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SYLLABUS:
A.C. Fundamentals: Equation of AC Voltage and current, waveform, time period, frequency, amplitude,
phase, phase difference, average value, RMS value, form factor, peak factor. (only definitions)
Voltage and current relationship with phasor diagrams in R, L, and C circuits. Concept of Impedance.
Analysis of R-L, R-C, R-L-C Series circuits.Active power, reactive power and apparent power.
Concept of power factor. (Simple Numerical).
Three Phase Circuits: Generation of Three phase AC quantity, advantages and limitations; star and delta
connection, relationship between line and phase quantities (excluding proof)

A.C. Fundamentals:
The majority of electrical power in the world is generated, distributed, and consumed in the form of 50- or 60-
Hz sinusoidal alternating current (AC) and voltage. It is used for household and industrial
applications.When an alternator produces AC voltage, the voltage switches polarity over time, but does
so in a very particular manner. When graphed over time, the “wave” takes on a distinct shape, known as
a sine wave: Figure below

Fig.Graph of AC voltage over time (the sine wave).

The correspondence mathematical form is v t ( ) = Vm sin(ωt) ,
 Vm-Peak value of voltage
 , ω = 2πf is the angular f expressed in radians per second (rad/s),
 f is the frequency expressed in Hertz (Hz),
 t is the time expressed in second (s)
 θ is phase of the sinusoid expressed in degrees
Basic terminologies related to alternating quantity is given below:
1. AC Voltage and Current: Alternating current (AC) is an electric current that periodically reverses
direction. AC voltage and current vary over time, unlike direct current (DC), which flows in one direction
constantly.
2. Waveform: A waveform is a graphical representation of the variation of AC voltage or current
with respect to time. Common waveforms include sine waves, square waves, and triangular
waves.
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3. Time Period (T): The time period of an AC waveform is the time it takes for one complete cycle,
from a starting point, to return to that point AND is measured in SECONDS (S)..
4. Frequency (f): Frequency is the number of cycles of an AC waveform that occur in one second
and is measured in Hertz (Hz).
5. Amplitude: Amplitude refers to the maximum value of the AC waveform, indicating the peak value
above and below the zero voltage or current).
6. Phase: Phase in AC refers to the position of a waveform relative to a reference point in time. It's often
measured in degrees or radians and describes the fraction of a cycle that has passed since the
waveform started.
7. Phase Difference: Phase difference is the angular difference between two AC waveforms .

The generalised mathematical expression to define these two sinusoidal quantities will be written as:

The current, i is lagging the voltage, v by angle Φ and in our example above this is 30o.

8. Average Value: The average value of an AC waveform is the mean value of the waveform over one
complete cycle. For a symmetrical waveform, the average value is zero.So,only one half cycle of ac
waveform is considerdd to computed average value.
Vav =0.636 Vm
9. RMS Value (Root Mean Square): The RMS value of an AC waveform is the square root of the mean
of the squares of all instantaneous values over one cycle. It represents the equivalent DC value
that would produce the same power in a resistive load.
Mathematically, Irms = Im = Im/ √2 = 0.707 Im
10. Form Factor: Form factor is the ratio of the RMS value to the average value of an AC waveform. It
provides information about the waveform's shape and deviation from a pure sine wave.
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FF = Irms / Iav = 0.707 Im / 0.636Im = 1.1

11. Peak Factor: Peak factor is the ratio of the peak value (maximum) to the RMS value of an AC
waveform. It indicates how much the waveform exceeds its RMS value.
PF = Im / 0.707 Im = √2 =1.414
Concept of Impedance(Z)
Impedance is the measure of the opposition that a circuit presents to a current when an voltage is applied.
Impedance is complex combination of resistance R(opposition to the flow of current) in a circuit and
reactance X(opposition to the change in current- due to inductance and capacitance)
i.e, impedance Z= R+jX
Reactance is defined as the opposition to the flow of current from a circuit element due to its inductance and
capacitance. Greater reactance leads to smaller currents for the same applied voltage.
When an alternating current passed, the energy is stored in the element that contains reactance. The
energy is released in the form of an electric field or magnetic field.
In the magnetic field, the reactance resists change in current, and in the electric field, it resists the
change in voltage.
An ideal resistor has zero reactance, whereas ideal inductors and capacitors have zero resistance.
Impedance is a complex quantity that is represented using both magnitude and phase angle.Impedance’s
opposition to current depends on the frequency of the circuit. Resistance can be thought of as impedance with
a phase angle of zero.
Reactance Formula
The reactance is denoted as ‘X’. Total reactance is a summation of inductive reactance (XL) and capacitive
reactance (XC). X = XL+ XC
When a circuit element contains only inductive reactance, the capacitive reactance is zero and total
reactance X = XL.
When the circuit element contains only capacitive reactance, the inductive reactance is zero and total
reactance X = XC
The inductive elements are stores electrical energy temporarily in the form of a magnetic field
The inductive reactance depends on the supply frequency and the inductance of that element.
The inductive reactance is;XL =2πfL where L is inductance
capacitive reactance :The capacitive reactance is defined as the reactance produced due to the Capacitor. It
is denoted as XC.
The capacitive elements are stores electrical energy temporarily in the form of an electric field
The capacitive reactance depends on the supply frequency and the capacitance of that element.
𝟏
The capacitive reactance XC = 𝟐𝛑𝒇𝑪 where C is capacitance

The reactance is measured in Ohm (Ω).

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A circuit where the current lags 90° (electrical) in respect of the applied voltage in a purely inductive circuit.
A circuit where current leads 90° (electrical) in respect of the applied voltage in a purely capacitive circuit.
A circuit where the current does not lag nor lead in respect to the applied voltage in a purely resistive circuit.
When a circuit is driven with direct current (DC), there is no distinction between impedance and
resistance.
Impedance can be represented in complex form. This is Z=R+jX.
The magnitude of impedance is represented as

Where R is the value of circuit resistance and X is the value of circuit reactance.
𝑿
The angle between applied voltage and current is 𝛗 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 ( ).
𝑹
Voltage and current relationship with phasor diagrams
Phasor diagrams are graphical tools used to represent the relationship between voltage and current in
AC (alternating current) circuits within passive components or a whole circuit.
Sinusoidal waveforms of the same frequency can have a Phase Difference between themselves which
represents the angular difference of the two sinusoidal waveforms. Also the terms “lead” and “lag” as well
as “in-phase” and “out-of-phase” are commonly used to indicate the relationship of one sinusoidal
waveform to another. The generalized sinusoidal expression given as: A(t) = Am sin(ωt ± Φ) represents
the sinusoid in the time-domain form. The phase of an alternating quantity at any instant in time can be
represented by phasor diagrams.
. Phase Angle (Φ): The angle between the voltage phasor (V) and the current phasor (I) in the complex plane
indicates the phase relationship between voltage and current. If the current leads the voltage, the angle is
positive (Φ > 0), and if the current lags the voltage, the angle is negative (Φ < 0).
Generally, Phasor diagrams provide a visual way to understand the relationship between voltage and
current in AC circuits, including their amplitudes, phase differences, etc.
The generalised mathematical expression to define these two sinusoidal quantities will be written as:

Diagram below shows the phasor representation of the above sinusoidal signals
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Pure Resistive AC Circuit

The circuit containing only a pure resistance of R ohms in the AC circuit is known as Pure
Resistive AC Circuit, i.e, inductor and capacitor doesn’t exists.

Let the alternating voltage applied across the circuit be given by the equation

From (1) and (3), it is clear that no phase difference exists between the voltage applied and the current
flowing through a purely resistive circuit.
Hence, the current is in phase with the voltage and the phase angle is zero.
Power:
Instantaneous power, P= VI
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Pure inductive Circuit

The circuit which contains only inductance (L) and not any other quantities like resistance and
capacitance in the circuit is called a Pure inductive circuit. In this type of circuit, the current lags
behind the voltage by an angle of 90 degrees.

Let the alternating voltage applied to the circuit is given by the equation:

The induced emf due to alternating current: is given by:

The emf which is induced in the circuit is equal and opposite to the applied voltage.

(1)= (2),substituting (1) and (2) in above equation, we get

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Integrating on both sides,

Power: Instantaneous power in the inductive circuit is given by

University Qn- A Pure inductor exited by sinusoidal varying Ac Voltage Show That The
average Power consumed by inductor is zero.
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Pure Capacitor Circuit

The circuit which contains only CAPACITOR (C) and not any other quantities like resistance and inductor in
the circuit is called a pure capacitive circuit. In this type of circuit, the current leads the voltage by an
angle of 90 degrees.
(The capacitor consists of two conductive plates which are separated by the dielectric medium. The dielectric
material is made up of glass, paper, mica, oxide layers, etc.)

Let the
alternating voltage applied to the circuit is given by the equation:

Current flowing through the circuit is given by the equation:

Charge of the capacitor at any instant of time is given as

:
Putting the value of q from the equation (2) in equation (3) we will get

Now, putting the value of v from the equation (1) in the equation (3) we will get

Power in Pure Capacitor Circuit: The instantaneous power is given by P= VI

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The average value of sinusoidal term is zero, So the power dissipated in pure inductor is
always zero.
University Qn- A Pure inductor exited by sinusoidal varying Ac Voltage Show That The
average Power consumed by inductor is zero.
RL Series Circuits

A circuit that contains a pure resistance R ohms connected in series with a coil having a pure inductance
of L (Henry) is known as RL Series Circuit.

When an AC supply voltage V is applied, the current, I flows in the circuit.So, IR and IL will be the current
flowing in the resistor and inductor respectively, but the amount of current flowing through both the elements
will be same due to series connection.

The circuit diagram of RL Series Circuit is shown below:

In above circuit diagram,

VR = I R - voltage across the resistor R
VL = I XL– voltage across the inductor L
V – Total voltage of the circuit
Steps to draw the Phasor Diagram of RL Series Circuit
 Current I is taken as a reference and drawn in horizontal axis as IR=IL , i.e,current flowing through both
elements is same.
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 In resistor, both voltage and current are in same phase. So draw the voltage phasor, VR along same
axis or direction as that of current phasor. i.e VR is in phase with I.
 In inductor, voltage leads current by 90o, so draw VL above and perpendicular to current phasor .
 The Applied voltage ‘V’ is resultant of VR & VL.
By applying Pythagoras theorem in Right angle triangle OAB, We get,

Where,Z is the total opposition offered to the flow of alternating current by an RL Series circuit and is
called impedance of the circuit.

From Vector diagram,the alternating current flowing in RL series circuit is given by,

Phase angle:

In Right angle triangle OAB

Power in R L Series Circuit

The instantaneous power P=VI
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University question:
Develop an equation for the power consumed by a R _L series Circuit Draw The Waveform Of Voltage
current and power
RC circuit
A circuit that contains a pure resistance R ohms connected in series with pure capacitor of capacitance C
in Farads is known as RC Series Circuit. When an AC supply voltage V is applied, the current, I flow in the
circuit.But the amount of current flowing through both the elements IR and IC will be same due to series
connection.

Steps to draw a Phasor Diagram

The following steps are used to draw the phasor diagram of RC Series circuit

 Current I is taken as a reference and drawn in horizontal axis as current flowing through both
elements is same.
 In resistor, both voltage and current are in same phase. So draw the voltage phasor, VR along same
axis or direction as that of current phasor. i.e VR is in phase with I.
 In capacitor, voltage lags current by 90o, so draw VL perpendicular and below to current phasor .
 The Applied voltage ‘V’ is resultant of VR & VC.
By applying Pythagoras theorem in Right angle triangle OAB, We get,

Where,Z is the total opposition offered to the flow of alternating current by an RC Series circuit and is
called impedance of the circuit.
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From Vector diagram,the alternating current flowing in RL series circuit is given by,

Phase angle:,

In Right angle triangle OAB,

POWER IN R-C circuit:

The instantaneous power P=VI

RLC Series Circuit

When a pure resistance of R ohms, a pure inductance of L Henry and a pure capacitance of C farads are
connected together in series combination with each other then RLC Series Circuit is formed.
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As all the three elements are connected in series so, the current flowing through each element of the circuit will
be the same as the total current I flowing in the circuit.

The circuit will acting as an inductive circuit if (VL>VC) is shown below and if (VL< VC) the
circuit will behave as a capacitive circuit.
Steps to draw Phasor:
 Current I is taken as a reference and draw in horizontal axis
 In resistor, both voltage and current are in same phase. So draw the voltage phasor, VR along same
axis or direction as that of current phasor.
 In Inductor voltage leads current by 90o, so draw VL perpendicular and above to current phasor
 In capacitor, voltage lags current by 90o, so draw VL perpendicular and below to current phasor .
 The two vector VL and VC are opposite to each other.
 The Applied voltage ‘V’ is resultant of VR , VC & VC.
The three cases of RLC Series Circuit

 When XL > XC, the phase angle ϕ is positive. The circuit behaves as RL series circuit in which the
current lags behind the applied voltage and the power factor is lagging.
 When XL < XC, the phase angle ϕ is negative, and the circuit acts as a series RC circuit in which the
current leads the voltage by 90 degrees.
 When XL = XC, the phase angle ϕ is zero, as a result, the circuit behaves like a purely resistive circuit. In
this type of circuit, the current and voltage are in phase with each other. The value of the power factor
is unity.
CASE 1: XL > XC
By applying Pythagoras theorem in Right angle triangle OAB, We get,
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From phasor diagram, current is given by:

Power in RLC Series Circuit

As XL > XC- The circuit behaves like a R-L series circuit.

CASE 2: XC > XL
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Power: As XC>XL-The circuit behaves like R-C SEIES circuit.

So,it can be proved that

CASE 3: XL = XC
When XL = XC, XL - XC=0 , phase angle φ = 0,So,power factor cos φ=1
So.the circuit behaves like pure resistive circuit.
Power consumed P = Vrms Irms
Active power, Reactive Power and Apparemt Power:
Active power (P), reactive power (Q), and apparent power (S) are important concepts in the field of electrical
power systems. They are used to describe different aspects of the power consumed or supplied by an
electrical circuit. These quantities are often expressed in units of watts (W) or volt-amperes (VA).

Active Power (P):

 Active power, also known as real power, is the portion of power that actually does the work in the
circuit. It is the power that is converted into useful work, such as mechanical output or heat.
 Active power is measured in watts (W) and is represented by the symbol P.
 Mathematically, P=VIcos(ϕ), where V is the voltage,I is the current, and ϕ is the phase angle between
the voltage and current.
Reactive Power (Q):
Reactive power is the power that does not perform any real work but is necessary for the operation of
inductive and capacitive loads in the circuit.
Reactive power is measured in volt-amperes reactive (VAR) and is represented by the symbol Q.
Mathematically,Q=VIsin(ϕ), where V is the voltage, I is the current, and ϕ is the phase angle between
the voltage and current.
Apparent Power (S):
Apparent power is the combination of active power and reactive power. It represents the total power flow in
the circuit, including both the useful (real) power and the reactive power.
Apparent power is measured in volt-amperes (VA) and is represented by the symbol �S.
Mathematically, S=VI, where V is the voltage and I is the current.

The relationships between active power, reactive power, and apparent power can be expressed using
the power triangle:

S2=P2+Q2

This relationship is based on the Pythagorean theorem and illustrates the vector relationship between active,
reactive, and apparent power.

In summary:

Active power is the actual power doing useful work.

Reactive power is the power associated with the reactive elements in the circuit.
Apparent power is the total power, combining both active and reactive power.

Fig. below is the triangle representation of these powers.

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Three Phase Circuits:

The three-phase power is mainly used for generation, transmission, and distribution of electrical power because of its
superiority. It is more economical as compared to single-phase power and requires three live conductors for
power supply.The three-phase power is generated by a three-phase AC generator having three identical windings displaced
apart from each other by 120 degrees electrical.
Generation of Three phase AC quantity

In a 3 phase system, there are three equal voltages or EMFs of the same frequency having a phase
difference of 120 degrees. These voltages can be produced by a three-phase AC generator having three
identical windings displaced apart from each other by 120 degrees electrical.

When these windings are kept stationary, and the magnetic field is rotated as shown in the figure A
below or when the windings are kept stationary, and the magnetic field is rotated as shown below
in figure B, an emf is induced in each winding. The magnitude and frequency of these EMFs are the
same but are displaced apart from one another by an angle of 120 degrees.

consider three identical coils a1a2,

b1b2 and c1c2 as shown in the above figure. In this figure a1, b1 and c1 are the starting terminals, whereas
a2, b2 and c2 are the finish terminals of the three coils. The phase difference of 120 degrees has to
be maintained between the start terminals a1, b1 and c1.
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Now, let the three coils mounted on the same axis, and they are rotated by either keeping coil stationary
and moving the magnetic field or vice versa in an anticlockwise direction at (ω) radians per seconds.
Three EMFs are induced in the three coils respectively.

Considering the figure C, the analysis of their magnitudes and directions are given as follows:

The emf induced in the coil a1a2 is zero and is increasing in the positive direction as shown by the
waveform in the above figure C represented as ea1a2.

The coil b1b2 is 120 degrees electrically behind the coil a1a2. The emf induced in this coil is negative and is
becoming maximum negative as shown by the wave eb1b2.

Similarly, the coil c1c2 is 120 degrees electrically behind the coil b1b2, or we can also say that the coil c1c2 is
240 degrees behind the coil a1a2. The emf induced in the coil is positive and is decreasing as shown in
figure C represented by the waveform ec1c2.

These EMFs of 3 phase circuits can be expressed in the form of the various equations given below:

This is all about Generation of 3 Phase Power in 3 Phase Circuits.

1. Advantages of Three-phase transformers over Single-phase transformers

- Inexpensive: Compared with single-phase transformers, 3-phase transformers are cheaper. It has a lower cost when
compared to three units of a single-phase transformer.

- Lightweight: Three-phase transformers are light in weight and smaller in size than single-phase transformers,
which means they take up less space.

- Higher efficiency: The three-phase transformer performs its functions more efficiently and delivers more power
than a single-phase transformer.
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- Easier to install: Pre-wired 3-phase transformer is ready to install, making the installation very easy and smooth.

- Easy transportation: To provide the same output, the material used to fabricate the core of a 3-phase transformer
is very little compared to that of 3 single-phase transformers. Therefore, they aren't only easy transportation but also
lower shipping costs.

Disadvantages of 3-phase transformers

 Cost of repair: Repair costs for 3-phase transformers are higher because it is very costly to change each component.
Hence, for service recovery, the spare unit cost is higher when compared with single-phase transformers.
 Reduced capacity: Because the 3-phase transformer is self-cooled, the transformer's power is also reduced
simultaneously.
 Fault correction: In the event of a fault in any phase of a 3-phase transformer, the fault is transferred to the other
two phases. Therefore, the entire unit needs to be replaced.
star and delta connection
Star and delta connections are two different methods used for connecting 3 phase systems 1

Star Connection:
Star connection “Y” is obtained by joining together similar ends of coils either “starting” or finishing. The other ends
are joined to the line wires. The common point is called the Neutral or Star Point. This three-phase, 4-wires system is
used in power distribution, transformers and small scale domestic and residential applications.
Delta Connection
Delta or Mesh Connection “Δ” is obtained by connecting the starting end of the first coil to the finishing end of the
second coil and so on (for all three coils) which forms like a closed loop or mesh circuit. This three-phase, 3-wires
system is used in power transmission, transformers, and large scale industrial and commercial applications.
In both systems, the Voltage between two phases (Line to Line) is known as Line Voltage, while the voltage
between Phase to Neutral (Line to Neutral) is known as Phase voltage. The voltage between any line (or phase) and
Neutral is single phase while voltage between all three lines (or phases) is known as three phase voltage. Keep in
mind that the power in both systems are always equal and same as it is the game of different levels of voltages and
currents only used in different systems based on the requirement.
The following table better summarizes the differences and comparison between Star and Delta Connection
.STAR Connection (Y) DELTA Connection (Δ)
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In STAR Connection, the starting or finishing

ends (similar ends) of three coils are connected In DELTA Connection, the opposite
together to form the neutral point in the shape ends of three coils are connected
of letter “Y”. together which forms the shape of
A common wire is taken out from the neutral Greek alphabet “Δ”. .
point which is known as the Neutral Wire.
There is a Neutral or Star Point. No Neutral Point in Delta Connection.
There are Three conductors in the
There are Four conductors in the star
delta connection (3 Phase Wires e.g.
connection (3 Phase Wires + 1 Neutral Wire).
All are phases).

Line Current = Phase Current  Line Current = √3 × Phase Current

 IL = IPH  IL = √3 × IPH
 Line Voltage = √3 × Phase Voltage  Line Voltage = Phase Voltage
 VL = √3 × VPH  VL = VPH
Total Power P = √3 × VL × IL × CosФ
Total Power P = √3 × VL × IL × CosФ

Low insulation required as phase voltage is low More insulation is required as Phase
as compared to Delta. voltage = Line Voltage.
Delta connection is preferred for
Star connection is preferred for long distance
shorter distance transmission and
transmission and distribution as it requires low
distribution as it requires more
insulation and has a Neutral
insulation
Two different voltage levels can be achieved by Only a single magnitude of voltage
using star connection i.e. single phase and can be achieved by using the delta
three phase supply. (3 Phases and Phase +N). connection
Star connection is preferably used in the Delta connection is generally used in
domestic and residential applications for single the industrial and commercial
phase supply applications for three phase supply
Delta connection is generally used for
Star connection is commonly used for
high starting torque applications e.g.
appliances which need less amount of starting
large electric motors in the industries
current e.g. small load applications.
etc.