I N T R O D U C T I O N TO

R O B OT I C S
(OEC-EE 703)

NIRMAL MURMU
D E PA RT M E N T O F A P P L I E D P H Y S IC S
U N I V E R S I TY O F C A LC U T TA
Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

SYLLABUS
• Module 1: Basics of Robotics ( 10 Hours)
• Introduction, components and structure of robotics system.

• Module 2: Robotics Kinematics (10 Hours)

• Kinematics of manipulators, rotation translation and transformation, David –
Hastemberg Representation, Inverse Kinematics. Dyamics – modeling using Newton
Euler equation.

• Module 3: Robot Dynamics ( 10 Hours)

• Linearization of Robot Dynamics – State variable continuous and discrete models.

• Module 4: Robotic Motion (10 Hours)

• Different types of trajectories and introduction to their generation. Position Control:
Independent joint control. Introduction to advanced control for robot application.

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Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

INTRODUCTION TO ROBOTICS
• Industrial Manipulator
• Robot arm kinematics and dynamics
• Planning of manipulator trajectory
• Elementary steps for robot arm design
• Control of robot arm
• Force and Impedance Control
• Mobile Robot: Wheeled and legged robots, trajectory planning,
locomotion, SLAM.

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BOOKS & REFERENCES

[1] J. Craig, Introduction to robotics. Upper Saddle River, N.J.:
Pearson/Prentice Hall, 2005.
[2] J. Selig, Introductory robotics. New York, NY: Prentice Hall, 1992.
[3] R. J. Schilling, Fundamentals of robotics analysis and control, 5th
ed. New Delhi: Prentice-Hall, 1990.
[4] M. Groover, M. Weiss, R. Nagel, N. Odrey and A.
Dutta, Industrial robotics. New Delhi: McGraw-Hill, 2012.ork, NY:
Prentice Hall, 1992.
[5] R. Murray, Z. Li and S. Sastry, A Mathematical Introduction to
Robotic Manipulation. CRC, 1994.

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 ODD SEMESTER, 2022
BOOKS & REFERENCES
Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta
Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

OUTLINE
• Introductory overview
• Mathematical preliminaries
• Kinematics of serial manipulators
• Velocity analysis and statics of manipulator
• Dynamics of manipulators
• Trajectory planning
• Control of manipulators

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ROBOT
“ A G OAL ORIENTED MAC HINE THAT CAN
S E N S E , P L A N A N D A C T. ”

(a) (b) (c)

(e) (d)
Fig: (a) Poster of the play “Rossum´s Universal Robots”, (b) Manipulator
(Industerial robot from ABB), (c) Honda’s Asimo humanoid robot, (d)
Wheeled robot- “Mars rover” (e) Quadcopter
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Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS
• Mechanical manipulator

Fig: Joints, link, end-of-link of manipulator

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INTER-DISCIPLINARY
• Study of machines in static and dynamic situations:
Mechanical engineering
• Spatial motions and other attributes of manipulators:
Mathematics
• Designing and evaluating algorithms to realize desired
motions or force applications: Control theory
• Design of sensors and interfaces for industrial robots:
Electrical-engineering
• Programming these devices to perform a desired task:
Computer science

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C O M P O N E N T S O F M A N I P U L ATO R
• Manipulators consist of nearly rigid links
• Links are connected by joints
• The joints are usually instrumented with position sensors
• For rotary or revolute joints, displacements are called joint angles
• Some manipulators contain sliding (or prismatic) joints, called the
joint offset
• Degrees of freedom: independent position variables
• Number of joints equals the number of degrees of freedom

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MECHANICS AND CONTROL

• Description of position and orientation
• Define frame of a body w.r.t. reference coordinate system
• Forward kinematics of manipulators
• Compute position and orientation
• Inverse kinematics of manipulators
• Compute joint variables
• Dynamics
• Study of force and its effects
• Trajectory generation

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K I N E M AT I C S
• Kinematics
The science of motion that treats the subject without
regard to the forces that cause it.

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REFERENCE FRAME
• Robotic manipulation implies movement of its parts and tools
around in space
• All positions and orientations w.r.t the universe coordinate system
(Cartesian coordinate systems)
• Locate any point in the universe with a 3 x 1 position vector
• Body fixed reference frame
• Origin at the COM/COG of a rigid body
• Earth fixed reference frame
• Origin at the center of Earth
• Inertial reference frame
• Axes are align with star

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D I R E C T & I N V E R S E K I N E M AT I C S
O F M A N I P U L ATO R S
• What are we trying to do ? (direct)
???

Go right
!!!

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D I R E C T & I N V E R S E K I N E M AT I C S
O F M A N I P U L ATO R S
• What are we trying to do ? (inverse)
???

Take the
ball !!!

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DIRECT & INVERSE

K I N E M AT I C S
S PAT I A L D E S C R I P T I O N A N D T R A N S F O R M AT I O N

D I R E C T K I N E M AT I C S

I N V E R S E K I N E M AT I C S

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Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

D I R E C T & I N V E R S E K I N E M AT I C S
• Spatial description and transformation
oSpatial description
oTransformations
oPresentation of orientation
• Direct kinematics
• Inverse kinematics

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S PAT I A L D E S C R I P T I O N A N D
T R A N S F O R M AT I O N
• We need to be able to describe the position and the
orientation of the robot’s parts.
• Suppose there’s a universe coordinate system to which
everything can be referenced.

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S PAT I A L D E S C R I P T I O N A N D
T R A N S F O R M AT I O N
We need to be able to describe the position and the
orientation of the robot’s parts (relative to U)

U What’s its position

universe (“reference point”) ?
coordinate
system
What’s its orientation ?

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P O S I T I O N S , O R I E N TAT I O N S A N D
FRAMES
• The position of a point p relative to a coordinate
system A (Ap)
𝑝𝑥
Ap = 𝑝
A
𝑦
ZA p
𝑝𝑧
YA

XA

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P O S I T I O N S , O R I E N TAT I O N S A N D
FRAMES
• The orientation of a body is described by
• a coordinate system {B} attached to the body, and
• write the unit vectors of its three principal axes2 in terms of the
coordinate system {A}.

ZA ZB

XB YA
{B} relative
XA YB to (A)

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P O S I T I O N S , O R I E N TAT I O N S A N D
FRAMES
• Write {B} coordinate system w.r.t {A}, known as rotation
matrix

• Rotation matrix: components of any vector are simply the

projections of that vector onto the unit directions of its
reference frame

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P O S I T I O N S , O R I E N TAT I O N S A N D
FRAMES
• The orientation of a body is described by a coordinate
system B attached to the body, relative to A (a known
coordinate system). Projection of axis
𝐴 𝐴𝑋 𝐴𝑌 𝐴𝑍 of {B} on the
𝐵𝑅 = 𝐵 𝐵 𝐵 each axis of {A}

𝑋𝐵 ⋅ 𝑋𝐴 𝑌𝐵 ⋅ 𝑋𝐴 𝑍𝐵 ⋅ 𝑋𝐴
= 𝑋𝐵 ⋅ 𝑌𝐴 𝑌𝐵 ⋅ 𝑌𝐴 𝑍𝐵 ⋅ 𝑌𝐴
𝑋𝐵 ⋅ 𝑍𝐴 𝑌𝐵 ⋅ 𝑍𝐴 𝑍𝐵 ⋅ 𝑍𝐴
cosinus of the angle

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 ODD SEMESTER, 2022
R OTAT I O N M AT R I X
1.

2.
Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta
Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

P O S I T I O N S , O R I E N TAT I O N S A N D
FRAMES
• A frame is a set of 4 vectors giving the position and
orientation.
ZB
• Example: frame B
A
P Borg
𝐴 𝐴𝑃 ZA
𝐵 = 𝐵 𝑅, 𝐵𝑜𝑟𝑔
XB
YB
YA
location
orientation
XA
• Positions is a frame with identity rotation-matrix
• Orientation is a frame with zero vector position-vector

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P O S I T I O N S , O R I E N TAT I O N S A N D
FRAMES

{A} is known
relative to {U}

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P O S I T I O N S , O R I E N TAT I O N S A N D
FRAMES
• Remember the robot’s part:

ZB

A
ZA P Borg

XB
YB
YA
orientation
XA position

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Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

D I R E C T & I N V E R S E K I N E M AT I C S
• Spatial description and transformation
oSpatial description
oTransformations
oPresentation of orientation
• Direct kinematics
• Inverse kinematics

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MAPPING
• Until now, we say how to describe positions,
orientations and frames.
• We need to be able to change descriptions from one
frame to another: mapping.
• Mappings:
• translated frames
• rotated frames
• general frames

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M A P P I N G S I N VO LV I N G
T R A N S L AT E D F R A M E S
• Expressing a point Bp in terms of frame {A}, when {A}
has the same orientation as {B}:
𝐴𝑝 =𝐵 𝑝 +𝐴 𝑝𝐵𝑜𝑟𝑔
B
A p
p ZB

A
pBorg
ZA YB

XB
YA

XA

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Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

M A P P I N G S I N V O LV I N G R OTAT E D
FRAMES
• Expressing a vector Bp in terms of frame {A}, when the
origins of frames {A} and {B} are coincident:

B
ZB p
ZA

XB YA

XA YB
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M A P P I N G S I N V O LV I N G R OTAT E D
FRAMES
• Ap‘s components are Bp’s projections onto the unit
directions of {A}.
• Remember the rotation matrix : 𝐵𝐴𝑅
it’s columns are the unit vectors of {B} expressed in {A}.

𝐴 𝐵
• Thus: 𝐴𝑃 =𝐵 𝑅 𝑃

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M A P P I N G S I N V O LV I N G R OTAT E D
FRAMES: EXAMPLE
• Given: Frame {B} is rotated relative to frame {A} about
Z by 30 degrees, and BP.
Calculate: AP
YA YB
B
p

ZA =ZB XA

XB

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M A P P I N G S I N V O LV I N G R OTAT E D
FRAMES: EXAMPLE
• Solution:

𝑋𝐵 ⋅ 𝑋𝐴 𝑌𝐵 ⋅ 𝑋𝐴 𝑍𝐵 ⋅ 𝑋𝐴
𝐴
𝐵𝑅 = 𝑋𝐵 ⋅ 𝑌𝐴 𝑌𝐵 ⋅ 𝑌𝐴 𝑍𝐵 ⋅ 𝑌𝐴
𝑋𝐵 ⋅ 𝑍𝐴 𝑌𝐵 ⋅ 𝑍𝐴 𝑍𝐵 ⋅ 𝑍𝐴
cos 3 0∘ cos 1 20∘ 0
= cos 6 0∘ cos 3 0∘ 0
0 0 1
And:
𝐴𝑃 = 𝐴𝑅 𝐵𝑃
𝐵

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Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

M A P P I N G S I N VO LV I N G G E N E R A L
FRAMES
• {𝐴} and {𝐵} has different origins and orientations.
• Vector offset between origins: 𝐴𝑝𝐵𝑜𝑟𝑔
• {𝐵} is rotated in respect to {𝐴}: 𝐵𝐴𝑅

B
A ZB p
p

A
pBorg
ZA
XB
YB
YA

XA

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M A P P I N G S I N VO LV I N G G E N E R A L
FRAMES
• First, describe 𝐵𝑝 relative to a frame that has the same
orientation of {𝐴}, but whose origin coincides with the
origin of {𝐵}
• Then add 𝐴𝑝𝐵𝑜𝑟𝑔 for the translation
𝐴
• Thus:𝐴𝑃 =𝐵 𝑅 𝐵 𝑃 +𝐴 𝑃𝐵𝑜𝑟𝑔 A
p ZB
B
p

A
pBorg
ZA
XB
YB
YA

XA

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Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

M A P P I N G S I N VO LV I N G G E N E R A L
FRAMES
• “Homogeneous transform”:

𝐴𝑃 𝐴 𝐴𝑃 𝐵𝑃
= 𝐵𝑅 𝐵𝑜𝑟𝑔
1 0 0 0 1 1
𝐴
⇒ 𝑃 =𝐵𝐴 𝑇 𝐵 𝑃

• A “transform” specifies a frame.

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M U LT I P L I C AT I O N O F
TRANSFORMS
• Given Cp. We want to find Ap.
ZC
C
p

A ZB
p
YC
XC
ZA
XB
YB
YA

XA

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COMPOUND TRANSFORMS
• Given Cp. We want to find Ap.
• Frame {𝐶} is known relative to frame {𝐵}, and frame
{𝐵} is known relative to frame {𝐴}.
𝐴
𝐵𝑃 =𝐵𝐶 𝑇𝐶 𝑃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃 =𝐵𝐴 𝑇 𝐵 𝑃
𝐴
⇒ 𝐶
𝑇 =𝐵𝐴 𝑇𝐶𝐵 𝑇
𝐴 𝐵 𝐴 𝐵
𝐵𝑅 𝐶 𝑅 𝐵𝑅 𝑃𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑔 + 𝐴 𝑃𝐵𝑜𝑟𝑔
=
0 0 0 1

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INVERTING A TRANSFORM
• Frame {𝐵} is known relative to frame {𝐴}
• We want the description “frame {𝐴} relative to frame
{𝐵}”
• Straightforward way: Compute the inverse matrix (of a
4x4 matrix)

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INVERTING A TRANSFORM
• Frame {𝐵} is known relative to frame {𝐴}
• We want the description “frame {𝐴} relative to frame
Calculate the
{𝐵}” inversion of
transform
• Better way: with the
knowledge of
0 =𝐵 (𝐴 𝑃𝐵𝑜𝑟𝑔 ) =BA 𝑅 𝐴 𝑃𝐵𝑜𝑟𝑔 +𝐵 𝑃𝐴𝑜𝑟𝑔 𝐴 𝑇
𝐵𝑅
⇒ 𝐵𝑃𝐴𝑜𝑟𝑔 = −BA 𝑅 𝐴 𝑃𝐵𝑜𝑟𝑔 = − 𝐵𝐴𝑅𝑇 𝐴𝑃𝐵𝑜𝑟𝑔
𝐴 𝑇
𝐵
𝐵𝑅 − 𝐵𝐴𝑅𝑇 𝐴𝑃𝐵𝑜𝑟𝑔
⇒ 𝐴
𝑇=
0 0 0 1

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Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

INVERTING A TRANSFORM
• Frame {𝐵} is known relative to frame {𝐴}
• We want the description “frame {𝐴} relative to frame
{𝐵}”
• Better way:
𝐴 𝑇 𝐴
⇒
𝐵
𝑇= 𝐵𝑅 −𝐵𝐴 𝑅𝑇 𝑃𝐵𝑜𝑟𝑔
𝐴
0 0 0 1

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EXAMPLE: INVERTING A
TRANSFORM
• Description of {𝐵}w.r.t.{𝐴} is as follows,
• Rotation about 𝑍መ is 30° and translation about 𝑋෠ is 4 unit and
about 𝑌෠ is 3 unit

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EXAMPLE: INVERTING A
TRANSFORM

𝐴𝑃 𝐴 𝐴𝑃 𝐵𝑃
= 𝐵𝑅 𝐵𝑜𝑟𝑔
1 0 0 0 1 1
𝐴
⇒ 𝑃 =𝐵𝐴 𝑇 𝐵 𝑃

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EXAMPLE: INVERTING A
TRANSFORM

𝐵 𝐴 𝑇 𝐴 𝑇𝐴
⇒ 𝑇= 𝐵𝑅 −𝐵 𝑅 𝑃𝐵𝑜𝑟𝑔
𝐴
0 0 0 1

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 ODD SEMESTER, 2022
T R A N S F O R M E Q UAT I O N S
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Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

T R A N S F O R M E Q UAT I O N S :
G R A P H I C A L R E P R E S E N TAT I O N
• In graphical representation, the arrow head indicate in
which way frames are defined
𝑈
𝐶𝑇 = 𝑈𝐵𝑇 𝐵𝐶 𝑇

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T R A N S F O R M AT I O N S : E X A M P L E

Here, {T} is known w.r.t. {B}

{S} is known w.r.t. {B}
{G} is known w.r.t. {S}

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D I R E C T & I N V E R S E K I N E M AT I C S
• Spatial description and transformation
oSpatial description
oTransformations
oPresentation of orientation
• Direct kinematics
• Inverse kinematics

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P R E S E N TAT I O N O F O R I E N TAT I O N
• Rotation matrices are useful as operator.
• Still, it’s “unnatural” to have to give elements of a matrix with
orthonormal columns as input.
• Rotations don't generally commute. That is, is not 𝐵𝐴𝑅 𝐵𝑐𝑅 the same
as 𝐵𝑐𝑅 𝐵𝐴𝑅
• There are several presentations which make that input process
easier:
• Fixed angles
• Euler angles
• Euler parameters
• Quaternions

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FIXED ANGLES
• Start with the frame coincident with a known reference frame {A}
• Rotate {B} first about 𝑋෠𝐴 by an angle 𝛾, then about 𝑌෠𝐴 by an angle
𝛽 and, finally, about 𝑍መ𝐴 by an angle 𝛼.

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FIXED ANGLES
• X-Y-Z fixed angles
• Start with 2 frames: a fixed reference frame {A} and a
coinciding frame {B}
• First rotate {B} by 𝛾 about XA, then by 𝛽 about YAand
finally by 𝛼 about ZA.
• The equivalent rotation matrix is:
𝑐𝛼 −𝑠𝛼 0 𝑐𝛽 0 𝑠𝛽 1 0 0
𝐴
𝐵 𝑅𝑋𝑌𝑍 (𝛾, 𝛽, 𝛼) = 𝑠𝛼 𝑐𝛼 0 0 1 0 0 𝑐𝛾 −𝑠𝛾
0 0 1 −𝑠𝛽 0 𝑐𝛽 0 𝑠𝛾 𝑐𝛾

𝑐𝛼𝑐𝛽 𝑐𝛼𝑠𝛽𝑠𝛾 − 𝑠𝛼𝑐𝛾 𝑐𝛼𝑠𝛽𝑐𝛾 + 𝑠𝛼𝑠𝛾

= 𝑠𝛼𝑐𝛽 𝑠𝛼𝑠𝛽𝑠𝛾 + 𝑐𝛼𝑐𝛾 𝑠𝛼𝑠𝛽𝑐𝛾 − 𝑐𝛼𝑠𝛾
−𝑠𝛽 𝑐𝛽𝑠𝛾 𝑐𝛽𝑐𝛾

ODD SEMESTER, Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

2022
Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

INVERSE OF FIXED ANGLES

• The inverse problem, that of extracting equivalent X—Y—Z fixed
angles from a rotation matrix
• There are nine equations and three unknowns
• Among the nine equations are six dependencies, three equations
and three unknowns
𝑐𝛼𝑐𝛽 𝑐𝛼𝑠𝛽𝑠𝛾 − 𝑠𝛼𝑐𝛾 𝑐𝛼𝑠𝛽𝑐𝛾 + 𝑠𝛼𝑠𝛾
𝐴
𝐵𝑅𝑋𝑌𝑍 𝛾, 𝛽, 𝛼 = 𝑠𝛼𝑐𝛽 𝑠𝛼𝑠𝛽𝑠𝛾 + 𝑐𝛼𝑐𝛾 𝑠𝛼𝑠𝛽𝑐𝛾 − 𝑐𝛼𝑠𝛾
−𝑠𝛽 𝑐𝛽𝑠𝛾 𝑐𝛽𝑐𝛾
𝑟11 𝑟12 𝑟13
= 𝑟21 𝑟22 𝑟23
𝑟31 𝑟32 𝑟33

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INVERSE OF FIXED ANGLES

𝑐𝛼𝑐𝛽 𝑐𝛼𝑠𝛽𝑠𝛾 − 𝑠𝛼𝑐𝛾 𝑐𝛼𝑠𝛽𝑐𝛾 + 𝑠𝛼𝑠𝛾
➢ 𝐵𝐴𝑅𝑋𝑌𝑍 𝛾, 𝛽, 𝛼 = 𝑠𝛼𝑐𝛽 𝑠𝛼𝑠𝛽𝑠𝛾 + 𝑐𝛼𝑐𝛾 𝑠𝛼𝑠𝛽𝑐𝛾 − 𝑐𝛼𝑠𝛾
−𝑠𝛽 𝑐𝛽𝑠𝛾 𝑐𝛽𝑐𝛾
𝑟11 𝑟12 𝑟13
= 𝑟21 𝑟22 𝑟23
𝑟31 𝑟32 𝑟33
2 2
➢𝛽 = 𝐴𝑡𝑎𝑛2 −𝑟31 , 𝑟11 + 𝑟21

𝑟21 𝑟11
➢𝛼 = 𝐴𝑡𝑎𝑛2 ,
𝑐𝛽 𝑐𝛽

𝑟32 𝑟33
➢𝛾 = 𝐴𝑡𝑎𝑛2 ,
𝑐𝛽 𝑐𝛽

ODD SEMESTER, 2022

Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

EULER ANGLES
• Z-Y-X Euler angles
• Start with 2 frames: a moving reference(Euler angles) frame {B}
and a coinciding fixed frame {A}
• First rotate {B} by 𝛼 about ZB, then by 𝛽 about YBand finally by
𝛾 about XB.

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Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

EULER ANGLES
• Z-Y-X Euler angles
• The equivalent rotation matrix is:
𝑐𝛼 −𝑠𝛼 0 𝑐𝛽 0 𝑠𝛽 1 0 0
𝐴
𝐵 𝑅𝑍′𝑌′𝑋′ (𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾) = 𝑠𝛼 𝑐𝛼 0 0 1 0 0 𝑐𝛾 −𝑠𝛾
0 0 1 −𝑠𝛽 0 𝑐𝛽 0 𝑠𝛾 𝑐𝛾
The final result
is the same as 𝑐𝛼𝑐𝛽 𝑐𝛼𝑠𝛽𝑠𝛾 − 𝑠𝛼𝑐𝛾 𝑐𝛼𝑠𝛽𝑐𝛾 + 𝑠𝛼𝑠𝛾
X-Y-Z fixed = 𝑠𝛼𝑐𝛽 𝑠𝛼𝑠𝛽𝑠𝛾 + 𝑐𝛼𝑐𝛾 𝑠𝛼𝑠𝛽𝑐𝛾 − 𝑐𝛼𝑠𝛾
angles!!! −𝑠𝛽 𝑐𝛽𝑠𝛾 𝑐𝛽𝑐𝛾

ODD SEMESTER, 2022

Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

FIXED & EULER ANGLES

• In general:
3 rotations taken about fixed axes (fixed angles) yield the same
final orientation as the same 3 rotations taken in opposite order
about the axes of the moving frame (Euler angles).
• There are other angle-set conventions: Z-Y-Z, etc. (both for fixed
and moving reference frames).

ODD SEMESTER, 2022

 ODD SEMESTER, 2022
GIMBAL LOCK
Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta
Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

GIMBAL LOCK
• When an orientation sensor uses Euler Angles, it will
always fail to produce reliable estimates when the
pitch angle approaches 90°. This is a fundamental
problem of Euler Angles called Gimbal Lock.
• To solve this problem, unit-quaternions are used to
represent the orientation.

ODD SEMESTER, 2022

Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

GIMBAL LOCK

▪ Gimbal locked
▪ Pitch (green) and yaw (magenta)
gimbals become aligned, changes to
roll (blue) and yaw apply the same
rotation to the airplane

ODD SEMESTER, 2022

Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

EQUIVALENT ANGLE —AXIS

R E P R E S E N TAT I O N
• With the notation 𝑅𝑋 (30.0) we give the description of
෠ and an angle, 30.0
an orientation by giving an axis, 𝑋,
degrees →equivalent angle—axis representation
• In general, the axis (rotation axis) may not be in align
with principal axis of a coordinate system

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Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

EQUIVALENT ANGLE —AXIS

R E P R E S E N TAT I O N
• When the axis of rotation is chosen from among the
principal axes of {A}

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Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

EQUIVALENT ANGLE —AXIS

R E P R E S E N TAT I O N
• Start with the frame coincident with a known frame {A};
then rotate {B} about the vector 𝐴𝐾 ෡ by an angle 𝜃
according to the right-hand rule equivalent axis of
a finite rotationa

(1 − cos 𝜃)

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Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

EQUIVALENT ANGLE —AXIS

R E P R E S E N TAT I O N
• Example

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Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

E U L E R PA R A M E T E R S
• Given an equivalent axis 𝐾 = [𝑘𝑋 𝑘𝑌 𝑘𝑍 ]𝑇 (an unit vector we want to rotate
about) and an angle 𝜃, the Euler parameters (unit quaternion) are defined as:
𝜃 𝜃 𝜃
𝜀1 = 𝑘𝑋 sin , 𝜀2 = 𝑘𝑌 sin , 𝜀3 = 𝑘𝑍 sin ,
2 2 2
𝜃
𝜀4 = cos
2
𝜀12 + 𝜀22 + 𝜀32 + 𝜀42 = 1
• The rotation matrix 𝑅𝜀 is:

1 − 2𝜀22 − 2𝜀32 2(𝜀1 𝜀2 − 𝜀3 𝜀4 ) 2(𝜀1 𝜀3 + 𝜀2 𝜀4 )

𝑅𝜀 = 2(𝜀1 𝜀2 + 𝜀3 𝜀4 ) 1 − 2𝜀12 − 2𝜀32 2(𝜀2 𝜀3 − 𝜀1 𝜀4 )
2(𝜀1 𝜀3 − 𝜀2 𝜀4 ) 2(𝜀2 𝜀3 + 𝜀1 𝜀4 ) 1 − 2𝜀12 − 2𝜀22

ODD SEMESTER, 2022

Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

V E C TO R R E P R E S E N TAT I O N
• Two vectors are equal if they have the same
dimensions, magnitude, and direction, e.g.
velocity
• Two vectors are equivalent in a certain capacity if
each produces the very same effect in this
capacity, e.g. distance
• Line vector refers to a vector that is dependent on
its line of action
• Free vector refers to a vector that may be
positioned anywhere without loss or change of
meaning, e.g. moment

ODD SEMESTER, 2022

Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

K I N E M AT I C S
• The science of motion without regard to the forces
that cause it
• Within the science of kinematics, one studies
• position, velocity, the acceleration, and all higher order
derivatives of the position variables

• The study of the kinematics of manipulators

• all the geometrical and time-based properties of the motion

ODD SEMESTER, 2022