Chapter 2: Physical Layer

2.1. Data and Signals

3.1 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Note

To be transmitted, data must be

transformed to electromagnetic signals.

2.2
 2.1-1 ANALOG AND DIGITAL

Data can be analog or digital. The term analog data refers

to information that is continuous; digital data refers to
information that has discrete states. Analog data take on
continuous values. Digital data take on discrete values.

Topics discussed in this section:

▪ Analog and Digital Data
▪ Analog and Digital Signals
▪ Periodic and Nonperiodic Signals

2.3
 Analog and Digital Data
▪ Data can be analog or digital.
▪ Analog data are continuous and take
continuous values.
▪ Digital data have discrete states and take
discrete values.

2.4
 Analog and Digital Signals

• Signals can be analog or digital.

• Analog signals can have an infinite number
of values in a range.
• Digital signals can have only a limited
number of values.

2.5
 Figure 2.1.1 Comparison of analog and digital signals

2.6
 2.1-2 PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS
In data communications, we commonly use periodic
analog signals and nonperiodic digital signals.
Periodic analog signals can be classified as simple or
composite. A simple periodic analog signal, a sine wave,
cannot be decomposed into simpler signals. A composite
periodic analog signal is composed of multiple sine
waves.
Topics discussed in this section:
▪ Sine Wave
▪ Wavelength
▪ Time and Frequency Domain
▪ Composite Signals
▪ Bandwidth
2.7
 Figure 2.1.2 A sine wave

2.8
 Figure 2.1.3 Two signals with the same phase and frequency,
but different amplitudes

2.9
 Note

Frequency and period are the inverse of

each other.

2.10
 Figure 2.1.4 Two signals with the same amplitude and phase,
but different frequencies

2.11
 Table 2.1.1 Units of period and frequency

2.12
 Example 2.1.1

The power we use at home has a frequency of 60 Hz.

The period of this sine wave can be determined as
follows:

2.13
 Example 2.1.2

The period of a signal is 100 ms. What is its frequency in

kilohertz?

Solution
First we change 100 ms to seconds, and then we
calculate the frequency from the period (1 Hz = 10−3
kHz).

2.14
 Frequency
• Frequency is the rate of change with respect
to time.
• Change in a short span of time means high
frequency.
• Change over a long span of
time means low frequency.

2.15
 Note

If a signal does not change at all, its

frequency is zero.
If a signal changes instantaneously, its
frequency is infinite.

2.16
 Note

Phase describes the position of the

waveform relative to time 0.

2.17
 Figure 2.1.5 Three sine waves with the same amplitude and frequency,
but different phases

2.18
 Example 2.1.3

A sine wave is offset 1/6 cycle with respect to time 0.

What is its phase in degrees and radians?

Solution
We know that 1 complete cycle is 360°. Therefore, 1/6
cycle is

2.19
 Figure 2.1.6 Wavelength and period

2.20
 Figure 2.1.7 The time-domain and frequency-domain plots of a sine wave

2.21
 Note

A complete sine wave in the time

domain can be represented by one
single spike in the frequency domain.

2.22
 Example 2.1.7

The frequency domain is more compact and

useful when we are dealing with more than one
sine wave. For example, Figure 2.1.8 shows three
sine waves, each with different amplitude and
frequency. All can be represented by three
spikes in the frequency domain.

2.23
 Figure 2.1.8 The time domain and frequency domain of three sine waves

2.24
 Signals and Communication
◼ A single-frequency sine wave is not
useful in data communications
◼ We need to send a composite signal, a
signal made of many simple sine
waves.
◼ According to Fourier analysis, any
composite signal is a combination of
simple sine waves with different
frequencies, amplitudes, and phases.
2.25
 Composite Signals and
Periodicity
◼ If the composite signal is periodic, the
decomposition gives a series of signals
with discrete frequencies.
◼ If the composite signal is nonperiodic, the
decomposition gives a combination of
sine waves with continuous frequencies.

2.26
 Example 2.1.4

Figure 2.1.9 shows a periodic composite signal with

frequency f. This type of signal is not typical of those
found in data communications. We can consider it to be
three alarm systems, each with a different frequency.
The analysis of this signal can give us a good
understanding of how to decompose signals.

2.27
 Figure 2.1.9 A composite periodic signal

2.28
 Figure 2.1.10 Decomposition of a composite periodic signal in the time and
frequency domains

2.29
 Example 2.1.5

Figure 2.1.11 shows a nonperiodic composite signal. It

can be the signal created by a microphone or a telephone
set when a word or two is pronounced. In this case, the
composite signal cannot be periodic, because that
implies that we are repeating the same word or words
with exactly the same tone.

2.30
 Figure 2.11 The time and frequency domains of a nonperiodic signal

2.31
 Bandwidth and Signal
Frequency
◼ The bandwidth of a composite signal is
the difference between the highest and
the lowest frequencies contained in that
signal.

2.32
 Figure 2.1.12 The bandwidth of periodic and nonperiodic composite signals

2.33
 Example 2.1.6

If a periodic signal is decomposed into five sine waves

with frequencies of 100, 300, 500, 700, and 900 Hz, what
is its bandwidth? Draw the spectrum, assuming all
components have a maximum amplitude of 10 V.
Solution
Let fh be the highest frequency, fl the lowest frequency,
and B the bandwidth. Then

The spectrum has only five spikes, at 100, 300, 500, 700,
and 900 Hz (see Figure 3.13).
2.34
 Figure 2.1.13 The bandwidth for Example 2.1.6

2.35
 Example 2.1.7

A periodic signal has a bandwidth of 20 Hz. The highest

frequency is 60 Hz. What is the lowest frequency? Draw
the spectrum if the signal contains all frequencies of the
same amplitude.
Solution
Let fh be the highest frequency, fl the lowest frequency,
and B the bandwidth. Then

The spectrum contains all integer frequencies. We show

this by a series of spikes (see Figure 3.14).

2.36
 Figure 2.1.14 The bandwidth for Example 2.1.7

2.37
 Example 2.1.8

A nonperiodic composite signal has a bandwidth of 200

kHz, with a middle frequency of 140 kHz and peak
amplitude of 20 V. The two extreme frequencies have an
amplitude of 0. Draw the frequency domain of the
signal.

Solution
The lowest frequency must be at 40 kHz and the highest
at 240 kHz. Figure 2.1.15 shows the frequency domain
and the bandwidth.

2.38
 Figure 2.1.15 The bandwidth for Example 3.8

2.39
 Example 2.1.9

An example of a nonperiodic composite signal is the

signal propagated by an AM radio station. In the United
States, each AM radio station is assigned a 10-kHz
bandwidth. The total bandwidth dedicated to AM radio
ranges from 530 to 1700 kHz. We will show the rationale
behind this 10-kHz bandwidth in Chapter 5.

2.40
 Example 2.1.10

Another example of a nonperiodic composite signal is

the signal propagated by an FM radio station. In the
United States, each FM radio station is assigned a 200-
kHz bandwidth. The total bandwidth dedicated to FM
radio ranges from 88 to 108 MHz. We will show the
rationale behind this 200-kHz bandwidth in Chapter 5.

2.41
 2.1-2 DIGITAL SIGNALS
In addition to being represented by an analog signal,
information can also be represented by a digital signal.
For example, a 1 can be encoded as a positive voltage
and a 0 as zero voltage. A digital signal can have more
than two levels. In this case, we can send more than 1 bit
for each level.

Topics discussed in this section:

▪ Bit Rate
▪ Bit Length
▪ Digital Signal as a Composite Analog Signal
▪ Application Layer
2.42
 Figure 2.1.16 Two digital signals: one with two signal levels and the other
with four signal levels

2.43
 Example 2.1.16

A digital signal has eight levels. How many bits are

needed per level? We calculate the number of bits from
the formula

Each signal level is represented by 3 bits.

2.44
 Example 2.1.17

A digital signal has nine levels. How many bits are

needed per level?

We calculate the number of bits by using the formula.

Each signal level is represented by 3.17 bits. However,
this answer is not realistic. The number of bits sent per
level needs to be an integer as well as a power of 2. For
this example, 4 bits can represent one level.

2.45
 Example 2.1.18

Assume we need to download text documents at the rate

of 100 pages per sec. What is the required bit rate of the
channel?
Solution
A page is an average of 24 lines with 80 characters in
each line. If we assume that one character requires 8
bits (ascii), the bit rate is

2.46
 Example 2.1.19

A digitized voice channel, as we will see in Chapter 4, is

made by digitizing a 4-kHz bandwidth analog voice
signal. We need to sample the signal at twice the highest
frequency (two samples per hertz). We assume that each
sample requires 8 bits. What is the required bit rate?

Solution
The bit rate can be calculated as

2.47
 Example 2.1.20

What is the bit rate for high-definition TV (HDTV)?

Solution
HDTV uses digital signals to broadcast high quality
video signals. The HDTV screen is normally a ratio of
16 : 9. There are 1920 by 1080 pixels per screen, and the
screen is renewed 30 times per second. Twenty-four bits
represents one color pixel.

The TV stations reduce this rate to 20 to 40 Mbps

through compression.
2.48
 Figure 2.1.17 The time and frequency domains of periodic and nonperiodic
digital signals

2.49
 Figure 2.1.18 Baseband transmission

2.50
 Note

A digital signal is a composite analog

signal with an infinite bandwidth.

2.51
 Figure 2.1.19 Bandwidths of two low-pass channels

2.52
 Figure 2.1.20 Baseband transmission using a dedicated medium

2.53
 Note

Baseband transmission of a digital

signal that preserves the shape of the
digital signal is possible only if we have
a low-pass channel with an infinite or
very wide bandwidth.

2.54
 Figure 2.1.21 Rough approximation of a digital signal using the first harmonic
for worst case

2.55
 Figure 2.1.22 Simulating a digital signal with first three harmonics

2.56
 Note
In baseband transmission, the required bandwidth is
In baseband transmission,
proportional the required
to the bit rate;
bandwidth is proportional
if we need to send bits faster, we needto thebandwidth.
more bit rate;
if we need to send bits faster, we need
more bandwidth.

2.57
 Table 3.2 Bandwidth requirements

2.58
 Example 2.1.22

What is the required bandwidth of a low-pass channel if

we need to send 1 Mbps by using baseband transmission?

Solution
The answer depends on the accuracy desired.
a. The minimum bandwidth, is B = bit rate /2, or 500 kHz.

b. A better solution is to use the first and the third

harmonics with B = 3 × 500 kHz = 1.5 MHz.

c. Still a better solution is to use the first, third, and fifth

harmonics with B = 5 × 500 kHz = 2.5 MHz.
2.59
 Example 2.1.22

We have a low-pass channel with bandwidth 100 kHz.

What is the maximum bit rate of this channel?

Solution
The maximum bit rate can be achieved if we use the first
harmonic. The bit rate is 2 times the available bandwidth,
or 200 kbps.

2.60
 Figure 2.1.23 Bandwidth of a bandpass channel

2.61
 Note

If the available channel is a bandpass

channel, we cannot send the digital
signal directly to the channel;
we need to convert the digital signal to
an analog signal before transmission.

2.62
 Figure 2.1.24 Modulation of a digital signal for transmission on a bandpass
channel

2.63
 Example 2.1.24

An example of broadband transmission using

modulation is the sending of computer data through a
telephone subscriber line, the line connecting a resident
to the central telephone office. These lines are designed
to carry voice with a limited bandwidth. The channel is
considered a bandpass channel. We convert the digital
signal from the computer to an analog signal, and send
the analog signal. We can install two converters to
change the digital signal to analog and vice versa at the
receiving end. The converter, in this case, is called a
modem which we discuss in detail in Chapter 5.

2.64
 Example 2.1.25

A second example is the digital cellular telephone. For

better reception, digital cellular phones convert the
analog voice signal to a digital signal (see Chapter 16).
Although the bandwidth allocated to a company
providing digital cellular phone service is very wide, we
still cannot send the digital signal without conversion.
The reason is that we only have a bandpass channel
available between caller and callee. We need to convert
the digitized voice to a composite analog signal before
sending.

2.65
 2.1-4 TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT

Signals travel through transmission media, which are not

perfect. The imperfection causes signal impairment. This
means that the signal at the beginning of the medium is
not the same as the signal at the end of the medium.
What is sent is not what is received. Three causes of
impairment are attenuation, distortion, and noise.

Topics discussed in this section:

▪ Attenuation
▪ Distortion
▪ Noise

2.66
 Figure 2.1.25 Causes of impairment

2.67
 Attenuation

◼ Means loss of energy -> weaker signal

◼ When a signal travels through a medium it
loses energy overcoming the resistance of
the medium
◼ Amplifiers are used to compensate for this
loss of energy by amplifying the signal.

2.68
 Measurement of Attenuation

◼ To show the loss or gain of energy the unit

“decibel” is used.

dB = 10log10P2/P1
P1 - input signal
P2 - output signal

2.69
 Figure 3.26 Attenuation

2.70
 Example 2.1.26

Suppose a signal travels through a transmission medium

and its power is reduced to one-half. This means that P2
is (1/2)P1. In this case, the attenuation (loss of power)
can be calculated as

A loss of 3 dB (–3 dB) is equivalent to losing one-half

the power.
2.71
 Example 2.1.27

A signal travels through an amplifier, and its power is

increased 10 times. This means that P2 = 10P1 . In this
case, the amplification (gain of power) can be calculated
as

2.72
 Example 2.1.28

One reason that engineers use the decibel to measure the

changes in the strength of a signal is that decibel
numbers can be added (or subtracted) when we are
measuring several points (cascading) instead of just two.
In Figure 3.27 a signal travels from point 1 to point 4. In
this case, the decibel value can be calculated as

2.73
 Figure 2.1.27 Decibels for Example 2.1.28

2.74
 Example 2.1.29

Sometimes the decibel is used to measure signal power

in milliwatts. In this case, it is referred to as dBm and is
calculated as dBm = 10 log10 Pm , where Pm is the power
in milliwatts. Calculate the power of a signal with dBm =
−30.

Solution
We can calculate the power in the signal as

2.75
 Example 2.1.30

The loss in a cable is usually defined in decibels per

kilometer (dB/km). If the signal at the beginning of a
cable with −0.3 dB/km has a power of 2 mW, what is the
power of the signal at 5 km?
Solution
The loss in the cable in decibels is 5 × (−0.3) = −1.5 dB.
We can calculate the power as

2.76
 Distortion
◼ Means that the signal changes its form or shape
◼ Distortion occurs in composite signals
◼ Each frequency component has its own
propagation speed traveling through a medium.
◼ The different components therefore arrive with
different delays at the receiver.
◼ That means that the signals have different phases
at the receiver than they did at the source.

2.77
 Figure 2.1.28 Distortion

2.78
 Noise
◼ There are different types of noise
◼ Thermal - random noise of electrons in the wire
creates an extra signal
◼ Induced - from motors and appliances, devices
act are transmitter antenna and medium as
receiving antenna.
◼ Crosstalk - same as above but between two
wires.
◼ Impulse - Spikes that result from power lines,
lighning, etc.

2.79
 Figure 2.1.29 Noise

2.80
 Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR)

◼ To measure the quality of a system the SNR

is often used. It indicates the strength of the
signal wrt the noise power in the system.
◼ It is the ratio between two powers.
◼ It is usually given in dB and referred to as
SNRdB.

2.81
 Example 2.1.31

The power of a signal is 10 mW and the power of the

noise is 1 μW; what are the values of SNR and SNRdB ?

Solution
The values of SNR and SNRdB can be calculated as
follows:

2.82
 Example 2.1.32

The values of SNR and SNRdB for a noiseless channel

are

We can never achieve this ratio in real life; it is an ideal.

2.83
 Figure 2.1.30 Two cases of SNR: a high SNR and a low SNR

2.84
 2.1-5 DATA RATE LIMITS

A very important consideration in data communications

is how fast we can send data, in bits per second, over a
channel. Data rate depends on three factors:
1. The bandwidth available
2. The level of the signals we use
3. The quality of the channel (the level of noise)

Topics discussed in this section:

Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate
Noisy Channel: Shannon Capacity
Using Both Limits

2.85
 Note

Increasing the levels of a signal may

reduce the reliability of the system.

2.86
 Example 2.1.33

Does the Nyquist theorem bit rate agree with the

intuitive bit rate described in baseband transmission?

Solution
They match when we have only two levels. We said, in
baseband transmission, the bit rate is 2 times the
bandwidth if we use only the first harmonic in the worst
case. However, the Nyquist formula is more general than
what we derived intuitively; it can be applied to baseband
transmission and modulation. Also, it can be applied
when we have two or more levels of signals.
2.87
 Example 2.1.34

Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 3000

Hz transmitting a signal with two signal levels. The
maximum bit rate can be calculated as

2.88
 Example 2.1.35

Consider the same noiseless channel transmitting a

signal with four signal levels (for each level, we send 2
bits). The maximum bit rate can be calculated as

2.89
 Example 2.1.36

We need to send 265 kbps over a noiseless channel with

a bandwidth of 20 kHz. How many signal levels do we
need?
Solution
We can use the Nyquist formula as shown:

Since this result is not a power of 2, we need to either

increase the number of levels or reduce the bit rate. If we
have 128 levels, the bit rate is 280 kbps. If we have 64
levels, the bit rate is 240 kbps.
2.90
 Example 2.1.37

Consider an extremely noisy channel in which the value

of the signal-to-noise ratio is almost zero. In other
words, the noise is so strong that the signal is faint. For
this channel the capacity C is calculated as

This means that the capacity of this channel is zero

regardless of the bandwidth. In other words, we cannot
receive any data through this channel.

2.91
 Example 2.1.38

We can calculate the theoretical highest bit rate of a

regular telephone line. A telephone line normally has a
bandwidth of 3000. The signal-to-noise ratio is usually
3162. For this channel the capacity is calculated as

This means that the highest bit rate for a telephone line
is 34.860 kbps. If we want to send data faster than this,
we can either increase the bandwidth of the line or
improve the signal-to-noise ratio.
2.92
 Example 2.1.39

The signal-to-noise ratio is often given in decibels.

Assume that SNRdB = 36 and the channel bandwidth is 2
MHz. The theoretical channel capacity can be calculated
as

2.93
 Example 2.1.40

For practical purposes, when the SNR is very high, we

can assume that SNR + 1 is almost the same as SNR. In
these cases, the theoretical channel capacity can be
simplified to

For example, we can calculate the theoretical capacity of

the previous example as

2.94
 Example 2.1.41

We have a channel with a 1-MHz bandwidth. The SNR

for this channel is 63. What are the appropriate bit rate
and signal level?

Solution
First, we use the Shannon formula to find the upper
limit.

2.95
 Example 2.1.41 (continued)

The Shannon formula gives us 6 Mbps, the upper limit.

For better performance we choose something lower, 4
Mbps, for example. Then we use the Nyquist formula to
find the number of signal levels.

2.96
 Note

The Shannon capacity gives us the

upper limit; the Nyquist formula tells us
how many signal levels we need.

2.97
 2.1-6 PERFORMANCE

One important issue in networking is the performance of

the network—how good is it? We discuss quality of
service, an overall measurement of network performance,
in greater detail in Chapter 24. In this section, we
introduce terms that we need for future chapters.

Topics discussed in this section:

Bandwidth
Throughput
Latency (Delay)
Bandwidth-Delay Product
2.98
 Note

In networking, we use the term

bandwidth in two contexts.
❏ The first, bandwidth in hertz, refers to
the range of frequencies in a
composite signal or the range of
frequencies that a channel can pass.

❏ The second, bandwidth in bits per

second, refers to the speed of bit
transmission in a channel or link.
2.99
 Example 2.1.42

The bandwidth of a subscriber line is 4 kHz for voice or

data. The bandwidth of this line for data transmission
can be up to 56,000 bps using a sophisticated modem to
change the digital signal to analog.

2.100
 Example 2.1.43

If the telephone company improves the quality of the line

and increases the bandwidth to 8 kHz, we can send
112,000 bps by using the same technology as mentioned
in Example 3.42.

2.101
 Example 2.1.44

A network with bandwidth of 10 Mbps can pass only an

average of 12,000 frames per minute with each frame
carrying an average of 10,000 bits. What is the
throughput of this network?

Solution
We can calculate the throughput as

The throughput is almost one-fifth of the bandwidth in

this case.
2.102
 Example 2.1.45

What is the propagation time if the distance between the

two points is 12,000 km? Assume the propagation speed
to be 2.4 × 108 m/s in cable.

Solution
We can calculate the propagation time as

The example shows that a bit can go over the Atlantic

Ocean in only 50 ms if there is a direct cable between the
source and the destination.
2.103
 Example 2.1.46

What are the propagation time and the transmission

time for a 2.5-kbyte message (an e-mail) if the
bandwidth of the network is 1 Gbps? Assume that the
distance between the sender and the receiver is 12,000
km and that light travels at 2.4 × 108 m/s.

Solution
We can calculate the propagation and transmission time
as shown on the next slide:

2.104
 Example 2.1.46 (continued)

Note that in this case, because the message is short and

the bandwidth is high, the dominant factor is the
propagation time, not the transmission time. The
transmission time can be ignored.

2.105
 Example 2.1.47

What are the propagation time and the transmission

time for a 5-Mbyte message (an image) if the bandwidth
of the network is 1 Mbps? Assume that the distance
between the sender and the receiver is 12,000 km and
that light travels at 2.4 × 108 m/s.

Solution
We can calculate the propagation and transmission
times as shown on the next slide.

2.106
 Example 2.1.47 (continued)

Note that in this case, because the message is very long

and the bandwidth is not very high, the dominant factor
is the transmission time, not the propagation time. The
propagation time can be ignored.

2.107
 Figure 2.1.31 Filling the link with bits for case 1

2.108
 Example 2.1.48

We can think about the link between two points as a

pipe. The cross section of the pipe represents the
bandwidth, and the length of the pipe represents the
delay. We can say the volume of the pipe defines the
bandwidth-delay product, as shown in Figure 3.33.

2.109
 Figure 2.1.32 Filling the link with bits in case 2

2.110
 Note

The bandwidth-delay product defines

the number of bits that can fill the link.

2.111
 Figure 2.1.33 Concept of bandwidth-delay product

2.112