CHAPTER 5

MINERAL NUTRITION
In order to complete the life cyle normally, the living organism requires a supply of large number of
substances from outside. This is called as nutrition. If the supply needed by the organism is both organic
and inorganic, the organism is called heterotrophic, but if the supply needed by the organism is that of
inorganic substances only, the organism is called autotrophic or self-feeding. All green plants synthesiz-
ing their own organic requirements are autotrophic.

Under normal conditions of growth, all green plants are autotrophic and they require from outside
the supply of only inorganic substances. All the inorganic plant requirements are obtained directly or
indirectly from the soil. As the sources of these inorganic requirements are minerals, the elements are
known as mineral nutrients and the nutrition is called mineral nutrition.

Thus, the plant growth and development can proceed only when the plants are applied with the
chemical elements referred as Essential Elements. These nutrients are absorbed by plant root from the
soil.

Chemical analysis of the plant ash (the residue left after the dry matter of the plant has been burnt)
has shown that plants contain about 40 different elements. Some of them are indispensable or necessary for
the normal growth and development of the plants and they are called as Essential Elements. Rests of the
elements are called as Non-essential elements.

It is now known that the following 15 elements are essential for majority of the plants :
C,H,O,N,P,K,Ca, S, Mg, Fe, Zn,B,Cu, Mu and Mo. Besides these, Al, Si,Cl, Na, Co and Ga may be
essential for some plants.

Essential elements may be classified into three groups :

1. MAJOR ELEMENTS OR PRIMARY NUTRIENTS
The essential elements, which are required by the plants in comparatively larger amounts are called
Major Elements or Primary Nutrients. The list includes : C,H,O,N,P and K.

2. SECONDARY ELEMENTS or NUTRIENTS

The se elements are also requited by the plant in larger quantity next to primary nutrients. Ex-
amples are : Ca, Mg and S.

3. MINOR ELEMENTS or MICRONUTRIENTS or TRACE ELEMENTS

The essential elements required in smaller amounts or traces by the plants are called as Minor or
Trace Elements. They are : Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, Mo, B and Cl. Apart from these elements, recently some more
elements have also been shown to the essential for the normal growth of some plants such as Na for Atriplex,
Si for rice and Cl for coconut and Al, Va and Co for ferms.

Micronutrients are usually present in the plants in different chemical forms as :

1. Inorganic ions
2. Undissociated molecules or
3. Organic complexes as chelates

Crieria of Essentiality of Elements (Arnon and Stout, 1939)

In order to show that element is truly essential, it is necessary to show not only that :

i. A deficiency of the element makes it impossible for a plant to complete

its vegetative and reproductive cycle but also that

ii. It cannot be replaced by another element and that

iii. The element should also have some part to play in metabolism
The effect is not simply the result of interaction with other non-essential elements,
organism etc. loutside the plant.
The effect is not simply the result of interaction with other non-essential elements,
organism etc. outside the plant.
 These three requirements form the criteria of essentiality of mineral elements. However, recent
studies indicated that functions of some of the elements could be partly replaced by other. (e.g. potassium by
rubidium; magnesium by manganese).

Classification of plant nutrients based on chemical behavior and physiological functions :

Nutrient element Uptake Biochemical function]

Its Group: C CO2, HCO3, H2O, O2 `

Major constituent of organid material. Functional
H,O,N,S NO3, NH4 , N2 ,SO4 ,SO3 elements in enzymatic processes. Assimilation
ions from soil solution is by oxidation - reduction process.
and gases from
atmosphere.

IIts Group: Phosphate, boric acid or Esterification with native alcohol groups
P,B,Si borate, silicate from the in plants, Phosphate esters are involved
soil solution in energy transfer reaction.

IIIts Group: In the form of ions from Maintain osmotic potential, bring about
K, Na, Mg, the soil solution. optimum conformation of an enzyme
protein (enzyme activation) control
membrane permeability and electron
potentials.

IVth Group: In the form of ions or Incorporated in the prosthetic

Fe, Cu, Zn, chelates group, enable electron transport by
valency change.

Methods of Studying Plant Nutrients

The methods for study of mineral nutrition of plant are :
Plant analysis, Solution cultures (Hydroponics or chemical gardening) and Sand culture.

Hydroponics
The system of growing plants in soil-less cultures or solution cultures is known as Hydroponics.
This has certain advantages over geoponics (Soil culture or agriculture ) Such as :

a. A controlled composition of nutrient solution may be provided.

b. There is no immobilization of nutrients as there is no colloids for nutrient adsorption
c. It prevents accumulation of toxic organic decomposition products due to frequent replacement of
culture solution.
d. Minimized growth of fungi and bacteria.
e. It ensures better environment for plant growth as the culture solution is kept aerated.
f. There is no weed growth.
g. Natural calamities such as flood, drought, erosion etc. can be avoided.

In India, hydroponic culture practies have been widely adopted. Tomatoes grown through this
system in West bengal yielded an average of over 200 tons per acre as against 15-20 tons under ordinary
soil culture. Similarly, paddy grown by this yielded 11,400 kg/ha and potatoes upto 135 tons/ha. A
Hydroponic Information Centre has also been set up in Bombay (Post Box No.31) to provide detailed informa-
tion on hydroponics.

Aeroponics
It is a system for growing plants with their roots supplied with moisture in the air. The rooted plants
are placed in a special type of box with their shoots exposed to air and roots inside the box with computer
controlled humid atmosphere. Plants like Citrus and olive have been successfully grown through this method.
Nutrient Availability in Soil and Mechanism of uptake by plants
Nutrient Availability in Soil Solution
Soil serves as a main source of mineral salts in which clay crystals are present in colloidal form.
These crystals have a central nuclues called micelle.

The micelles are negatively charged and in order to maintain a balance, they attract and hold
positively charged ions on the surface of the colloidal clay crystals. Thus, the balance is always
maintained.

The available minerals of soil occur in ionic forms. The common cationic forms are : K,Mg,Ca,
Fe,Mn,Cu,Zn and Co while anionic forms and N,P,B,S and Cl. These ions are found either in the form of
loosely absorbed ions or firmly absorbed ions on the colloidal particles. The order of cation retentive capac-
ity of colloids is as follows :

H+ > Ca++ > Mg++ > K+ > NH4+ > Na+

The loosely absorbed ions can be easily displaced by decreasing their own concentration in the soil
solution while the firmly absorbed ions can be replaced by other ions which have more affinity for the colloid
or ion exchange. The ion exchange may be either cation exchange or anion exchange.

Availability of Mineral Salts

Mineral salts are found either as soluble fraction of soil solution or as adsorbed ions on the surgace
of colloidal particels. It is believed that the uninterrupted supply of mineral nutrient from the absorbed
fractions is possibly done by ionic exchange.

Ion Exchange :
First step in the absorption of mineral salts is the process of Ion-Exchange which does
not require metabolic energy but greatly facilitates mineral salt absorption.

The ions adsorbed on the surgace of the wall or membranes of root cells may be exchanged with the
ions of the same sign from external solution. For example, the cation K+ of the external soil solution may be
exchanged with H+ ion adsorbed on the surface of the root cells. Similarly, an anion may be exchanged woth
OH- ion.
There are two theories proposed to explain the mechanism of ion exchange:]

a. CO2 hypothesis (or) Carbonic Acid Exchange Theory

b. Cation Exchange hypothesis (or) Contact Exchange Theory.

a. Cos hypothesis :
According to this theory, CO2 released by the roots during repiraion combines with water to produce
carbonic acid (H2Co3). The carbonic acid dissociates into hydrogen ions(H+) and bicarbonate ions (HCO3).
These hydrogen ions may be exchanged for cations adsorbed on clay particles. The cations thus released
into the soil solution from the clay particles may be absorbed on root cells in exchange for H+ ions. While the
dissociated bicarbonate ions release the adsorbed anions (Fig.9). Thus, both cations and anions are made
available to the closeness of the roots of plants. Thus, soil solution plays an important role in carbonic acid
exchange theory.

Fig.9. Figure explaining CO2 hypothesis

b. Cation Exchange hypothesis
This theory states that the ions adsorbed on the surgace of root cells and clay particles (micelles)
are not held tightly but always oscillate within small volume of space. If the roots and clay particles are
in close contact with each other, the oscillation volume of ions adsorbed on root-surface may overlap
volume of ions adsorbed on clay particles. (Fig.10). Then, the ions adsorbed on clay particle may be
exchanged with the ions adsorbed on rootsurface directly without first being dissolved in soil solution.

Fig.10. Figure explaining cation exchange theory

Mechanism of Mineral uptake by Plants

Previously, it was thought that the absorption of mineral salts from the soil took place along with
the absorption of water, but it is now well established that the mineral salt absorption and water
absorption are two independent processes.

Mineral salts are absorbed from the soil solution in the form of ions. They are chiefly absorbed
through the meristematic regions of the roots near tips. Plasma membrane of the root cells is not
permeable to all the ions. It is selectively permeable. All the ions of the same salt are not absorbed at
equal rate but there is unequal absorption of ions.

First step in the absorption of mineral salts is by Ion Exchange. Once the nutrients come and
adsorb on the surface of the walls or the membranes of root cells, then the further process of the
absorption of mineral salts may be of two types. They are :

1. Passive Absorption
2. Active Absorption
Various theories have been proposed to explain the mechanism of mineral salt absorption, which
can be of two categories :

1. Passive Absorption of Mineral Salts

When the concentration of mineral salts is higher in the outer solution than in the cell sap of the
root cells, the mineral salts are absorbed according to the concentration gradient by simple
process of diffusion. This is called as passive absorption because it does not require expenditure of
metabolic energy.

This can also be called as Physical Absorption. This process is not affected by temperature and
metabolic inhibitors. This theory is based on the movements of ions from the region of its
higher concentration to the lower concentration. Therefore, The direction of the initial uptake gets
reversed if the tissues are transferred back to a low concentration.

Important theories are Mass Flow, ion exchange and Donnan equilibrium.

i. Mass Flow Theory (Bulk Flow)

According to this theory, the ions are taken up by the roots along with mass flow of water under
the influence of transpiration. Therefore, transpiration effect on salt absorption is direct.
ii. Ion Exchange Theory
According to this theory, ions from the external solution in which the tissue is immersed
may exchange with the ions absorbed on the surface of the cell wall or membranes of the tissue.

iii. Donnan Equilibrium

This theory explains the accumulation of ions inside the cells without involving the expenditure of
the metabolic energy. According to this theory, there are certain pre-existing ions inside the cell, which
cannot diffuse outside through membrane. Such ions are called as indiffusible or fixed ions. However,
the membrane is permeable to both anions and cations of the outer solution (Fig.11)

Fig .11. Figure showing Doanan Equilibrium

Suppose, there are certain fixied anions in the cell which is in contact with the outer solution
containing anions and cations. Normally, equal number of anions and cations would have diffused into
the cell through an electrical potential to balance each other, but to balance the fixed anions already
present in the cell (pre-existing), more cations will diffuse into the cell, This equilibrium is known as
Donnan’s Equilibrium. In this particular case, there would be more accumulation of cations inside the
cell.
However, if there are fixed cations (pre-existing)inside the cell, then the Donnan’s equilibrium will
result in more accumulation of anions inside the cell to maintain the equilibrium.

2.Active Absorptionr of Mineral Salts

This processs involved the metabolic energy for the transport of ions from soil solution to the
plants. Based on the nature of participation of metabolic energy, various theories have been proposed. It
includes the theories related with carrier concept such as Cytochrome Pump hypothesis, ATP theories,
Protein-Lecithin as carrier theories etc.

i. Carrier Concept Theory (Honert,1973)

(for movement of both cation & anion)
According to this theory, the ion transport process is carried out by means of carriers, which may
be organic molecules or vesicles. This theory explains that the plasma membrane is impermeable to free
ions. The carrier combines with ions to form carrier-ion complex, which can move across the membrane.
On the inner surface of the membrane, this complex breaks releasing ions into the cell while the carrier
goes back to the outer surface to pick fresh ions (Fig.12).
 Fig.12. Explanation of carrier mechanism of ion uptake.

Here, the metabolic energy is required in the process of formation of carrier-ion complex, its
transport, breakdown of complex, regeneration of carrier and movement of carrier molecules back.

ii. Protein-lecithin as Carrier (Bennet-Clark,1956)

(for uptake of both cation & anion)
It is suggested that because the cell membranes chiefly consist of phospholipids and proteins and
also certain enzymes seem to be located on them, the carrier could be a protein associated with the phosphotide
called as lecithin. This theory believes in the participation of some amphoteric compounds as carriers
with which both cations and anions can combine.

Fig:13 Diagramatic Schemes of Protein-lecithin theory

According to this theory,

1. The acidic phosphate group in the phosphatide is regarded as the active centre
binding the cation, and the basic choline group (N+) as the anion binding centre.

2. The ions are liberated on the inner surface of the membrane by decomposition of the lecithin
by the enzyme lecithinase.

3. The regeneration of the carrier lecithin from phosphatidic acid and choline takes place in the
presence of the enzymes choline acetylase and choline esterase and ATP. The ATP acts as a
source of energy.
iii. Cytochrome-pump Theory
(For the movement of anions only)
Lundegardh and Burstrom (1933) claimed that a quantitative relaionship exists between anion
absorption and respiration. When a plant is transferred from water to salt solution, the rate of respira-
tion increases. They called this increase in respiration as Salt Respiration. The actual transport of
anions occurs through a cytochrome system (Fig.14)

1. Dehydrogenase reactions on inner side of the membrane give rise to protons (H+) and
electrons(e_).
2. The electron travels over the cytochrome chain towards outside the membrane, so that the Fe
of the cytochrome becomes reduced (Fe++). on the outer surface and oxidised (Fe+++) on the
inner surface.
3. On the outer surface, the reduced cytochrome is oxidised by oxygen releasing the electron (e-)
and taking an anion (A-)
4. The electron thus released unites with H+ and oxygen to form water.
5. The anion (A+) travels over the cytochrome chain towards inside.
6. On the inner surface, the oxidised cytochrome becomes reduced by taking an electron
produced through the dehydrogenase reactions and the anion (A+) is released.
7. As a result of anion absorption, a cation (M+) moves passively from outside to inside to balance
the anion.

OUTSIDE OF
INSIDE OF
CELL
CELL

Fig.14. Diagrammatic representation of Lundegardh’s

cytochrome pump theory.

iv. ATP Theories

According to this theory, ion uptake into the cell is energised by ATP molecules. The energy
from hydrolysis of ATP molecules can be made available to energise ion pumps through the action of
enzymes.
Case I
Here, the organic compound is first phosphorylated which on dephosphorylation makes the or-
ganic compound capable to combine with cation. The cation is released when phosphorylation occurs
again.
Case II
In this case, the phosphorylated organic compound combines with cation and the cations are
released on hydrolysis of the complex (dephosphorylation). Thus, the role of ATP in this theory is of two
kinds. i.e., by removal or addition of phosphate group.
Factors Affecting Salt Absorption
Absorption of salt by the plants is affected by several factors. Some of them are discussed below.
i Temperature
The increase in temperature increases both active and passive salt absorption processes and
lowering of temperature decreases them.
ii. pH
It indirectly affects the salt absorption as the pH affects the availability of ions in the medium.
iii. Light
As opened stomata allow more transpiration and increased mass flow and photosynthesis provides
energy and O2 for salt uptake, light indirectly affects the rate of salt absorption by affecting the opening and
closing of stomata and the process of photosynthesis.
iv. O2 content
The deficiency of O2 decreases salt uptake as the active phase of salt absorption is inhibited by the
absence of O2
v. Interaction of other ions
The absorption of one ion may be influenced by the presence of other ion. The interaction may be associ-
ated with the availability and specificity of binding sites on carriers.
vi. Growth
Different types of growth affect salt absorption in different ways, eg., growth involving increase in surface
area, number of cells, synthesis of new binding sites or carriers and volumes of water uptake stimulate salt
absorption. Heavily suberised root is unable to absorb salts. Vegetative growth and increased metabolic activity
accompained with more water uptake enhance salt absorption.

Physiological Roles of Essential Elements

1. Nitrogen (N)
Source
Soil is the chief source of nitrogen. Plants absorb N either in the form of nitrate or ammoniacal salts.
Some bacteria and heterocysts conatining blue green algae fix N of atmosphere, which can be utilized by the
plants.

Physiological Roles
i. Present in the structure of the protein molecule
ii It is found in important molecules like purines, pyrimidines (which are essential
in protein synthesis)etc.
iii It is also found in the porpyrines found in chlorophyll and cytochrome enzymes
and hence it is essential for photosynthesis.
iv. It is participated in the co-enzymes essential to functions of many enzymes.
v. It is readily mobile within the plant tissues. When its deficiency occurs, It is
transferred from older to younger tissues where it can be reutilised in growth
process. As a result symptoms develop first on older leaves.

2. Phosphorus (P) Source

The plant absorb P in the form of soluble phosphates such as H3PO4and HPO4. The absorption
ability differs from plant to plant,e.g. cabbage and alfalfa can absorb phosphate from rocks whereas
barley, corn and oats cannot absorb so efficiently.

Physiological Roles
i. Phosphorus content is found to be 0.2 to0.8% of the total dry weight.
ii. It is found abundantly in the growing and storage organs such as fruits and seeds.
iii. It promotes healthy root development and fruit ripening through translocation of
 carbohydrates.

iv. It is an essential element participating in the skeleton of plasma membrane, nucleic

acids and organic molecules such as ATP (Adenosine Tri Phosphate) and other
phosphorylated compounds.
v. It is also found in plants as a constituent of nucleic acids, phospholipids, the
co-enzymes like NAD etc.
vii. Phospholipids along with protein may be important in cell membrane.
viii It is readily mobile within the plant.

3. Potassium (K)
Source
Potassium is widely distributed in soil minerals. Forms such as potash felspar, mica and
glauconite are slowly converted into soluble forms by weathering processes. It is strongly fixed in
soils, largely as an exchangeable base. The K is found in less available forms. Small amounts are
normally present in the soil in an exchangeable form.

Physiological Role
i. It is concerned with the formation of carbohydrate and protein synthesis, photosynthesis,
Transpiration regulation, enzyme action, synthesis of nucleic acids and chlorophyll,
oxidative and photo phosphorylation, translocation of solutes etc.
ii. It acts as an activator of many enzymes involved in carbohydrate metabolism and
protein synthesis.
iii. It is actively involved in the opening and closing of stomata.
iv. It takes an important role in drought tolerance of crops through water relations.
v. It offers resistance to pest and disease effects in crops.
vi. It is present in the soluble forms and mostly contained in the cell sap and cytoplasm.
vii. It is readily mobile within the plant tissues.
viii. It is frequently present in all parts of the plant but in fairly large proportions
at growing tissues.
ix. Its function is partly replaced by rubidium.

4. Magnesium (Mg)
Source
Magnesium occurs as carbonates and held in soils as an exchangeable base. It is easily
leached and for this reason may become deficient in sandy soils during wet periods. Heavy application
of K fertilizers reduces its absorption.

Physiological Roles
i. It is a constituent of chlorophyll, and therefore, essential for its synthesis.
ii. It acts as a phosphorus carrier in the plant.
iii. It is essential for the synthesis of fats and metabolism of carbohydrate and phosphorus.
iv. It is required in binding two subunits of ribosomes during protein synthesis.
v. It acts as an activator for many enzymes in phosphate transfer reactions in carbohydrate
metabolism and nucleic acid synthesis.
vi. It is invloved in the formation of seeds of high oil contents containing a compound
called lecithin
vii. It is readily mobile within the plant tissues.
viii. Its function is partly replaced by manganese.
5. Sulphur (S)
Source
It is available to plants in the form of soluble suphates of soil.

Physiological Role
i. It is an important constituent of some amionacids (cystine, cysteine and methionine),
vitamins (biotine, thiamine), coenzyme A and volatile oils.
ii. It participates in protein synthesis
iii. Sulfyhydryl groups are necessary for the activity of many enzymes
iv. Disulphide linkages help to stabilise the protein structure.
v. It adversely affects chlorophyll synthesis.
vi. Sulphur affects the nodule formation in roots of leguminous plants.
vii. Characteistic odour od Cruciferous plants (onion, garlic etc.) is due to the sulphur as
constituent of volatile oils.
viii. It is known for its uneven distribution in various organs of plant
(e.g)in a mature corn, the content observed was -40% in leaves. 23% in stem,
26% in gain and 11% in roots)
ix. It is immobile in the plant tissues. When its deficiency occurs, it is not transferred to the
younger leaves but accumulated in the older leaves only. As a result, deficiency
symptoms develop first on younger leaves.

6. Calcium (Ca)
source
Calcium occurs in soil with variety of minerals. The soil derived from stone or chalk rocks
contains larger percentage of carbonates of lime (calcium carbonate), while sandy soils show Ca
deficiency which is met by adding lime or lime stone. The presence of CO 2 dissolved in the soil
water promotes solubility of carbonate of lime in soil ensuring the quick Ca absorption.

Physiological Roles
i. It is the important constituent of middle lamella in the cell wall
ii. It is essential in the formation of cell membranes.
iii. It helps to stabilise the structure of chromosomes.
iv. It is also an activator of many enzymes (ATPase, kinases, succinate dehyrogenase)
v. It provides a base for the neutralisation of organic acids.
vi. It is concerned with the growing root apices.
vii. It is essential for fact metabolism, carbohydrate metabolism and binding of nucleic
acids with proteins.
viii. It is also essential in the counteraction of metal toxicity
ix. It is immobile in the plant tissues. Therefore, when needed, the element is not trans
ferred to the younger leaves but accumulated in the older leaves itself. As a result,
deficiency symptoms develop first on younger leaves.

Micronutrients
7. Iron (Fe)
Source
It is fairly present in the form of oxides giving red or brown colour to the soil. In
well-irrigated soils, Fe is present predominantly as ferric form and in water-logged soils, ferrous
compounds are formed. The availability of Fe to plants increases with acidity and is depressed by
phosphates. It is absorbed in ferric state; but, ferrous form is only metabolically active for the
plants.

Physiological Role
i. It is an important contituent of iron-porphyrin proteins like, cytochromes, peroxidases,
catalases etc.
ii. It is essential for the synthesis of chlorophyll
iii. It acts as a catalyst and electron carrier during respiration
iv. It also acts as an activator of nitrate reductase and aconitase enzymes.
v. It is a very important constituent of ferredoxin, which plays an important role in biological
nitrogen fixation and primary photochemical reaction in photosynthesis.
vi. It is immobile in the plant tissues. Its mobility is affected by several factors like presence
of magnesium, potassium deficiency, high phosphorus and high light intensity.

8. Manganese (Mn)
Source
Like iron, the oxide forms of Mn are common in soil but the more highly oxidised forms
(manganous dioxide) are of very low availability to plants. Its solubility increases with increased
acidity and in strongly acid soils, it is frequently present in toxic concentrations. This might be
one of the chief reasons for crop failure due to soil acidity.

Absence of organic matter and poor drainage condition of soil cause unabailability of Mn in
the soil. Sometimes, Oxidising bacteria in the soils may also cause Mn unavailable over the pH
range of 6.5 to 7.8.

Physiological Roles
i. It acts as an activator of some repiratory enzymes like oxidases, Peroxidases, dehyrogenases,
kinases, decarboxylases etc.
ii. It is essential in the formation of chlorophyll
iii. It decrease the solubility of iron by oxidation; in certain cases, abundance of Mn leads to Fe
deficiency.
iv. It is necessary for the evolution of O2 during photosynthesis.
v. It is immobile in the plant tissues. When its deficiency occurs, it is not transferred to the
younger leaves but accumulated in the older leaves only. As a result, deficiency symptoms
develop first onyounger leaves.

9. Copper (Cu)
Source
Copper is found in smaller quantity in soils due to the additions of growing plants and its
added residue. Organic matter, soil organism and pH are the important factors affecting the avail-
ability of copper. Soils neighboring the copper deposits are normally toxic to plants.

Physicological Roles
i It acts as a catalyst and regulator
ii. It is a constituent of several oxidizing enzymes like ascorbic oxidase, lactase, tyrosinase,
phenoloxidase, plastocyanin etc.
iii. It is essential for photosynthesis, respiration and to maintain carbon/ nitrogen balance.
iv. Its higher concentration is toxic to plants.
v. It is immobile in the plant tissues.
10. Zinc (Zn)
Source
Like copper, it is also found in soils in very small quantities and largely it results from the
concentration and addition from growing plants and added residue. Its uptake is reduced by large
or prolonged supply of phosphate fertilizers. It is generally found to be toxic in the neighborhood of
zinc deposits.

Physiological Role
i. It is a component of enzymes like carbonic anhydrase, alcohol dehyrogenase, glutamic
dehydrogenase, lactic dehydrogenase, alkaline phosphatase and carboxy pepsidase.
ii. It is essential for the evolution and utilization of CO 2 , carbohydrate and phosphorus
metabolism.
iii. It is also essential for the biosynthesis of the growth hormone, Indole-3-acetic acid
(IAA)and also for the synthesis of RNA.
iv. It is readily mobile within the plant tissues.
v. It is closely involved in the chlorophyll formation.

11. Molybdenum (Mo)

Source
It is found widely distributed in small amounts in soils and plants and relatively higher
concentration occurs in mineral oils and coal ashes.

Physiological Roles
i It is associated with the prosthetic group of enzyme, nitrate reductase and thus involved in
nitrate metabolism.
ii. It acts as an activator of some dehydrogenases and phosphatases and as cofactors in synt
thesis of ascorbic acid.
iii. It is necessary in the formation of nodules in legumes for the fixation of atmospheric
nitrogen.

12. Boron (B)

Source
Boron occurs in rocks and marine sediments. It is absorbed in the form of borate ions and
it has some sort of antagonistic effect with other cations like, calcium, potassium and others.

Physiological Roles
i. It is necessary for the translocation of sugars within the plant system
ii. It is involved in reproduction and germination of pollens (tube)
iii. It is concerned with water reations in cells and regulates intake of water into the cell
iv. It keeps Ca in soluble form within the plant and may act as a regulator of K ratios (K/Ca etc.)
v. It is also concerned with the nitrogen metabolism and with oxidation and reducation
equilibrium in cells.
vi. It is immobile in the plant tissues.

13. Chlorine and others

Chlorine occurs in soils as chlorides and moves freely in soil solution and form which it is ]
available to the plant.

Chlorine increases the water content of tobacco cells; it affects carbohydrate metabolism
and speeds up photosynthesis.

Cobalt is needed by the legumious crop in the absence of nitrogen. Because, it is required by
the symbiotic bacteria for fixation of atmospheric nitrogen.
 Elements like, aluminum (Al), silica (Si) and selenium (Se) possess stimulating effects of
certain non-essential elements by counteracting the toxicity of certain elements present in soil.
Elements like, Al and Si are called as pallast elements. Some plants are also accumulators. They
can accumulate larger quantities of some elements like Al and Si. Silica is highly essential for the
paddy crop and actively involved in its metabolism.

Nutritional Disorders in Crops

Low supply or completen absence of any of the essential elements will exhibit typical
symptoms, which are specific to the particular elements(s). This condition is called as
nutrient deficiency and the symptoms as deficiency symptoms.

In absence or low supply of elements (deficiency), following common symptoms generally

develop in the plants.

General Deficiency Symptoms

1. Chlorosis
It is a physiological disease that occurs due to deficiency of mineral elements.
(eg. N,K.Mg,Fe,Zn, Mn,S). Leaves become abnormally yellow or white due to reduction of
chlorophyll contents.

2. Mottling
It is a condition of plant surface marked with coloured spots due to anthocyanin pigmentation
(eg. due to deficiency of N,K,Mg,P,S)

3. Necrosis
It refers to the patch of dead tissues, due to deficiency of K,Mg,Zn,Ca, Mo,Mn,Fe,or B.

4. Bronzing
Development of bronze/copper colour on the leaves and various parts (eg. K)

5. Die back
Collapse of growing tip, affecting the youngest leaves and buds (eg. K, Ca,B or Cu)

6. Scorching
Burning of tissues accompanied by light brown colour. (eg. K,Ca,B or Cu)

7. Firing
Burning of tissues accompanied with dark brown or reddish brown colour (eg. Mg)

8. Rosetting
Clustering of leaves due to reduced leaf size and shorter internodal distance (eg. Cu,K,Zn)

9. Distortion of leaves
Irregular shaping of leaves like cupping, twisting, hooking or curling and also wavy margins.
Cupping : B or Mo
Twisting / Hooking : Zn/Ca/B
Curling : Ca,B or Zn
Head distortion : Cu (rice), Mn(Sunflower)
Wavy : Zn

10. Gummosis
Oozing out of cell sap in the form of gummous nature (eg. Cu as in coconut etc.)
Occurrence of Deficiency Symptoms
Deficiency symptoms of various nutrient elements will appear either on older or on younger
leaves depending on mobility of the nutrient. Thus, the relative mibility of the nutrient influences
the site of appearance of the deficiency symptoms.

Deficiency symptoms of mobile elements will appear on the older leaves because, these ele-
ments will move rapidly from older leaves to younger leaves. eg. N,P,K, Mg, Zn.

On the other hand, the deficiency symptoms of the non-mobile elements will appear on the
younge leaves because of their accumulation on the older leaves due to their immobile nature. eg.
Ca,B,Cu,Mn,
Feand S.

Specific deficiency symptoms of various nutrient elements and their corrective measures are
given below :

1. Nitrogen (N)
i. Plant growth is stunted and poorly developed (because protein content, cell division and cell
enlargement are decreased)
ii. Nitrogen deficiency causes yellowing (chlorosis) of leaves. Older leaves are affected first
iii. Flowering and fruiting are reduced
iv. Protein and starch contents are decreased
v. Prolonged dormancy and early senescence appear
vi. Root gets more lengthened as in whear
vii. Veins turn purple or red due to development of abundant anthocyanin pigment (eg. tomato, apple)
viii. The angle between stem and leaves is reduced.
ix. Plants look so sickly and conspicuously pale that the condition is called as general starvation.
x. Symptoms first occur on the older leaves due to its mobility.

Corrective Measures
For correcting N deficiency, fertilizers like ammonium suphate, calcium nitrate, urea etc. are
supplied. Foliar spray of 1-2% urea is a quick method of ameliorating N deficiency.

2. Phophorus (P)
i. Young plants remain stunted with dark blue green, or some times purplish leaves.
ii. P deficiency may cause premature leaf fall
iii. Dead necrotic areas are developed on leaves and fruits.
iv. Leaves somtimes develop anthocyanin in veins and may become necrotic; leaves will be dark green
in colour.
v. Cambial activity is checked
vi. Tillering of crops is reduced
vii Dormancy is prolonged
viii. P deficiency may cause premature fall of leaves
ix. Growth is retarded
x. Sickle leaf disease is caused in P deficiency, which is characterised by chlorosis adjacent to main
veins followed by leaf asymmetry.
Corrective Measures
Spray of 2% DAP or application of Phosphatic fertilizers will correct the deficiency.

3. Potassium (K)
The deficiency symptoms vary with the degree of shortage of the element.
i. In mild deficiency cases,
a. thin shoots may develop and
b. there may be restricted shoot growth
ii. In acute deficiency cases,
a. shoots may die back, eventually plant may die
b. Plants may become stunted with numerous tillers and
c. there may be little or no flowering
iii. Leaf will be dull or bluish green in colour.
iv. Chlorosis occurs in interveinal regions (interveinal chlorosis)
v. In older leaves, browning of tips (tip burns), marginal scorching (leaf scorch or development of
brown spots near the margins occur.
vi. Necrotic areas develop at the tip and margins of the leaf which curve downward.
vii. In broad leaved plants, shortening of internodes and poor root system are important.

viii Two diseases are common :

a. Rosette : In beet, celery, carrot, pea, potato and cereals, bushy growth or rosette condition
develops due to K deficiency.
b. Die back : In acute deficiency cases, there is a loss of apical dominance and regeneration of
lateral buds, which results in bushy growth. In prolonged cases, die back of laterals is also resulted.

Corrective Measures
Supply of muriate of potash or foliar spray of 1% potassium chloride is commonly used to over-
come K deficiency.

4. Magnesium (Mg)
i. Mg deficiency causes interveinal chlorosis. The older leaves are affected first and proceeds
systematically towards the younger leaves.
ii. Dead necrotic spots appear on the leaves.
iii. Severely affected leaves may wither and shed or absciss without the withering stage.
iv. Defoliation is quite severe
v. Carotene content is reduced.
vi. Stem becomes yellowish-green, often hard and woody.
vii. Sand-drown diseas is common in tobacco due to its deficiency, which is characterised by the loss
of `colour at the tips of lower leaves and between the veins (interveinal). The veins remain green
but in acute cases, entire leaf becomes nearly white.

Corrective Measures
Magnesium sulphate is usually applied for redressing the deficiency. The malady can be readily
corrected as foliar spray @ 2% of MgSO4.

5. Calcium (Ca)
Calcium ammonium nitrate (CAN) or superphosphate or gypsum is supplied in deficient soils. In
Indian soils, Ca deficiency is not a serious problem.
6. Sulphur (S)
i. Sulphur deficiency causes yellowing (Chlorosis) of leaves. Young leaves are affected first.
ii. Tips and margins of leaves roll inward.
iii. Marked decrease in leaf size, general paling with red or purple pigmentation are general
symptoms.
iv. Necrosis of young leaf tips develop
v. Internodes are shortened’
vi. Apical growth is inhibited and lateral buds develop prematurely
vii. Young leaves develop orange, red or purple pigments.
viii. Leaf tips are characteristically bent downwards. The leaf margins and tips roll inwards.
(eg. tomato, tobacco and tea)
x. Fruit formation is suppressed.
xi. Sclerenchyma, xylem and collenchyma formation gets increased and hence the stem becomes un
usually thick due to S deficiency.
xii. Disease : The Tea Yellow disease is caused in tea plants growing in sulphur dificient soils.

Corrective Measures
Common fertilizers used for supplying nitrogen and phosphorus contain appreciable amount of
sulphur sufficient to meet the crop requirement. In case of severe deficiency, gypsum is added to the soil
@ 500Kg/ha.

Micronutrients
7. Iron (Fe)
i. Interveinal chlorosis of the younger leaves occurs. The veins remain green.
ii. Leaf chlorosis may produce a mottled appearance.
iii. Leaf may show complete bleaching or often becoming necrotic.
iv. In extreme conditions, scorching of leaf margins and tips may occur
v. Lime induced chlorosis is the common disease found in fruit trees like citrus. It is also fund
in beet, spinach, brassicas and cereals. The younger leaves become white or yellowish white.

Corrective Measures
Foliar spray of 0.5% ferrous sulphate along with lime (50% requirement) will remove the deficiency
in the plant and soil. Chelated iron compounds such as Fe-EDTA, give a very good response in ameliorat-
ing Fe deficiency.

8. Mangabese (Mn)
i. Deficiency causes interveinal chlorosis and necrotic spots of the leaf.
ii. Dead tissue spots are found scattered over the leaf.
iii. Severely affected tissues turn brown, the brown areas may also twist in the form of spirals and
they may wither also.
iv. Root system is often poorly developed and badly affected and the plants may die.
v. Grain formation is also reduced and the heads may be blind ( as in sulphur)
vi. Four diseases are found due to its deficiency :

a. Grey Speck also called as grey stripe, grey spot or dry spot found in oats, barely, rye and
maize is the common disease of Mn deficiency. Grey spots or chlorotic spots appear on the lower
half of the leaf which fuse together and form elongated brown streaks, found mostly in third or
fourth leaves.
 b. Pahla blight of sugarcane
Chlorotic spots develop as long streaks, commonly in young leaves. These chlorontic spots fuse
together and turn red and coalesce to form long streaks from which lamina may split.

C. Marsh spot of pea

Brown , black sport or cavities develop on the internal surface of cotyledons and thus the disease
appears in the seeds.

d. Speckled yellow of sugar beet

It is characterised by interveinal chlorosis in the leaves and leaf margin may curl upward over the
upper surface of leaf.
Corrective Measures
Foliar spray of 0.5% manganous sulphate plus 50% lime requirement is quite effective and it
should be applied in the early stage of the crop. Soil application of 15-30 kg MnSO4 per ha (mixed with
sand)is sufficient.

9. Copper (Cu)
i. it causes necrosis of the tip of the young leaves.
ii. Both vegetative and reproductive growth are retarded.
iii. Wilting of terminal shoots occur which is followed by frequent death
iv. Leaf colour is often faded due to reduction of carotene and other pigments.
v. Foliage shows burning of margins or chlorosis or rosetting and multiple bud formation.
vi. Gumming may also occur (gummosis)
vii. Younger leaves wither and show marginal chlorosis (yellowish grey) of tips.
It is called as Yellow tip or reclamation disease.
viii. Following two diseases are common :
a. Exanthema or die back of fruit tree : It is commonly found in citrus, plum, apple and pear.
The symptoms include formation of strong water-shoots bearing large leaves, gummous tissue or
the bark and longitudinal breaks. Fruits become brown, glossy and splitted. Affected shoots loose
their leaves and die back and lateral shoots produce bunchy appearance.

b. Reclamation disease : It is also called as White Tip disease and is found in legumes, cereals,
oats and beet. The tips of leaves become chlorotic followed by a failure of the plants to set seed.

Corrective Measures
Foliar spray of 0.5% of CuSO4 is recommended.

10. Zinc (Zn)

i. Older leaves show chlorosis which starts from tips and the margins
ii. Leaves become leathery
iii. Plants show rosetting due to shortening of internodes and premature shedding.
iv. Whitening of upper leaves in monocots and chlorosis of lower leaves in dicots are often found.
v. Leaf margins distorted, become twisted or wavy which later curl and look sickle shaped (Sickle leaf)
vi. Seed production and fruits size is greatly reduced.

vii. The following diseases are commonly notice :

a. Khaira of paddy : The entire older leaves show rusty brown appearance (due to chlorosis) and
ultimately die.
b. White bud (tip) of maize : Unfolded newer leaves are often pale yellow to while.
There is appearance of light yellow streaks between the veins of older leaves followed by white
necrotic spots.
c. Rosette of fruit trees : It is also called as little leaf disease. Yellow mottling of leaves, reduction of
leaf size with rosette appearance (due to reduced internodal distance) and die back of the affected
branches are symptoms of the disease.
 d. Frenching of citrus : Initially, yellow spots develop between the veins. Leaves become progres
sively smaller and develop chlorophyll at the basal end of mid rib.

Corrective Measures
Foliar spray of 0.5% ZnSO4 twice at 7-10 days interval during early stages of growth will alleviate
the problem. Also, soil application of 25 kg ZnSO4 per ha is also found beneficial.

11. Molybdenum (Mo)

i. Deficiency causes chlorotic interveinal mottling of the older leaves.
ii. Leaves often show light yellow chlorosis and leaf blades fail to expand.
iii. In acute deficiency cases, necrosis of leaf tissues occurs.
iv. Flower formation is inhibited.
v. Failure of grain formation occurs (as in oats)
vi. Its deficiency causes two diseases :
a. Whiptail of Cauliflower and Brassica : The symptoms begin as appearance of
translucent areas near the midrib which become ivory tinted or necrotic. The leaf margins
become ragged with upward curling. Before the death of the growing point, the leaf
elongates and lamina remains suppressed thus gives a typical whip tail condition.

b. Scald of legumes : The leaf shows paling, wilting, marginal rolling or scorching.

Corrective Measures
The Mo deficiency is commonly found in cauliflower, legumes, oats and other brassicas which can be
corrected by soil application of 0.5 to1.0 Kg/ha sodium or ammonium molybdate or by its foliar
spray@ 0.01-0.02% conc.

12. Boron (B)

i. It causes death of shoot tip
ii. Flower formation is suppressed.
iii. Root growth is stunted.
iv. Leaves become coppery in texture.
v. Plants become dwarf, stunted with apical meristem blacken and die followed by general breakdown
of meristematic tissue.
vi. Terminal leaves become necrotic and shed prematurely
vii. Leaves show symptoms like distortion such as cupping and curling, appearance of white stripe,
scorching, pimpling, splitted midrib and reduced growth.
viii. Stem shows symptoms like die-back of apex, abnormal tillering, appearance of various forms of
deformities such as curling and brittle lesions, pimpling etc.
ix. Fruits are severely deformed and develop typical cracking or splitting.
x. Following diseases are commonly found due to B deficiency :
a. Heart rot of sugar beet and marigold
b. Canker and internal black spot of garden pea
c. Browning of cauliflower
d. Top sickness of tobacco
f. Hard fruit of citrus.

Corrective Measures
Foliar spray of 0.2% borax acid will be effective for quick recovery. Liming of soil should be strictly
avoided when boron-containing fertilizers are applied.
PHYSIOLOGICAL DISORDERS IN CROPS
Following physiological disorders are often observed in different crops. Symptoms of various
disorders, causal factors and remedial measures for redressing different disorders are briefly discussed
belwo.

A. MANGO
1. Softnose fruits
2. Malformation of inflorescence
3. Black tip of Fruits.

B. BANANA
1. Seediness (Kottaivazhai) in fruits
2. Goose flesh of fruits
3. Yellow pulp of fruits
4. Degrain of bunch
5. Finger drop

C. GRAPES
Coulure in grapes

D. COCONUT
Crown chocking

E. GUAVA
Fatio disease

F. CITRUS
1. Die-Back
2. June Drop
3. Fruit Cracking

G. PINE APPLE
Crook-Neck Disease

H. APPLE
1. Intenal Bark Necrosis (=Apple Measles)
2. Bitter Pit
Detailed description of various physiological disorders and their corrective measures are
described in the following pages :

A. MANGO
1. Soft Nose Fruits
This disorder is caused due to excess N application of trees. In acid sandy soil, the incidence is
about 7% in trees receiving lower N levels and increases to 78% on trees receiving 10 times more N
fertilizer.

Remedy
Disorder reduced by maintaining higher Ca level in leaf (2.5%) by applying either
Calcium Nitrate or Gypsum or Lime Stone.

2. Malformation in Inflorescence:

Causes :
Malformation disorder increased in trees receiving either P and K or P alone.
Remedy
Application of N,P and K in the ration of 9:3:3 reduces the incidence of floral malformation.