1.

Pressure probes
Pressure probes are devices used to measure the pressure of fluids
or gases in various environments. They typically consist of a sensor
that detects pressure changes and converts them into electrical
signals, which can then be interpreted and displayed. These probes
find applications in industries such as aerospace, automotive, oil
and gas, and meteorology, among others. They are crucial for
monitoring and maintaining optimal conditions in various systems
and processes.
2. Prandtl Probes
Prandtl probes, named after the German physicist Ludwig Prandtl,
are specialized instruments used in fluid mechanics to measure
flow velocity. They typically consist of a small tube with multiple
pressure ports along its length. By measuring the pressure
differences between these ports, along with knowledge of the fluid
properties, the velocity profile of the flow can be determined using
principles of Bernoulli’s equation and fluid dynamics. Prandtl
probes are commonly used in wind tunnel testing, aerodynamic
research, and boundary layer studies.
3. Temperature Recovery Factor
The temperature recovery factor is a parameter used in
thermometry, particularly in temperature measurement with fluid
flows. It represents the ratio of the temperature difference between
a solid surface and a flowing fluid to the temperature difference
between the solid surface and the fluid at rest. In simpler terms, it
describes how efficiently a solid surface can recover its temperature
when in contact with a flowing fluid compared to when in contact
with a static fluid. A high temperature recovery factor indicates that
the solid surface is effective at recovering its temperature in a
flowing fluid environment. This factor is important in various
applications such as heat exchangers, thermal conductivity
measurements, and fluid dynamics studies.
4.Pitot Tube
A Pitot tube is a device used to measure fluid flow velocity, typically
in air or water. It consists of a hollow tube with one opening (the
Pitot port) facing directly into the flow and another opening (the
static port) perpendicular to the flow. By measuring the pressure
difference between the Pitot port and the static port, the velocity of
the fluid can be determined using Bernoulli’s principle. In
aerodynamics, Pitot tubes are commonly used to measure airspeed
in aircraft, while in fluid mechanics, they are used in various
applications such as flow rate measurement in pipes, velocity
measurement in wind tunnels, and water speed measurement in
hydrodynamics.
5. Prandtl pitot tube
The Prandtl Pitot tube is a specialized instrument that combines
aspects of both Prandtl probes and Pitot tubes. It is designed to
measure both the static pressure and the total pressure of a flowing
fluid simultaneously. The total pressure is obtained from the Pitot
port, which faces directly into the flow, while the static pressure is
obtained from additional ports located along the side of the tube. By
measuring the pressure difference between the total pressure and
the static pressure, the velocity of the fluid flow can be calculated
using Bernoulli’s principle. Prandtl Pitot tubes are commonly used in
aerodynamic testing, boundary layer studies, and fluid dynamics
research.
6.Super sonic pitot tube
A supersonic pitot tube is a specialized instrument used to measure
the airspeed of an aircraft traveling at supersonic speeds. It
operates on the same principle as a traditional pitot tube, but it’s
designed to handle the unique challenges of high-speed flight, such
as shock waves and temperature variations.

7.Rayleigh supersonic pitot tube formula

8.Shock tube and hot wire anemometer

A shock tube is a device used in fluid dynamics experiments to

generate controlled shock waves. It consists of a long, sealed tube
with a diaphragm separating two sections: a high-pressure driver
section and a low-pressure driven section. Initially, both sections
are at the same pressure.
When the diaphragm is ruptured, typically by a sudden release of
pressurized gas or by a piston driven by compressed air, a shock
wave is generated and propagates down the tube at supersonic
speeds. This shock wave interacts with the fluid or gas in the driven
section, creating a range of flow conditions such as high velocities,
high temperatures, and high pressures.
Shock tubes are valuable tools for studying various phenomena,
including shock wave dynamics, high-speed aerodynamics,
combustion, and blast waves. They are commonly used in research
and development in aerospace engineering, defense, and other
fields where understanding and controlling shock waves is
important.

A hot wire anemometer Is a device used to measure the velocity of a

fluid flow, typically air or gas. It operates based on the principle of
convective heat transfer.
Here's how it works:
1. **Thin Wire:** The hot wire anemometer contains a very thin
wire, often made of tungsten or platinum, which is heated to a
constant temperature using electrical power. This wire acts as
the sensor.
2. **Heat Transfer:** As the fluid flows past the wire, it carries
away heat from the wire through convective heat transfer. The
rate of heat transfer from the wire to the fluid depends on the
velocity of the fluid.
3. **Feedback Control:** The hot wire anemometer has a
feedback control system that adjusts the electrical power to
the wire to maintain its temperature constant.
 4. **Velocity Measurement:** By measuring the electrical power
required to maintain the wire temperature constant, the
velocity of the fluid can be determined. The power required is
directly proportional to the velocity of the fluid.

Hot wire anemometers are widely used in various applications

where accurate and precise measurements of fluid velocity are
required, such as in aerodynamics research, HVAC systems,
environmental monitoring, and industrial processes. They offer
advantages such as high sensitivity, fast response time, and
suitability for both low and high-speed flows.

9.Schleiren Apparatus
A Schlieren apparatus is used to visualize variations in refractive
index in transparent media. It typically involves a light source, a
parabolic mirror, a knife-edge, and an observation screen. When
there are density variations in the medium, they cause changes in
refractive index, which deflect light rays. This deflection is captured
by the apparatus and displayed on the observation screen, allowing
for visualization of otherwise invisible phenomena like shock waves
or heat convection.
10. Shadowgraph apparatus
A shadowgraph apparatus is another optical technique used to
visualize density variations in transparent media. It typically
consists of a light source, an object or medium to be studied, and a
screen or detector. When light passes through the medium, density
variations cause changes in the light’s path, creating regions of light
and shadow on the screen or detector. By analyzing these patterns,
one can infer information about the density variations within the
medium, such as the presence of flows, heat gradients, or shock
waves. Shadowgraphy is commonly used in fluid dynamics and
aerodynamics research.

11. Velocimeter
Velocimeters are instruments used to measure the velocity of an
object or fluid. They come in various types, each tailored to specific
applications:

1. **Laser Doppler Velocimeter (LDV):** Utilizes the Doppler

effect to measure the velocity of particles within a fluid by
analyzing the frequency shift of laser light scattered by the
particles.
2. **Ultrasonic Velocimeter:** Measures velocity by emitting
ultrasonic waves and analyzing their propagation through the
medium. Changes in wave velocity correspond to the velocity
of the medium.
3. **Doppler Velocimeter:** Measures velocity by analyzing the
Doppler shift in electromagnetic waves reflected from moving
particles within the fluid.
4. **Pitot Tube:** Measures fluid velocity by comparing
stagnation pressure and static pressure. Commonly used in
aviation for airspeed measurement.
 5. **Anemometer:** Measures the velocity of air or gases. Types
include cup, vane, hot-wire, and ultrasonic anemometers,
each using different principles for velocity measurement.
6. **Electromagnetic Velocimeter:** Measures fluid velocity by
inducing a voltage in a conductive fluid as it moves through a
magnetic field.
7. **Venturi Meter:** Measures fluid velocity based on Bernoulli’s
equation by comparing the pressure difference between the
inlet and throat of the venturi.
These are just a few examples, and the choice of velocimeter
depends on factors such as the nature of the medium, the required
accuracy, and the specific application.

12. Interferometer
Interferometers are instruments that exploit the wave nature of light
(or other waves) to make precise measurements of various
properties, including distance, wavelength, and optical path length.
The basic principle involves splitting a coherent wavefront into two
or more paths and then recombining them to create interference
patterns. By analyzing these interference patterns, interferometers
can provide valuable information about the waves and the medium
they traverse.

One of the most well-known interferometers is the Michelson

interferometer, developed by Albert A. Michelson in the late 19 th
century. It consists of a beam splitter that divides a single incoming
light beam into two separate paths. Mirrors at the ends of these
paths reflect the light back to the beam splitter, where they
recombine. Depending on the path lengths and other factors, the
recombined beams interfere constructively or destructively,
creating a pattern of light and dark fringes.

Interferometers have numerous applications in science,

engineering, and industry. They are used in fields such as:
Meteology, Spectroscopy, Optical testing, Gravity wave detection

Overall, interferometers play a crucial role in a wide range of

scientific and technological applications, enabling precise
measurements and discoveries across various fields.

13.Subsonic wind tunnels

Subsonic wind tunnels are facilities used to test aerodynamic

properties of objects, such as aircraft, cars, buildings, and other
structures, at speeds below the speed of sound. These wind tunnels
create controlled airflow conditions to simulate real-world
conditions and study the behavior of objects in various airflow
scenarios.
Here's how subsonic wind tunnels generally work:
 1. **Test Section:** The test section is where the model or object
being studied is placed. It’s typically a chamber or open area
where the airflow is controlled and measured.
2. **Fan or Compressor:** Subsonic wind tunnels use large fans
or compressors to generate airflow. These devices create a
stream of air that passes through the test section at controlled
velocities.
3. **Contraction Section:** The airflow from the fan or
compressor is often directed through a contraction section to
increase the speed and decrease the pressure of the airflow.
This ensures that the airflow in the test section is uniform and
stable.
4. **Flow Straighteners:** To minimize turbulence and ensure a
smooth, uniform airflow, flow straighteners may be used to
straighten and smooth the airflow before it reaches the test
section.
5. **Instrumentation:** Various instruments are used to measure
airflow parameters such as velocity, pressure, temperature,
and turbulence. These instruments provide data that
researchers use to analyze the aerodynamic behavior of the
object being tested.
6. **Model Mounting System:** The model or object being tested
is mounted securely in the test section to ensure that it
remains stable during testing. Different mounting systems
allow for different types of testing, such as static or dynamic
measurements.
Subsonic wind tunnels are used in a variety of industries, including
aerospace, automotive, civil engineering, and sports equipment
manufacturing. They help engineers and researchers understand
how airflow affects the performance and behavior of objects,
leading to improvements in design, efficiency, and safety.

14. Supersonic Wind tunnels

Supersonic wind tunnels are facilities used to test aerodynamic

properties of objects, such as aircraft, missiles, spacecraft, and
other high-speed vehicles, at speeds faster than the speed of
sound. These wind tunnels create controlled airflow conditions to
simulate supersonic and hypersonic flight regimes and study the
behavior of objects in these extreme conditions.
Here's how supersonic wind tunnels generally work:

1. **Nozzle:** Supersonic wind tunnels use specially designed

nozzles to accelerate airflow to supersonic speeds. The nozzle
compresses and accelerates the airflow to reach velocities
exceeding the speed of sound.
2. **Test Section:** Similar to subsonic wind tunnels, the test
section is where the model or object being studied is placed.
It’s typically a chamber or open area where the airflow is
controlled and measured.
3. **Driver Section:** The driver section is where the airflow is
initially pressurized or accelerated before entering the nozzle.
This section may use compressors, blowers, or other devices
to generate the necessary airflow.
 4. **Flow Straighteners:** As in subsonic wind tunnels, flow
straighteners may be used to minimize turbulence and ensure
a smooth, uniform airflow before it reaches the test section.
5. **Instrumentation:** Various instruments are used to measure
airflow parameters such as velocity, pressure, temperature,
and turbulence. These instruments provide data that
researchers use to analyze the aerodynamic behavior of the
object being tested.
6. **Model Mounting System:** Similar to subsonic wind tunnels,
the model or object being tested is mounted securely in the
test section to ensure stability during testing. Different
mounting systems allow for different types of testing, such as
static or dynamic measurements.
Supersonic wind tunnels are essential tools in aerospace research,
defense technology development, and space exploration. They help
engineers and researchers understand the complex aerodynamic
phenomena associated with supersonic and hypersonic flight,
leading to advancements in vehicle design, efficiency, and safety.