Main Elements of

Programme
This triangle represents the relationship of scope to time and
cost.
If the scope of works is increased, it will affect the time for
completion and cost of a project.
Conversely, in case of a reduction in the scope, a similar
reduction in time and cost may follow.
This is the essence of programmes, and why they are used.
 Planning and Programming techniques
Moving resources to avoid standing time does not remove the delay; it merely mitigates the production
loss suffered.
This is especially true where a contract contains sectional completion requirements, and, if a section is
late, damages would be applied.
It does not matter if resources are being used to progress work on another section; the delay has still
occurred.
The purpose of planning is to organise the work or activity to be done to show what is to be done, by
when, by whom and its logical sequence or order, one activity after another until the project is completed.
In its basic form, a programme can be little more than a list of key activities to be done and when they
need to be finished in order to meet the project deadline.
 Planning and Programming
techniques
It can then go further and schedule materials and equipment to be purchased, manufactured,
delivered and installed, showing the times required for installation.
 Methods
The idea of representing a plan for managing work activities as a graphical chart was first
developed by Henry Lawrence Gantt (1861–1919).
Gantt pioneered the idea of creating various charts to plan and track progress.
The bar chart was in existence for some time before Gantt, but he developed a form that showed
the planned production against which he plotted the actual production each day, thereby identifying
the production losses.
The most important function of most planning engineers is to review and update the programme
and report on progress.
 Methods
This often referred to as ‘project controls’.
However, deciding what to monitor and how to represent this against the planned intent is crucial.
If too general a basis for monitoring is used, the result can be an unreliable measurement of
production achieved.
For example: on a complex, large, reinforced concrete project, consisting of several large bases and
numerous smaller bases for structures that contain a mixture of mass concrete infilling and more
detailed base construction, choosing to only monitor concrete volumes achieved will result in a false
picture of the overall project production.
Where there is a varied mixture of work elements, a choice of more than one item to monitor will
allow a more balanced measurement of progress and production achieved.
 Methods
It is better to derive a comparison based on the measured quantities for concrete and formwork
rather than just the bulk measurement of concrete poured.

This is because, on any construction project, the ratio of concrete to formwork and rebar will
provide some idea of the complexity of the project design.
 Format of a programme
The framework or layout of the programme needs to be in a simple format that everyone involved
in the project can understand.
An elaborately detailed, highly complex programme, running to tens if not hundreds of pages that
no one can understand or follow, diminishes the value and role of the programme for the
management of the scheme.
While a highly-detailed programme running to thousands of activities may allow a source of delay
to be identified, the key objectives of the programme are lost.
Therefore, it is essential that a summary programme is prepared to ensure that the overall planned
intent or the ‘big picture’ in terms of the sequence and timing of work.
 Format of a programme
When programmes were hand drawn, there was always one overriding element that controlled the
layout and number of items shown on the programme; that was the size of the piece of paper –
usually A1, A2 or, at most, A0 size, this was a suitable size for mounting on the Site Manager’s
wall for ease of reference.
The problem created by computer-generated charts is the unlimited number of items and pages that
can be produced, all of which tend to confuse and clutter the overall objective and mask the planned
intent.
Programmes can now be created with literally thousands of activities. Software such as Primavera
can handle programmes with almost unlimited activities.
 Format of a programme
Too many activities obfuscate rather than clarify the objectives.
The planning engineer may need to expand a basic framework into thousands of activities to be
confident that the programme is founded on a sound basis.
However, the planner should also set the programme up for summarisation, so that it can still be
boiled down to a single high-level summary chart for ease of reference.
Most important, throughout the execution of the project, the programme has to be modified to
reflect changes, delays, and disruption on a weekly, if not daily basis, to show how the project is
progressing and the effect of changes on the planned completion date.
 Key Aims of Planning & Programmes:
a) To establish the goals and key elements necessary for completion of the project to meet the
target cost and contractual completion date. [Directly relatable to reciprocal promises under the
Indian Contract Act, 1872 – Sections 2(f) and 51]

b) To determine the duration and feasibility of the construction period relative to the scope of
works, cost and resources available. [Directly relatable to reciprocal promises under the Indian
Contract Act, 1872 – Sections 46 to 50]
 Key Aims of Planning & Programmes:
a) To facilitate good management of the project by regularly being able to update the programme
to reflect progress achieved, and thus highlighting differences between planned and actual
performance.

b) React to situations and adjust the plan:

i)For earlier (or quicker) completion of tasks.
ii)For problems and delays that have occurred.
 Key Aims of Planning & Programmes:
[Both c & d, directly relatable to duty to mitigate losses under the Indian Contract Act, 1872 –
Sections 73 and 74]
These aims are achieved by one of the following means:
a) Using planning techniques to describe the key elements of a project, set them out in a clear
manner, and ensure that the programme is understood by the site management. This plan should
indicate the intended sequence, timing and dependency of one activity upon another and their
individual role in the overall scheme.
b) The preparation of budgets and cost controls based upon the programme and then monitoring
those elements as work proceeds.
 Key Aims of Planning & Programmes:
a) To identify and predict the effect of changes to a project (either in the form of a revised
completion date or alterations to the budgeted costs), and to assess the risks involved in making
those changes.

b) To set out any key dates for provision of design information or approvals.

c) Record and report delays to operations and their impact on planned completion. Do this by
monitoring production and identifying problems that may cause the project to overrun unless
corrective action is taken.
 Types of Programming Techniques
There are many forms of construction planning techniques available to depict the order and
procedure of the works.
The sequence and method of construction adopted may not be solely of the contractor’s choice;
much of the construction sequence and logic is dictated by the design, site layout and access
constraints of the building/structure/scheme itself.
The planning system adopted may be computer-based or hand-drawn (as all programme charts
once were)
 Types of Programming Techniques
The main advantage of computer-generated bar charts or networks is the high speed of updating
that is possible without the time-consuming process of redrawing the programme from scratch.
However, the problem with computer generated programmes is the temptation to delve into more
and more detail as information becomes available, making the programme larger, more
cumbersome and unintelligible to all but the planner who created the programme.
Once too much detail is entered, the essence of the programme is lost as a management tool, since
it cannot be grasped without careful summarisation of the information.
 Hand drawn bar charts
At one time, virtually every construction programme consisted of a hand-drawn bar chart.
Some construction contracts are still programmed by hand. With this approach, there was no need,
or often no attempt, to show any constructional links or logic.
Often, a simple bar chart is chosen, because that is the preferred technique within a particular
company, or because the planning engineer is not familiar with alternative types of programmes.

This is the most common form of programme system in use.

Hand drawn bar charts
 Logic-Linked Bar Chart
These were originally introduced as hand-drawn bar charts showing some of the logic or relationships
between activities by means of a simple line drawn between them (sometimes coloured to indicate a
common resource).
 Updating/Monitoring Hand-Drawn
Programmes
There was no way of updating the programme other than re-drawing the whole chart.

Re-drawing was rarely undertaken, unless it was felt that the project was so delayed or advanced as to
render the monitoring of progress against the original chart useless.

Progress monitoring on hand-drawn bar charts was traditionally achieved by marking the programme
showing work completed in some graphical manner.
 Computer-Based Programmes and
Progress Updates
Where the programme is computer based, it still needs to be updated to show progress achieved at each
reporting point.

While this can be entered directly into the software package, it is still worth creating a schedule (using
Microsoft Excel or similar) that records the percentage completed or the remaining duration of each
activity.
 Computer-Based Programmes and
Progress Updates
This is sometimes a contractual requirement for submission to the Owner / Employer each month as part
of the Contractor’s Report.
Once the schedule is prepared and reviewed, the progress noted can be entered into the planning software
and the slippage against the baseline programme together with any impact on the completion date or
dates observed.
This will allow remedial action to be taken to see whether a delay can be recovered or whether an
extension of time is required if the delay is caused by a change or other Employer delay event.
 Critical Path Analysis
Critical path is a term used when referring to a project programme, which has been defined in Mirant
Asia Pacific Construction Hong Kong Ltd v (1) Over Arup and Partners International (2) Ove Arup and
Partners Hong Kong Ltd [2007] EWHC 918 (TCC), as:

“the sequence of activities through a Project Network from start to finish, the sum of whose duration
determine the overall project duration.”

Systems that displayed or allowed a calculation to be made of the critical path were then introduced.
 Critical Path Analysis
These systems fell into two main categories:

• Critical path network: Arrow diagram using circles to depict start and finish duration information and
connecting arrows to show activities and their logical links.

• Precedence network diagram: Activity boxes containing the key duration and activity information with
only the logic links shown between them – for example, arrows, which also indicate lead and lag
requirements
 CPM & Computer-based systems:
Critical path analysis systems really became useful when a computer was used to do the calculations.

With the aid of computers, both precedence and arrow network systems were used to create simple bar
charts as a representation of the logic diagram in its simplest form.

The most common forms in use today are based on the precedence network system.

These logical, mathematical systems are ideal for computer production of the programme and have the
ability to quickly produce updated charts reflecting the progress achieved.
 P.E.R.T
One of the first of these computer-aided systems was developed in the United States for the planning and
development of the Polaris project. It was called ‘PERT’ (Programme Evaluation and Review
Technique). This precedence planning system has subsequently lent its name to all forms of precedence
network diagrams.
Simply put, planners to enter the Precedence Network or Critical Path network into the software.
The computer then calculates the critical and non-critical activities and plotted the result as a bar chart.
The main advantage of using a computer-based programme is the ability to update the chart with the
progress achieved and changes due to variations or other events and predict a revised completion date,
given the situation at any one time.
 P.E.R.T
To do this, the programme is updated to show progress achieved by entering the assessment of work
completed and then rescheduling the programme. Progress is entered in one of three ways:

a)As a percentage complete

b)By entering the number of days worked
c)Changing the remaining duration of each activity to reflect the work still remaining.

The computer reschedules (or recalculates) the project based on the original logic and the progress
achieved on site at the given date, and then displays the projected completion date and critical path.
P.E.R.T
 Time Location Chart
The time chainage/time location chart originates from a project management system known as line of
balance or elemental trend analysis, which is used on projects that are repetitive and require strict trade
sequencing, that is, factory production lines, etc.

The chart highlights the importance of activity completion, production rates and relationships between
selective activities.

This system was developed in the construction industry for linear projects such as roads, railways, tunnels
and pipelines.
 Time Location Chart
A time location chart depicts the work as a plan of the contract on one axis and the time scale on the
other.

It is mostly used for roadworks, railways or pipeline contracts, as these are linear-activity-related
programmes. Some planners always put time horizontally and distance or plan outline vertically; others
draw the chart the other way round.

By setting an outline plan of the works on one axis and time on the other, the duration of each activity
and direction of workflow is then drawn.
Time Location Chart
 Line of Balance
Line of balance is very similar to time location.

It produces a chart with time on one axis and work categories on the other – for example, house types or
numbers, flat numbers or floor numbers.

The difference is not the style or presentation of the technique but the type of project and uses to which it
is put. The system is commonly used where key resources are at a premium and maintaining the order or
sequence of work between elements is key to the achievement of the programme.
 Time Slice Method
An observational, windows-based methodology that focuses on comparing as-planned, updated and as-
built project schedules to identify and quantify delays to the critical path of the project.
This methodology is a retrospective analysis that uses the project schedule updates to quantify the
slippage to the critical path during a select period of time;
Once all critical path activity delays have been quantified, the origins and causes of each delay are
determined.
The responsibility for each delay is then apportioned to either the Contractor, Owner, a third party, if
appropriate, and to force majeure or other excusable delays defined by the contract.
Delay is quantified by comparing the planned finish date and the actual finish date of an Activity.
Time Slice Method
 Time Slice Method
Summary Methods recognized by the Society for Construction Law Delay & Disruption Protocol: