dog (page 212); Fortitude: 'Lucian Slandei 1-6
see Samson (page 128), Judith (Page 129). Hercules (page 68)
 1545 ( MN, 122 Carpaccio. V. V t-wgr (cl505, Scuola di
I ndex of Artists Bordone.
N(.l
P. l)nplmi\ anil < klot i
1545-50, s.m Giorgio, Veni< e) 163
si \n„nu (c.1502, ScuoladiSan

IU irwudby shii i/m and Mtncrva Giorgio, Venice) 150-51, 238

I he pJltmmg aUmiahom art used hrrr and Si Sir/.hrr, (Nicholas I chapel, Rome) (C.1540 H( \(.l 32 si Stephen Pnachmg(c.l5n, IP) 138,
m the atknou4Mgmmt\ Ml pap Bosth. H. Cure for lulls I. 1490, I'M I
BO 142-43
,1.1. \i mi i- tagi liio. Fra. follower of The Abduction s; Vomica 153 Si I rsula(c\ 195, \. O 172
V( r - i ;•< I. Padua ofHelm (i I 150) 69 Seven Deadly Sins (c] ISO, PM) 250 Carpioni. G. Septune Pursuing Coronis
Wl Mil Ptnakotbek, Munich Anonymous I In Wilton Diptych d .1395, Ship oil Fools i , .1 195.1 Pi 199 (1665-70 I I i
72
\M< > tihmolcan Mucun, < htford NGL) 82 13, 237 Bosschaert, A. A Vase of Flowers (1615-20) Carracci, A. St. Peter (c.1600) 168
Bb*o ( .iiIki1i.iI oi St Bavo, Ghent \ ull'i da Messina, Si. promt 241 Castagno, A. St. Julian the Hospitaller
r.i \( . Birmingham Gt) trtGaller) (i I 175-76, \(.l i 170 and
Botticelli, S. Athene the Centaur (1454-5, Santa Vnnunriata, Fl) 174
III Baptistery, Floren< e Arcimboldo, G. Sumnin i I 563. 1 \ I |f i
(cl480,UF) 28-29 Cesare da Sesto Salome (1510-20, NGL)
BGR Borghese Gallery, Rome 216-17 The Birth of Venus i I 184-86, UF) 11.28. 67
HMI British Museum, London Aredno, S. St. Benedict (1 khc, San 243, 248 Cezanne, P. St. Anthony (1867-69. Buhrlc
ll\ Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris Muiiato, Fl) 160-61 Illustrations for liivinn Commedia Collection, Zurich) 176
llti i.i Brera, Milan Assclijn.J. I In I hummed Swan (15lhc.) 120. 191 Chagall,M. To My Wife 1933-44. (

( MN: Museum, Norfolk, Va

( hryslei 1 mid 17th c. I 239 Life of Moses (c. 1 480, VR) 121 Pompidou Centre, Paris) 222-23
( II Courtauld Institute, London Baciccia, G. Adoration oj the Name n\ Jesus Madonna of the Eucharist (1472, Isabella Chardin, J. The Monkey Painter (
1 740, LP)
l)l'( .: Dulwii l'i< ture Gallery, London
li (c.1685, Church oi thejesu, Rome) Stewart Gardner Museum, Boston) 236
DPI Ducal Palace, I rbino 2 IS 222 Chasseriau, T. The Toilet of Esther ( 1 84 1
EJF: Edward |ames Foundation Balestra. A. Juno Placing the One Hundred Madonna of the Magnificat (1482, UF) LP) 129
H Him in i- Eyes ofArgos in the Peacock's Tail 131,240 Cione, N. di Paradise (1357,SMN) 118
I Mi Filzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, (r-.1714.CMN) 17 Primavera (r.1478, UF) 20-21. 28, 241, Claude Lorrain The Cave of Absalom
1 ngland Banco, Maso di St. Sylvester (c. 1340, Bacli, 243 (1658, NGL) 124
(,< V Galleria Campodimonte, Naples Fl) 177 St. Augustine (1488) 17(1 Embarkation of Ursula (1641, NGL) 173
( ,1 ) ( lenialdegalei ie, Dresden Banco, Nanni di .S7. Eligius (
e. 1 4 1 1 San Marco Altarpiece (
c. 1 480, UF) Landscape with Aeneas at Delos (1672,
11(1 I lampton ( lourt Palai e, I ondon Orsanmichelc, Fl) 157 756-57 NGL) 60, 71. 192-93
HSP: Hermitage, Si. Petersburg Bartolo di Fredi Muses ( e. 1 fi65, The Stmy ofNastagio degli Onesti ( r. 1 483, Landscape with Ascanius Shooting the Stag
KMV Kunsthistoi isi ln-s Museum, Vienna Collegiata, San Gimignano) 121 PM) 204 of Silvia (1682, AMO) 71
LP: I ouvre, Paris Bartolo, Taddeo di Annunciation Venus and Mars (1483, NGL) 10-11, 240 Collins, C. Convent Thoughts (1850, AMO)
MBA: Musee des Beaux-Arts, Brussels (r. 1409, PS) 248 Bottieini, F. Assumption of the Virgin 241
Md'O: Musee d'Orsay, Paris Last Judgment (14th c, Collegiata, (c.1474) 118 Coques, G. Senses (r.1650, NGL) 244
\II Mauritshuis, The Hague
1: San Gimignano) 120 The Three Archangels and Tobias (pre- Cornells van lemin The Followers of
1 1 aai

MNY: Metropolitan Museum of An, New Batoni P. Time (1747) 244 1470, UF) 118 Cadmus Devoured by a Dragon (1588,
York Beccafumi, D. Archangel Michael and the Boucher, F. Pygmalion and Galatea ( 1 742, NGL) 64
MSM: Museodi San Marco delTAngelico, Fall of the Rebel A ngels ( c. 1 524, PS ) 1 1 HSP) 74 Correggio, A. Education of Cupid (c.1528,
Florence St Catherine of Siena (r.1515, PS) 165 The Rising and Setting of the Sun ( 1 754, NGL) 59, 72
NGI: National Gallery of Ireland Bellechose, H. St. Denys (r.1416) 174 WCL) 60 Io (1531, KMV) 74, 75
NGL: National Gallery', London Bellini, G. Feast of the Gods (1514, Venus Asking Vulcan for the Armor of Leda and the Swan (c.15.34, Staatliche

NGS: National Gallery of Scotland National Gallery. Washington) 182 Aeneas (1732, LP) 12-13 Museum, Berlin) 73
pr: private collection Madonna and Child with Saints (1506, Brant, S. Das Narrenschiff'(1492) 221 Madonna delta Scodella (1530, Galleria,
PM: Prado, Madrid SZV) 98-99, 132. 1 71 Bronzino, A.T. Allegory oj Happiness Parma) 131
PPF: Pitti Palace, Florence Sacred Allegory (c.1487, UF) 154-55 ( c.l 540-50, UF) 244 Madonna of the Basket (c.1524) 108
PS: Pinacoteca, Siena St. Peter Martyr ( 1 509, CIL) / 79 An Allegory with Venus and Cupid Cossiers, J. Prometheus Carrying Fire (mid
PVF: Palazzo Vecchio, Florence San Zaccaria Altarpiece (r.1505, SZV) 207 (r.1545, NGL) 220-21 17th c, PM) 58
Academy of Art, London
RAI.: Royal Bellini, G. and others Stories of the Relic of St. Laurence (1569, San Lorenzo, Fl) 176 Couenbergh, van and Rubens Ixion
RAm: Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam the True Cross (c.1496. Ace) 248 Bruegel the Elder, P. The Blind Leading Ike Received by Juno (1615, LP) 78
RMP: Rodin Museum, Paris Benvenuto, G. di St. Catherine of Siena Blind (1568, National Museum, Cousin, J. Eva Prima Pandora (c. 1550, LP)
SEA: S.m Francesco, Arezzo (Fogg Museum, Mass.) 164-6? Naples) 245 58, 224-25
SMN: Santa Maria Novella. Florence Bergognone, A. St. Ambrose 170 The Fall of the Rebel Angels (1562, MBA) Cranaeh, L. Charity (r.1540, NGL) 250
SZV: S.m /,u i aria, Venice Si. Bernard of Clairvaux (c.1490, 84-85 Venus with Cupid the Honey Thief'(1540)
TGL: Tate (Gallery, London Certosa, Pavia) 178 Hunters in the Snow (c.1560, KMV) 243 72
If Uffizi, Florence Virgin and Child ( c.1490, NGL) 248 Landscape with the Fall oj Icarus ( c. 1 560, Cuyp, A. Milkmaid and Cattle near

V&A: Victoria &: Albert Museum, London Bernini, G.L. Aeneas (e.1619, GBR) 71 MBA) 79 Dordrecht (r.1650, NGL) 247
VF: Villa Farnesina, Rome Apollo and Daphne ( 1 622-25) 76 The Suicide oj Saul ( 1 562, KMV) 1 25 Dali, S. Enigma of William Tell (
1933,
VR: Vatican, Rome VR) 177
ChairofSt. Peter (1665, The Tower of Babel 1563, KMV) 118 (
Moderna Mussel, Stockholm) 247
WCL: Wallace Collection, London Constantine (1654-70, VR) 201 Brueghel the Younger, P. Raj>e of Narcissus (1937, EJF) 75
David (1623, BGR) 124 Persephone (16th c, PM) 78 David, G. The Legend of St. Nicholas
Page numbers m itaHi \ refer to illustrations: The Ecstasy of St. Teresa (1645-52, Santa Brueghel, J. The Entry of the Animals into (c. 1500-1 5 10, NGS) 775

Allori, C. Judith and Holofemes (1613, Maria dellaVittoria, Rome) 179 Noah's Ark (1613, John Paul Getty David, J.L. The Coronation (1805-1807,
Kensington Palace, London) 129 Fountain "/ the Four Rivers (1648, Piazza Museum, Malibu) 119 Roval Gallery, Brussels) 187
Stjulian (1613) 174 Navona, Rome) 206 The Sense of Smell (17th c, PM) 239 Death of Seneca (1773, LP) 208
Altdorfer.A. The Battle of Zsjus (1529, Habakkuk ( 1 655-61 Santa Maria del , Burne-Jones, E. Pygmalion and the Image Death of Socrates (1787, MNY) 208
AM) 182-83 Popolo, Rome) 127 (1868-70, BCAG) 74 Funeral of Patroclus (1780, NGI) 70
I Imsl Faking Leave of His Mother (c.1520, Proserpina (1621-22, BGR) 78 Buytewech, W. Merry Company The Sabine Women (1799, LP) 54-55
NGI i 131 St. Longinus (1629-38, VR) 174 (c. 1620-22. Szepmuveszeth Museum, The Judgment ofCambyses (1498) 200
Amigoni.J. Bathsheba (r. 1739-47. Truth (1646-52) 244 Budapest) 244 Ih, Love of Pans and Helen ( 1 788, LP) 69
Staatlii he Museum, Berlin) 124 Berruguete P. Federigo da Montefeltro Canova,A. Three Graces (1813-16) 21 Napoleon Distributing the Eagles (1810)
Andrea da Firenze, LiberalArts (r.1360, (1480, DPU) 246 Caravaggio, M. Head of Medusa (r.1598) 187
SMV) 197 Bicci, Neri di St. Fein its (1463, Santa 68 Napoleon in His Study (1812) 187
\i Domini, (c. 1365, SMV) 178 Felicita. Fl) 173 The Incredulity of St. Thomas (c 1601) 167 The Oath of the Horatii ( 1 784, LP)
St Thomas Aquinas (mid lithe. SMV) Blake, W. The indent of Days (c.1794, p( ) Madonna of the Pilgrims (1604-1605, 188-89
179 247 Sant' Agostino, Rome ) 131 Sappho and Phaon (1809, HSP) 204
Andrea del Sarto Egypt 'i Tribute to Caesar Book ofJob (1828) 119 Sacrifice of Isaac (1603, UF) 122 Victors Bringing Brutus the Bodies of His
(1521, Villa Medici, Poggio) 201 Inferno (1821-27, National Gallen oi St. Matthew (1599-1600, San Luigi dei .Sons (1789) 202
Angelico, Fra The Annunciation Victim. i, Melbourne) 190-91 Francese, Rome) 140-41 Delacroix, F.-V.-E. The Barque of Dante
i
15, I'M) 96-97,206 Macbeth (c,1785,TGL) 78 St. Paul (1621) 168 (1822. LP) 191.204
I 12-35, MSM) Bocklin, A. Island oj the Dead 1880, Off.( The Taking of Christ (1602, NGI) 166 Death ofSardanapalus (1827. LP)
92-93, 120 Kunstsammlung, Basel) 248 ///, YoungBacchus (1593-94, UF) 184-85. 200
Supper(\442, MSM) 134 Bol, F. Manlius Torquatus Beheading His 14-15. 241 Liberty Leading the People ( 1 830. LP) 227
n 1 75 Son I 166 I, RAm) 202 Carlone, G.V. Juno and Mars (c.1650, Diez, A. Juvenilis with Jupiter in the Guise of
Bonifacio de' Pilati Lot and His Daughh rs FMC) 16-17 an Eagle (r.1820. R\m) 63
 INDEX 253

Domenichino Erminia with the Shepherds Giovanni, A. de The Triumph of I Jive (mid (mid I5th c, LP) 137 Jonah (e.1504, L'F) 108
(LP) 205 15lhc.,V&A) 208 Landseer, E. Monarch of the Glen (1851. Last Judgment (1536-41, VR) 78, 120,
TheJudgment of Midas (r.1616-18, NGL) Giovanni, B. de 1 he Slurs ofJoseph (FMC) Dewar & Sons, London) 2.37 246
79 123 Lanfranco, G. The Prophet Elijah Awakened Leda and the Swan (1530 RAL) 73 .

zl.SyAi. (r.l620,WCI.) 60 Girodet, A-L. The Sleep of Endymion in the Desert by an Angel ( 1 624-25. Night (£.1530, San Lorenzo. Fl) 63
DonateUo David (r.1440, Bargello, Fl) 124 (1792, I. P) 72 RAm) 125-26 /tea (1499, VR) 136
Hahakkuk (c.1430, Duomo, Fl) 127 Goes, H. van der The Fall (after 1 479, Lastman, P. The Dispute Between Orestes Taddei Tondo ( c 1 504. RAL) 239
Gattamelata (1443-48, Piazza di San KMV) 88-89, 105 and Pylades (1614, RAm) 79 Mignard, P. Equestrian Portrait of Louis
Antonio, Padua) 20(1 Porlinan Altarpiece (c.1475, L'F) 88, Juno DiscoveringJupiter and lo ( 1 6 1 4. XIV Crowned by Victory (r.1692.

Mary Magdalene (mid 15th c.) 135 104-105 NGL) 16 Chateau de Versailles) 200
St. Thomas 167 Goya The Dream of Reason Produces Lebrun, C. The Death ofCato (r.1646, Millais, I.E. Chnst m the House of H is
Duccio di Buoninsegna Maestd Monsters ('.1790, BML) 245 MBA) 202 Parents (1849, pc) 108-109, 133
(1308-1311, Museo dell'Opera dell' Saturn Devouring One of His Children Leighton, F. Ctytie (1895-96, pc) 77 The Return of the Dove to the Ark ( 1851
Duomo, Siena) 98, 144-45, 167, 171 (1821-23, PM) 57 fezebel and Ahah ( 1 863. Scarborough 248
Durer.A. The Apocalypse (1498) 120 Gozzoli, B, SV. Augustine ( 1465, Hippo, Art Gallery) 125 Millet, J.-F. The Angelas (1889. Md'O) 22
Anon (c.l 514, KMV) 204 Milan) 170 Leonardo da Vinci La st Supper ( r. 1 495 The Gleaners (1857. Md'O) 109
Knight, Death and the Devil (151 3) 227 Greco, El Allegory of the Hols League 133-34 Molenaer, J. Ends World 1633. 1 Museum
Melancholia (1524) 244 (1576-77, Fscorial, Madrid) 120 Leda and the Swan (early 16th r.)73 of Art, Toledo) 236
Nemesis (c.1500) 63 7 he Burial of Count Orgaz ( 1 586-88. Virgin and Child with St. Anne Ic. 1510, Moreau, G. jupiler and Semele (1894—95,
The Prodigal Son (1495, BML) 133 S. Tome, Toledo) 245 LP) 100-101 Moreau Museum, Paris) 42-43
St. John Chrysoslom (r.1502, BN) 177 The Opening nj Ihe Fifth Seal (e.1610, Lippi, F. 7 he Life of St. Peter ( 1 480s, Medea Enamored by Jason 1865. Md'O) (

St Michael, Archangel (£.1497 ', BN) 84 MNY) 120 Brancacti Chapel, Fl) 146-47 67
Dyck, A. van Amaryllis and Mtrlillo St. Veronica (c. 1579, Museo de Santa Raising of Druisiana (c\4S0, SMN) 167 The Return of the Argonauts ( 1897.
(1628-31, Gothenburg Museum) 205 Cruz, Toledo) 152-53 SV. Bernard of Clauvaux (late 15th ( .. Moreau Museum. Paris) 67
Egg, AL. Past and Present ( 1 858, TGI .) Gros, A.-J. Napoleon Visiting the I'esthnuse Bad.a. Fl) 178 Sappho ( 1871-72. V&A) 205
240, 246 atJaffa (1804) 187 Si Philip (1503, SMN) 167 Sappho leaping into the Sea ( 1880, pc)
Eyck, J. van Adoration of the Lamb from the Gninewald, M. Isenheim Altarpiece Lippi, Fra F. The Dance of Salome 204
Ghent Altarpiece (£.1430, Bavo) 86-87, ( 1510—15, Musee d'l 'met linden. (1452-66, Prato) 127 The Sirens (1882. Fogg Museum. Mass.)
167, 197,206 Colmar) 106-107, 137 Lotto, L. .1 I. ady with a Drawing ofLucretia 66
The Arnoljini Marriage ( 1 434, NGI ,) 6, Guercino, G.F.B. Sola di iurora (1621-23. (e.1530, NGL) 203 Munch, E. Death and the Maiden 1893, (

212-13, 237, 247 Casino dell' Aurora Ludovisi, Rome) Maderno. S. St Cecilia (c.1600, Sia. Munch Museum, Oslo) 245
Madonna with Chancellor Rolin ( 1 435, 8, 22-23 Cecilia, Rome) 173 Olivier, F. Abraham and Isaac 1 22
LP) 206 Tancredand I rmina (1618-19) 205 Maes, N. Interior with Sleeping Maid and Orcagna, A. Paradise 1 1 357. SMN 1 1 18
Fabriano, School of Gentile da SV. Guerin, P.-N. Phaedra and Hippolytus Her Mistress (1660s, NGL) 250 Overbeck, F. Olmda and Sopkronia
Dorothea (15th c, DPU) 173 (19th c.) 67 Mainardi. S. St Gemignano 1 1 1 500. Sam (1817-27. Cassino Massimi, Rome)
Fetti, D. Verlumnus and Pomona ( I 62 -23, 1 Hals, F. YoungMan Holding a Skull Agostino, S.m Gimignano) 177 205
CIl.) 75 (1626-28, NGL) 225 Manet, E. Ofymptd (1863, Md'Oi 237 Pacchiarotti The judgment ofSolomon
Fiorentino, R. Moses Defending the Holbein, H. illegal ) oj the Old and New Mantegna, A. . \lnahairi Sacrificing Isaac (Musee du Petit Palais, A\ignon) 125.
Daughters offelhro (£.1523, UF) 121 Testaments (£.1530, NGS) 121 i.l 190-95, KM\ 1 722 127
Flemalle, B. The Sacrifice 0/ Iphigenia The Ambassadors 1 1533. \(,I i 180, [llegory of the Fall ofIgnorant Humanity Patenier Charon (1515-24, PM I
78
(1646-47) 69 196 '17 iBMl 1 67 Perugino, P. Battle between Inn and
French School De Consolatione Philosophiae Honthorsl, G. van Cianlda and Dai/i/n Ih, Haiti, of the Sea Gods (1 1 170) 250 Chastity I 1505, LP) 233
(C.1460.WCL) 194-95 ( 1625, Central Museum, I ftre( In) 205 I nl nulla Imn oj the Cult aj ( \h,le into Rome St. Bernard ofCharuavx (late 15thc,
Fuseli, H. Nightmare (1781, Detroil Hughes, A. The Long Engagement ( 1859, (Kunstinstitut, Frankfurt) 203 Wli 178
Institute ol An) 245 BCAG) 2is Pallas Expellingtlu Vices from the Garden Scenes from the I ifi
,.; Moses 1
1 181-83,
Gaddi.A. .SV. Thomas (1390s) 167 Hunt,W. H. TheLightofthe World ../ \,,i„, 1, .150(1. 1 P) 232-33 Sistine I hapel, Vatican, Rome) 121
Gaddi, T. The Tree of the Cross (i.\ 355-60, (1853-56, Cit) Art Gallery, Parnassus {] 197, 1 P) 24 25, ,9, "3. 207 Peruzzi. B. Ill, Xymfdi (allisti, an fupiter's
Santa Croce, Fl) 132 M.ini hestei ) 247 Triumphs of Catsca 1 1 186-1506, IK I 1 Chorion 151 1-12, VF) 44-45, 77
Gauguin, P. The Vision after the Sermon The Scapegoat (1854, Level Gallery, Porl 202 1 ulcau al His Eoig, (£.1515, VF) 1 3
(1888, NGS) 94-95 Sunlight) 237 Martin, J. Joshua I otnmnndiug tin Sun to Picasso. P. Minotaur and Dead Man in
Gentileschi, A. Judith and Holofemes Hyre, L. de la AUegorit al Figure "/ Slant/ SHUOvei tad, <n, 1 1816, 1 lined hunt of a ( .,'; - 1
1936, Musee Picasso,
(c.1615, UF) 129 Grammai (1650, N(.l 208 )
( .i.ind I odge Museum, I ondon 1 121 Paris) 10 31

Gentileschi, O. Diana the Hauler ( 1625, Allegory "/ Ihe Regency of Anne 0/ Austria Martini, S. //.. innunciation (1333, I F) Guernica 1 1937, Museo Nacional,
Music (Ics Beaux-Arts, Nantes) 61 (1648, Chateau de Versailles) 21 1 15, 176 Madrid)226-27
Joseph and Potiphai \ Wife 630, HCL) ( 1 .
1 251 \i Martin ofToun (£.1317, Vssisi) 177 Piero di Cosimo Perseus Rescuing

123 Ingres, J.A.D. Apotheosis oj Homei 1

1827, Masaccio Thi I if oj St Petei 1 1 126-27, Andromeda 1 1 190, UF) 12 J3.64
Gerome, J.-L. lygmalion and ( .alalia I P) 63 Brancacci Chapel, I h 88, / 16 17, 168 Prometheus 1 1 (90s) 58
(1870, MW) 71 Jupiter and Thetis (£.1810, Musee limits ( ( I I27,SMN)90 I Sotyi Mourning Over a Nymph 1. I 195,
Ghiberti, L. Cam and Abel I I 425-52, BF) Granet, Aix-en-Provence ) 36 ?7,69, Masolino I h, I if ,./ Si Petei 1 I 126-27 1
>s \(.l 1 26-27
1 19 239 St G I 120, \(.l 1 ;
1- 28
Joshua (1427-52, BF) 121 Napoleon I ( 1806. Musee de I'Armee, 171 Piero della Francesca Baptism of Christ
Noah (1437-50, BF) 119 Paris) 186-87 Massys, Q. //.. Moneylender and His Wifi 150, NGI 1
80, 110-111
Queen ofSheba (1425-50, BF) 125 Oedipus and the Sphinx (1808, 1 Pi "^ (151 I.I Pi 210, 230-31 tim I
1 155 SF V 201
Giambologna Men ury ( I
665) 59 Ruggiero Delivering Angelica ( 1819, 1 P) Master of Flemalle Nativity 1. 1 125) I I]

Rape of the Sabine Women ((.1580) 54 205 Master of St. Cecilia Si ' i ' . 1 earl) Si Michael the Archangel {cl 170, NGI
Giordano, L. tin .Mini ofSolomon (e.1735, Jacopo del Sellaio I In Slmy ,>/ Cii/nd and 1 iih , UF) 173 B4
I'M) 125 Psyche{t I 173, FMC) 18-49 Master of St. Giles s 1. I 177 Pietro da Cortona 17-47,
Phineas and His Followers Turned to Stone Janneck Diana and Endymion (18th c.) 73 Master of St. Veronica SV. A nna (e.1 PPJ
(NGL) S3 Jones, A. Peace (1912) 24 I W.ilh.ii ( ologne) 100 Rape of the Sabine Women (c.1625) 51
Giorgione, G. Sleeping Venus (.1508. GD) Jordaens.J. Diogenes in the Market Place Master, Rhinish Parodist G Roo, 1640 PPF) 251
II (1642, GD) 20s 1 1410-20, Kunstinstitut, Frankfurt) Pietro della Vecchia Timoclea Brought
Giotto Flight into Egypt 0.1310. ACP) 132 King ( an. tallies oj I \dia shou ing Ills Wij, 242 Before Alexander 1 8 I

Folly (c\$10, ACP) 221 to Gyges (17th c, National Museum, Memling, H. Doni 1 I I
175) 172 Pisanello St. A 1450, NGI 176
Massacre of the Innocents 1 1305-08, \< IP) Stockholm) 200 .SV. Ckristophei (£.1484,1 Iroeninge- Pittoni. G.B S

132 Satyi and lln Peasant ( 1620, MBA) 27 museum, Bruges) ! 5i ~" / 7ft Pollaiulo, A. del Daphne and Apollo
Noli me Tangere ACP) / 56
(c. 1305, klinit.G. Danae (1907- 1908, pc) 10-41 Mengs, A. An . illegory ofHistory | c 1 770, M.l
(£.1470-80,
Payment ofJudas (£.1305, ACP) 166 Koenig.J. Latona Changing the Lycian Museo Clivio, Bassani Pontormo Pomona and Vertum
St. Francis Preaching to the Birds Peasants into Frogs {c.1610, CH I
i8 Michelangelo So lit iling Villa Medici. Poj

(1296-97, San Francesco, Assisi) 178 I-agrenee, L. Meicuiy. lime and \glnnro.s (1509-12, VR) 90 93, 119 Poussin, N. Camillus and the Schoolmaster

Vices and Virtues 206 ( 1 767, National Museum, Stockholm) D, .

.. , 1
.in \. . cl, .nia. FD 124 ,,//, 1637 LP) 202
The Virgin (1305-10, ACP) 131 72 Dawn, Dusk. Nigh! and Day ((.1530. S.111 na and Endymion (£.1630, Del
Giovanni d'Alemagna SV. Ambrose (mid Lambertini, M. / he I mpt roi 1 leraclius Lorenzo, Fl) 2 1 Institute of Art) 245
15th c.) 170 ( aims ill: 1 ross to /' rusaUm Doni /,...,/..(, 1504,1 1 -
108 The Eluding
 FWJHpar 'in and Anadne (• 1716, National Gallery, Southampton) 112-13 Soli me Tangrrr 1 35
of Han
ki*t*em Muaeum, Nurembui g
Spinrllo Amino The Heart Stun/ Presentation of the Virgin in the Temple

raitt/l>r I ht I
• >">. Kn\.il s.im Milium. Fl> 160-61. 249 18. Ace) 130. 131
r u-iM (hpKrus an<t < ..lire in.... WiimIm.i Spranger. B. Hercules. Dnannra and the Sacred and Profane Love (r.1514. BGR)
Harpagus Hnrrging ( sriis to the Shepherds Ontanr \. - ,,': 248
hinduapt ml* fVomu am/ Thisbe 1
1706-1706, KunsthaUe, Hamburg) Salmacis and Hrrmaphrodttus (r. 1590. Tarquin and l.ucrelta (1568-71. FMC)
k " KMV) To 203
iiniiiiMitui. Frankfurt) i 201
Landscape utth St John on Palmns (1640, Rodin. A. Danmds | 1885, KMT 3 Steen.J. Beware of Luxury (&1660, KM\ I
The Three Ages of Man 1 1 5 1 6. pc) 245
InMitulr ill ( hi. fjfeofeio(1882, RMP) 204 234-35 Hntu and Adonis (1551-54. PM) 50-5/
-
29 \K> IT . Romanelli, G. Dido and Aeneas ( 1610-62) (aril Players Qiiarrellmg ( 1 664—65, The Worship of Venus (1518-19, PM) 47
,;>irtn<j/in<ll<166(MS4. 71 Gemaldegalerie. Berlin ) 246 Traini, F. Tin Triumph of Death (mid

I P Reprrsrnlatnr of the Senate Offering the The Dissolute Household ( r. 1 660, Apsley 14th c, Campo Sanli, Pisa) 245
Midiis IliuAf ng at M^ Sourrr ofthr Pactolus Dictatorship to I'.incinnalus I 1655—68, I louse. London) 246 Tura, C. St. Jerome (15th c, NGL) 151

I K MM LP) 203 TheDoctor's Visit (1663-65, Philadelphia Turner, J.M.W. Dido and Aeneas (1814,
RtnaidoandArmutaii 1' 10 DPG) 205 Romano, Guilio Sola di Constantino Museum of Art) 199 TGL) 71

77kr fan WammM ( 1644-48) 248 (1520-24)201 Easy Come, Easy Go (1663, KMV) 240 The Fifth Plague of Egypt (1800,
Tanrrrd and Ermima 1635, Univerat) of ( Rosa, S. Democntus in Meditation { 1651, Effects of Intemperance (1663, NGL) 251 Indianapolis Museum of Art) 121
Birmingham) 204 Museum of Fine Arts, Copenhagen) Steenwyck, H. Allegory of the Vanities of Goddess of Discord ( 1806, TGL) 61
Theseus Finding His Father's Arms 208 Human Life (1612, NGL) 225 Snow Storm: Hannibal and His Army
(1636-37. Mutee ( mule. Chantilh > River Scene with Apollo and the Sibyl Stella, J. Cloelia Crossing the Tiber (17th c, Crossing the Alps (1812, TGL) 203
65 ( 1650s. WCL) 60 LP) 203 Ulysses Deriding Polyphemus (1829, NGL)
7nnm^Ao/D<n/irf(r.l632. DPG) 124 The Spirit of Samuel Called up Before Saul Stradano, G. Penelope Weaving (mid 66
Triumph of Pan 1635-36. NGL) 62
( by the Witch ofEndor 1 668, LP) 1 24-25 ( 16th c, PVF) 175 Vision of Medea (1828, TGL) 67
Preti, M. The Frost of Absalom ( r. 1 660, Rossetti, D.G. Astarte (1877. City Art Strozzi, B. Fame (r.1635, NGL) 244 Uccello, P. St. George and the Dragon ( 1 460,
Campodionte Gallcrv Naples) 125 Gallerv, Manchester) 56 Taillasson, J.-J. Virgil Reading the Aeneid to NGL) 162-63
Puvis de Chavannes, P. Si. Genevieve / In First Anniversary of the Death of Augustus and Octavian 192 Vasari, G. The Alchemist's Laboratory

(1879. Fogg Museum. Mass.) 172. 173 Bra(77«(1853,AMO) 191 Teniers, D. Spring, Summer, Autumn, (r. 1570, PVF) 209
Quarton, E. Coronation of the Virgin Paolo and Francesco ( 1 855, TGL) 204 Winter (c. 1640, NGL) 243 FourElements (r.1560, PVF) 56
(453-54. Hospice de Villeneuve-les-
1 Proserpina (1874, TGL) 240 Terborch, Gerard Women Dunking Wine Labors of Hercules (r.l 560. PVF) 68
Avignon, Anjou) 102-103 Rubens, P.P. Achilles Tapestries (1630s, with a Sleeping Soldier ( 1 7th c, pc) 245 Velazquez, D. Christ in the House of Mary
Raphael Blinding of Flymas (cl514) 206 Boyanns-van Beuningen Museum, Tibaldi, P. Ulysses (r.1550, Palazzo Poggi. and Martha (c.1618, NGL) 114-115
Vision of tlzekiel {c.lb\%, PPF) 90-91, 126 Rotterdam/Detroit) 69 Bologna) 66 Velde, J. van de Death Surprising a Young
Healing of the Lame Man at the Beautiful Allegory of Peace and War (1630, NGL) Tiepolo, G. Alexander and Campaspe in the Couple (r.l 620) 234
Gate (r.l514,V&A) 125 227 Studio ofApelles (1725-26, Montreal Veneziano, D. St. Lucy Altarpiece or
Council of the Gods (1 509-1 l.VF) 57 Angelica and the Hermit (KMV) 205 Museum of Fine Arts) 200 Madonna and Child with Saints (1445,
Madonna of the Goldfinch (r.1506, UF) Battle of the Amazons (1616-18, AM) 65 Amphion Building the Walls of Thebes with UF) 130
239 Chariot of Elijah (r.l 620, pc) 125 His Song r. 1 720, Palazzo Sandi,
( Veronese, P. Cephalus and Prodis (r.l 560,
Miraculous Draught of Fishes (r.1515, Consequences of War (1638, PPF) 227 Venice) 73 Musee des Beaux-Arts, Strasbourg) 77
V&A) 148-49, 239 Constantine (1622) 201 The A ngel Appearing to Sarah ( 1 725-26, Europa (1580, Musee des Beaux-Arts,
Parnassus {c.\b\0.\T>) 61,63, 191,204 Daniel in the Lions' Den (r.1615. Patriarchal Palace, Udine) 122 Strasbourg) 53
Repulse of Attila by Pope Leo I (1513, VR) National Gallery, Washington) 75 Apollo and the Continents ( r. 1 750, The Family of Darius Before Alexander
201 Drunken Silenus Supjimted by Satyrs Wiirzburg, Germany) 229 (r.1550, NGL) 183
St. Cecilia (1514, V&A) 173 (c. 1620, NGL) 62 The Banquet of Cleopatra (1750, Ace) 201 Marcus Curtius 202
St. Paul Preaching at Athens (r.1515, The Four Continents (1638, KMV) The Building of the Trojan Horse St. Barnabas (r.l 556, Musee des Beaux-
V&A) 168,206 228-29 (1773-74) 70 Arts, Rouen) 169
St. l'eter(VR) 168 Ixwn Received by Juno (1615, LP) 78 Course of the Chariot of the Sun ( 1 740, St. Catherine of Alexandria (r.1575, Ace)
The School of Athens (c.1510, VR) 208, Jupiter and Semele (c.1630) 132 Palazzo Clerici, Milan) 60 172
209 The Judgment of Paris (c.16%4, PM) 2, Holy House of Loretto (c.\742) 131 Scenes from the Story of Esther (r.l 555, San
Sposalizio or Marriage of the Virgin to 38-39, 69 The Meeting of Cleopatra and Antony Sebastiano, Venice) 128
Joseph ()504, Brera) 131 Landscape with Ulysses and Nausicaa (1750, Palazzo Labia, Venice) 201 Temptation of St. Anthony (r.l 553, Musee
Transfiguration (151 8-20, VR) 1 33 (r.l 635, PPF) 66 Pharaoh 's Daughter Finding the Infant des Beaux-Arts, Caen ) 1 76
The Triumph of Galatea (1513, VF) 44, Prometheus (1611-14, Philadelphia Moses (r.l 740, NGS) 121 Verrocchio, A., follower of Tobias and the
46-47 Museum of Art) 58 Room of the Iliad ( r. 1 757, Villa Angel ( 1460s, NGL) 129
Redon, O. Apollo's Chariot (r.1905-16, Queen Tomyris and the Head of Cyrus Valmarana, Vicenza) 70 Vivarini, A. St. Ambrose (mid 15th c.) 170
LP) 18-19 (r.l 620, Museum of Fine Arts, Sf. Bartholomew (1722. San Stae. Venice) Vos, M. de The Rape of Europa (late

Regnault,J.-B. The Education of Achilles Boston) 201 167 16th c, Museo de Bellas Artes, Bilbao)
(1782. LP) 69 Rape of the Daughters of Leucippus St. Clement 1 74 52-53
Rembrandt The Anatomy Lesson (1632, (c.1618, KMV) 62 St. Lucy (1748-50, Sand Apostoli, Waterhouse.J.W. Circe Invidiosa (1892.
MH) 198-99 Samson and Delilah (c.1609. NGL) 128 Venice) 171 Art Gallery of Australia. Melbourne)
The Angel Leaving Tobias (1637, LP) 129 Statue of Ceres (c.1615) 58 St. Thecla (r.1759. Este Cathedral) 173 66
Bathsheha Bathing ( 1 654, LP) 124 The Sense of Smell (17th c, PM) 239 Telemachus and Mentor 66 Hylas and the Nymphs ( 1 896, City Art
Belshazzar's Feast (r.1636-38, NGL) 127 Three Graces ( 1 639, PM ) 2 Tintoretto The Fall of Manna (1593) 121 Gallery, Manchester) 34-35, 62
the Blinding of Samson (1636, SKF) The Union of Earth and Water (1612-15. The Might into Egypt (Scuola di San Ulysses and the Sirens ( 1891 National ,

128 HSP) 56 Rocco, Venice) 132 Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne) 66

David Harping Before Saul ( r. 1 650, MH Rubens, Painter from the School of The Last Supper ( 1 593, San Giorgio Watteau,J.A. The Embarkation for Cythera
124 Philemon and Baucis (1620-25, KMV) Maggiore, Venice) 121 (1717, LP) 56, 218-19
The Abduction of Ganymede ( 1 635, 77 Minerva and Arachne (1579, L'F) 77 West, B. Agnppma Landing at Brundisium
Staatlirhe KunsLsammlungen, Salviati, F. Marcus Furius Camillus 202 The Origin of the Milky Way (r.1570, with the Ashes ofGermanicus ( 1 768. Yale
Dresden) 73 Sano di Pietro St. Blaise 1 76 NGL) 243 University Art Gallery) 203
Jeremiah Foneeing the Destruction of Savery, R. Orpheus Charming the Beasts St. Mark (1548, Ace) 169 Weyden, R. van der Braque Triptych (mid
Jerusalem (1630, RAm) 126 (1628) 74 Susannah and the Elders (1557, KMV) 15th c. LP) 135
The Vision if Daniel (c.1650, Schongauer, M. The Mystical Hunt 129 The Entombment (cAioO, UF) 116-17
Gemaldegalerie, Berlin) 127 (r.1475, Musee d'Unterlinden, and Ariadne (1518-23,
Titian Bacchus St. Luke Drawing a Portrait of the Virgin
Reni, G. Atalanta and llibpomenes (r.1620, Colmar) 236 NGL) 74-75 (r.l450,HSP) 167, 169
GCN) 77 Signorelli, L. Virgin anil Child with Saints Cain Slaying Abel (r. 1540, Santa Maria Seven Sacraments Triptych (r.1451-53,
Aurora (1613, Casino Rospigliosi, (r.1515, NGL) 173 della Salute, Venice) 119 Koninklujk Museum, Antwerp) 248
Rome) 60 Solimena, F. The Fall of Simon Magus Danae and the Shower of Gold ( 1545, Wilson, R. The Destruction of Siobe's
Cleopatra (r.1630, Royal Collection. (1689-90. San Paolo Maggiore, GCN) 40 Children (r.l 760. destroyed) 79
Windsor) 201 Naples) 168 The Death ofActaeon (r.1555-57, NGL) Zuccarelli, F. Bacchanal (r.1740, Ace) 14
Lot and His Daughters leaving Sodom Solomon, S.J. Ajax Abducting Cassandra 77 Zurbaran, F. St Bonaventura Addressing the
GL) 122 (1886, Ballarat Gallery, Australia) 70 Diana and Act aeon (1556-59, NGS) 76 Assembly at the Council of Lyons
Ricci, S. Archimedes and the Hero of Syracuse Spencer, S. Resurrection inth the Raismgof The Flaying of Marsyas (r. 1570, Kromeriz (1629-30. LP) 179
jairus i Di ughU \ ( 1947, City .Art Statnzamek) 79 St. Francis (r.1630-32) 178
 255

crozier 249 Fortune 63 Job 119

Index of Key Words crucifix
Crucifixion
248
106, 134
fountain 206
Four Greek Doctors 1 77
Jonah 127
Joseph (Jacob's son) 123
crutch 247 Four Latin Doctors 170 Joseph (Mary's husband) 130
Abel 119 birds 68,239 Cupid 72 Francesca 204 Joseph of Arimathea 117
Abraham 122 biretta 249 Curatii 189 Franciscans 249 Joshua 121
Abstinence 251 blindness 244 Cybele 56 fruit 240 Judas Iscariot 166
Abundance 244 Book of Hours 248 Cyclopes 56 Furies 56 Judgment of Paris 69
Achelous 68 Brazen Serpent 121 cypress 241 Gabriel 118 Judith 129
Achilles 69 bread 240 Cyrus the Great 200 Gaea 56 Julius Caesar 202
Aclaeon 76 breast 245 Cvthera 56 Galatea 47 Juno 16, 57
Adam 88, 119 Brutus 202 Daedalus 79 Ganymede 73 Jupiter 57
Adonis 50, 72 bull 68,236 Daifilo 205 garden 242 Justice 250
Aeneas 71 Cadmus 64 Damocles 79 Geryon 68 Juventas 63
Aesculapius 61 caduceus 247 Danae 40. 73 Girdle of Hippolyta 68 Lamb 86
Agamemnon 69 Caeneus 76 Danaids 79 Gluttony 250 Lamentation 134
Ages of Man 245 Caenis 76 Daniel 126 goat 237 lamp 247
Ages of [he World 57 Cain 119 Dante 191,204 God 90, 118 landscape 242
Agrippina 203 Callisto 45 Daphne 76 goldfinch 239 Laocoon 70
Ahab 125 Calumny 251 Daphnis 75 Grammar 208 Last Judgment 92, 120
air 242 Cambyses 200 David 124 Granida 205 Last Supper 133
Ajax 70 camel 237 Day 63 Guilds of Florence 206 Latona 58
alchemy 209 Camillus 202 Death 245 Gyges 200 laurel 215
Alexander the Greai 183,200 Campaspe 200 Deceit 221 Habakkuk 127 Leda 73
almonds 240 Candaules 200 DeciusMus 202 habits 249 Lemean Hvdra 68
AmaHhea 77 candles 247 Delphi 60 Hades 78 Leviathan 120
Amaryllis 205 cardinal virtues 250 Democritus 208 Hagar 122 Liberal .Arts 197, 208
Amazons 64 cards 246 Deposition 117 halo 248 lit) 241
Andromeda 64 Cassandra 70 Descent into Hell 120 hand 245 lion 68. 238
Angelica 205 cassock 249 Deucalion and Pvrrha 79 Hannibal 203 l.oretto 131
angels 82, 118 cassone 247 Diana 61 harp 207 Lot 122
Angelus 248 Castor 62 dice 246 Harpy 67 Louis XIV 201
Anger 250 cat 237 Dido 71 harvest 242 Lucretia 203
Annunciation 97 Cato 202 Diogenes of Sinope 208 heart 245 Lust 250
An dope 73 censer 249 Diomedes 68 Heaven 118 lute 207
ape 236 Centaur 28.67 Dionysius the Areopagite 168 Hecate 78 luxurv 234
Apelles 200 Cephaliu 77 Discord 61 lienor 69 l\ re 207
Apocalypse 120 Cerberus 68 doctor 199 Hekatoncheires 56 Madonna s« Virgin
Apollo 18,60 Ceres 57 dog 212.237 Helen 69 Magi 132
Apostles 1 45 chains 246 Dominicans 249 Hell 120 Man of Sorrows 136
apple 240 chalice 248 Don Quixote 205 Heraclitus 208 maniple 249
Apples of the Hesperides 68 Charity 250 Dormition 131 Hercules 68 Manlius Torquatus 202
Arachne 77 Charon 78 dove 239 Hermaphroditus 76 Marcus Curtius 202
Arcadian Stag 68 Chastity 251 dragon 236 Hermes Trismegistus 209 MarkAntonv 201
Archangel 84, 118 chasuble 249 eagle 239 Herod 132 marriage 212
Archimedes 209 cherry 240 earth 242 Herse 72 Mars 59
architecture 206 CHI RHO 248 Echo 75 Hesione 68 \l.us\as 79
Arethusa 76 Chimera 64 egg 240 Hesperides 68 Martha 114, 135
Argonauts 67 Chloc 75 elements 242 Hippolyta 68 Man w Virgin
Ariadne 74 ciborium 248 elephanl 237 Hippolytus 67 Man Magdalene 135
Arion 204 Cincinnalus 202 Elijah 125 Histoi mask 207
208
Aristotle Circe 66 Kndvniion 72 lloh Family 108. 132 Massacre of the Innocents 132
Armida 205 Cleopatra 201 Entombment 1 17 Homer 204 M.uer Dolorosa 130
armor 246 Cloelia 203 Entry into Jerusalem 133 Hope 250 Medea
arrow 246 dub 247 Envj 250 Horatii 189 Medusa 64
Arthur 205 Clytie 76 equestrian monuments 200 Horses of Diomedes 68 melancholia 244
Ascension 136 cock 239 Erminia 205 hunting 246 Menelaus 69
ass 236 cockle shell 249 l-.iviii.inlln.in Boar 68 Hyai mihus 72 Mercm
Assumption 131 coins 230 Esau 123 IMas 85 Michael 84, 118
Astarte 56 color 246 Esthei 128 Hymen 62 Midas 79
Astyages 201 column 206 till lid JOS hams 70 Milk) Waj 243
Atalanta 77 comb 246 Europa 53, 73 IHS 248 Minerva ">
M
Altila the Hun 201 Commedia dellAile 206 Eurydii e 7 t Images of the Virgin 98 I Minotaui SI 65
Augean Stables 68 compasses 247 Eurviion ON INRI 248 Ml.. ulcs 113, 133
Auguslinians 249 conch 240 l'vangelisis loo Instruments ol the Passion 133 Mirollo 205
Augustus 201 Concord 244 Eve 88, 119 Intemperance 251 missal 248
aureole 248 Constantine 201 eyes 244 lo 73 mure 249
Aurora 22 continents 229 E/ekiel 126 Iplugenia 69 moon 242
autumn 243 cope 249 Faith 250 fris 63 Moses 121
Avarice 250 coral 64 Knur 2 11 Isaac 122 Mm ins s, aevola 202
Bacchus 14 com 240 t.isus 202 Isaiah 126 Muses 25, 63
bagpipe 207 I mi nui opia 244 Faunus 62 Ishmael 122 music al instruments 207
Baptism I I 1 Coronation of the Virgin 102, Feasts <>l the < k>ds 61 iv) 241 myrde 241
bare feet 245 131 U-mliiv 245 Ixion 78 mythical i rearures 236
Bathsheba 124, 125 Cm. mis 72 i
.
i. t hampetre 218 Jacob 95. 123 Napoleon 1 187,201
battle dI miiiics and vices 233 corporal 248 Fidelitj 251 |,.i 129
Bau< is 77 crane 239 fire 212 l.iuus 63 Nastagio 204
bee 236 Creation I 10 lish 237 Jason 07 Nativit) 105 I

Bellerophon 64 ( retan Bull 68 Flight into Egypt 132 [eremiah 126 Nemean 1 ii

Belshazzai 126 crocodile 237 I lora 62 |> i ii lu> 121

Benedictines 249 crook 247 flowers 211 Jesse 132 Neptuni
Benjamin 123 cross 136, 248 F0II5 221, 2li Jezebel 125 Nessus 68
14. ti.iv.il 131 i row 239 Fortitude 250 [oachim ISO Nicodemus 136
 Promt Si ( iiNpim.in I Wivi/m Minwfi i -mihx (instrument) 207
Si D.ui.i.in 171 Samson 128 tambourines 207
Piu.l. m Denyi 1 T i Samuel 121 lam led _

Ptyclx 19 Si I) mi 17s Sappho 2DI rantalus 7~

17 si Dorothea 173 Sarah 122 reaching! 132
PygmaUon 71 si Eligiua 157 Sardanapalus Is". 200 Tclciiiac bus 66
INiamu- 17".
Ml 7 1 siiiiin Satan 120 temperaments 211
( >lwil|.l.lll- Puih.i 70 si Eustace 171 Saturn Temperance 250
Opi Pythat StFelicit) 173 satyr 27 theological virtues 250
IStlll.i 60 Si. Franc is ol Assisi 1 78 Saul 121 Theseus 65
rainbow 243 Si Geminianus 177 -i all - 230 Thetis 36, 69
Raphael 118 Si. Genevieve 173 scallop 240 Thisbe 74
,i.. 204 raven 239 St. George 163. 176 sceptei 217 Three Graces 21. 62
( lipln us 7 I Rebecca 123 si. Giles 177 Scipio 203 liara 249
( k< n ai (.t iv" religious Orders si Gregory the Great 170 seasons 243 Time 244
- 240 reliquaries i is si Ignatius Loyola 179 Scmele 43 Titans 56
palm 241 Resurrection 136 St. James the Ch.u 166 Seneca 208 Tityus 78
Pan i.i' Rinaldo 203 St. James the Less 167 senses 244 Tobias 129
I'. uuli Roman wives and matrons 203 Si. Jerome 151, 170 Seven Sorrows of the Virgin Tomyris 201
I'.llltlM l.lllH Romulus 202 St. John Chrysoslom 177 130 Tower of Babel 118
Paolo 204 rosary 248 St. John the Baptisi 111. 126, Sheba, Queen of 125 Trajan 201
Parii - lose 241 127 shells 240 Transfiguration 133
penion Dowei '-'
1 Ruggiero 205 St. John the Evangelist 166 ship 247 Tree of Jesse 132
Passion of Christ 133 Ruth 128 Sl.Jude 169 Sibyl 60 Trial 134
pastoral itafi Sabine women 54 St. Julian 174 Silenus 62 Triumphs 201
Patroclus 70 Sacra Conversazioni* ISO St. Justina of Antioch 172 sins 250 True Cross 136
l'i mi r 24 sacraments 248 St. Laurence 175 Sirens 66 trumpet 207
peacock 239 sail 247 St. I.onginus 174 Sisyphus 78 Truth 244
ia 64 si tgatha 171 St. Lucy 171 skull 225, 245 Ugolino 204
pelican 239 St. Agnes 171 St. Luke 169 Sleep 245 Ulysses 66
Penelope 66 St. Ambrose 170 St. Margaret of Antioch 172 Sloth 250 umbrella 247
Persephone see Proserpina St. Andrew 148 St. Mark 169 snake 238 unicorn 236
Perseus 32 St. Anne (Anna) 100 St. Martin of Tours 177 Socrates 208 Uranus 56
personifications 244 St. Ansanus 176 St. Matthew 141 Sol 60 Venus 1
Phaeton 79 St. Anthony 176 St. Nicholas 175 Solomon 125 Vertumnus 75
Philemon 77 St. Augustine 170 St. Paul 168 Sophronia 205 Vesta 61
Philosophy 195, 208 St. Barbara 172 St. Peter 147, 168 soul 245 Vestal Virgins 61
phoenix 239 St. Barnabas 169 St. Peter Martyr 178 Sphinx 65 vices 233
l'lir\)jiaii Hals 70 St. Bartholomew 167 St. Philip 167 spring 243 Victory 63
Pieta 130 St. Benedict 161 St. Sebastian 155 stag 68,237 vine 240
pig 237 St. Bernard of Clairvaux 178 St. Simon 169 Stations of the Cross 136 viol 207
pilgrims 249 St. Blaise 176 St. Stephen 143 Stigmata 136 Virgil 192
Plan. 208 St. Bonaventura 179 St. Sylvester 1 77 still life 217,240 Virgin 98, 102, 130, 131
Pluto 78 St. Catherine of Alexandria 171 St. Teresa of Avila 179 stole 249 virtues 233, 250
Pollux 62 St. Catherine of Siena 164 St. Thecla 173 stork 239 Vulcan 13, 60
Polyphemus 66 St. Cecilia 173 St. Thomas 167 Stymphalian Birds 68 War 227
Polyxena 70 St. Christina 173 St. Thomas Aquinas 179 Styx 78 water 242
pomegranate 240 St. Christopher 159, 175 St. Ursula 172 summer 243 winds 62
Pomona 75 St. Clare of Assisi 178 St. Veronica 153 Susannah 129 winter 243
Priapus 62 St. Clement 174 salamander 238 swallow 239 Witch ofEndor 124
Pride 250 St. Cosmas 174 Salmacis 76 swan 239 Wooden Horse 70
Pox lis 77 St. Crispin 176 Salome 127 Syrinx (person) 62 Zodiac 209

NGL; 112-113 Southampton City Art Francesco, Upper Church, Assisi; 179
Acknowledgments Gallery © Southampton City Art Gallery;
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CIL; 180 NGL; 182 AM; 184-85 LP; 186
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book were supplied by The Bridgeman Galleries; 37 Musee Granet, Aix-en- Petit Palais, Avignon; 128 NGL; 129 LP; 196 NGL; 198-99 MH; 200 Chateau
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MAR 2 » m
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3 9999 04288
No longer the proporty of tive
<s

Boston Public Library.

Sale of this material benefited the
Library

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 filSP-
About the Author

Id
Sarah Carr-Gomm studied History of Art at the University

of East Anglia, UK, and took an MA in the Renaissance at

Birkbeck College, University of London. She was Head of Art

O History at Mander Portman Woodward

London's leading tutorial colleges, from

college,

I 976 until
one of

I 988. In

I 983 she founded Art History Abroad, a company which

organizes educational courses in Europe.

She has written books on Manet, Seurat and Goya, as well

as an artistic guide to Rome.

Jennifer Speake, M.Phil. (Oxford), author of the

commentaries in chapters two and three, is a writer, editor,

and lexicographer. Her publications include The Dent Dictionary

of Symbols in Christian Art and The Encyclopedia of the

Renaissance (with Thomas G. Bergin).

Rizzoli International Publications, Inc.

300 Park Avenue South

New York, NY 1 00 1

Distributed by St. Martin's Press

Jacket Credits

Front cover, from left to right: detail from St. John's portrait page, the

Lindisfarne Gospels (c. 698)/The British Library. London/The Bridgeman

Art Library, London (also on the spine); detail from To My Wife (1 933—44)

by Marc Chagall/Georges Pompidou Centre, Paris/The Bridgeman Art

Library. London/copyright ©ADAGP. Paris and DACS, London 2000;

detail from The Arnolfini Marriage (1 434) by Jan van Eyck/The National

Gallery. London/The Bridgeman Art Library, London; detail from An

Allegory with Venus and Cupid (c. 1 540-50) by Agnolo Bronzino/The

National Gallery, London/The Bridgeman Art Library, London

Printed in Singapore
HIDDEN SYMBOLS '"ART
"This book is as helpful as it is beautiful. All too often, the full meaning of a great painting, obvious to

the artist's contemporaries, is hidden from us because we do not recognize, let alone understand, its

symbolism. Here in clear, concise, and cogent explanation, based upon actual works, all is made plain."

Sister Wendy Beckett

is an authoritative, informative, and easy-to-use guide

to the mythological, religious, historic, literary, and symbolic traditions which have inspired artists

from all ages, and continue to inspire today

provides detailed commentaries on 75 great paintings — as well as illuminating

analyses of more than 500 individual figures, symbols, and allegories from

700 years of artistic creation

gives essential information on the characters, both real and imagined, whose lives and stories

inspired centuries of artists —from Apollo, Zeus, and their fellow Olympian gods and goddesses to
Jesus Christ, the Virgin Mary, the apostles, and the saints

includes fascinating feature panels, illustrated with details from great works of art, explaining how
to interpret a wide range of artistic themes, from the nine Muses to the Seven Deadly Sins

concludes with a reference list of specific paintings cited or illustrated in the

book, with details of the museum or gallery in which they may be seen

ISBN 0-8478-2402-0
5 4 >

9 78084 7" 824021