Journal of Positive School Psychology http://journalppw.

com
2023, Vol. 7, No. 5, 430-447

Antecedents Of Student’s Motivation For Learning

Mathematics And Its Effect On Their Proficiency In
Mathematics
*Gohar I Nayab1 , *Martin Thomas, PhD.2 , M. Shahnawaz Adil, PhD.3

1
PhD Research Scholar Department of Education IQRA University, Karachi, Pakistan,
[email protected], ORICID: 0000-0002-1010-9056
2
Associate Professor Department of Education Forman Christian College (A Chartered University), Lahore,
Pakistan. [email protected]
3
Associate Professor Department of Business Administration IQRA University, Karachi, Pakistan
[email protected] ORICID: 0000-0002-5295-7643

Corresponding Authors
*Gohar I Nayab
PhD Research Scholar Department of Education IQRA University, Karachi, Pakistan
[email protected] ORICID: 0000-0002-1010-9056
*Martin Thomas, PhD.
Associate Professor Department of Education Forman Christian College (A Chartered University), Lahore,
Pakistan. [email protected]

Abstract
Student achievement is predicted by school climate, parental involvement, positive attitude, and
motivation. However, most studies have looked at these factors separately and very few have looked at
how Mathematics achievement and motivation interact as determinants of student mathematical
proficiency. Studies have indicated a correlation between students' attitudes towards mathematics and
their level of motivation (Wang, Zhang & Cai,2021). This study seeks to close this disparity by
examining internal elements (school climate, parental involvement, positive attitude) influencing
mathematical proficiency through motivation at lower secondary school levels for both the public and
private sectors. We gathered data from 303 male and 251 female students of grades 6 to 9 from public
and private schools using an online self-administered Google form. We used 554 valid sample cases
out of 602 for hypothesis testing through SmartPLS. The findings from the data analysis indicate that
school climate, positive attitude towards mathematics, and parental involvement exert substantial
influences on student motivation. Moreover, student motivation is found to be a significant predictor of
student mathematical proficiency. Additionally, the research findings state that parental involvement is
moderately correlated with (1) students' attitudes toward mathematics (2) mathematical proficiency test
scores and (3) mathematical performance assessment scores. We thus recommend that mathematics
teachers as well as school management create a school climate that is conducive to enhancing students’
mathematical proficiency. This is possible by making mathematics teaching a joint venture; where
teachers motivate students to study mathematics and develop among them a positive attitude towards
mathematics and school management involve parents, teachers and students to make informed decisions
concerning students’ proficiency during mathematics classes.

Keywords Mathematics Proficiency. School Climate. Motivation. Positive Attitude. Parental

Involvement.
Gohar I Nayab 431

1 Introduction students’ low performance in mathematics due

Mathematics accomplishment holds significant to different predictors. In a Nigerian context,
value as an indicator of academic triumph research conducted by Adeneye and Awofala
among lower secondary and secondary (2021) revealed that students' mathematics
students due to various reasons, including performance falls below societal expectations.
college or university admissions. While Consequently, many students face difficulties
numerous factors impact students' mathematics in gaining admission to universities, as
achievement, school climate, parental mathematics proficiency is utilized as a crucial
involvement, positive attitude and motivation criterion for university admissions in Nigeria.
have been a matter of discussion in this study. (Awofala & Lawani, 2020). The poor
mathematical performance may be due to
According to a survey conducted by ASER teaching of procedure and algorithms in
(2021) in 25 rural districts of Sindh (660 public isolation effecting basic knowledge and
and 114 private schools), only 28 percent of conceptual understanding of students in
grade 5 students could do 2-digit division as schools (Awofala, 2017). The researchers
compared to 31 percent in 2019, whereas 7 recommended that mathematical proficiency
percent children enrolled in grade 3 could do 2- should be a primary goal of effective
digit division as compared to 8 percent in 2019. mathematics teaching and learning in schools.
This is a clear indication that the mathematical Our study also deals with predictors like school
performance of students is drastically climate and positive attitude towards
decrementing each subsequent year. The mathematics which effect on student’s
National Assessment Test (NAT) conducted by motivation to perform in mathematics classes.
the National Education Assessment System;
Government of Pakistan (NEAS, 2014) In the Brazilian context, a study conducted by
assessed the achievement for students in Gomes, Fleith, Marinho, and Rabelo (2021)
mathematics. The mean score achieved by the revealed that secondary-level students
students enrolled in grade 8 was 46.1 percent exhibited subpar mathematics performance in
which indicates the need for hard work to national examinations such as the National
enhance student’s learning. Out of four Exam for Secondary Education (ENEM), the
provinces, only Punjab showed an average Basic Education Assessment System (SAEB),
score of 53.2 percent (Ailaan, 2017). In Sindh, and the Programme for International Student
the province’s Standardized Achievement Test Assessment (PISA). The researchers examined
(SAT) results for 2016 showed that the average the predictive factors for mathematics
mathematics scores for grade 8 were 24 achievement in secondary education,
percent. The overall subject score in emphasizing the influence of school and
mathematics was reported to be 22 percent for family. In this present study, we focused on
all five content strands including numbers, parental involvement as a predictor of students'
algebra, measurement, geometry and mathematical proficiency through motivation.
information handling (SAT, 2016).
During their study in the Greek context, Hiller,
Schooling is an intricate concept which goes Cheema, and Poulou (2021) identified
beyond transmission of knowledge, skills and "mathematics anxiety" and "self-efficacy" as
attitude (Sandra, John & Gavin, 2013). factors that predict mathematics literacy. The
Researchers attempted to identify the study's findings revealed a noteworthy
relationship of affective factors within schools correlation between mathematics anxiety,
that promote academic achievement mathematics self-efficacy, and mathematics
enhancement (Ainley, 1999; Anderson & performance. In contrast, our study focuses on
Bourke, 2000). Recent studies have reported investigating motivation, which stands in
432 Journal of Positive School Psychology

opposition to mathematics anxiety, as a student’s proficiency. This raises the question

predictor of mathematics achievement. of why students demonstrate low performance
and what factors contribute to their
It is necessary to contemplate the reasons mathematics achievement. This study
behind the underperformance of students at the addresses this inquiry by identifying the factors
lower secondary level in both public and that influence the mathematical proficiency of
private sectors in Pakistan when it comes to lower secondary students in Karachi, Pakistan.
Mathematics. This study explores the factors This study therefore aimed to:
contributing to students' inadequate
mathematical proficiency. There are various • Analyze the impact of overall school
challenges that can impact students' climate on student motivation towards
performance in mathematics, with the most mathematical proficiency.
noteworthy factor being the students' • Examine the effect of positive attitude
unfavourable attitude towards the subject on student motivation towards
(Simegn & Asfaw, 2017). Attitude towards mathematical proficiency.
mathematics plays an important role in • Examine the impact of parental
understanding mathematics. It determines the involvement on student motivation
learner's achievement. Students with a positive towards mathematical proficiency.
attitude towards mathematics, score higher than
the students who have a negative attitude • Analyze the effect of student
towards the subject. Contrary to this a study motivation on mathematical
conducted by Bekele (2015) holds that higher proficiency.
achievement can predict a positive attitude of a
student towards mathematics but it cannot do 2 Review of Existing Literature and
vice-versa Bekele justifies his statement by Hypotheses
saying that there are students having a positive
2.1 Theoretical Framework
attitude for mathematics but their performance
is very poor. But most of the research done The current research was guided by the self-
worldwide shows that mathematics determination theory (SDT) introduced by
achievement and students’ positive attitude Ryan and Deci. This theory holds that
strongly correlate with each other. motivation (either extrinsic or intrinsic) is
affected by external and internal factors.
In Pakistan where the literacy rate is low, pupil
According to the theory, individuals can attain
teacher ratio is uneven, subject expert teachers
a state of self-determination when their needs
are scarce and parents are uneducated, it is
for competence, connection, and autonomy are
difficult for students who lack mathematics
met. The underlying premise of the theory is
competency to get help from parents and
that the desire for personal growth propels one's
teachers for the improvement of the grey areas
actions. As a result, people are driven by both
in the relevant subject. Even though, students
external rewards and internal sources of
are taught by the same teacher, in the same
motivation, as explained by Bhavsar (2020). In
learning environment, yet are unable to do
order to study the impact of students'
simple calculations. The lead researcher
motivation on their mathematics proficiency, it
throughout his teaching career encountered a
was necessary to identify which of the external
lot of students (male and female) who
and internal factors motivates a student to
developed a fear of mathematics because they
achieve a good score in mathematics, in other
simply could not get help when they needed it
words help them become mathematically
most. Anxiety, motivation, self-efficacy,
proficient in the subject. Therefore, a
parental involvement and so on, effect a
Gohar I Nayab 433

conceptual framework was developed (Refer to Wigfield et al., 2006.) Thus the following
Figure 1.1) that included school climate and hypothesis was formulated:
parental involvement as external factors and
student's positive attitude as internal factor that H1: School climate has a significant effect on
affect student motivation which ultimately student motivation
increases students’ mathematical proficiency. 2.3 Positive Attitude and Student
Motivation
2.2 School Climate and Student
Students' attitudes toward learning strongly
Motivation
impact their motivation to learn, achieving
goals, and attaining satisfaction. Motivated
The definition of school climate frequently
learners take proactive measures to initiate
varies across different studies. (Grazia &
learning in order to accomplish their goals, and
Molinari, 2021; Nilsen & Teig, 2022). In a
they derive satisfaction from and persevere in
recent study conducted by Nilsen, Kaarstien,
the learning processes (Chen, M. et al., 2022).
and Lehre (2022), a positive school climate is
Simegn and Asfaw (2017) define attitude as an
characterized by four key elements: a secure
effective response to a behaviour that is
and safe environment, a strong connection with
initiated by motivation. They hold that attitude
the community, a conducive academic
towards learning of any subject is directly
environment, and a well-functioning
linked with motivation because it provides
institutional environment.
information to a better understanding of the
Given that school climate encompasses various attitudinal and motivational process of a learner
dimensions, including observable school (p. 58). McLeod (1992) on the other hand
characteristics, organizational structure, and defined the term attitude as positive or negative
the attitudes, beliefs, and values within a school feelings of moderate intensity and reasonable
(Dorio, Bradshaw & Demaray, 2019), it is stability (p.581). Generally, attitude refers to an
advisable for researchers to concentrate on individual’s belief and feeling about
specific aspects or a subset of these mathematics. Attitude towards mathematics
dimensions. (Wang & Degol, 2016). has been defined as a positive or negative
feeling for mathematics. (Zan & Martino, 2007,
An ‘inviting climate’ is essential for p.158). According to Nicolaidou and Philippou
challenging and enjoyable learning. (Bourke (2003), positive attitude towards mathematics
1993; Hattie 2009b; Leonard et al., 2002). and the achievement are strongly correlated.
Programme for International Student Students learn better when they take interest in
Assessment (PISA) reports that the classroom the subject.
environment plays a significant role in a
student’s school life (Schleicher 2002). Attitudes (positive or negative) can be learned
through observations or acquisition of
For an effective school climate, the quality of knowledge, competencies and proficiencies.
the teacher-student relationship is a matter of (Yilmaz, Altun, & Olkun, 2010, p.4).
great concern. Teachers who are respectful to According to Zan & Martino (2007), the
their students, take care of their learning, construct (attitude) comes from social
provide socio-emotional and intellectual psychology, and foresees a student’s choice.
support, keep the students engaged and have a Emotions and beliefs deeply interact with
positive approach towards academic tasks are attitude and are explicitly recognized in the
able to gain student’s trust and develop an construct. To learn mathematics, a student must
optimistic self-perception among students develop a positive attitude towards the subject
related to achievement (Deci & Ryan 2002; because it determines the likeness or dis-
434 Journal of Positive School Psychology

likeness and therefore plays a vital role. Having parents have lower levels of involvement
a positive or negative attitude toward (Boonk, et al., 2022). The impact of parental
mathematics depends on how a student involvement on students' academic
perceives the subject. Students may develop a achievement has been a subject of interest
positive disposition towards mathematics by among social educational researchers for a
showing likeness toward it; whereas a negative considerable period of time (Fan and Chen,
disposition is shown by a student’s dis-likeness 2001, p.2). Parental involvement includes
towards it. monitoring students work at home, helping
them solve problem questions, inquiring about
An individual’s attitude (positive or negative) test results, encouraging the children to score
is measurable through attitudinal scales (e.g., well, discussing progress with the teacher,
Likert or Thurstone) in which a score is discussing their child’s future as a commerce or
attached to items leading to a positive or science students, guiding them to select a
negative evaluation. Attitude towards a subject program or course offered at school and
is shown by emotion (e.g., I like mathematics), volunteering in programs organized by schools
belief (e.g., mathematics is useful) and (Benner, Boyle, & Sadler, 2016). Students who
behavior (e.g., I always do my mathematics receive parental encouragement and actively
homework). A positive or negative response engage in their education display increased
depends on the perception of attitude as interest in academic work, as well as
emotion, belief, or behavior. When an attitude demonstrate more positive attitudes and higher
is referred to as emotion, a positive attitude is aspirations (Epstein, 1992) because parental
perceived as pleasure which minimizes involvement impacts a students’ academic
mathematical anxiety in students. A student's achievement and therefore is an essential
accomplishment (proficiency) is a reflection of ingredient for a better education.
their positive attitude towards a subject. Within
an educational context, a favorable attitude Experience with peers and family play a
towards a subject is commonly associated with constructive role in cognitive development of a
achieving high scores or demonstrating child. A child relates the real world with their
proficiency in that particular subject surroundings. When children actively
(Middleton & Spanias, 1999). participate in interactions with others and their
surroundings, they integrate new information
H2: Positive attitude has a significant effect on and adjust their understanding by correcting
student motivation any inaccurate perceptions of the world (Prior
2.4 Parental Involvement and Student & Gerard, 2007). Optimal learning for children
Motivation occurs through active engagement with their
parents. Parental involvement plays a crucial
Recent Studies (e.g., Cai, 2003; Kirk et al., role in a student's development and academic
2011; Lay et al., 2015; Levpušček & Zupančič, achievement. Additionally, various social and
2009; Phillipson & Phillipson, 2012) have cultural factors exert influence on a student's
shown that parental involvement has an effect learning process. (Vygotsky, 1978, as cited by
on mathematics achievement, mathematics Tekin, 2011, p.6). People gain knowledge
learning, motivational beliefs about through interaction with society. Family plays
mathematics and mathematical self-efficacy a central role in the process of making sense of
(Wang , Zhang & Cai, 2021). things. A student may have a different zone of
proximal development (ZPD) which perceives
Students whose parents actively participate in
a learner as an independent and dependent
their education exhibit greater proficiency in
learner. Vygotsky claimed that students are
mathematics compared to students whose
capable to learn and succeed independently at a
Gohar I Nayab 435

certain stage however they need the supervision (Held & Hascher, 2022). This unfavourable
of an adult to complete their task shift contributes to negative academic
(interdependence). Therefore, a child’s outcomes, school disengagement, and
atmosphere, especially parents' involvement is ultimately, an increased risk of dropping out
a contributing factor in academic achievement (Hascher & Hadjar, 2018). Moreover, a recent
(Prior & Gerard, 2007). study conducted by Hammad, Graham,
Dimitriadis, and Taylor (2022) suggests that
H3: Parental involvement has a significant successful mathematics classrooms play a
effect on student motivation significant role in fostering students'
2.5 Student Motivation and motivation and achievement.
Mathematical Proficiency
Studies identify the chain effect that motivation
Educational psychologists recognize
has on competency. Researchers hold that
motivation as an essential factor to support
motivation effects effort, effort effects result
students’ effective learning. It is a source of
and result effects success. A self-determined
energy responsible for the efforts made by the
person is able to take an action because he
students to learn a concept. It provides will
perceives a concept in a certain way. Attitudes
power to the students to participate in a learning
allow people to achieve set objectives. Cross-
activity. Motivation works as an ignition to
cultural research has shown that satisfaction of
sustain positive energy leading to ultimate
the student’s needs is necessary for the
success (Simegn & Asfaw, 2017).
development of a healthy personality (Gagne &
According to a recent study, there is a need to Deci 2014). The fulfillment of students’ needs
support students’ confidence and reduce (psychological or social), safety, esteem and
negative emotional responses to mathematics self-actualization motivate a student to learn
tasks. Motivated students pose questions to and develop a positive attitude towards a
clarify their concepts and to improve their subject as it is an internal condition that directs
learning. Problem posers show a desire to behaviour.
extend their own mathematical thinking,
According to Cognitive Evaluation Theory
express dissatisfaction with their current
(CET), factors such as achievement and
knowledge and direct their problems towards
responsibility intrinsically motivate a person
the teacher (Headrick,. et al., 2020)
whereas promotion, feedback and study
Based on empirical evidence, positive emotions environment function as extrinsic motivators.
such as enjoyment are interconnected with Intrinsically motivated students work for their
aspects such as academic interest, motivation, own personal growth. CET explains that
engagement, and achieving high levels of Improper reward diminishes intrinsic
success (Krapp, 2000; Pekrun, 2006, Pekrun, motivation and has a negative impact on
2017). Contrarily, negative emotions (such as proficiency (Jitin, 2015). Despite being
boredom) lower intrinsic motivation, attention, awarded with good marks some students get
and interest and are linked to surface learning demotivated because scoring good marks is not
(Pekrun, 2017). their objective. Scores do not excite them,
therefore rewards in their case may decrease
Research consistently reveals that a motivation and impact proficiency.
misalignment between students' needs and the
opportunities provided by the school during the H4: Student motivation has a significant effect
transition from primary to secondary education on student mathematical proficiency.
often leads to a decline in academic interest,
motivation, engagement, and achievement
436 Journal of Positive School Psychology

Framework of the study proficiency. The model in Figure 1 shows the

The research model incorporates the variables; impact of two external factors, including,
school climate, motivation, positive attitude school climate and parental involvement, and
towards mathematics and parental two internal factors, that is student motivation
involvement. Figure 1 shows the internal and and students’ positive attitude towards
external variables that impact a students’ mathematics on students’ mathematics
achievement (proficiency) in mathematics. The proficiency. In this framework, student
study investigated the inter-relationship among motivation is considered as a mediator.
variables and its impact of mathematical

Figure 1 Framework of the study

3 Method was selected where the students from grades 6

to 8 were available and feasibility of Computer
3.1 Sample and Procedure Lab was possible. To assess and investigate the
influence of the relationships among the
The primary objective of this paper is to multiple variables under scrutiny, a
examine the correlation between school quantitative research methodology was
climate and student motivation with employed in this study. The relationships
mathematical proficiency. Additionally, it between school climate, a positive attitude
aims to investigate the associations between toward mathematics, and student motivation
student's positive attitude towards mathematics for math proficiency, as well as parental
and student motivation with mathematical involvement and student motivation for math
proficiency, as well as parental involvement proficiency was studied using correlational
and student motivation with mathematical research design.
proficiency. The data were collected from
lower secondary students of grades 6 to 9, After seeking a formal written approval from
Catholic Board of Education Karachi (CBEK) the head of six private elementary schools
schools. The reason to select only the CBEK administered by the Catholic Board of
schools was to conduct a study in one of the Education and one public elementary school
settings where all the students come from located in Karachi, Pakistan, the data were
similar socio-economic backgrounds and collected on a survey questionnaire from their
where language and technology were not a students. All of these seven schools have been
hindrance to conducting data. Secondly only operating in the city for the last 50 years. Out
selective CBEK school students took part in of 602 self-administered questionnaires
the study because the method to collect data received one unengaged form was excluded.
involved the use of Computer Lab with the The final response rate was 92%. Besides, after
availability of internet connection with each removing 47 multivariate outliers at 99.99% CI
computer. Similarly, one of the public schools (p<.001) following the guidelines of
Gohar I Nayab 437

Tabachnick and Fidel (2014), the usable data

were 554. A detailed account of the sample size
is mentioned in Table 1.

Table 1: Demographic Profile (n= 554)

Demographic Description Count %
Gender Male 303 54.7
Female 251 45.3

Grade Level 6 154 27.8

7 129 23.3
8 115 20.8
9 156 28.2

Sector Public 223 40.3

Private 331 59.7

Mathematics Achievement Test 50% to 60% 161 29.1

61% to 70% 107 19.3
71% to 80% 120 21.7
81% to 90% 91 16.4
91% to 100% 70 12.6
Less than 50% 5 0.9

Measure mathematics, I believe parental involvement

help in solving difficult problems in
To measure 5 latent variables (LVs), a total of
mathematics) and 8 items measured the
28 questionnaire items were adapted from
perceived mathematical proficiency (example: I
previous studies out of which 5 items measured
am able to connect idea to what I already know,
the perceived school climate (example: I
I know what symbols in mathematics mean). A
am put down by other students in my class, I do
5-point Likert Scale was employed to gauge the
not feel safe in my school) , 5 items measured
degree of agreement, utilizing the following
the perceived student’s motivation (example: I
descriptors: 1 = strongly agree, 2 = agree, 3 =
totally get absorbed in mathematics, I can
undecided, 4 = disagree, and 5 = strongly
master mathematics skills), 5 items determined
disagree. The overall reliability of all variables
the perceived positive attitude towards
was calculated to be α = 0.810, surpassing the
mathematics (example: mathematics helps me
acceptable threshold of 0.7 (Hair et al., 2011)
to solve daily life problems, I feel comfortable
and indicating a highly satisfactory level (Hulin,
with numbers and symbols), 5 items measured
Netmeyer & Cudeck, 2001).
the perceived parental involvement (example: I
believe parental support help in scoring well in
438 Journal of Positive School Psychology

4. Data Analysis evaluate reliability, composite reliability was

The study's primary goal is to measure and utilized as a measure. It is considered a more
analyze the proposed conceptual model. Data reliable indicator of internal consistency
analysis is used to evaluate hypotheses with the compared to Cronbach's alpha (Hair et al.,
use of numerous statistical techniques. The data 2014). In this study, reliability serves as a
screening step was first conducted using SPSS. measure of internal consistency. A construct is
Second, SmartPLS4 was used to conduct deemed reliable when the value of composite
hypothesis testing in order to observe effects. reliability (CR) exceeds .70 (Hair et al., 2013).
After the data screening method was A total of 28 indicator items were used on a five-
completed, SmartPLS 4 was used to do further point Likert scale anchoring from 1 = Strongly
data analysis. Three processes were followed Agree and 5 =Strongly Disagree. The results
for the analysis: first, building the model in revealed that, School Climate Scale with 2 out
SmartPLS4, then assessing the validity of the of 5 items (CR= .815), Student’s Positive
outer measurement model, and last, Attitude towards Mathematics scale with 5 out
establishing the validity of the inner of 5 items (CR=.879), Parental Involvement
measurement model. Scale with 4 out of items 5 (CR= .735),
Student’s Motivation Scale with 4 out of 5 items
4.1 Measurement Model Assessment
(CR=.819) and Student’s Mathematical
The findings on reliability are presented in Proficiency Scale with 7 out of items 8 (CR
Table 2, which displays the composite =.895) were found reliable. The findings on
reliability (CR) value for each latent variable. It reliability are presented in Table 2, which
is worth noting that the overall reliability of all displays the composite reliability (CR) value for
variables exceeded the threshold of 0.7 (Hair et each latent variable. It is worth noting that the
al., 2011). overall reliability of all variables exceeded the
4.1.1. Reliability Testing threshold of 0.7 (Hair et al., 2011).
The concept of "reliability" pertains to the
consistency of something (Neuman, 2007). To

Table 2: Reliability Testing and Convergent Validity

P
Constructs Items Loadings CR AVE
Values
School Climate (SC) SC4 0.793 0.000 0.815 0.689
SC5 0.865 0.000

Positive Attitude (PA) PA1 0.809 0.000 0.879 0.593

PA2 0.819 0.000
PA3 0.718 0.000
PA4 0.717 0.000
PA5 0.781 0.000

Parental Involvement (PI) PI1 0.699 0.000 0.831 0.553

PI2 0.804 0.000
PI3 0.801 0.000
PI4 0.660 0.000
Gohar I Nayab 439

Student Motivation (SM) SM1 0.717 0.000 0.819 0.531

SM2 0.697 0.000
SM3 0.731 0.000
SM4 0.769 0.000

Mathematics Proficiency
(MP) MP1 0.719 0.000 0.895 0.55
MP2 0.788 0.000
MP3 0.752 0.000
MP4 0.788 0.000
MP5 0.713 0.000
MP6 0.729 0.000
MP7 0.694 0.000
Notes: CR= Composite Reliability; AVE=Average Variance Extracted

4.1.2 Convergent Validity discriminant validity (Hair et al., 2014;

Convergent validity is evaluated by employing Henseler et al., 2015). According to the Fornell
the average variance extracted (AVE) method and Larcker criterion, a variable should exhibit
(Hair et al., 2011). It is expected that the AVE greater variance with its own items compared
criterion should be at least 0.5, and factor to other variables (Hair et al., 2014). Table 4
loadings for convergent validity should be a presents the square root of the average variance
minimum of 0.7 (Hair et al., 2014). The extracted (AVE) values on the diagonal, which
outcomes of the AVE analysis are showcased should be higher than the inter-construct
in Table 2, where all values surpass the correlation (Hair et al., 2011).
threshold of 0.5. Table 2 demonstrates that all
Table 3 presents the correlation matrix,
mentioned constraints align with the
indicating the presence of discriminant validity.
assumptions of convergent validity.
Nevertheless, alternative research suggests that
4.1.3 Discriminant Validity the Fornell and Larcker approach may not be
Discriminant validity assesses the degree of suitable for assessing discriminant validity in
differentiation between different constructs certain circumstances. In response to this,
(Hair et al., 2014). Ensuring discriminant Henseler et al. (2015) introduced a new method
validity is essential for obtaining reliable known as the Heterotrait-Monotrait ratio of
results and identifying any extreme outliers correlations (HTMT) to validate discriminant
(Henseler et al., 2015). The Fornell and Larcker validity. If the HTMT value is below 0.9, it
criterion, the Heterotrait-Monotrait ratio, and confirms the existence of discriminant validity
cross-loading analysis are utilized to establish (Henseler et al., 2015).

Table 3: Discriminant Validity using Fornell and Larcker (1981) Criterion

Constructs PI SC SM PA MP
PI 0.744
SC 0.254 0.830
SM 0.450 0.303 0.729
PA 0.607 0.266 0.534 0.770
MP 0.680 0.295 0.498 0.693 0.741
Notes: PI = Parental Involvement; SC = School Climate;
 440 Journal of Positive School Psychology

SM = Student Motivation; PA = Positive Attitude; MP = Mathematical Proficiency

Table 4 presents the results of the HTMT loadings on other constructs (Hair et al., 2011;
analysis, which confirm the presence of Hair et al., 2014). According to Gefen, Straub
discriminant validity. Another approach to & Boudreau (2000), there should be a 0.1
verify discriminant validity is to examine the difference between cross-loadings on each
cross-loadings of items. It is important that construct and loadings on other constructs. The
each item demonstrates higher cross-loadings cross-loadings of all variables are shown in
within its own construct compared to cross- Table 2.

Table 4: Discriminant Validity using Heterotrait-Monotrait Ratio (HTMT0.85)

Constructs PI SC SM PA MP
PI
SC 0.385
SM 0.592 0.472
PA 0.775 0.397 0.677
MP 0.839 0.434 0.621 0.820
Notes: PI = Parental Involvement; SC = School Climate;
SM = Student Motivation; PA = Positive Attitude; MP = Mathematical Proficiency

4.2 Hypothesis Testing A variance-based structural equation modelling

After assessing the outer model measurement, is applied to analyze the effect of School
the data is then examined to determine the Climate (SC), Positive Attitude (PA), Parental
internal model measurement. This process is Involvement (PI) on Student Motivation (SM)
based on the research by Henseler et al. (2015) and in turn, on Mathematical Proficiency (MP).
and Hair et al. (2011). To test the hypotheses, Table 5 shows that SC, PA and PI have
the bootstrapping method, specifically the significant effects on SM (β= 0.155, t-value
Partial Least Square (PLS) approach introduced =4.055***; β=0.386, t-value = 6.844***; β=
by Haenlein and Kaplan (2004) is employed. 0.176, t-value = 3.490**) respectively,
Through this resampling technique, numerous therefore H1, H2 and H3 are supported.
smaller subsets (usually 5000 or greater) are Moreover, SM has also shown a significant
randomly selected from the original data, as effect on MP (β= 0.498, t-value =11.751***)
explained by Hair et al. (2014). therefore H4 is also supported.

Table 5: Hypothesis testing using VB-SEM

t p
No Hypothesis Estimate SE Decision
values values
H1 SC ➔ SM 0.155 0.038 4.055 0.000 Supported
H2 PA ➔ SM 0.386 0.056 6.844 0.000 Supported
H3 PI ➔ SM 0.176 0.051 3.490 0.001 Supported
H4 SM ➔ MP 0.498 0.042 11.751 0.000 Supported
Notes: SE = Standard Error; PI = Parental Involvement; SC = School Climate; SM = Student Motivation;
PA = Positive Attitude; MP = Mathematical Proficiency
Gohar I Nayab 441

4.2.1 Model Assessment Criteria endogenous (dependent) variable, as explained

The quality of the internal model is determined by Hair et al. (2014). R2 is categorized into
by its ability to accurately predict the three levels: high, moderate, and low. A value
endogenous construct, as discussed by Hair et above 0.6 indicates a high R2, while a value
al. (2014). Essential criteria for evaluating an between 0.3 and 0.6 indicates a moderate R2. A
internal model are the coefficient of value below 0.3 indicates a low R2. The R2
determination (R2) and cross-validated values for the model's fit can be found in Table
redundancy (Q2), as highlighted by Hair et al. 6. Another method for assessing model
(2011, 2014) and Henseler et al. (2009). R2 accuracy is cross-validated redundancy (Q2),
serves as a measure of the model's predictive which evaluates the predictive value of the
accuracy. It represents the overall impact of the internal model, as discussed by Hair et al.
exogenous (independent) variable on the (2014).

Table 6: Model Assessment Criteria

Constructs R2 Adjusted R2 Q2
SM 0.332 0.328 0.169
MP 0.248 0.247 0.132
Notes: SM = Student Motivation; MP = Mathematical Proficiency

The blindfold method is employed to measure involvement on student motivation. The

Q2. It is expected that the Q2 value is positive, findings of the study suggest school climate (t
indicating a well-fitted model. The values of Q2 = 4.055, p = 0.000), positive attitude (t = 6.844,
can be found in Table 6, which confirms the p = 0.000) and parental involvement (t = 3.490,
adequacy of the model since all values are p = 0.001) are positively correlated with
greater than zero. For Student Motivation (SM), student motivation. As a result, H1, H2, and H3
the R2 value is 0.332 and the Q2 value is 0.169. received confirmation and were supported.
Similarly, for Mathematical Proficiency (MP), Conversely, a positive correlation between
the R2 value is 0.248 and the Q2 value is 0.132. student motivation and mathematical
proficiency (t = 11.751, p = 0.000) was
5. Discussion discovered, thereby providing support for H4.
The research investigates how School Climate
(SC), Positive Attitude (PA), and Parental It is inferred that students are motivated when
Involvement (PI) influence Student Motivation they have a good and healthy school climate,
(SM), and subsequently, how Student have a positive attitude towards the subject
Motivation (SM) affects Mathematical being studied and have a good support from
Proficiency (MP). With a total of four parents being involved in their learning
hypotheses, the outcomes from both the process. The findings of the study also suggest
measurement and structural models exhibit a that highly motivated students are more
high level of compatibility with the collected proficient in mathematics and achieve better
sample, indicating a strong fit. scores than those who are less motivated or
otherwise anxious.
The initial three aims of the current study
involved examining the impact of school According to a study by Lahaie (2008),
climate, positive attitude, and parental students with the most supportive parents
442 Journal of Positive School Psychology

demonstrated greater mathematical Second, it involves a challenging and complex

achievement and more positive attitudes about effort to identify all the affecting factors
mathematics than students with the least simultaneously. An educator ought to consider
supportive parents. According to this study's all these factors prior to developing lesson
findings, parental involvement is moderately plans and teaching and learning strategies. This
correlated with positive attitudes toward necessitates a considerable amount of time and
mathematics (r = 0.24, p<0.01), mathematical resources. The variables’ identification must be
proficiency test scores (r = 0.22, p<0.01), and given full attention and priority in order for the
math performance assessment scores (r = 0.25, teachers to be able to develop instructional
p<0.01). The possible reason for this moderate strategies that will ensure that every child has
correlation may be the lack of parents either the chance to reach their full potential in
being illiterate or less educated considering the learning and performance. This requires proper
literacy rate of Pakistan. The second reason of training, and skills development to conduct
parents are unable to provide support to their such studies for identifying the contributing
children is due to economic constraints, which factors inside and outside of school. Additional
compels both parents to work in the research is necessary to explore the issue in-
metropolitan city of Karachi. depth by utilizing a substantial sample from
various geographically diverse geographical
5.1 Theoretical Contribution locations. It is important to consider factors
The study contributes to the body of knowledge such as peers, family, and potentially other
by examining factors. The internal factors relevant variables in future investigations.
include positive attitude and motivation and 6 Conclusion and Recommendations
their impact on student mathematical The current research specifically aims at
proficiency. The external factors include mathematics proficiency as a measure of
school climate and parental involvement which mathematics achievement. Most of the
play a significant role to improve student previous researchers have considered using a
mathematics proficiency. This finding is teacher-made test or a standardized test to
aligned is SDT theory by Ryan and Deci (2000) measure achievement or academic performance
which identifies the significant role of whereas in actuality the main objective to teach
motivation to fulfil the psychological needs of mathematics is to induce essential skills and
students which are autonomy (measured competencies in students enabling them to do
through the construct of positive attitude), the necessary tasks to achieve the set objectives
competence (measured through the construct by the state. The study was limited being
of mathematical proficiency) and relatedness conducted in only one of the educational
(measured through the construct of parental systems i.e. CBEK schools, it would be better
involvement). if the study was open to many other school
5.2 Practical Implications and systems and a generalized result could have
Recommendations been taken. Since the researcher used a
Based on the findings, a variety of practical questionnaire as a tool for data collection, an in-
applications are possible. First, it is crucial for depth analysis could not be achieved.
educators to effectively teach their students in 6.1 Recommendation for Educators
order to enable them to demonstrate high Previous research on mathematics proficiency
academic performance. In order to accomplish and achievement has identified the
this goal, educators must have a greater incompetency of the mathematics teacher to
understanding of the elements that may develop conceptual development among
influence students' academic progress. students that work as a foundation stone for
Gohar I Nayab 443

mathematical learning. It is important for recommended to interview parents about how

mathematics educators to teach mathematics they contribute and show involvement in school
while keeping the five interwoven and activities. Since Data were collected from
interdependent strands of mathematics that are Karachi (CBEK) schools and one private school
conceptual understanding, productive therefore, it precludes the generalizability of the
disposition, procedural fluency, strategic research findings. Besides, the nature of the
competence and adaptive reasoning. Educating cross-sectional data, the cause-and-effect may
students using these strands not only improves not be concluded.
mathematics proficiency but also improves
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