Unit - 3 Loc-Ii Notes
Unit - 3 Loc-Ii Notes
1. Capacity: The size of computer depends on its memory capacity. Memory can be
seen as a storage unit containing x number of locations, each of which stores y number
of bits. The total capacity of memory can be calculated as x*y-bit or x-word memory.
2. Bandwidth: Bandwidth of the memory indicates the maximum amount of
information that can be transferred to or from the memory per unit time. It is expressed
as number of bytes or words per second.
3. Speed: The speed of operation of the memory is very important parameter. The speed
simply indicates the time between start of an operation and end of that operation.
Speed of memory is measured in two parameters:
a) Access time (ta): With computer memory, access time is the time it takes the
computer processor to read data from the memory.
When looking at the access time of memory it may be represented in either ns
(nanoseconds), MHz, or GHz. Access Time is defined as the setup time before the
actual data transfer takes place.
For example, the read/write head is on track 1 but we need to read data from
another track or segment. Thus, the read/write head will move to the data block
location before the actual transfer can take place. This delay is called Access Time.
b) Cycle time (tc): Cycle time in computer architecture refers to the time it takes for
a complete cycle of operations to be executed by a computer.
This time is typically measured in clock cycles, which are units of time equal to
the time it takes for a computer’s internal clock to complete one full cycle.
The cycle time of a computer is the time required to change the information in a
set of registers. In software development, cycle time is the time from first commit
to production release.
All the three parameters capacity, bandwidth and speed needs to be considered while
choosing a memory while designing computer architecture.
MEMORY HIERARCHY DESIGN AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS
In the Computer System Design, Memory Hierarchy is an enhancement to organize the
memory such that it can minimize the access time. The Memory Hierarchy was developed
based on a program behavior known as locality of references.
Memory Hierarchy is one of the most required things in Computer Memory as it helps in
optimizing the memory available in the computer. There are multiple levels present in
the memory, each one having a different size, different cost, etc.
1. Registers
Registers are small, high-speed memory units located in the CPU. They are used to store
the most frequently used data and instructions. Registers have the fastest access time and
the smallest storage capacity, typically ranging from 16 to 64 bits.
Registers are a type of computer memory used to quickly accept, store, and transfer data
and instructions that are being used immediately by the CPU. The registers used by the
CPU are often termed as Processor registers.
A processor register may hold an instruction, a storage address, or any data (such as bit
sequence or individual characters).
Provides substantial data storing capacity. Holds large databases, media collections,
and enterprise-level storage systems.
9. Petabyte: A petabyte is a colossal unit of data storage capacity. A petabyte may hold
massive amounts of data, including significant video libraries, sizable databases, and
sizable collections of high-resolution pictures. It is often used in data centers, cloud
storage, and scientific research that uses a lot of data. A colossal unit of data storage
capacity. Stores massive data quantities, like video libraries and large databases.
10. Exabyte (1024 petabytes): An exabyte is equal to one EB. It has a substantial
amount of data storage space. Exabytes can store vast film archives, massive data
warehouses, and global internet traffic.
It is extensively used in large-scale scientific simulations, cloud computing
infrastructures, and enterprise-level storage systems. Equal to 1024 petabytes.
Holds vast film archives, data warehouses, and global internet traffic.
CPU registers < Cache M/M < Internal M/M(main) < External (secondary)
(nearest to processor) (far from processor)
2) Capacity: The amount of data that can be stored in the memory device.
Word size: Typically, equal to the number of bits used to represent a number and
to the instruction length. For addresses of length A (in bits), the number of
addressable units is 2A.
Measured in bytes, kilobytes, megabytes, gigabytes, terabytes, and petabytes.
3) Unit of Transfer: The transfer of data from/to a memory to/from external
environment is called data transfer. Data can be transferred in the terms of Word
or in Blocks.
The transfer of data from a memory word to the external environment is known
as a read operation. The read operation in memory transfer is represented as the
transfer of data from the address register (AR) with the selected word M for the
memory into the memory buffer register (MBR).
The figure shows the memory transfer representation. It demonstrates that the
memory unit can transfer the data from the memory address register and memory
buffer register to implement read and write operations in the memory transfer.
4) Cycle Time: The minimum time between consecutive access operations (greater
than access time).
5) Access Time (Latency): The time it takes to read or write data from or to the
memory device. The time it takes to retrieve data from memory. It varies based
on the physical nature of the storage medium and the access mechanisms used.
For example, semiconductor memory has much faster access times than hard
disks.
6) Access Method: The way data can be accessed from the memory device, such as
sequential, random, or direct.
a) Sequential Access: Access must be made in a specific linear sequence. Time
to access an arbitrary record is highly variable. Storage locations accessed in a
predetermined sequence (e.g., magnetic tape).
Diagram of a 4×4 plane of magnetic core memory in an X/Y line coincident-current setup. X and
Y are drive lines, S is sense, Z is inhibiting. Arrows indicate the direction of current for writing.
b) Can be much expensive: When compared to other types of storage, such as hard
disk drives, high-performance or large-capacity semiconductor memory can be
expensive.
a) SRAM (Static Random Access Memory): SRAM is used for Cache memory; it
can hold the data as long as the power availability is there. It is refreshed
simultaneously to store the present information.
It is made with CMOS technology. It contains 4 to 6 transistors and it also uses
clocks. It does not require a periodic refresh cycle due to the presence of transistors.
Although SRAM is faster, it requires more power and is more expensive in nature.
Since SRAM requires more power, more heat is lost here as well, another drawback
of SRAM is that it cannot store more bits per chip, for instance, for the same
amount of memory stored in DRAM, SRAM would require one more chip.
The function of SRAM is that it provides a direct interface with the Central
Processing Unit at higher speeds.
Characteristics of SRAM
SRAM is used as the Cache memory inside the computer.
SRAM is known to be the fastest among all memories.
SRAM is costlier.
SRAM has a lower density (number of memory cells per unit area).
The power consumption of SRAM is less but when it is operated at higher
frequencies, the power consumption of SRAM is compatible with DRAM.
Advantages of SRAM
The cache is the fastest component in the memory hierarchy and approaches the speed
of CPU components.
Cache memory is organized as distinct set of blocks where each set contains a small
fixed number of blocks.
Types of cache memory: Cache memory is fast and expensive. Traditionally, it is
categorized as "levels" that describe its closeness and accessibility to the
microprocessor. There are three general cache levels:
a) L1 cache, or primary cache, is extremely fast but relatively small, and is usually
embedded in the processor chip as CPU cache. It is the first level of cache
memory that is present inside the processor. It is present in a small amount inside
every core of the processor separately. The size of this memory ranges from 2KB
to 64 KB.
b) L2 cache, or secondary cache, is often more capacious than L1. L2 cache may be
embedded on the CPU, or it can be on a separate chip or coprocessor and have a
high-speed alternative system bus connecting the cache and CPU. That way it
doesn't get slowed by traffic on the main system bus.
It is the second level of cache memory that may present inside or outside the CPU.
If not present inside the core, it can be shared between two cores depending upon
the architecture and is connected to a processor with the high-speed bus. The size
of memory ranges from 256 KB to 512 KB.
SSDs also have a drag reaching 1TB in size. Besides this, all the flash memories
with greater capacities tend to urge performance issues. Therefore, capacity is
usually a priority in flash memories.
1. MAGNETIC DISK:
A magnetic Disk is a type of secondary memory that is a flat
disc covered with a magnetic coating to hold information. A
magnetic disk is a storage device that uses a magnetization
process to write, rewrite and access data. Hard disks, zip disks
and floppy disks are common examples of magnetic disks
It is used to store various programs and files. The polarized
information in one direction is represented by 1, and vice
versa. The direction is indicated by 0.
Magnetic disks are less expensive than RAM and can store large amounts of data, but the
data access rate is slower than main memory because of secondary memory. Data can be
modified or can be deleted easily in the magnetic disk memory. It also allows random
access to data.
3. HARD DISK:
A hard disk drive (HDD), hard disk, hard drive, or fixed disk, is an electro-
mechanical data storage device that stores and retrieves digital data using
magnetic storage with one or more rigid rapidly rotating platters coated with
magnetic material.
HDDs are usually installed inside desktop computers, mobile devices, consumer
electronics and enterprise storage arrays in data centers.
They can store operating systems, software programs and other files using
magnetic disks.
Storage devices like hard disks are needed to install operating systems, programs
and additional storage devices, and to save documents.
Without devices like HDDs that can retain data after they have been turned off,
computer users would not be able to store programs or save files or documents
to their computers. This is why every computer needs at least one storage device
to permanently hold data as long as it is needed.
SSDs have similar capacities but are generally more expensive per unit of
storage.
a) Seek time: The time taken by the R-W head to reach the desired track from its
current position.
b) Rotational latency: Time is taken by the sector to come under the R-W head.
c) Data transfer time: Time is taken to transfer the required amount of data. It
depends upon the rotational speed.
d) Controller time: The processing time taken by the controller.
e) Average Access time: Seek time + Average Rotational latency + data transfer time
+ controller time.
Note: Average Rotational latency is mostly 1/2*(Rotational latency)
The average rotational latency is taken when the current position of the R-W head is
not given. Because the R-W may be already present at the desired position or it might
take a whole rotation to get the desired sector under the R-W head. But, if the current
position of the R-W head is given then the rotational latency must be calculated.
Example:
Consider a hard disk with: 4 surfaces, 64 tracks/surface, 128 sectors/track and 256
bytes/sector. What is the capacity of the hard disk? Also find the data transfer rate
and average access time?
Solution:
Since seek time, controller time and the amount of data to be transferred is not given,
we consider all three terms as 0.
1) CD (COMPACT DISK): Compact Disk is portable storage devices used for storing
digital data like recording, storing, and playing video, and audio. CD can be explained
as a disc-like memory device made from plastic material.
CDs or Compact Disks are optically readable media. CDs are the replacement of the
phonograph disc. The main material of the CD is plastic. The shape of the plastic is
circular and one side of the circular plastic is coated with the reflecting metal
coating, usually aluminum. Data can be stored much more densely in optic media
than in magnetic media, like Hard disk. Optic media have a much longer life span.
Millions of bits are burned into this coating.
CDs can store many types of data, like audio, video, games, any documents, etc. The
data are scanned by a laser beam with a CD driver to visualize the data. The only
thing that is less in CD is storage capacity is very less compared to HDD or DVD
and the read-write speed is also very less. The storage capacity of a CD is 700 MB
only.
The standard diameter of a CD is 120mm and thickness is 1.2mm. The main body of
the CD is made of hard plastic known as polycarbonate with a reflective metallic layer.
Other major formats are DVD+R, DVD-RW and DVD+RW and each has something
different to supply.
DVD-R The “R” in DVD-R stands for “recordable” while formats that end in RW are
“rewritable.” A DVD-R is often wont to record video or audio, but once it’s been
written thereto isn’t possible to erase it or overwrite it. they’re used for archiving files
you would like to keep, transferring files between computers or sending large files to
friends. a typical DVD-R holds up to 4.7GB of knowledge, while a dual-layer DVD-
R will hold 8.5 GB.
Advantages of DVD
Very large storage capacity.
Increasing availability.
It is easily available in every store.
It is portable.
High data stability.
The DVD drive can read CDs.
DVDs are now mass-produced in order that they are relatively cheap.
Disadvantages of DVD
DVDs don’t add CD ROM drives.
It is tough to vary data.
There is no single standard on DVD.
When we need to use DVD, it’s built-in copy protection and regional lockout.
Still a comparatively new technology so still expensive compared to CD-
ROMs and VCR.
It requires a burning software to record some information thereto.
DVD uses digital compression. poorly compressed audio or video could also
be like fuzzy, harsh or vague and blocky.
DVD doesn’t fully support HDTV.
They can be easily damaged by breaking or by a number of the scratching.
Some DVD players and drives can’t read CDs.
View a couple of players can play in reverse at normal speed.
Variations and options like DVD audio, DVD-VR and DTS audio tracks
aren’t supported by all players.
Many of the DVD players and drives can’t read DVD-RAM discs.
Used to store the data that has to be It is typically used to store firmware or
Use currently processed by CPU microcode, which is used to initialize
temporarily. and control hardware components of
the computer.
CPU can easily access data stored in If the Central Processing Unit (CPU)
CPU RAM. needs to access the data on ROM, first
the data must be transferred to RAM,
Interaction
and then the Central Processing Unit
(CPU) will be able to access the data.
Random Access Memory (RAM) has ROM has a small size with less
Size and a large size with higher capacity capacity compared to RAM.
higher capacity when compared to
Capacity
ROM.
The data stored is easily accessible. The data stored is not as easily
Accessibility accessible as in the concerning RAM.
A RAM chip can store only a few A ROM chip can store multiple
Chip Size gigabytes (GB) of data. megabytes (MB) of data.
Faster than DRAM, with access Slower than SRAM, with access
Access Speed times in the nanosecond range. times in the tens of nanoseconds
SRAM provides faster speed of range. DRAM provides slower
data read/write. speed of data read/write.
Performance Data store and retrieval is On other hand data storage and
much slower in case of retrieval is faster in case of
Magnetic tape memory due to Magnetic disk memory and
which it is less efficient and hence has better performance
has comparatively degrade and more efficient as compared
performance as compared to to Magnetic tape memory.
Magnetic disk memory.
Access Idle for sequential access. Idle for random access. Fast in
Slower in data accessing. data accessing.
CD Vs DVD
PARAMETERS CD DVD
Full-Form The term CD is an acronym for The term DVD is an acronym
Compact Disk. for Digital Versatile Disk.
Pits CD have single layer of pits. DVD have double layers of pits.
Space between Space between spiral loops is Space between spiral loops is
loops 1.6 micrometre in CD. 0.74 micrometre in DVD.
Space between Space between pits is 0.834 Space between pits is 0.40
pits micrometre in CD. micrometre in DVD.
Data Transfer Data Transfer Rate is 1.4 to 1.6 Data Transfer Rate is 11
Rate Mb/Sec. Mb/Sec.
Made up of Floppy disk is made of flexible Hard disks are made of a metal
plastic material. like aluminium.
Number of Floppy disk always consists of Hard disk can have more than 1
platters/disks a single disk or platter. platter arranged one on the top
of the other to form a disk pack.
Disc Rotation Floppy disks only start rotating Hard disks rotate continuously
when they are required to read until the computer is switched
or write data. off.
Spindle Floppy disk has a spindle hole. Hard disk has a spindle which is
free to rotate and holds the
platters together in a disk pack.
Storage Floppy disks have low storage Hard disks have high storage
Capacity capacity. capacity.
Data Security Floppy disks provide poor data Hard disks provide improved
security. data security.
Data Floppy disks have slow data Hard disks have faster data
Accessibility accessibility. accessibility.
Speed Floppy disk stores data at low Hard disk stores data at high
speed. speed.
Cost Floppy disks are cheaper than Hard disks are relatively more
HDD. expensive.
Lifespan Floppy disks are prone to get Hard disks are long lasting
damaged easily. storage devices.
Susceptible to Floppy disks are more Hard disks are less susceptible
viruses susceptible to viruses. to viruses.
Used these days Floppy disks are not used these Hard disk is widely used these
days. days.
Applications Floppy disks were used in old Hard disks are extensively used
computers for permanent data in modern computers as a main
storage. secondary storage device.
Access Method Sequential access files allow Random access files allow direct
access to records in a sequential access to specific records using
manner an index, record number, or key.
Record Sequential access files store Random access files do not have
Ordering records in a specific order, any specific order of storing
usually the order in which they records.
were added to the file.
Record Sizes In sequential access files, Random access files, record sizes
record sizes are usually uniform can be variable
File Sequential access files are Random access files are typically
Organization typically organized in a linear indexed.
fashion
Data It holds programs and data that It holds frequently used data by
are currently executed by the the CPU.
CPU.
Access Speed RAM is faster than a hard disk, Cache memory increase the
floppy disk, compact disk, or just accessing speed of CPU.
any form of secondary storage
media.