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Unit - 3 Loc-Ii Notes

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111 views54 pages

Unit - 3 Loc-Ii Notes

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UNIT - 3

MEMORY & I/O DEVICES


Computer: A computer is an electronic device and that accepts data, processes on that
data, and gives the desired output. It performs programmed computation with accuracy
and speed. Or in other words, the computer takes data as input and stores the
data/instructions in the memory (use them when required). After processes the data, it
converts into information. Finally, gives the output.
Here, input refers to the raw data that we want the machine to process and return to us as
a result, output refers to the response that the machine provides in response to the raw
data entered and the processing of data may involve analyzing, searching, distributing,
storing data, etc. Thus, we can also call a computer data processing system expressed in
logical or numerical terms and gives the output through output devices.
Computer Memory: Computer memory is just like the human brain. It is used to store
data/information and instructions. It is a data storage unit or a data storage device where
data is to be processed and instructions required for processing are stored. It can store
both the input and output can be stored here.
Characteristics of Computer Memory
 It is faster computer memory as compared to secondary memory.
 It is semiconductor memories.
 It is usually a volatile memory, and main memory of the computer.
 A computer system cannot run without primary memory.
How Does Computer Memory Work?
When you open a program, it is loaded from secondary memory into primary memory.
Because there are various types of memory and storage, an example would be moving a
program from a solid-state drive (SSD) to RAM. Because primary storage is accessed
more quickly, the opened software can connect with the computer’s processor more
quickly. The primary memory is readily accessible from temporary memory slots or other
storage sites.
Memory is volatile, which means that data is only kept temporarily in memory. Data
saved in volatile memory is automatically destroyed when a computing device is turned
off. When you save a file, it is sent to secondary memory for storage.
There are various kinds of memory accessible. Its operation will depend upon the type of
primary memory used. but normally, semiconductor-based memory is more related with
memory. Semiconductor memory made up of IC (integrated circuits) with silicon-based
metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) transistors.
Memory is used to store program and data. These programs and data needs to be
transferred between CPU and memory. Faster the transfer rate better is the performance
of computer system.

LOC – II (BCA 2nd Sem.) By: Ms. Sangeeta Sehrawat


Parameter in choosing memory
Given below are the important parameters in choosing computer memory:
1. Capacity 2. Bandwidth 3. Speed

1. Capacity: The size of computer depends on its memory capacity. Memory can be
seen as a storage unit containing x number of locations, each of which stores y number
of bits. The total capacity of memory can be calculated as x*y-bit or x-word memory.
2. Bandwidth: Bandwidth of the memory indicates the maximum amount of
information that can be transferred to or from the memory per unit time. It is expressed
as number of bytes or words per second.
3. Speed: The speed of operation of the memory is very important parameter. The speed
simply indicates the time between start of an operation and end of that operation.
Speed of memory is measured in two parameters:
a) Access time (ta): With computer memory, access time is the time it takes the
computer processor to read data from the memory.
When looking at the access time of memory it may be represented in either ns
(nanoseconds), MHz, or GHz. Access Time is defined as the setup time before the
actual data transfer takes place.
For example, the read/write head is on track 1 but we need to read data from
another track or segment. Thus, the read/write head will move to the data block
location before the actual transfer can take place. This delay is called Access Time.
b) Cycle time (tc): Cycle time in computer architecture refers to the time it takes for
a complete cycle of operations to be executed by a computer.
This time is typically measured in clock cycles, which are units of time equal to
the time it takes for a computer’s internal clock to complete one full cycle.
The cycle time of a computer is the time required to change the information in a
set of registers. In software development, cycle time is the time from first commit
to production release.
All the three parameters capacity, bandwidth and speed needs to be considered while
choosing a memory while designing computer architecture.
MEMORY HIERARCHY DESIGN AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS
In the Computer System Design, Memory Hierarchy is an enhancement to organize the
memory such that it can minimize the access time. The Memory Hierarchy was developed
based on a program behavior known as locality of references.
Memory Hierarchy is one of the most required things in Computer Memory as it helps in
optimizing the memory available in the computer. There are multiple levels present in
the memory, each one having a different size, different cost, etc.

LOC – II (BCA 2nd Sem.) By: Ms. Sangeeta Sehrawat


Some types of memory like cache, and main memory are faster as compared to other
types of memory but they are having a little less size and are also costly whereas some
memory has a little higher storage value, but they are a little slower.
Accessing of data is not similar in all types of memory, some have faster access whereas
some have slower access.
MEMORY HIERARCHY
This Memory Hierarchy Design is divided into 2 main types:

a) External Memory or Secondary Memory: Comprising of Magnetic Disk,


Optical Disk, and Magnetic Tape i.e. peripheral storage devices which are
accessible by the processor via an I/O Module.
b) Internal Memory or Primary Memory: Comprising of Main Memory, Cache
Memory & CPU registers. This is directly accessible by the processor.

1. Registers
Registers are small, high-speed memory units located in the CPU. They are used to store
the most frequently used data and instructions. Registers have the fastest access time and
the smallest storage capacity, typically ranging from 16 to 64 bits.
Registers are a type of computer memory used to quickly accept, store, and transfer data
and instructions that are being used immediately by the CPU. The registers used by the
CPU are often termed as Processor registers.
A processor register may hold an instruction, a storage address, or any data (such as bit
sequence or individual characters).

LOC – II (BCA 2nd Sem.) By: Ms. Sangeeta Sehrawat


The computer needs processor registers for manipulating data and a register for holding
a memory address. The register holding the memory location is used to calculate the
address of the next instruction after the execution of the current instruction is completed.
2. Cache Memory
Cache memory is a small, fast memory unit located close to the CPU. It stores frequently
used data and instructions that have been recently accessed from the main memory.
Cache memory is designed to minimize the time it takes to access data by providing the
CPU with quick access to frequently used data. It is a type of high-speed semiconductor
memory that can help the CPU run faster. Between the CPU and the main memory, it
serves as a buffer. It is used to store the data and programs that the CPU uses the most
frequently.
Advantages of Cache Memory
a) It is faster than the main memory.
b) When compared to the main memory, it takes less time to access it.
c) It keeps the programs that can be run in a short amount of time.
d) It stores data in temporary use.
Disadvantages of Cache Memory
a) Because of the semiconductors used, it is very expensive.
b) The size of the cache (amount of data it can store) is usually small.
3. Main Memory
Main memory, also known as RAM (Random Access Memory), is the primary memory
of a computer system. It has a larger storage capacity than cache memory, but it is slower.
Main memory is used to store data and instructions that are currently in use by the CPU.
It is also known as the main memory of the computer system. It is used to store data and
programs or instructions during computer operations. It uses semiconductor technology
and hence is commonly called semiconductor memory. Primary memory is of two types:
a) RAM (Random Access Memory): It is a volatile memory. Volatile memory stores
information based on the power supply. If the power supply fails/ interrupted/stopped,
all the data and information on this memory will be lost. RAM is used for booting up
or start the computer. It temporarily stores programs/data which has to be executed by
the processor.
RAM is of two types:
i. S RAM (Static RAM): Static RAM stores the binary information in flip flops and
information remains valid until power is supplied. It has a faster access time and
is used in implementing cache memory. SRAM uses transistors and the circuits of
this memory are capable of retaining their state as long as the power is applied.
This memory consists of the number of flip flops with each flip flop storing 1 bit.
It has less access time and hence, it is faster.

LOC – II (BCA 2nd Sem.) By: Ms. Sangeeta Sehrawat


ii. D RAM (Dynamic RAM): It stores the binary information as a charge on the
capacitor. It requires refreshing circuitry to maintain the charge on the capacitors
after a few milliseconds. It contains more memory cells per unit area as compared
to SRAM. D RAM uses capacitors and transistors and stores the data as a charge
on the capacitors. They contain thousands of memory cells. It needs refreshing of
charge on capacitor after a few milliseconds. This memory is slower than S RAM.
b) ROM (Read Only Memory): It is a non-volatile memory. Non-volatile memory
stores information even when there is a power supply failed/ interrupted/stopped.
ROM is used to store information that is used to operate the system.
As its name refers to read-only memory, we can only read the programs and data that is
stored on it. It contains some electronic fuses that can be programmed for a piece of
specific information. The information stored in the ROM in binary format. It is also
known as permanent memory.

ROM is of four types:

i. MROM (Masked ROM): Hard-wired devices with a pre-programmed


collection of data or instructions were the first ROMs. Masked ROMs are a
type of low-cost ROM that works in this way.
ii. PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory): This read-only memory is
modifiable once by the user. The user purchases a blank PROM and uses a
PROM program to put the required contents into the PROM. Its content can’t
be erased once written.
iii. EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory): EPROM is an
extension to PROM where you can erase the content of ROM by exposing it
to Ultraviolet rays for nearly 40 minutes.

iv. EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory):


Here the written contents can be erased electrically. You can delete and
reprogramme EEPROM up to 10,000 times. Erasing and programming take
very little time, i.e., nearly 4 -10 ms(milliseconds). Any area in an EEPROM
can be wiped and programmed selectively.
4. Secondary Storage
It is also known as auxiliary memory and backup memory. It is a non-volatile
memory and used to store a large amount of data or information. The data or
information stored in secondary memory is permanent, and it is slower than
primary memory.
A CPU cannot access secondary memory directly. The data/information from the
auxiliary memory is first transferred to the main memory, and then the CPU can
access it.

LOC – II (BCA 2nd Sem.) By: Ms. Sangeeta Sehrawat


Characteristics of Secondary Memory:
a) It is a slow memory but reusable.
b) It is a reliable and non-volatile memory.
c) It is cheaper than primary memory.
d) The storage capacity of secondary memory is large.
e) A computer system can run without secondary memory.
f) In secondary memory, data is stored permanently even when the power is off.
Secondary storage, such as hard disk drives (HDD) and solid-state drives (SSD), is a non-
volatile memory unit that has a larger storage capacity than main memory.
It is used to store data and instructions that are not currently in use by the CPU.
Secondary storage has the slowest access time and is typically the least expensive type of
memory in the memory hierarchy.
Types of Secondary Storage:
1. Magnetic Tapes: Magnetic Tape is simply a magnetic recording device that is
covered with a plastic film. It is generally used for the backup of data. In the case of
a magnetic tape, the access time for a computer is a little slower and therefore, it
requires some amount of time for accessing the strip.
Magnetic tape is a long, narrow strip of plastic film with a thin, magnetic coating on
it that is used for magnetic recording. Bits are recorded on tape as magnetic patches
called RECORDS that run along many tracks. Typically, 7 or 9 bits are recorded
concurrently.
Each track has one read/write head, which allows data to be recorded and read as a
sequence of characters. It can be stopped, started moving forward or backward, or
rewound.
2. Magnetic Disks: A magnetic disk is a circular metal or
a plastic plate and these plates are coated with magnetic
material. The disc is used on both sides. Bits are stored
in magnetized surfaces in locations called tracks that
run in concentric rings. Sectors are typically used to
break tracks into pieces.

Hard discs are discs that are permanently attached and


cannot be removed by a single user. The Magnetic disks
work at a high speed inside the computer and these are
frequently used.
Characteristics of Memory Hierarchy
a) Capacity: It is the global volume of information the memory can store. As we
move from top to bottom in the Hierarchy, the capacity increases.

LOC – II (BCA 2nd Sem.) By: Ms. Sangeeta Sehrawat


b) Access Time: It is the time interval between the read/write request and the
availability of the data. As we move from top to bottom in the Hierarchy, the access
time increases.
c) Performance: Earlier when the computer system was designed without a Memory
Hierarchy design, the speed gap increased between the CPU registers and Main
Memory due to a large difference in access time.
This results in lower performance of the system and thus, enhancement was
required. This enhancement was made in the form of Memory Hierarchy Design
because of which the performance of the system increases.
One of the most significant ways to increase system performance is minimizing
how far down the memory hierarchy one has to go to manipulate data.
d) Cost Per Bit: As we move from bottom to top in the Hierarchy, the cost per bit
increases i.e. Internal Memory is costlier than External Memory.
Advantages of Memory Hierarchy:
i. It helps in removing some destruction, and managing the memory in a better
way.
ii. It helps in spreading the data all over the computer system.
iii. It saves the consumer’s price and time.
iv. System-Supported Memory Standards
From the above diagram, we can easily figure out various factors as explained
below:

LOC – II (BCA 2nd Sem.) By: Ms. Sangeeta Sehrawat


I/O Processor: The primary function of an I/O Processor is to manage the data transfers
between auxiliary memories and the main memory.
MEMORY PARAMETERS
Memory devices are digital systems that store data either temporarily or for a long term.
Digital computers to hard disks have built-in memory devices that can store the data of
users or manufacturers. The data either be in the form of control programs or programs
that boot the system. Hence, to store such a huge amount of data the memory devices
must have enormous capacity. The challenge is to build memory devices that have large
capacities but are cost-effective. The memory devices must be capable of storing both
permanent data and instantaneous data.
Memories are made up of registers. Each register in the memory is one storage location.
The storage location is also called a memory location. Memory locations are identified
using Address. The total number of bits a memory can store is its capacity. A storage
element is called a Cell. Each register is made up of a storage element in which one bit
of data is stored. The data in a memory are stored and retrieved by the process called

writing and reading respectively.

LOC – II (BCA 2nd Sem.) By: Ms. Sangeeta Sehrawat


A word is a group of bits where a memory unit stores binary information. A word with a
group of 8 bits is called a byte.
A memory unit consists of data lines, address
selection lines, and control lines that specify
the direction of transfer.
Data lines provide the information to be
stored in memory. The control inputs specify
the direct transfer. The k-address lines
specify the word chosen. When there are
k address lines, 2k memory words can be
accessed. Block diagram of a memory unit
Units of Memory
Memory units are used to measure the size and represent data. Some of the commonly
used memory units are:
1. Bit: The first memory location in a computer is bit. The smallest measurement unit
for data held in primary memory and storage devices is a bit. Out of the binary values
0 and 1, a bit can only have one. The smallest measurement unit for data in primary
memory and storage devices. Represents binary values 0 and 1.
2. Nibble: It means the group of 4 bits.
3. Word: It is a fixed number of bits, it is different from computer to computer, but the
same for each device. Compute store information in the form of words.
A fixed number of bits that varies across computers but remains consistent within
each device. Used to store information in computers.
4. Bytes: The fundamental unit used to measure data is the byte. It has 8 bits in it. A
byte can therefore represent 2 * 8 or 256 values. They determine the size of files,
documents, photos, and other kinds of data.
The fundamental unit for measuring data, consisting of 8 bits. Represents 256 values
and determines file, document, photo, and data sizes.
5. Kilobyte: 1024 bytes is equal to one kilobyte. It is widely used to denote small file
sizes and data storage capacities. One kilobyte can hold a small image or around
1024 characters of text.
It frequently shows up in text documents, spreadsheets, and small image files.
Denotes small file sizes and storage capacities. Can hold small images or around
1024 characters of text.

6. Megabyte: A megabyte is 1024 kilobytes in size. It contains more info as compared


to a kilobyte. A megabyte can hold longer texts, high-resolution images, and short

LOC – II (BCA 2nd Sem.) By: Ms. Sangeeta Sehrawat


audio clips. It is used to calculate the size of files comprising music and short films,
software packages, and documents.
Megabytes are still important and frequently used, even though larger units of
measurement are being used more frequently as a result of the growing number of
data files.
Comprising 1024 kilobytes i.e. Contains more information compared to a kilobyte.
Holds longer texts, high-resolution images, and short audio clips. Measures file sizes
of music, short films, software packages, and documents.

7. Gigabyte :1024 megabytes is equal to one gigabyte. It has a substantial amount of


data storage space. Larger files, such full photo albums, high-definition movies, and
software programs can fit within a gigabit.
The storage capabilities of hard drives, solid-state drives, and other forms of data
storage devices are routinely assessed utilizing this technique.
Equal to 1024 megabytes which means substantial data storage space.
Suitable for larger files, such as full photo albums, high-definition movies, and
software programs.
8. Terabyte: A terabyte is made up of 1024 gigabytes. It has a substantial amount of
data storing capacity. A terabyte can hold a lot of data in large databases, massive
media collections, and enterprise-level storage systems.
It is frequently used by data centers, cloud storage services, and external hard drives
with large storage capacities. As the demand for large-scale data processing and
storage grows, terabytes are becoming more and more important.

Provides substantial data storing capacity. Holds large databases, media collections,
and enterprise-level storage systems.

9. Petabyte: A petabyte is a colossal unit of data storage capacity. A petabyte may hold
massive amounts of data, including significant video libraries, sizable databases, and
sizable collections of high-resolution pictures. It is often used in data centers, cloud
storage, and scientific research that uses a lot of data. A colossal unit of data storage
capacity. Stores massive data quantities, like video libraries and large databases.

10. Exabyte (1024 petabytes): An exabyte is equal to one EB. It has a substantial
amount of data storage space. Exabytes can store vast film archives, massive data
warehouses, and global internet traffic.
It is extensively used in large-scale scientific simulations, cloud computing
infrastructures, and enterprise-level storage systems. Equal to 1024 petabytes.
Holds vast film archives, data warehouses, and global internet traffic.

LOC – II (BCA 2nd Sem.) By: Ms. Sangeeta Sehrawat


11. Zettabyte (1024 exabytes): A zettabyte. It represents a capacity for data storage
that is almost unimaginable.
Zettabytes have the capacity to store unfathomably large amounts of data, including
worldwide internet content, long-term archival storage, and in-depth global data
analysis.
Represents an almost unimaginable data storage capacity. Stores worldwide internet
content, long-term archival data, and extensive global analysis.

12.Yottabyte: 1024 zettabytes make up a yottabyte (abbreviated YB). It stands for an


incredible amount of data storage.
Unimaginable amounts of data, such as the equivalent of storing all of the material
on the internet numerous times or tracking vast amounts, may be stored in yottabytes.
Comprising 1024 zettabytes.
Stands for an incredible amount of data storage. Can hold vast amounts equivalent
to storing internet content numerous times.

Capacity of Storage Locations


a) Fixed Word Length Memory
 Main memory of some computers can store a fixed number of character (equal
to its word-length in bytes) in each numbered address location.
 Such computers are said to be word-addressable and they employ fixed-word-
length memory approach.
 These computers always allocate storage space in multiples of word-length.
 Therefore, if a word adorable computer has fixed word-length of 4 bytes (4
characters, it will require one word (4 bytes) to store the word "CAT" and two
words (8 bytes) to store the word "BOMBAY".

LOC – II (BCA 2nd Sem.) By: Ms. Sangeeta Sehrawat


 Advantage: It have faster calculating capabilities
 Disadvantage: This scheme does not use all the space available in a computer
word. Suppose a 3-digit number is to be stores in a memory location of 8 bits
size computer word, then five bit position in the word remain unutilized which
is a wastage of space.

b) Variable Word Length Memory


 In many computers, main memory is designed to store a single character (A,
B, 1, 2, +, -, etc) at each numbered address.
 Computers designed in this manner are said to be character-addressable and
they employ variable-word-length memory approach.
 Hence, in these computers only 3 bytes are required to store the word " CAT"
and 6 bytes to store the word "BOMBAY".
 Small business computers use variable-word-length approach for optimizing
use of storage space.
 For example, let us consider a fixed-word-length memory computer with word
size of eight characters.
 If most of the data words to be stored are of less than five characters, more
than half of its storage space will remain unused.
 This will not happen in case of a computer with variable-word-length memory
because it can place a character in every storage cell.
 However, word-addressable computers possess faster calculating capability
because they can add two data words in a single operation. If word length of a
computer that uses fixed-word-length approach is eight characters, it can add
two eight-digit numbers in a single operation. On the other hand, a character-
addressable computer can add only one digit in each number during a single
operation, and would need eight steps to add two eight-digit numbers.

LOC – II (BCA 2nd Sem.) By: Ms. Sangeeta Sehrawat


CHARACTERISTICS OF MEMORY UNIT
1) Physical Location: The internal or external position of the memory device in the
computer system. Physically located within distinct storage devices. It is arranged
in the following hierarchy relatively to processor.

CPU registers < Cache M/M < Internal M/M(main) < External (secondary)
(nearest to processor) (far from processor)

2) Capacity: The amount of data that can be stored in the memory device.
Word size: Typically, equal to the number of bits used to represent a number and
to the instruction length. For addresses of length A (in bits), the number of
addressable units is 2A.
Measured in bytes, kilobytes, megabytes, gigabytes, terabytes, and petabytes.
3) Unit of Transfer: The transfer of data from/to a memory to/from external
environment is called data transfer. Data can be transferred in the terms of Word
or in Blocks.

The transfer of data from a memory word to the external environment is known
as a read operation. The read operation in memory transfer is represented as the
transfer of data from the address register (AR) with the selected word M for the
memory into the memory buffer register (MBR).

[AR] M MBR = Read Operation

LOC – II (BCA 2nd Sem.) By: Ms. Sangeeta Sehrawat


The control signal of the read operation starts the read operation. The read
operation statement generates the data transfer from the chosen memory register
M into the MBR.
The transfer of new data to be saved into the memory is known as the write
operation. The memory transfer in the write operation is described as the transfer
of data from the memory buffer register (MBR) to the address register (AR) with
the chosen word M for the memory.
MBR M [AR] =Write Operation
The control signal of the write operation starts the write operation. The write
operation statement generates the data transfer from the MBR into the chosen
memory register through the address shows in the memory M [AR].
It can achieve through a read or write operation, first, the memory register (M)
should be selected by a particular address.

The figure shows the memory transfer representation. It demonstrates that the
memory unit can transfer the data from the memory address register and memory
buffer register to implement read and write operations in the memory transfer.
4) Cycle Time: The minimum time between consecutive access operations (greater
than access time).
5) Access Time (Latency): The time it takes to read or write data from or to the
memory device. The time it takes to retrieve data from memory. It varies based
on the physical nature of the storage medium and the access mechanisms used.
For example, semiconductor memory has much faster access times than hard
disks.
6) Access Method: The way data can be accessed from the memory device, such as
sequential, random, or direct.
a) Sequential Access: Access must be made in a specific linear sequence. Time
to access an arbitrary record is highly variable. Storage locations accessed in a
predetermined sequence (e.g., magnetic tape).

LOC – II (BCA 2nd Sem.) By: Ms. Sangeeta Sehrawat


b) Random access: Each addressable location has a unique, physical location.
Access is by direct access to desired location. Access time is constant and
independent of prior accesses. Allows accessing storage locations in any
order. Access time is independent of the location being accessed (e.g.,
semiconductor memory).
c) Direct Access: Individual blocks or record have an address based on physical
location. Access is by direct access to general vicinity of desired information,
then some search. Access time is still variable, but not as much as sequential
access. Combines random and serial access (e.g., hard disks, CD drives).
d) Associative: Desired units of information are retrieved by comparing a sub-
part of unit. Location is needed. Most useful for searching.
7) Retention: The ability of the memory device to preserve data for later use.
8) Readability: Easily readable, writable, and rewritable.
9) Performance:
a) Access Time (Latency): For random access memory, latency is the time it
takes to perform. A read or write operation that is the time from the instant
that the address is presented to the memory to the instant that the data have
been stored available for use.
b) Memory Cycle Time: Access time + additional time required before a second
access can begin (refresh time, for example).
c) Transfer Rate: Generally measured in bit/second.
10) Mobility: Data can be changed or replaced as needed.

LOC – II (BCA 2nd Sem.) By: Ms. Sangeeta Sehrawat


MEMORY CLASSIFICATION

Memory: Computer memory is the storage space in the


computer where data is processed and instructions required
for processing are stored. It is divided into small parts called
cells. Computer memory can be any physical device capable
of storing information temporarily, like RAM (random-access
memory), or permanently, like ROM (read-only memory).
Types of Memory:
a) Magnetic Core Memory: Magnetic core memory was developed in the late
1940s and 1950s, and remained the primary way in which early computers read,
wrote and stored data until RAM came along in
the 1970s.
 Magnetic cores are typically composed of
ferromagnetic materials like iron, nickel, and
their alloys.
 These materials are characterized by their high
magnetic permeability, allowing them to
effectively channel magnetic fields.
 The design and shape of a magnetic core can vary significantly based on its
intended application, but common forms include toroidal or laminated cores.

LOC – II (BCA 2nd Sem.) By: Ms. Sangeeta Sehrawat


 Core memory uses toroids (rings) of a hard magnetic material (usually a semi-
hard ferrite). Each core stores one bit of information.
 Two or more wires pass through each core, forming an X-Y array of cores.
 When an electrical current above a certain threshold is applied to the wires, the
core will become magnetized.
 The core to be written is selected by powering one X and one Y wire to half of
the required power, such that only the single core at the intersection is written.
 Depending on the direction of the currents, the core will pick up a clockwise or
counterclockwise magnetic field, storing a 1 or 0.
 When not being read or written, the cores maintain the last value they had, even
if the power is turned off. Therefore, they
are a type of non-volatile memory.
Depending on how it was wired, core
memory could be exceptionally reliable.
 Example: Magnetic Tape

Diagram of a 4×4 plane of magnetic core memory in an X/Y line coincident-current setup. X and
Y are drive lines, S is sense, Z is inhibiting. Arrows indicate the direction of current for writing.

Semiconductor Memory: A type of electronic memory known as semiconductor


memory stores digital data by making use of semiconductor materials, most commonly
silicon. Data is stored in binary format in this memory, with “1s” and “0s” representing
electrical charges.
Semiconductor memory is a sort of computerized electronic memory that utilizes
semiconductor material, ordinarily silicon, to store and recover advanced information. It
is the essential sort of memory utilized in PCs, cell phones, and other electronic gadgets.
There are two types of semiconductor memory
a) Random Access Memory(RAM) b) Read-Only Memory(ROM)

a) Random Access Memory(RAM): It permits information to be gotten to in any


request, making it appropriate for brief capacity.
Type: Unpredictable – information evaporates without power.
Function: stores data for active applications on a temporary basis.
Speed: lightning-fast access in a flash.
Capacity: Normally more modest than ROM.
Applications: Running projects, open documents, program tabs.

LOC – II (BCA 2nd Sem.) By: Ms. Sangeeta Sehrawat


b) Read Only Memory(ROM): Information is for all time put away and can’t be
changed during typical activity. It is utilized for putting away firmware and other
basic information.
Type: Non-unstable – information perseveres even without power.
Function: provides permanent storage for essential functions.
Speed: More slow than Smash, as information recovery isn’t as incessant.
Capacity: Variable based on device complexity.
Applications: Firmware, the operating system, and device drivers.
Advantages of Semiconductor Memory
a) High Speed: Fast data retrieval from semiconductor memory enables responsive
performance and smooth operation. Applications like gaming, real-time video, and
online transaction all depend on this.
b) Low power consumption: Compared to other types of memory, such as magnetic
storage, semiconductor memory is very energy efficient. This is important for
laptops and mobile devices, as it extends battery life.

c) High storage density: Semiconductor memory can pack an enormous measure of


information into a minuscule space. Because of this, it is ideal for high-
performance computing systems and portable devices like smartphones and tablets
where space is at a premium.

d) Scalability: Semiconductor memory innovation can be effortlessly scaled to


satisfy the rising needs of registering. This indicates that the capacity of
semiconductor memory chips will also increase in tandem with our demand for
data storage.

e) Non-volatile (except for RAM): Non-volatile semiconductor memory, such as


read-only memory (ROM) and flash memory, stores data even when the power is
turned off. Because of this, they are excellent for storing long-term data like
operating systems and firmware.
Disadvantages of Semiconductor Memory
a) Volatile (for RAM): When the power is turned off, data stored in traditional
RAM are lost. This can be risky on the off chance that you are chipping away at
something significant and the power goes out of the blue.

b) Can be much expensive: When compared to other types of storage, such as hard
disk drives, high-performance or large-capacity semiconductor memory can be
expensive.

LOC – II (BCA 2nd Sem.) By: Ms. Sangeeta Sehrawat


c) Limited lifespan (for Flash memory): Flash memory has a set number of
compose cycles before it breaks down. As a result, flash memory devices will
eventually require replacement.
d) Security issues: Semiconductor memory can be helpless against information
breaks and hacking. This is due to the fact that the data is stored electronically
and can be accessed in the event that the device is hacked.
e) Effect on the Environment: The process of manufacturing semiconductor
memory chips can be resource-intensive and harmful to the environment.
However, efforts are being made to develop production methods that are more
environmentally friendly.
Applications of Semiconductor Memory
Semiconductor memory is used in a wide variety of applications, including:
a) Digital Cameras: Used for storing photographs and recordings.
b) Smartphones: Used for storing applications, music, photos and other valuable
information.
c) Computers: Used for storing program instruction and working data.
d) USB drivers: Used for storing potable data storage.
e) Solid state drive(SSD): Used for high-performance storage in computers.
f) MP3 Player: Used to store music.
RAM (RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY)
 It is one of the parts of the Main memory/Memory, also famously known as Read
Write Memory.
 Random Access memory is present on the motherboard
and the computer’s data is temporarily stored in RAM.
 RAM can help in both Read and write.
 RAM is a volatile memory, which means, it is present as
long as the Computer is in the ON state, as soon as the
computer turns OFF, the memory is erased.
 RAM is constructed of small transistors and capacitors,
much like CPUs and other computer components, which can store an electric
charge that corresponds to data bits.
 Electrical charge is necessary to regular charge of it. If not, the data removed from
RAM and the capacitors lose their charge.
 The term random access, or direct access, as it applies to RAM is based on the facts
that any storage location can be accessed directly via its memory address and that
the access can be random.

LOC – II (BCA 2nd Sem.) By: Ms. Sangeeta Sehrawat


 RAM is used to store information that needs to be used quickly. This means that
opening many programs, running various processes or accessing multiple files
simultaneously is likely to use a lot of RAM. Particularly complex programs like
games or design software will require the most RAM.
Features of RAM
1. RAM is volatile in nature, which means, the data is lost when the device is
switched off.
2. RAM is known as the Primary memory of the computer.
3. RAM is known to be expensive since the memory can be accessed directly.
4. RAM is the fastest memory, therefore, it is an internal memory for the computer.
5. The speed of computer depends on RAM, say if the computer has less RAM, it
will take more time to load and the computer slows down.
Types of RAM
RAM is further divided into two types:
 SRAM – Static Random Access Memory
 DRAM- Dynamic Random Access Memory

a) SRAM (Static Random Access Memory): SRAM is used for Cache memory; it
can hold the data as long as the power availability is there. It is refreshed
simultaneously to store the present information.
It is made with CMOS technology. It contains 4 to 6 transistors and it also uses
clocks. It does not require a periodic refresh cycle due to the presence of transistors.
Although SRAM is faster, it requires more power and is more expensive in nature.
Since SRAM requires more power, more heat is lost here as well, another drawback
of SRAM is that it cannot store more bits per chip, for instance, for the same
amount of memory stored in DRAM, SRAM would require one more chip.
The function of SRAM is that it provides a direct interface with the Central
Processing Unit at higher speeds.
Characteristics of SRAM
 SRAM is used as the Cache memory inside the computer.
 SRAM is known to be the fastest among all memories.
 SRAM is costlier.
 SRAM has a lower density (number of memory cells per unit area).
 The power consumption of SRAM is less but when it is operated at higher
frequencies, the power consumption of SRAM is compatible with DRAM.
Advantages of SRAM

LOC – II (BCA 2nd Sem.) By: Ms. Sangeeta Sehrawat


 In terms of performance, SRAM outperforms DRAM. It indicates that it
operates more quickly.
 A speed-sensitive cache is created using SRAM.
 It uses a moderate amount of energy.
Disadvantages of SRAM
 It is more expensive than DRAM.
 Because it is volatile, data will be lost if the memory is turned off.
 SRAM does not provide software updates.
 It has a limited amount of storage space.
b) DRAM (Dynamic Random Access memory): DRAM is used for the Main
memory, it has a different construction than SRAM, it used one transistor and one
capacitor (also known as a conductor), which is needed to get recharged in
milliseconds due to the presence of the capacitor.
Dynamic RAM was the first sold memory integrated circuit. DRAM is the second
most compact technology in production (First is Flash Memory).
DRAM has one transistor and one capacitor in 1 memory bit. Although DRAM is
slower, it can store more bits per chip, for instance, for the same amount of memory
stored in SRAM, DRAM requires one less chip. DRAM requires less power and
hence, less heat is produced.
The function of DRAM is that it is used for programming code by a computer
processor in order to function. It is used in our PCs (Personal Computers).
Characteristics of DRAM
 DRAM is used as the Main Memory inside the computer.
 DRAM is known to be a fast memory but not as fast as SRAM.
 DRAM is cheaper as compared to SRAM.
 DRAM has a higher density (number of memory cells per unit area)
 The power consumption by DRAM is more
Advantages of DRAM
 When compared to SRAM, it is less expensive.
 It has a larger capacity for storing. As a result, it’s employed to make a
system with more RAM space.
 It has a straightforward structure.
 It is not necessary to update the memory contents.
Disadvantages of DRAM
 Cost-effective
 It has a short data retention period
 Requires a slower refresh rate than SRAM
 More energy is consumed

LOC – II (BCA 2nd Sem.) By: Ms. Sangeeta Sehrawat


ROM (READ ONLY MEMORY): Read Only Memory (ROM) is a type of computer
memory that is used to permanently store data that does not need to be modified. ROM
is non-volatile memory, which means that the data stored in it is retained even when the
power is turned off. ROM is typically used to store the computer’s BIOS (Basic Input/
Output System), which contains the instructions for booting the computer, as well as
firmware for other hardware devices.
 Stores crucial information essential to operate the system, like the program
essential to boot the computer.
 Always retains its data.
 Used in embedded systems or where the programming needs no change.
 Used in calculators and peripheral devices.
 It is non-volatile in nature.
 Less costly than the RAM.
 As, only read operation is allowed therefore, no changes can occur.
 It is easy to test the ROM.
 Due to its nature, it is more reliable than RAM.
 Does not require any refreshing.
 ROM is further classified into four types- MROM, PROM, EPROM, and
EEPROM.
Types of Read-Only Memory (ROM):
1) PROM (Programmable Read-Only Memory)
2) EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)
3) EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)
4) MROM (Mask Read Only Memory)

1) PROM (Programmable read-only memory): It can be programmed by the


user. Once programmed, the data and instructions in it cannot be changed.
2) EPROM (Erasable Programmable read-only memory): It can be
reprogrammed. To erase data from it, expose it to ultraviolet light. To reprogram
it, erase all the previous data.
3) EEPROM (Electrically erasable programmable read-only memory): The
data can be erased by applying an electric field, with no need for ultraviolet light.
We can erase only portions of the chip.
4) MROM (Mask ROM): Mask ROM is a kind of read-only memory, that is masked
off at the time of production. Like other types of ROM, mask ROM cannot enable
the user to change the data stored in it. If it can, the process would be difficult or
slow.

LOC – II (BCA 2nd Sem.) By: Ms. Sangeeta Sehrawat


Advantages of Read Only Memory (ROM)
a) Non-volatility: ROM is non-volatile memory, which means that the data
stored in it is retained even when the power is turned off. This makes it ideal
for storing data that does not need to be modified, such as the BIOS or
firmware for other hardware devices.
b) Reliability: Because the data stored in ROM is not easily modified, it is less
prone to corruption or errors than other types of memory.
c) Power Management: ROM consumes less power compared to other types of
memory, which makes it an ideal memory for portable devices.

Disadvantages of Read Only Memory (ROM)


a) Limited Flexibility: ROM is read-only memory, which means that the data
stored in it cannot be modified. This can be a problem for applications or
firmware that need to be updated or modified.
b) Limited Capacity: The capacity of ROM is typically limited, and upgrading
it can be difficult or expensive.

c) Cost: ROM can be relatively expensive compared to other types of memory,


such as hard drives or solid-state drives, which can make upgrading the
memory of a computer or device costlier.
CACHE MEMORY
Data in primary memory can be accessed faster than secondary memory but still, access
times of primary memory are generally in a few microseconds, whereas the CPU is
capable of performing operations in nanoseconds.
Due to the time lag between accessing data and acting on data performance of the system
decreases as the CPU is not utilized properly, it may remain idle for some time. In order
to minimize this time, gap new segment of memory is Introduced known as Cache
Memory. Cache memory is smaller; a large amount of data cannot be stored.
A faster and smaller segment of memory whose access time is as close as registers are
known as Cache memory. In a hierarchy of memory, cache memory has access time lesser
than primary memory. Generally, cache memory is very small and hence is used as a
buffer.
It is based on principle of locality of reference, which refers to the observation that
program tries to access a relatively small portion of their address space at any given time,
and repeatedly tries to access some portion of the memory.
For ex: In fees department of your college, transactions are accessed frequently to check
on the dues.

LOC – II (BCA 2nd Sem.) By: Ms. Sangeeta Sehrawat


Role of Cache Memory
Cache memory plays a crucial role in computer systems.
 It provides faster access.
 It acts buffer between CPU and main memory(RAM).
 Primary role of it is to reduce average time taken to access data, thereby improving
overall system performance.
Benefits of Cache Memory
 Faster access: Faster than main memory. It resides closer to CPU, typically on
same chip or in close proximity. Cache stores subset of data and instruction. Cache
memory is faster, they can be accessed very fast
 Reducing memory latency: Memory access latency refers to time taken for
processes to retrieve data from memory. Caches are designed to exploit principle
of locality.
 Lowering bus traffic: Accessing data from main memory involves transferring it
over system bus. Bus is shared resource and excessive traffic can lead to congestion
and slower data transfers.
By utilizing cache memory, processor can reduce frequency of accessing main
memory resulting in less bus traffic and improves system efficiency.
 Increasing effective CPU utilization: Cache memory allows CPU to operate at a
higher effective speed. CPU can spend more time executing instruction rather than
waiting for memory access.
This leads to better utilization of CPU’s processing capabilities and higher overall
system performance.
 Enhancing system scalability: Cache memory helps improve system scalability
by reducing impact of memory latency on overall system performance.
Cache Performance
 Whenever CPU needs any data it searches for corresponding data in the cache (fast
process) if data is found, it processes the data according to instructions, however,
if data is not found in the cache CPU search for that data in primary memory
(slower process) and loads it into the cache.
 This ensures frequently accessed data are always found in the cache and hence
minimizes the time required to access the data. On searching in the cache if data is
found, a cache hit has occurred.
 On searching in the cache if data is not found, a cache miss has occurred.
 The data or contents of the main memory that are used frequently by CPU are
stored in the cache memory so that the processor can easily access that data in a
shorter time.

LOC – II (BCA 2nd Sem.) By: Ms. Sangeeta Sehrawat


 Whenever the CPU needs to access memory, it first checks the cache memory. If
the data is not found in cache memory, then the CPU moves into the main
memory.
 Performance of cache is measured by the number of cache hits to the number of
searches. This parameter of measuring performance is known as the Hit Ratio.
Hit ratio = (Number of cache hits) / (Number of searches)
Cache memory is placed between the CPU and the main memory. The block diagram
for a cache memory can be represented as:

The cache is the fastest component in the memory hierarchy and approaches the speed
of CPU components.
Cache memory is organized as distinct set of blocks where each set contains a small
fixed number of blocks.
Types of cache memory: Cache memory is fast and expensive. Traditionally, it is
categorized as "levels" that describe its closeness and accessibility to the
microprocessor. There are three general cache levels:
a) L1 cache, or primary cache, is extremely fast but relatively small, and is usually
embedded in the processor chip as CPU cache. It is the first level of cache
memory that is present inside the processor. It is present in a small amount inside
every core of the processor separately. The size of this memory ranges from 2KB
to 64 KB.
b) L2 cache, or secondary cache, is often more capacious than L1. L2 cache may be
embedded on the CPU, or it can be on a separate chip or coprocessor and have a
high-speed alternative system bus connecting the cache and CPU. That way it
doesn't get slowed by traffic on the main system bus.
It is the second level of cache memory that may present inside or outside the CPU.
If not present inside the core, it can be shared between two cores depending upon
the architecture and is connected to a processor with the high-speed bus. The size
of memory ranges from 256 KB to 512 KB.

LOC – II (BCA 2nd Sem.) By: Ms. Sangeeta Sehrawat


c) Level 3 (L3) cache is specialized memory developed to improve the performance
of L1 and L2. L1 or L2 can be significantly faster than L3, though L3 is usually
double the speed of DRAM.
With multicore processors, each core can have dedicated L1 and L2 cache, but
they can share an L3 cache. If an L3 cache references an instruction, it is usually
elevated to a higher level of cache.
It is the third level of cache memory that is present outside the CPU and is shared
by all the cores of the CPU. Some high processors may have this cache. This
cache is used to increase the performance of the L2 and L1 cache. The size of this
memory ranges from 1 MB to 8MB.
In the past, L1, L2 and L3 caches have been created using combined processor and
motherboard components. Recently, the trend has been toward consolidating all three
levels of memory caching on the CPU itself. That's why the primary means for
increasing cache size has begun to shift from the acquisition of a specific
motherboard with different chipsets and bus architectures to buying a CPU with the
right amount of integrated L1, L2 and L3 cache.
FLASH MEMORY
Flash memory is a kind of Erasable Read Only Memory (EEROM) which has the
capability to clear and rewrite data. It is non-volatile meaning it can hold data even
without the presence of power.
EEPROM stands for Electrical Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory. ROM
operation can only one time write and many times read and we can’t erase it. But Flash
Memory can be erased multiple times and update the data or program integrated into it.
So it gives flexibility to the updation of the program but ROM has no such type of feature.
Features of Flash Memory
 Non-volatile: There is no loss of data when there is no electricity supply. Each of
these chips contain array of flash memory cells. Instead of traditional
electrochemical method, flash memory uses semi-conductors for storing data.
 Solid-state: It is SS technology so it is faster than HDD type storage. Flash
memory is one and only type of semiconductor memory making it one of the
important forms of storage medium.
 Fast access times: It supports solid-state technology so it has faster access time.
 Large storage capacity: Flash memory devices can store large amounts of data,
from a few GB (Gigabytes) to several TB(Terabytes).
 Low power consumption: It is not based on header like HDD so no mechanical
components in flash memory so it uses less amount of electricity from read the
data.

LOC – II (BCA 2nd Sem.) By: Ms. Sangeeta Sehrawat


 Flexibility towards Erase and write operations: Flash memory can be erased
electrically multiple times and read multiple times so flexibility towards read/write
operation is more in flash memory.
Limitations of Flash Memory
 Limited lifespan: Writing onto the flash memory by electrical supply may damage
the hardware so it has some limitations to the lifespan of flash memory.
 Slower write speeds: Frequency of writing speed so less than RAM and to write
the data by using an electrical pulse every time may take more time than RAM.
 Limited storage capacity: Flash memory has a high storage density, but lesser
than some other memory devices such as HDDs or tape drives.
 Data corruption: When we are writing to the flash memory by using electrical
pulse and when power supply is cut off accidentally then loss of data will be there.
Benefits of Flash Memory
 Large storage capacity: Flash memory has high memory density so it is able to
store a high volume of data.
 High speed: Some flash memory has parallel architecture of memory cells so it
has faster speed to read and write operation. Non-volatile storage possesses high
transferring speeds. Compared to a standard hard disc drive, non-volatile storage
does read/write function at a quick rate.
 Persistent Data: Without supply of electricity it persists the data like HDDs.
 Low power consumption: Flash memory don’t have mechanical components like
HDD’s so it consumes less amount of power than HDDs.
 Drives: Still tops in terms of performance.
 Durability: Non-volatile storage doesn’t contain any moving parts. It solely
depends on electrochemical processes, having no moving parts means it’s more
durable also.
 Form Factor: Most of the flash memories come in several forms. More or same
capacity are often packed in smaller units, making it require less space to
accommodate data storage.
 Reliability: Over the span of the last 70 years, hard disc drives are continually
improved in terms of reliability. Still, flash memories outrank them. This is often
again due to the very fact that it lacks moving parts. The reliability of flash
memories makes it recommended to be utilized in mobile devices.
 Efficiency: Non-volatile storage requires no physical parts for its operations.
Hence, there’s a very less number of energy required for its functioning. And also
thanks to this fact there’s no noise produced also.
 Portability: Another advantage of flash memories is that it’s highly portable.
Therefore, they’re mostly utilized in devices that are small and lightweight
weighted. Examples like USB memory sticks and camera flash cards.

LOC – II (BCA 2nd Sem.) By: Ms. Sangeeta Sehrawat


 Non-volatile: Flash memory is non-volatile, which means that it can retain data
even when the power is turned off. This makes it a reliable storage option for
electronic devices.
 Fast read/write speeds: Flash memory has fast read/write speeds, which makes it
a good option for storing and retrieving data quickly.
 Portable: Flash memory is small and portable, which makes it well-suited for use
in mobile devices and portable storage devices.
 Durable: Flash memory is durable and can withstand physical shocks and
vibrations, which makes it a good option for use in rugged environments.
Applications of Flash Memory
 Used in SSDs: Flash memory is used in SSDs to increase the speed of read/write
of operations.
 Embedded systems: Flash memory is used in embedded systems. Examples:
digital cameras, camcorders, MP3 players etc.
 Smartphones and tablets: Flash memory is used in smartphones and tablets.
 USB drives: Flash memory is commonly used in USB drives.
Disadvantages of non-volatile storage:
 Cost: Supported the value per gigabyte basis, flash memories are always expensive
than traditional hard disc drives. This is often because hard disc drives are less
costly to manufacture and have been for a very while.
Therefore, usually business of small budgets prefers HDDs over other sorts of flash
memories.
 Effectiveness: Many NAND drives make efficient use of the process of
Program/Erase to storing data., this process eventually wears and tears down the
flash drives. As a result, flash memories don’t have the potential to carry up heavy
write loads.
 Lifetime: Although flash memories are more durable than a standard hard disc
drive, it doesn’t possess an infinite lifetime. It goes on decreasing when applied
high voltages across transistors. However, most flash memories won’t affect until
completing a minimum of 10000 rewrites.
 Capacity: Generally, most or all of the flash memories do have a drag reaching
higher capacity as hard disc drives. Only Solid State Drives which are of flash
memories comes with higher capacities. But that too under rare circumstances.

SSDs also have a drag reaching 1TB in size. Besides this, all the flash memories
with greater capacities tend to urge performance issues. Therefore, capacity is
usually a priority in flash memories.

LOC – II (BCA 2nd Sem.) By: Ms. Sangeeta Sehrawat


 Editing: Works Another drawback of flash memories is that it rewrites data in
block units. If it’s done one by one for every byte, it can take a considerably long
amount of your time. Thanks to this the editing time has been hampering
significantly. However, this process doesn’t make sure that each block is often
edited specifically.
 Physical Damages: Flash memories especially those are by memory cards are
susceptible to damages. They will be easily smashed or lost. Sometimes electronic
corruption can make the cardboard unreadable. Likewise, the difficulty is often
addressed to SSDs too. They will be damaged if handled improperly.
 Limited write cycles: Flash memory has a limited number of write cycles, which
means that it can wear out over time. This can lead to data loss or corruption if the
memory is used for intensive write operations.
 Limited storage capacity: Flash memory has a limited storage capacity compared
to other types of storage devices, such as hard disk drives or solid-state drives.
 Expensive: Flash memory can be more expensive than other types of storage
devices on a per-gigabyte basis.
 Susceptible to data corruption: Flash memory is susceptible to data corruption if
it is exposed to magnetic fields or high temperatures, which can lead to data loss
or corruption.
SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICES

LOC – II (BCA 2nd Sem.) By: Ms. Sangeeta Sehrawat


SEQUENTIAL ACCESS DEVICE
A Sequential Access Device is a type of data storage device
where data is accessed in a sequential order, meaning that to
reach a particular piece of information, you have to pass
through all preceding data.
Sequential access, the device must move through all
information up to the location where it is attempting to read or write. This method is often
contrasted with random access, where the device may move directly to a specified
location in memory.
Magnetic tape is a classic example of a sequential access device, where data is stored
sequentially along the length of the tape, and accessing a specific piece of data requires
the tape to be read or written from the beginning until the desired point is reached.
Other examples of sequential access devices include some types of optical storage media
and certain types of older storage technologies like punched cards and paper tape.
These devices are typically slower for accessing specific pieces of data compared to
random-access devices like hard drives or solid-state drives, but they are often more cost-
effective for storing large volumes of data that need to be accessed sequentially, such as
archives or backups.
A common example of sequential access is with a tape drive, where the device must move
the tape's ribbon forward or backward to reach the desired information.
The opposite would be RAM (random-access memory) going anywhere Also called serial
access, sequential access is a method of retrieving data from a storage device.
MAGNETIC TAPE:
Magnetic tape is a data storage medium that uses a long, narrow strip of plastic film
coated with magnetic material. It's commonly used for long-term storage of large volumes
of data, such as backups, archives, and data storage for mainframe computers.
While it's not as fast as other storage methods like solid-state drives, it's still widely used
due to its relatively low cost and high capacity.
Magnetic tape contains thin plastic ribbon is used for storing data. It is a sequential access
memory. So the data read/write speed is slower. It is mainly used for data backups
In magnetic tape only one side of the ribbon is used for storing data.
It is sequential memory which contains thin plastic ribbon to store data and coated by
magnetic oxide. Data read/write speed is slower because of sequential access.
It is highly reliable which requires magnetic tape drive writing and reading data.

LOC – II (BCA 2nd Sem.) By: Ms. Sangeeta Sehrawat


Features:
1. Longevity: Magnetic tape has been a staple of data storage for decades, with a
proven track record for long-term data preservation.
2. High Capacity: It offers high storage capacities, making it suitable for archiving
large volumes of data economically.
3. Sequential Access: Data access is sequential, meaning accessing specific data
requires passing through preceding data. This makes it ideal for applications with
predominantly sequential data access patterns.
4. Reliability: Magnetic tape is known for its robustness and reliability, able to
withstand environmental factors like temperature and humidity variations.
5. Cost-Effectiveness: It remains cost-effective for storing large amounts of data
compared to other storage solutions like solid-state drives or hard disk drives.
6. Backup and Archiving: Magnetic tape is commonly used for data backup and
long-term archiving, especially in industries where regulatory compliance and data
retention policies are stringent.
7. Continued Relevance: Despite advancements in other storage technologies,
magnetic tape continues to be relevant, particularly for organizations with vast data
storage needs and those prioritizing cost-efficiency and reliability.
8. Ongoing Innovation: While traditional magnetic tape technology persists,
ongoing innovation has led to the development of newer tape formats with higher
capacities and enhanced performance.
Overall, magnetic tape remains a critical component of the data storage landscape,
offering a balance of capacity, reliability, and cost-effectiveness for various use cases.
Application Areas of Magnetic Tapes:
The magnetic tapes are very much suitable for the following applications −
 Serial or sequential processing.
 Backing up data on tape is very cheap.
 It is applicable for the transfer of data between multiple machines.
 It is suitable for the storage of a large volume of data.
Advantages of Magnetic Tapes:
 Cost − Magnetic tape is one of the low-cost storage media. Therefore, backing up
data on tape is very cheap.
 Storage capacity − It is very large.
 Portability − It is easily portable.
 Reusable − It can remove a specific data and save another data at the same place.
Therefore, it can be reused.

LOC – II (BCA 2nd Sem.) By: Ms. Sangeeta Sehrawat


Disadvantages of Magnetic Tapes
 Access Time − Accessing a record requires accessing all the records before the
required record. So access time is very large in magnetic tape.
 Non-flexibility − Magnetic tape is not flexible.
 Transmission Speed − The cost of data transfer is moderate in magnetic tape.
 Vulnerable to damage − Magnetic tapes are highly vulnerable to damage from
dust or careless handling.
 Non-human readable − Data stored on it is not in human-readable form, therefore
manual encoding is not possible at all.
RANDOM / DIRECT ACCESS DEVICE
 A Random Access Device is a type of data storage device where data can be
accessed directly at any location, without the need to read through all preceding
data. This means that data retrieval is not dependent on the sequential order of
storage.
 Random access devices are typically faster for accessing specific pieces of data
compared to sequential access devices, making them more suitable for applications
where quick access to various pieces of information is required, such as in
operating systems, databases, and interactive applications.
 Examples of random access devices include hard disk drives (HDDs), solid-state
drives (SSDs), magnetic/optical discs (like CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray discs), and
certain types of memory such as RAM (Random Access Memory).
 In these devices, data can be read from or written to any location on the storage
medium almost instantly, regardless of the order in which the data was stored.

1. MAGNETIC DISK:
A magnetic Disk is a type of secondary memory that is a flat
disc covered with a magnetic coating to hold information. A
magnetic disk is a storage device that uses a magnetization
process to write, rewrite and access data. Hard disks, zip disks
and floppy disks are common examples of magnetic disks
It is used to store various programs and files. The polarized
information in one direction is represented by 1, and vice
versa. The direction is indicated by 0.
Magnetic disks are less expensive than RAM and can store large amounts of data, but the
data access rate is slower than main memory because of secondary memory. Data can be
modified or can be deleted easily in the magnetic disk memory. It also allows random
access to data.

LOC – II (BCA 2nd Sem.) By: Ms. Sangeeta Sehrawat


A magnetic disk primarily consists of
a rotating magnetic surface (called
platter) and a mechanical arm that
moves over it. Together, they form a
“comb”.
The mechanical arm is used to read
from and write to the disk. The data
on a magnetic disk is read and written
using a magnetization process.
The platter keeps spinning at high
speed while the head of the arm
moves across its surface. Since the
whole device is hermetically sealed, the head floats on a thin film of air.
When a small current is applied to the head, tiny spots on the disk surface are magnetized
and data is stored. Vice-versa, a small current could be applied to those tiny spots on the
platter when the head needs to read the data.
Data is organized on the disk in the form of tracks and sectors, where tracks are the
circular divisions of the disk.
Tracks are further divided into sectors that contain blocks of data. All read and write
operations on the magnetic disk are performed on the sectors. The floating heads require
very precise control to read/write data due to the proximity of the tracks.
 The surface of disk is divided into concentric circles known as tracks. The
outermost track is numbered 0 and the innermost track is the last track.
 Tracks are further divided into sectors.
 A sector is a pie slice that cuts across all tracks. The data on disk is stored in sector.
Sector is the smallest unit that can be read or written on a disk. A disk has eight or
more sectors per track
 Magnetic disk is inserted into a magnetic disk drive for access.
 The drive consists of a read/write head that is attached to a disk arm, which moves
the head. The disk arm can move inward and outward on the disk.
 During reading or writing to disk, the motor of disk drive moves the disk at high
speed (60–150 times/sec.)
The storage capacity of disk drive is measured in gigabytes (GB).
Large disk storage is created by stacking together multiple disks. A set of same tracks on
all disks forms a cylinder r. Each disk has its own read/write head which work in
coordination. A disk can also have tracks and sectors on both sides. Such a disk is called
double-sided disk.

LOC – II (BCA 2nd Sem.) By: Ms. Sangeeta Sehrawat


The features of magnetic disk are:
 Cheap storage device
 Can store a large amount of data
 Easy to carry or transport
 Suitable for frequently read/write data
 Fast access device
 More reliable storage device
 To be prevented from dust, as the read/write head flies over the disk. Any dust
particle in between can corrupt the disk.
Advantages: -
 These are economical memory
 Easy and direct access to data is possible.
 It can store large amounts of data.
 It has a better data transfer rate than magnetic tapes.
 It has less prone to corruption of data as compared to tapes.
Disadvantages: -
 These are less expensive than RAM but more expensive than magnetic tape
memories.
 It needs a clean and dust-free environment to store.
 These are not suitable for sequential access.
Access Time in Magnetic Disk
Access time in magnetic disks refers to the time it takes for the disk to locate and retrieve
the requested data. It consists of several components, including seek time, rotational
latency, and data transfer time.
Seek Time: This is the time it takes for the read/write head to move to the correct track
on the disk where the requested data is located. Seek time is typically measured in
milliseconds (ms) and can vary depending on the speed of the disk and the distance
between the read/write head and the target track.
Rotational Latency: Once the read/write head is positioned over the correct track, the
disk must rotate to the correct sector where the requested data is located. This is called
rotational latency and is also measured in milliseconds.
Data Transfer Time: After the data is located, it must be transferred from the disk to the
computer’s memory. This is known as data transfer time and is dependent on the speed
of the disk and the interface used to transfer the data.
Access Time: The sum of seek time, latency time and time for data transfer is the access
time of the disk.

LOC – II (BCA 2nd Sem.) By: Ms. Sangeeta Sehrawat


2. FLOPPY DISK: A floppy disk or floppy diskette (casually referred to as a floppy or
a diskette) is a type of disk storage composed of a thin and flexible disk of a magnetic
storage medium in a square or nearly square plastic enclosure lined with a fabric that
removes dust particles from the spinning disk.
Floppy disks store digital data which can be read and written when the disk is inserted
into a floppy disk drive (FDD) connected to or inside a computer or other device.
Floppy disks (also known as Floppy) is a kind of magnetic storage medium used by
the computer systems for storing data. It is nothing but a magnetic disk placed inside
a plastic case. The primary function of a floppy disk is to transfer files between
computers.
Floppy disks also known as floppy diskettes, floppy disks or floppy disks, are a type
of storage medium that can read data storage information and are used to store
electronic data.
Unlike CD-ROM, it was 8 inches in diameter when it was initially created, and users
could not write data to it. Although later versions of this disk could hold up to 800KB
of data, it could only hold 80KB at a time. These days, network file transfers and USB
devices have taken the position of floppy disks, however they are no longer in use.
How does a floppy disk store data?
A floppy drive is a magnetic medium that
stores and reads data on the floppy disk
using a read head. When a 3.5" floppy
diskette is inserted into the drive, the metal
slide door is opened to expose the inner
magnetic disk. The read/write head uses a
magnetic polarity of 0 or 1. Reading this as
binary data, the computer can understand what the data is on the platter. For the
computer to write information to the platter, the read/write head aligns the magnetic
polarities, writing 0's and 1's that can be interpreted later by another device.
Usage of Floppy Disk
 Floppy disks were the sole means to install new software and create data backups
on early computers as they lacked USB and CD-ROM (compact disk read-only
memory) drives.
 Installing the program from a single 3.5″ floppy disk was possible if it was small—
less than 1.44 MB. Nonetheless, diskettes were often needed because the majority
of programs were bigger than 1.44 MB.
 Users also frequently stored and backed up their files on floppy disks.
 A word processing file, for instance, may be saved as a backup or transferred to a
floppy disk and used on a different machine.

LOC – II (BCA 2nd Sem.) By: Ms. Sangeeta Sehrawat


Floppy Disk Working
 Data is magnetically stored on the circular platter surface of a floppy disk.
 A read/write head within the drive reads data that has been encoded onto the platter
by moving over it.
 After that, the drive converts these bits into text, images, or music that the
computer’s CPU can understand.
 The magnetic polarity used by the read/write head is either 0 or 1.
 The computer can interpret this as binary data and determine what is on the platter.
 The read/write head aligns the magnetic polarities so that the computer may write
data to the platter—0s and 1s that can be decoded by another device later on.
Types of Floppy Disk
There are the four types of Floppy Disk:
a) 8-inch Drive: The First ever floppy design to be adopted as a read-only format
before being able to read and write which was introduced in the early 1970s was
8-inch Drive. The physical characteristic that permitted the floppy drive series
its name was floppy.
b) Zip Drive: The Zip drive was introduced by Iomega Corporation. Since zip
drives were peripheral, they were primarily able to enhance an already-existing
system. Due to its high cost, this drive was not widely utilized and never really
took off as a storage device.
c) 3.5″ Drive: 3.5″ Drive is another kind of floppy disk. Conversely, a 3.5′′ drive
is typically found in desktop computers and servers and has a bigger diameter
of 3.5 inches.
d) 5.25″ Drive: A 5.25″ is a floppy disk drive that was a common computer
accessory. During the early nineties, computers with capacities ranging from
360 kilobytes to 1.2 gigabytes were also armed with floppy disk drives.

LOC – II (BCA 2nd Sem.) By: Ms. Sangeeta Sehrawat


Advantages of Floppy Disk
 Flexibility and comparably: Floppy drives have several benefits, one of
which is their flexibility and comparably small size. 3.5″ Drive floppy disks
are smaller in size than Compact Disks.
 Cost: Less costly than other storage devices portable and non-volatile which
means that data stored on them won’t be lost when the system is powered down
and compatible with the majority of computers.
 Compose Protection: Floppy disks also include a little score that provides a
feature called Write Protection, even with the plastic wrapping.
 Boot Disk: Floppy disk drives are often situated above the primary hard drives
in the boot order sequence.
Disadvantages of Floppy Disk:
 Capacity: The main disadvantage of this disks is their smaller capacity for
storing data when compared to more modern technologies like CDs, which
have an average capacity of 650–700 MB per disk.
 Dependability: A floppy disk drive and a variable capacity source were absent
from a vast majority of PCs.
 Easily Broke: The floppy disk, which is extremely flexible and fragile, was
made using a plastic shell. If someone handles it carelessly, it might break
easily.
 Data Deletion: If the disk comes into touch with a magnetic field side, then
data may be deleted.

3. HARD DISK:
 A hard disk drive (HDD), hard disk, hard drive, or fixed disk, is an electro-
mechanical data storage device that stores and retrieves digital data using
magnetic storage with one or more rigid rapidly rotating platters coated with
magnetic material.
 HDDs are usually installed inside desktop computers, mobile devices, consumer
electronics and enterprise storage arrays in data centers.
 They can store operating systems, software programs and other files using
magnetic disks.
 Storage devices like hard disks are needed to install operating systems, programs
and additional storage devices, and to save documents.
 Without devices like HDDs that can retain data after they have been turned off,
computer users would not be able to store programs or save files or documents
to their computers. This is why every computer needs at least one storage device
to permanently hold data as long as it is needed.

LOC – II (BCA 2nd Sem.) By: Ms. Sangeeta Sehrawat


 Basically it consists of four components: Platters, Read/Write Heads,
Spindle, Actuator arm.
a) Circular disks coated with a magnetic material where data is stored are called
as Magnetic Platters. Typically, they are made from glass or aluminum and
laid down on a spindle where layers of such disks are kept one after the other.
b) Read/Write Heads arm controls the movement of the read/write heads, that
perform the actual reading and writing on the disc platters.
c) Spindle maintains the platters in place and rotates them as required. The
Revolution Per Minute(RPM) rating controls how fast data can be written to
and read from the hard drive.
d) The actuator, also known as the head actuator, is a tiny motor that controls
the movement of the read/write head and monitors data transfer between the
platters. It is in charge of ensuring that the read/write heads are always in
the proper direction.
 The disk is divided into tracks. Each track is further divided into sectors.
 Outer tracks are bigger than the inner tracks but they contain the same number
of sectors and have equal storage capacity.
 This is because the storage density is high in sectors of the inner tracks whereas
the bits are sparsely arranged in sectors of the outer tracks. Some space in every
sector is used for formatting. So, the actual
capacity of a sector is less than the given
capacity.
 The read-write (R-W) head moves over the
rotating hard disk. It is this Read-Write head
that performs all the read and write operations
on the disk and hence, the position of the R-W
head is a major concern.
 To perform a read or write operation on a
memory location, we need to place the R-W
head over that position.
 There are two types: HDD & SSD
a) HDD (Hard Disk Drive) are traditional mechanical hard drives with
capacity range from gigabytes (GB) to multiple terabytes (TB) in capacity.
b) SSD (Solid State Drive) are storage device that uses integrated circuit
assemblies to store data persistently, typically faster and more reliable than
HDDs.

SSDs have similar capacities but are generally more expensive per unit of
storage.

LOC – II (BCA 2nd Sem.) By: Ms. Sangeeta Sehrawat


Features of HDD:
a) Non-volatile: HDD is a non-volatile memory device, which means that the data
stored on it persists even when the power is turned off. This makes it an ideal
storage medium for long-term data storage.
b) High Capacity: HDDs can store a large amount of data. Modern HDDs can store
terabytes of data, making them an ideal choice for storing large files such as videos,
photos, and audio recordings.
c) Relatively Slow Speed: Compared to primary memory devices such as RAM,
HDDs are relatively slow. The data access time for an HDD is typically measured
in milliseconds, while the access time for RAM is measured in nanoseconds. This
makes HDDs better suited for long-term storage rather than for frequently accessed
data.
d) Mechanical Parts: Unlike solid-state drives (SSDs), HDDs have mechanical parts
that can wear out over time, leading to reduced performance or even failure. HDDs
contain spinning disks and moving read/write heads, which can be susceptible to
damage if the drive is bumped or dropped.
e) Cost-effective: HDDs are generally less expensive than SSDs, making them a
popular choice for budget-conscious users. This is particularly true for larger
capacity drives.
f) Reliable: While HDDs are not as reliable as SSDs due to their mechanical
components, they are still considered to be a reliable storage medium. HDDs are
designed to withstand heavy use and are often used in enterprise-level storage
solutions.

a) Seek time: The time taken by the R-W head to reach the desired track from its
current position.
b) Rotational latency: Time is taken by the sector to come under the R-W head.
c) Data transfer time: Time is taken to transfer the required amount of data. It
depends upon the rotational speed.
d) Controller time: The processing time taken by the controller.
e) Average Access time: Seek time + Average Rotational latency + data transfer time
+ controller time.
Note: Average Rotational latency is mostly 1/2*(Rotational latency)

LOC – II (BCA 2nd Sem.) By: Ms. Sangeeta Sehrawat


(** The following concept is helpful for numerical questions**)
In questions, if the seek time and controller time are not mentioned, take them to be
zero. If the amount of data to be transferred is not given, assume that no data is being
transferred. Otherwise, calculate the time taken to transfer the given amount of data.

The average rotational latency is taken when the current position of the R-W head is
not given. Because the R-W may be already present at the desired position or it might
take a whole rotation to get the desired sector under the R-W head. But, if the current
position of the R-W head is given then the rotational latency must be calculated.

Example:

Consider a hard disk with: 4 surfaces, 64 tracks/surface, 128 sectors/track and 256
bytes/sector. What is the capacity of the hard disk? Also find the data transfer rate
and average access time?
Solution:

Disk capacity = surfaces * tracks/surface * sectors/track * bytes/sector


Disk capacity = 4 * 64 * 128 * 256
Disk capacity = 8 MB
The disk is rotating at 3600 RPM.

60 sec -> 3600 rotations


1 sec -> 60 rotations
Data transfer rate = number of rotations per second * track capacity * number of
surfaces (since 1 R-W head is used for each surface)
Data transfer rate = 60 * 128 * 256 * 4
Data transfer rate = 7.5 MB/sec
The disk is rotating at 3600 RPM, what is the average access time?

Since seek time, controller time and the amount of data to be transferred is not given,
we consider all three terms as 0.

Therefore, Average Access time = Average rotational delay


Rotational latency => 60 sec -> 3600 rotations
1 sec -> 60 rotations
Rotational latency = (1/60) sec = 16.67 msec.
Average Rotational latency = (16.67)/2 = 8.33 msec.
Average Access time = 8.33 msec.

LOC – II (BCA 2nd Sem.) By: Ms. Sangeeta Sehrawat


4. ZIP DISK: A Zip disk was an advanced version
of the floppy disk. The disk needed a special drive
called the Zip drive in order to be used. Zip disks
were available in 100- and 250-MB capacities and
were used to store, share and back up large
amounts of data, which was not possible with
ordinary floppy disks. With the introduction of
new and better storage mediums such as memory
sticks and DVD-RWs, along with higher capacity
hard disks, the Zip disk became less favored and
eventually disappeared from the market.
Zip disks looked similar to floppy disks, but were
slightly larger and thicker, and had stronger plastic casing, making them easier to store
and handle. Like floppy disks, Zip disks were lightweight, portable and relied on
magnetic storage techniques. The magnetic coating used in Zip disks was of higher
quality than that used in floppy disks, and they could store more data than floppy
disks.
Zip disks were PC and Mac compatible. They were usually used as secondary storage
devices. Zip disks had faster data transfer rates and faster seek times than floppy disks.
At the height of their popularity, they were preferred for backing up hard disks and
for transferring large files, especially image files. They were less vulnerable to
damage and were much stronger and more durable.
Zip disks, however, were expensive in comparison to floppy disks and needed a Zip
drive to be used. Zip disks were also vulnerable to click-of-death issues, resulting in
data loss.
OPTICAL DISKS
An optical disc is an electronic data storage
medium that is also referred to as an optical
disk, optical storage, optical media, Optical
disc drive, disc drive, which reads and writes
data by using optical storage techniques and
technology.
An optical disc can store more data and has a
longer lifespan than the preceding generation
of magnetic storage medium.
To read and write to CDs and DVDs,
computers use a CD writer or DVD writer drive, and to read and write to Blu-ray discs,
they require a Blu-ray drive.

LOC – II (BCA 2nd Sem.) By: Ms. Sangeeta Sehrawat


MO drives, such as CD-R and DVD-R drives, are used to read and write information
to discs (magneto-optic). The CDs, Blu-ray, and DVDs are the most common types of
optical media, which are usually used to:
 They are used to transfer data to various devices or computers.
 These media are used to deliver the software to others.
 They help users to hold large amounts of data, like videos, photos, music, and
more.
 Also, optical media are used to get back up from a local machine.
The basic sandwich of materials structure is used by all recent optical disc formats.
The base is formed by using a hard-plastic substrate, and a reflective layer of metallic
foil is used for encoding the digital data. Next, a clear polycarbonate layer secures the
foil and enables the laser beam to move via the reflective foil layer.
Optical discs include different materials in the sandwich, which are dependent on the
type of disc, whether it is rewritable or write-once. In write-once CD-ROM, an organic
dye layer is located between the polycarbonate and unwritten reflective foil. Because
they replace the aluminum foil with an alloy that is a phase-change material, rewritable
optical discs may be erased and rewritten several times.
Advantages of Optical Disks:
a) Cost: The total cost involves when you look at the manufacturing is low Optical disks
since only aluminum foils and plastics are involved within the production. Hence, the
users in many cases are benefited from the worth of buying optical disks in bulk. And
a lot of computers include optical disc Drive from its manufacturer that is respective
in that the users don’t got to purchase them separate.
b) Durability: Optical disks are more durable than both Volatile and memories that are
non-Volatile. It’s not subjected to wear and now any charged power failures may cause
data losses. Therefore, it should last long for many years. Nevertheless, it’s not
completely protected against scratching, heat as well as other sorts of physical
damages.
c) Simplicity: The approach to back up is created much simpler using Optical disks. No
matter what the data that really must be burnt must be placed in the drive icon. Then
in just clicking on” Burn Disk” the users can back up the info
d) Portability: Although Optical disks are fairly large enough, they truly are still
portable. They’ll be placed inside bags along with other small objects in order that it
in many cases are transported to varied places and utilized in different computers and
devices.
e) Stability: Optical disks usually provides a level that is high of. This is because unlike
magnetic disks, it’s not prone to electromagnetic fields and other sorts of
environmental influences.

LOC – II (BCA 2nd Sem.) By: Ms. Sangeeta Sehrawat


f) Versatile: Optical disks are very versatile as it helps computer system act as music
system.
Disadvantages of optical disc:
a) Security: When the Optical disks are employed for backup purposes, it must be kept
safe through the hands of thieves. Thanks to its size, the optical disks are more at
risk of loss and theft.
b) Capacity: Optical disks cost more per GB/TB than the other sorts of storage drives.
And it also to don’t have a lot of or no storage capacity when compared with them.
Unless it’s a Blu-ray disc, the utmost storage the Optical disks offers is 4.7GB.
c) Reliability: Unlike flash drives, Optical disks aren’t protected by any plastic
casings. Therefore, they may be susceptible to scratching which makes the disk
unreadable. The info thereon cannot be recovered anymore,
d) Duplication: Making a replica copy employing an optical disc isn’t easier because
this indicates on a USB flash drive. When it comes to way of burning there should
be a software that is separate hardware. Albeit there are lots of party that is third for
this function, the latest versions of windows consist of a write-up software.
e) User Friendliness: Although it takes very low cost to manufacture Optical disks,
it’s actually not inside the case of backup.

Different Kinds of Optical Drives


Optical drives are disk-based drives that were introduced to the market in the 1980s
to allow for increased storage capacity and faster read and write times. There are
multiple kinds of optical media, which are discussed below:

1) CD (COMPACT DISK): Compact Disk is portable storage devices used for storing
digital data like recording, storing, and playing video, and audio. CD can be explained
as a disc-like memory device made from plastic material.
CDs or Compact Disks are optically readable media. CDs are the replacement of the
phonograph disc. The main material of the CD is plastic. The shape of the plastic is
circular and one side of the circular plastic is coated with the reflecting metal
coating, usually aluminum. Data can be stored much more densely in optic media
than in magnetic media, like Hard disk. Optic media have a much longer life span.
Millions of bits are burned into this coating.
CDs can store many types of data, like audio, video, games, any documents, etc. The
data are scanned by a laser beam with a CD driver to visualize the data. The only
thing that is less in CD is storage capacity is very less compared to HDD or DVD
and the read-write speed is also very less. The storage capacity of a CD is 700 MB
only.
The standard diameter of a CD is 120mm and thickness is 1.2mm. The main body of
the CD is made of hard plastic known as polycarbonate with a reflective metallic layer.

LOC – II (BCA 2nd Sem.) By: Ms. Sangeeta Sehrawat


This layer is coated with metallic acrylic plastic. This metal is aluminum. In this layer,
the data are stored using the laser light which reflects the coated layer for reading and
writing the data.
The data is read in the form of pits, each pit is of 0.83-micrometre and the data is
arranged as spiral track from the disc’s inner hole to its outer edge, because the CD is
of circular shape.
The hole is in the center of the CD, which diameter is 15mm. The area closest to the
hole is known as the clamping area, no data is stored in this area because there is no
metallic layer. This area is nearly equal to 26 mm to 33 mm in radius. The radius of
the usable area, that is where the data can be store is of 38mm.
Types of Compact Disks
There are three types of CDs available:
a) CD-R: CD-R full form is Compact Disc – Recordable. This type of compact disc
can be written only once and cannot erased.
b) CD-ROM: CD-ROM stands for Compact Disk-Read Only Memory. This disks
are read once, after read it is use as a ROM, that is cannot be updated later.
c) CD-RW: CD-RW full form is Compact Disc-Rewritable. This type of compact
disc can be written multiple times and can be erased also, like Pen drive.
Advantages of Compact Disk:
a) Portable: CDs are more compact and lightweight, they are easier to store and
travel.
b) Reliable: In that time, an entire software can be stored on one CD, so its very
reliable for the software industries in the days.
c) Multiple Applications: It is also adaptable. The higher capacity of the compact
disc was exploited for uses other than storing digital audio. CDs became a popular
media for distributing home films, software packages, and other digital content.
d) Random Access: CD provides random data access. Users can use this random
access to choose music tracks, specific files or data, or explore a menu via a user
interface.
e) Rewritable Formats: Another benefit of compact discs is the availability of
rewritable versions such as CD-R and CD-RW.
Disadvantages of Compact Disk:
a) Inferior Capacity: CDs have more storage capacity than their predecessors, but
subsequent storage mediums have more capacity. Storage capacity is lower than a
hard drive or DVD, now a days CD is not used at all.
b) Older Technology: A compact disc’s limitation stems from its older read and
write mechanism technology, which is based on 780nm wavelength.

LOC – II (BCA 2nd Sem.) By: Ms. Sangeeta Sehrawat


c) Inferior Quality: It should be noted that audio-video files with higher audio and
video quality can be stored on DVDs and Blu-ray Discs.
d) Durability Issues: Magnetic tapes are less durable than CDs. However, it is still
fragile because it is easily scratched if not treated carefully. When exposed to
severe heat and humidity, it might deform and become unusable.
e) Obsolete Medium: Another issue of CDs is that they have become obsolete as
better storage methods have become available.
2) DVD DISKS:
DVD stands for Digital versatile disk. DVD is a digital optical disc storage format.
DVDs can also be known as “Digital video discs”. DVD technology allows for the
storage of a large amount of data using digital technology. DVDs can store up to 17
gigabytes, compared to the storage capacity of a compact disc (CD).
DVD stands for Digital Versatile Disc, which is also known as Digital Video Disc. It
is a digital optical disc storage format that is used to store large amounts of data, such
as high-quality videos and movies. It is also where the operating system is kept.
In 1995, four businesses Philips, Sony, Toshiba, and Panasonic devised and developed
it. DVDs have a larger storage capacity than CDs and may be played in a variety of
media, including DVD players.
Blank DVDs are used for backing up computer files and for storing recordable media,
whether it’s within the sort of photos, music or text files. There are several different
DVD formats from which to settle.

Other major formats are DVD+R, DVD-RW and DVD+RW and each has something
different to supply.
DVD-R The “R” in DVD-R stands for “recordable” while formats that end in RW are
“rewritable.” A DVD-R is often wont to record video or audio, but once it’s been
written thereto isn’t possible to erase it or overwrite it. they’re used for archiving files
you would like to keep, transferring files between computers or sending large files to
friends. a typical DVD-R holds up to 4.7GB of knowledge, while a dual-layer DVD-
R will hold 8.5 GB.

Advantages of DVD
 Very large storage capacity.
 Increasing availability.
 It is easily available in every store.
 It is portable.
 High data stability.
 The DVD drive can read CDs.
 DVDs are now mass-produced in order that they are relatively cheap.

LOC – II (BCA 2nd Sem.) By: Ms. Sangeeta Sehrawat


 Sound and movie quality is superb which makes them suitable for sound and
video.
 Price is dropping for both DVDs also as for the DVD drives.
 DVD has the capacity to offer 4k resolution.

Disadvantages of DVD
 DVDs don’t add CD ROM drives.
 It is tough to vary data.
 There is no single standard on DVD.
 When we need to use DVD, it’s built-in copy protection and regional lockout.
 Still a comparatively new technology so still expensive compared to CD-
ROMs and VCR.
 It requires a burning software to record some information thereto.
 DVD uses digital compression. poorly compressed audio or video could also
be like fuzzy, harsh or vague and blocky.
 DVD doesn’t fully support HDTV.
 They can be easily damaged by breaking or by a number of the scratching.
 Some DVD players and drives can’t read CDs.
 View a couple of players can play in reverse at normal speed.
 Variations and options like DVD audio, DVD-VR and DTS audio tracks
aren’t supported by all players.
 Many of the DVD players and drives can’t read DVD-RAM discs.

Primary Storage Vs Secondary Storage

LOC – II (BCA 2nd Sem.) By: Ms. Sangeeta Sehrawat


RAM Vs ROM
PARAMETERS RAM ROM
RAM stands for Random Access ROM stands for Read-Only Memory.
Full Form Memory.
RAM is a volatile memory that could ROM is a non-volatile memory that
Data-Retention store the data as long as the power is could retain the data even when the
supplied. It will exist as long as there power is turned off.
is no interruption in power. Data present in Read-Only Memory
(ROM) is permanent. Data will remain
unchanged even when there is a
disruption in the power supply.

Data in RAM can be modified, Data in ROM can only be read, it


Read/Write erased, or read. Read and write cannot be modified or erased. Only
operations are supported. read operations are supported.

Used to store the data that has to be It is typically used to store firmware or
Use currently processed by CPU microcode, which is used to initialize
temporarily. and control hardware components of
the computer.

The speed of Random Access The speed of Read-only Memory


Speed Memory (RAM) is higher when (ROM) is slower when compared to
compared to ROM. RAM.

CPU can easily access data stored in If the Central Processing Unit (CPU)
CPU RAM. needs to access the data on ROM, first
the data must be transferred to RAM,
Interaction
and then the Central Processing Unit
(CPU) will be able to access the data.

Random Access Memory (RAM) has ROM has a small size with less
Size and a large size with higher capacity capacity compared to RAM.
higher capacity when compared to
Capacity
ROM.

The data stored is easily accessible. The data stored is not as easily
Accessibility accessible as in the concerning RAM.

Random Access Memory (RAM) is ROM is cheaper when compared to


Cost expensive when compared to ROM RAM.

A RAM chip can store only a few A ROM chip can store multiple
Chip Size gigabytes (GB) of data. megabytes (MB) of data.

LOC – II (BCA 2nd Sem.) By: Ms. Sangeeta Sehrawat


SRAM Vs DRAM

PARAMETERS SRAM DRAM


SRAM stands for Static DRAM stands for Dynamic
Full Form Random Access Memory. Random Access Memory.

SRAM stores information with DRAM stores data using


Component/ the help of transistors. capacitors. Uses a capacitor and a
Memory Cell Uses a flip-flop circuit to store transistor to store data
Design data.

Reliability More reliable as data is stored Less reliable as data must be


in an array of transistors constantly refreshed

In SRAM, capacitors are not In DRAM, contents of a


Need to Refresh used which means refresh is not capacitor need to be refreshed
needed. periodically.

Faster than DRAM, with access Slower than SRAM, with access
Access Speed times in the nanosecond range. times in the tens of nanoseconds
SRAM provides faster speed of range. DRAM provides slower
data read/write. speed of data read/write.

Power Higher power consumption as Lower power consumption as


Consumption it needs a constant power refreshing consumes less power
supply

Data Life Maintains stored data as long Data must be constantly


as power is supplied. SRAM refreshed to maintain its state.
has long data life. DRAM has short data life.

Cost More expensive due to its Less expensive due to its


complex design and high simpler design and lower power
power consumption. consumption.

Usage SRAMs are used as cache DRAMs are used as main


memory in computer and other memory in computer systems.
computing devices.

Capacity Lower capacity compared to Higher capacity compared to


DRAM SRAM

LOC – II (BCA 2nd Sem.) By: Ms. Sangeeta Sehrawat


Magnetic Tape Memory Vs Magnetic Disk Memory

PARAMETERS Magnetic Tape Memory Magnetic Disk Memory


Definition Magnetic tape is type of non- On other hand Magnetic Disk is
volatile memory uses thin also type of non-volatile memory
plastic ribbon is used for storing uses circular disk used for storing
data and as data use to be stored data.
on ribbon so data read/write
speed is slower due to which is
mainly used for data backups.
Physical Plastic thin, long, narrow strip Several platters arranged above
coated with magnetic material. each other to form a cylinder,
each platter has a read-write
head.
Cost Concern Cost concern in case of While on other hand in case of
Magnetic tape memory is less Magnetic disk memory the cost
as plastic ribbon is much concern is more as compared to
cheaper as compared to the that of Magnetic tape memory.
circular disk as in case of
magnetic disk memory.

Reliability As plastic ribbon is not much On other hand due to more


reliable and chances of its breakdown prone circular disk
breakdown is more hence Magnetic disk memory becomes
Magnetic tape memory is less more reliable than Magnetic tape
reliable as compared to memory.
Magnetic Disk memory.

Performance Data store and retrieval is On other hand data storage and
much slower in case of retrieval is faster in case of
Magnetic tape memory due to Magnetic disk memory and
which it is less efficient and hence has better performance
has comparatively degrade and more efficient as compared
performance as compared to to Magnetic tape memory.
Magnetic disk memory.

Usage Due to low data transmission On other hand Magnetic disk


rate and less portability memory can be used as
Magnetic tape memory mainly secondary storage.
used for Data backup purposes.

Access Idle for sequential access. Idle for random access. Fast in
Slower in data accessing. data accessing.

LOC – II (BCA 2nd Sem.) By: Ms. Sangeeta Sehrawat


Data loss If the tape is damaged, the data In a case of a head crash, the
is lost. data is lost.

Storage Typically stores from 20 GB to From Several hundred GB to


200 GB. Terabytes.

Expense Magnetic tapes are less Magnetic disk is more


expensive. expensive.

CD Vs DVD
PARAMETERS CD DVD
Full-Form The term CD is an acronym for The term DVD is an acronym
Compact Disk. for Digital Versatile Disk.

Size The size of a typical CD is The size of a given DVD is


about 700 MB. about 4.7 – 17 GB in range.

Recording Recording layer or metal layer Recording layer or metal layer is


Layer is close to top of the disk. close to middle of the disk.

Pits CD have single layer of pits. DVD have double layers of pits.

Space between Space between spiral loops is Space between spiral loops is
loops 1.6 micrometre in CD. 0.74 micrometre in DVD.

Space between Space between pits is 0.834 Space between pits is 0.40
pits micrometre in CD. micrometre in DVD.

Data Transfer Data Transfer Rate is 1.4 to 1.6 Data Transfer Rate is 11
Rate Mb/Sec. Mb/Sec.

Channel Bit Channel Bit Length in CD is Channel Bit Length in CD is 113


Length 300 nanometer. nanometer.

Numeric Numeric Aperture of CD is Numeric Aperture of DVD is


Aperture 0.45. 0.6.

LOC – II (BCA 2nd Sem.) By: Ms. Sangeeta Sehrawat


Floppy Disk Vs Hard Disk

PARAMETERS Floppy Disk Hard Disk


Definition Floppy disk is a type of Hard disk is a type of magnetic
magnetic memory made up of memory made up of non-
plastic and used for permanent magnetic materials and is used
data storage. for data storage in computers.

Made up of Floppy disk is made of flexible Hard disks are made of a metal
plastic material. like aluminium.

Number of Floppy disk always consists of Hard disk can have more than 1
platters/disks a single disk or platter. platter arranged one on the top
of the other to form a disk pack.

Disc Rotation Floppy disks only start rotating Hard disks rotate continuously
when they are required to read until the computer is switched
or write data. off.

Spindle Floppy disk has a spindle hole. Hard disk has a spindle which is
free to rotate and holds the
platters together in a disk pack.

Mechanical Floppy disks are made of As hard disks are made up of


strength plastic, they are can easily metallic material, hence they are
bend. usually rigid.

Storage Floppy disks have low storage Hard disks have high storage
Capacity capacity. capacity.

Data Security Floppy disks provide poor data Hard disks provide improved
security. data security.

Data Floppy disks have slow data Hard disks have faster data
Accessibility accessibility. accessibility.

Reliability Floppy disk is a less reliable Hard disk is more reliable


storage media as compared to storage media.
hard disk.

Speed Floppy disk stores data at low Hard disk stores data at high
speed. speed.

LOC – II (BCA 2nd Sem.) By: Ms. Sangeeta Sehrawat


Sizes Floppy disk comes in three Hard disk comes in two standard
standard sizes, i.e. 8'' FDD, sizes, i.e. 3.5'' HDD and
5.25'' FDD, and 3.5'' FDD. 2.5''HDD.

Cost Floppy disks are cheaper than Hard disks are relatively more
HDD. expensive.

Lifespan Floppy disks are prone to get Hard disks are long lasting
damaged easily. storage devices.

Susceptible to Floppy disks are more Hard disks are less susceptible
viruses susceptible to viruses. to viruses.

Used these days Floppy disks are not used these Hard disk is widely used these
days. days.

Applications Floppy disks were used in old Hard disks are extensively used
computers for permanent data in modern computers as a main
storage. secondary storage device.

Sequential Access Memory Vs Random Access Memory

PARAMETERS Floppy Disk Hard Disk


Access Speed Sequential access files are Random access files, on the other
slower compared to random hand, allow direct access to
access files since accessing a specific records, resulting in
specific record requires reading faster access times.
through all the previous records
in the file.

Access Method Sequential access files allow Random access files allow direct
access to records in a sequential access to specific records using
manner an index, record number, or key.

Record Sequential access files store Random access files do not have
Ordering records in a specific order, any specific order of storing
usually the order in which they records.
were added to the file.

Insertion of Inserting a new record in a Random access files may require


New Record sequential access file is relocating other records to
relatively easy since new maintain the order so insertion
records are added to the end of becomes hard as compared to
the file. sequential access.

LOC – II (BCA 2nd Sem.) By: Ms. Sangeeta Sehrawat


Memory Sequential access files require Random access files require
Requirements less memory than random more memory because of
access files since they do not indexing information
need to store any indexing
information.

Search Search flexibility is limited in Random access files offer higher


Flexibility sequential access file. search flexibility than sequential
access files since they allow for
direct access to specific records
based on various search criteria

Record Sizes In sequential access files, Random access files, record sizes
record sizes are usually uniform can be variable

File Sequential access files are Random access files are typically
Organization typically organized in a linear indexed.
fashion

Examples Text files, Logs Database, Spreadsheet

Cache Memory Vs Main Memory


PARAMETERS Floppy Disk Hard Disk
Definition RAM is a volatile memory that Cache is a smaller and fast
could store the data as long as the memory component in the
power is supplied. computer.

Size The size of RAM is greater.The size of cache memory is


less.
Cost It is expensive but not as It is expensive than RAM.
expensive as Cache.

Data It holds programs and data that It holds frequently used data by
are currently executed by the the CPU.
CPU.

Speed It is not fastest as compared to It is faster.


cache.

Access Speed RAM is faster than a hard disk, Cache memory increase the
floppy disk, compact disk, or just accessing speed of CPU.
any form of secondary storage
media.

LOC – II (BCA 2nd Sem.) By: Ms. Sangeeta Sehrawat


CPU Utilization CPU reads Cache Memory data CPU reads RAM data after
before reading RAM. reading Cache Memory.

Location It can be internal and external It is generally internal.


both.

Types Types of RAM- Types of Cache-


a) Static RAM (SRAM) a) L1 (Level 1) cache or
b) Dynamic RAM (DRAM) Primary cache
b) L2 (Level 2) cache or
Secondary cache
c) L3 (Level 3) cache

Storage RAM is a short-term digital It is located in close proximity


storage used to keep data and to CPU, thus storing copies of
software that is now being used data or instructions from
by the CPU. frequently accessed locations of
main memory in order to
provide high-speed access by
the processor.

LOC – II (BCA 2nd Sem.) By: Ms. Sangeeta Sehrawat

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