Glass

Glass is an amorphous solid that has been around in various forms for thousands of years

and has been manufactured for human use since 12,000 BCE. The status of glass as a liquid, versus

a solid, has been hotly debated. The short story is that glass is a supercooled liquid, meaning that

it is rigid and static but does not change molecularly between melting and solidification into a

desired shape. Glass is one the most versatile substances on Earth, used in many applications and

in a wide variety of forms, from plain clear glass to tempered and tinted varieties, and so forth.

Glass occurs naturally when rocks high in silicates melt at high temperatures and cool before they

can form a crystalline structure.Obsidian or volcanic glass is a well known example of naturally

occurring glass, although it can also be formed by a lightning strike on a beach, which contains

silicate-rich sand. Early forms of glass were probably rife with impurities and subject to cracking

and other instability, but examples of glass beads, jars, and eating materials first appeared in

ancient Egyptian culture.

glass, an inorganic solid material that is usually transparent or translucent as well as hard, brittle,

and impervious to the natural elements. Glass has been made into practical and decorative objects

since ancient times, and it is still very important in applications as disparate as building

construction, housewares, and telecommunications. It is made by cooling molten ingredients such

as silica sand with sufficient rapidity to prevent the formation of visible crystals.

When manufactured by humans, glass is a mixture of silica, soda, and lime. Other materials

are sometimes added to the mixture to “frost” or cloud the glass or to add color. The elements

of glass are heated to 1800° Fahrenheit (982° Celsius). The resulting fused liquid can be poured

into molds or blown into various shapes, and when cooled, glass is a strong, minimally conducting
substance that will not interact with materials stored inside. As a result, glass is frequently used in

scientific laboratories to minimize inadvertent chemical reactions and to insulate power lines.

Silica is found in a wide variety of natural sources, including, most commonly,

sand. Sodium carbonate, or soda, is used to lower the fusion point of silica, making glass light and

workable. Soda is called a flux, because it brings the melting point of the mixture down. Lime is

ground from limestone and makes the mixture more viscous, as well as making the glass less

susceptible to the erosive qualities of water and acids.

Glass is a strange substance, defying easy scientific categorization. It is not a solid, not a gas, and

not quite a liquid either. Generally, it is classified as a rigid liquid, maintaining liquid properties

while acting like a solid. Heat can return the glass to a liquid and workable form, making it easy

to reuse and recycle.

Glass is a favored material for a lot of reasons. It resists chemical interactions, it is easy to

recycle, it does not leach chemicals like plastics do, and it can withstand extremes of heat and cold,

although not at the same time. Tempered or safety glass is used in a wide variety of applications,

and virtually all consumers use many forms of glass daily.

TYPE OF GLASS

Glass is an amorphous (non-crystalline) solid material. Glasses are typically brittle and

optically transparent.

1. Fused silica glass, vitreous silica glass: silica (SiO2). Has very low thermal expansion, is

very hard and resists high temperatures (1000–1500 ºC). It is also the most resistant against

weathering (alkali ions leaching out of the glass, while staining it). It is used for high

temperature applications such as furnace tubes, melting crucibles, etc.

2. Soda-lime-silica glass, window glass: silica 72% + sodium oxide (Na2O) 14.2% +

magnesia (MgO) 2.5% + lime (CaO) 10.0% + alumina (Al2O3) 0.6%. Is transparent, easily

formed and most suitable for window glass. It has a high thermal expansion and poor

resistance to heat (500–600 ºC). Used for windows, containers, light bulbs, tableware.

3. Sodium borosilicate glass, Pyrex: silica 81% + boric oxide (B2O3) 12% + soda (Na2O)

4.5% + alumina (Al2O3) 2.0%. Stands heat expansion much better than window glass.

Used for chemical glassware, cooking glass, car head lamps, etc. Borosilicate

glasses (e.g. Pyrex) have as main constituents silica and boron oxide. They have fairly low

coefficients of thermal expansion (7740 Pyrex CTE is 3.25×10 –6/°C[6] as compared to

about 9×10−6/°C for a typical soda-lime glass[7]), making them more dimensionally stable.

The lower CTE also makes them less subject to stress caused by thermal expansion, thus

less vulnerable to cracking from thermal shock. They are commonly used for reagent

bottles, optical components and household cookware.

4. Lead-oxide glass, crystal glass: silica 59% + soda (Na2O) 2.0% + lead oxide (PbO) 25%

+ potassium oxide (K2O) 12% + alumina 0.4% + zinc oxide (ZnO) 1.5%. Has a high

refractive index, making the look of glassware more brilliant (crystal glass). It also has a

high elasticity, making glassware 'ring'. It is also more workable in the factory, but cannot

stand heating very well.

5. Aluminosilicate glass: silica 57% + alumina 16% + boric oxide (B2O3) 4.0% + barium

oxide (BaO) 6.0% + magnesia 7.0% + lime 10%. Extensively used for fiberglass, used for

making glass-reinforced plastics (boats, fishing rods, etc.). Also for halogen bulb glass.
Oxide glass: alumina 90% + germanium oxide (GeO2) 10%. Extremely clear glass, used for

fiber-optic wave guides in communication networks. Light loses only 5% of its intensity

through 1km of glass fiber.[

Network forming oxides – SiO2 , B2O3 , P2O5 , GeO2

– Non-oxide components: fluorides, halides, chalcogenides (As2S3 , GeS2 )

• Network modifying oxides – Na2O, K2O, Li2O – CaO, BaO, MgO, SrO • Intermediate

oxides – Al2O3 , PbO, ZnO, ZrO2

• Fining agents/redox active components – Sulphates: Na2SO4 , CaSO4 – Oxides: As2O3 ,

Sb2O3 , CeO2 – Chlorides: NaCl - Nitrates: KNO3 , NaNO3 - Carbon

• Fluxing agents – CaF2 , Spodumene (lithium raw material), blast furnace slags/calumite

• Colouring agents – Fe2O3 , Cr2O3 , CoO, Mn2O3 , Se, Fe3+/S2- , rare earth oxides, sulfides,

selenides

• Cullet (recycled glass, own or external cullet )

How to Manufacture Glass: Glass Manufacturing Process

The procedure adopted in the manufacture of glass may broadly be divided into the following

five stages:

(1) Collection of Raw Materials (2) Preparation of Batch (3) Melting in Furnace (4)

Fabrication (5) Annealing.

Glass Manufacturing Process # 1. Collection of Raw Materials:

Depending upon the type of glass to be manufactured, suitable raw materials are collected.

Table 14-1 shows the raw materials required for each type of glass.

In addition to the raw materials, the cullet and decolourisers are also added for each type of

glass.

The cullet indicates waste glass or pieces of broken glass. They increase the fusibility of glass

and prevent loss of alkali by volatisation during the reaction in forming new glass. They also

reduce the cost.

The raw materials generally contain traces of the iron compounds. The ferrous oxide imparts

a green colour to glass and ferric oxide imparts a very light yellow tint. To avoid such effects,

the decolourisers are added. The usual substances used as decolourisers are antimony oxide

(Sb2O3), arsenic oxide (AS 2O3 ), cobalt oxide (CoO), manganese dioxide (MnO 2) and nickel

oxide (NiO).
Glass Manufacturing Process # 2. Preparation of Batch:

The raw materials, cullet and decolouriser are finely powdered in grinding machines. These

materials are accurately weighed in correct proportions before they are mixed together. The

mixing of these materials is carried out in mixing machines until a uniform mixture is

obtained. Such a uniform mixture is known as the batch or frit and it is taken for further

process of melting in a furnace.

Glass Manufacturing Process # 3. Melting in Furnace:

The batch is melted either in a pot furnace or in a tank furnace. The heating is continued unti l

the evolution of carbon dioxide, oxygen, sulphur dioxide and other gases stops.

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(i) Pot Furnace:

In this furnace, the pots are adopted as units. A typical glass melting pot is shown in fig. 14 -

1.

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Pot furnaces are used mainly in the manufacture of optical glass, art glass, and plate glass and

in small scale units. The pots are crucibles made of selected clay, high alumina fire clay as

mullite (3Al2O3.2SiO2), or platinum

A pot is a vessel made of fire-clay. This process resembles the crucible steel process. These

pots are placed in specially prepared holes in the furnace. The charging and collecting doors

are kept projecting outside so that raw materials may be added and molten glass may be taken

out conveniently.

The pots are filled with raw materials. The furnace is heated by means of producer gas. When

the mass has melted down, it is removed from the pot and it is taken for the next operation of

fabrication. The melting of glass by pot furnace is an intermittent process. It is used to melt

small quantities of glass at a time or to prepare special types of glass.

(ii) Tank Furnace:

This furnace resembles the reverberatory furnace adopted for puddling of the wrought -iron.

Fig. 14-2 shows the section of a tank furnace adopted for the melting of glass. It is constructed
with reinforced masonry. The roof is given special shape to deflect the flames of heated gas.

In a tank furnace, both materials are charged into one end of a large 'tank' built of refracto ry

blocks. The tank has a capacity of 1400 tons. The glass forms a pool in the heart of the furnace

across which the flames play alternately from one side to the other.

Heating is done by burning producer gas mixed with air over the charge. The cullet (br oken

glass) melts first and helps in the fusion of the rest of the charge. A high temperature of 1500-

1800 C is maintained to reduce the viscosity of glass melt and to obtain a homogenous liquid.

The ports are provided for the entry of preheated producer gas. The doors are provided for

charging and for taking out the molten glass. A bridge separates the tank into two unequal

compartments.

The batch is heated in large compartment and it contains somewhat impure glass. It flows

through opening of bridge into small compartment. The gall or floating impurities are
collected at the top of large compartment. The refractory lining is provided to the interior

surface of tank.

The tank is filled with raw materials. The furnace is heated by allowing producer gas thr ough

ports. The charging of raw materials and taking out of molten mass are simultaneous. This is

a continuous process and it is adopted to melt large quantities of glass at a time.

Glass Manufacturing Process # 4. Fabrication: (a) Shaping

The molten glass is given suitable shape or form in this stage. It can either be done by hand

or by machine. The hand fabrication is adopted for small scale production and machine

fabrication is adopted for large scale production.

Following are the different ways of fabrication:

(i) Blowing

(ii) Casting

(iii) Drawing

(iv) Pressing
(v) Rolling

(vi) Spinning.

(i) Blowing:

For this purpose, a blow-pipe is used. Its diameter is about 12 mm and its length is about 1.80

m. One end of the blow-pipe is dipped in the molten mass of glass and a lump of about 50 N

weight is taken out. This lump of glass will then lengthen to some extent by its own weight.

The operator then blows vigorously from other end of blow pipe. It can also be done with the

help of an air compressor. This blowing causes the molten mass to assume the shape of a

cylinder. It is then heated for few seconds and is blown again.

The blowing and heating are continued till the cylinder of required size is formed. It is then

placed on an iron plate and it is disconnected from blow pipe. The cylinder is then cut

vertically by a diamond. It falls into a thin plate by gravity.

(ii) Casting:

The molten glass is poured in moulds and it is allowed to cool down slowly. The large pieces

of glass of simple design can be prepared by this method. It is also adopted to prepare mirrors,

lenses, etc.

(iii) Drawing:

This process consists in simply pulling the molten glass either by hand or by mechanical

equipment. An iron bar is dipped sideways in the molten mass of glass. It is lifted up
horizontally and in doing so, it catches up a sheet of molten glass. This sheet is then allowed

to pass over a large rotating roller. The roller helps the molten glass to spread in the form of

a thin sheet.

(iv) Pressing:

In this process, the molten glass is pressed into moulds. The pressure may either be applied

by hand or by mechanical means. This process is adopted for ornamental articles, hollow glass

articles etc.

(v) Rolling:

There are two methods of rolling. In one method, the molten mass of glass is passed between

heavy iron rollers and flat glass plate of uniform thickness is obtained. In another method, the

molten mass of glass is poured on a flat iron casting table and it is then turned flat with the

aid of a heavy iron roller.

(vi) Spinning:

In this process, the molten glass is spun at high speed by a machine to form very fine glass

fibres. This glass has tensile strength equal to that of mild steel. It does not fade, decay or

shrink. It is not attacked by acids, fire and vermins. It is very soft and flexible. It is used for

providing insulation against heat, electricity and sound.

Glass Manufacturing Process # 5. Annealing:

The glass articles, after being manufactured, are to be cooled down slowly and gradually. This

process of slow and homogeneous cooling of glass articles is known as the annealing of glass.
The annealing of glass is a very important process. If glass articles are allowed to cool down

rapidly, the superficial layer of glass cools down first as glass is a bad conductor of heat. The

interior portion remains comparatively hot and it is therefore in a state of strain. Hence, such

glass articles break to pieces under very slight shocks or disturbances.

Following are the two methods of annealing:

(i) Flue treatment

(ii) Oven treatment.

(i) Flue Treatment:

In this method, a long flue is provided and it is constructed in such a way that there is gradual

decrease in temperature from one end of flue to the other. The red-hot articles of glass are

allowed to enter at the hot end of flue and they are slowly moved on travelling bands. They

become cool when they reach the cool end of flue. This method is useful for large scale

production.

(ii) Oven Treatment:

In this method, the red-hot glass articles are placed in ovens in which arrangement is made to

control the temperature. After articles are placed in the ovens, the temperature is slowly

brought down. This method is useful for small scale production.

Home››Engineering››Glass

6.
 7. Safety glass

Safety glass is glass with additional safety features that make it less likely to break, or less

likely to pose a threat when broken. Common designs include toughened glass (also known as

tempered glass), laminated glass, and wire mesh glass (also known as wired glass)

Toughened glass is processed by controlled thermal or chemical treatments to increase its

strength compared with normal glass. Tempering creates balanced internal stresses which cause

the glass, when broken, to crumble into small granular chunks instead of splintering into jagged

shards. The granular chunks are less likely to cause injury. As a result of its safety and strength,

tempered glass is used in a variety of demanding applications, including passenger

vehicle windows, shower doors, architectural glass doors and tables, refrigerator trays, as a

component of bulletproof glass, for diving, and various types of plates and cookware

Toughened glass is made from annealed glass via a thermal tempering process. The glass

is placed onto a roller table, taking it through a furnace that heats it above its annealing point of

about 720 °C. The glass is then rapidly cooled with forced air drafts while the inner portion remains

free to flow for a short time.

An alternative chemical process involves forcing a surface layer of glass at least 0.1mm thick into

compression by ion exchange of the sodium ions in the glass surface with the 30% larger

potassium ions, by immersion of the glass into a bath of molten potassium nitrate. Chemical

toughening results in increased toughness compared with thermal toughening, and can be applied

to glass objects of complex shape.

 Laminated glass holds together when shattered because, in the event of breaking, it is held

in place by an interlayer, typically of polyvinyl butyral (PVB), between its two or more layers of

glass. The interlayer keeps the layers of glass bonded even when broken, and its high strength

prevents the glass from breaking up into large sharp pieces. This produces a characteristic "spider

web" cracking pattern when the impact is not enough to completely pierce the glass.

Laminated glass is normally used when there is a possibility of human impact or where the glass

could fall if shattered. Skylight glazing and automobile windshields typically use laminated glass.

In geographical areas requiring hurricane-resistant construction, laminated glass is often used in

exterior storefronts, curtain walls and windows. The PVB interlayer also gives the glass a much

higher sound insulation rating, due to the damping effect, and also blocks 99% of incoming UV

radiation.

Wire mesh glass is glass that has a thin wire, usually made of metal, running through the glass.

Wired glass, as it is typically described, does not perform the function most individuals associate

it with. The presence of the wire mesh appears to be a strengthening component, as it is metallic,

and conjures up the idea of rebar in reinforced concrete or other such examples. Despite this belief,

wired glass is actually weaker than unwired glass due to the incursions of the wire into the

crystalline structure of the glass. Wired glass often also causes heightened injury in comparison to

unwired glass, as the wire amplifies the irregularity of the fractures. This has led to a decline in its

use institutionally, particularly in schools. [2] Wired glass instead is utilized for its fire-resistant

abilities, and is well-rated to both withstand heat and a hose stream. This is why wired glass is

exclusively used on service elevators to prevent fire ingress to the shaft and why it is also

commonly found in institutional settings which are often well-protected and partitioned against

fire.[3] The wire prevents the glass from falling out of the frame even if it cracks under heat stress,
but is far more heat-resistant than a laminating material. These three approaches can easily be

combined, allowing for the creation of glass that is at the same time toughened, laminated, and

contains a wire mesh. However, combination of a wire mesh with other techniques is unusual, as

it typically betrays their individual qualities.