6

Electromagnetic
Module
Magnetic Resonance Imaging
No Title
1 Introduction.
2 MRI Magnet.
3 Gradients.
4 Spatial Encoding.
5 Image Formation.
6 Sequences.
7 Block Diagram.
1. Introduction

- Hydrogen nuclei (protons) have magnetic properties,

called nuclear spin. They behave like small tiny rotating
magnets, and can be present by vectors.
H+

- The magnetic field strength resulted from the rotation and this
field with specific direction depends upon:
1. Location of the Proton inside the tissue of the body.
2. Total number of the Hydrogen proton per tissue.
- Within a large external magnetic field (called Bo), slightly
more than half align with the field.
- This imbalance creates Mo. Some of the spins align with the
field (enphase) and some align against field (dephase).
Mo B o
Why is Hydrogen used in MRI?

• It is a single proton and therefore has the strongest magnetic dipole.

• It is contained within Water and Lipids and is therefore in abundance in the body.
• Each cubic mm contains 1019 protons
376
Larmor Frequency.
Bo Bo
- Spins (or precess) about the axis of the Bo field (Longitudinal
Axis) so as to describe a cone.
- This is called precession. Precession corresponds to the gyration
of the rotating axis of a spinning body about an intersecting
axis.
- The resonance frequency, called Larmor frequency (ωo) or precessional
frequency, is proportional to the main magnetic field strength: ωo = γ Bo.
The precessional frequency and the external magnetic field are related by the
Larmor Equation.

w = precessional freq (Hz)

γ = gyromagnetic ratio w = γ Bo
Bo = Magnetic Field Strength

- The gyromagnetic Ratio for Hydrogen is 42.6MHz/T.

- If other nuclei were being used during the MRI scan a differing constant
would be necessary e.g.: Carbon 13 = 10.7 MHz/T.

377
Magnetization. Z axis = ?

The magnetic vector of spinning protons can be

broken down into two orthogonal components:
1. A longitudinal or Z component, and
2. A transverse component, lying on the XY plane. XY plane = ?

Relaxation.
Return to equilibrium of net magnetization is called
Relaxation

- Longitudinal relaxation is due to energy exchange

between the spins and surrounding lattice (spin-lattice
relaxation), re-establishing thermal equilibrium.
- As spins go from a high energy state back to a low
energy state, RF energy is released back into the
surrounding lattice.

378
 T1 Relaxation
Signal
With no other signal considerations this
would mean that the protons with short White Matter
Fat
T1 time would contribute the highest
signal on the image.
Hydrogen in differing
Pixel containing protons tissues has a different
with short T1 time. (e.g. Fat) T1 Time.
TR
T2 Decay
With no other signal considerations Signal
this would mean that the protons with a
long T2 time would contribute the
highest signal on the image.
Water

Pixel containing protons with Grey Matter

short T2 time. (e.g. Water)
TE
2. MRI Magnet.

MRI scanners come in various shapes and they are

based on several distinctly different technologies
to create the static background field (Bo).

MRI magnets can be classified in various ways:

1. By their basic shape (open, with the field
oriented perpendicular to head-feet direction
of the patient or cylindrical/closed bore, with
the field along the head-feet direction).
2. By the way the field is generated (by currents in
superconducting or resistive coils or by permanent
magnet material).
3. Gradient.

Gradient coils are used to:

1. Produce slow variations in the main magnetic field (B0).
2. There are three sets of gradient coils, one for each direction.
3. The variation in the magnetic field permits localization of image slices as well as phase
encoding and frequency encoding.
4. The set of gradient coils for the z axis are:
a) Helmholtz pairs, and
b) For the x and y axes, paired saddle coils (Maxwell).
Gradients Components.

- They produce a linear variation in magnetic

field intensity in a direction in space.
- This variation in magnetic field intensity is
added to the main magnetic field, which is far
more powerful.
- The variation is produced by pairs of coils,
placed in each spatial direction.
An MR scanner generally contains:
1. A « whole body » coil, located in the cylinder of the machine, homogeneously
covering the entire scan volume.
2. Surface coils offer a better SNR and imaging capacity with higher spatial
resolution.

Notes:
1. The sensitive volume of surface coils,
being placed in direct contact with the
zone of interest, has less depth and is
more heterogeneous.
2. The homogeneity and sensitive volume
of surface coils can be improved by
combining them into a phased array.
They still have the advantage of a
better SNR, but at the cost of more
complex signal processing.
4. Spatial Encoding.

- WHERE THE SIGNAL IS COMING FROM?

- To localize the voxels, spatial information needs to be encoded into the
NMR signal. Three steps are required:
a. First of all, the desired SLICE must be selected, then
b. Spatial information is encoded along the ROWS.
c. Finally, spatial information is encoded along the COLUMNS.
- Decoding of spatial information, included in the NMR signal as
modifications of frequency and phase, is performed by an inverse
Fourier Transform. 180
90
RF
Slice Select Gradient GZ 1.6
(Slice)
Gs=Gz
Pulse Sequence Diagram PSD

Gz
1.5 Bo

1.4 NB Real numbers used in MRI

differ from this example
- This modifies resonance frequency, in proportion to the
intensity of the magnetic field to which they are submitted Bo+Bg
(in accordance with Larmor’s equation: the stronger the Isocenter
field, the faster they precess).
- This variation in Larmor frequency also causes a variation
and dispersion of spin phases. Bo-Bg

Phase Shifts caused by a gradient application.

By switching on a gradient during the RF Pulse we can

dictate both: 1.6T
a. The slice thickness and, RF Pulse = 63 MHz (+/- 500Hz)
b. The location of the slice.
Only protons precessing at the resonant Frequency of 63MHz
+/- 500Hz will be flipped by the RF Pulse. This limits the
slice thickness.
Thickness
1.4T
 Phase Encoding

- The second step in spatial encoding consists in applying a phase encoding

gradient, which we will choose to apply in the vertical direction.
- The phase encoding gradient (GPE) intervenes for a limited time period.
While it is applied, it modifies the spin resonance frequencies, inducing
dephasing, which persists after the gradient is interrupted.
- This results in all the protons precessing in the same frequency but in
different phases.
- The protons in the same row, perpendicular to the gradient direction, will
all have the same phase. This phase difference lasts until the signal is
recorded.

On receiving the signal,

each row of protons will
be slightly out of phase.
This translates as their
signals being more or less
out of phase.
Frequency Encoding
- The final step in spatial encoding consists in applying a frequency encoding
gradient, when the signal is received, in the last direction (horizontal in our
example).
- This modifies the Larmor frequencies in the horizontal direction throughout the
time it is applied.
- It thus creates proton columns, which all have an identical Larmor frequency.

As this gradient is
applied simultaneously on
receiving the signal, the
frequency data is included.
5. Image Formation.

- The readout MR signal is a mix of RF waves with different:

1. Amplitudes,
2. Frequencies and
3. Phases, containing spatial information.

- This signal is digitized and raw data are written into a data
matrix called K-space.
- K-space data are equivalent to a Fourier plane.
- To go from a k-space data to an image requires using a 2D
inverse Fourier Transform.

Single frequency
To describe a sine wave, we need its
amplitude and frequency, but also its
phase. The following animation illustrates
the consequence of a phase change on the
sine wave (shift in time domain).
Multiple frequencies
- The Fourier transform is a mathematical
procedure that decomposes a signal into a sum
of sine waves of different frequencies, phases
and amplitude.
- The human ear does the same processing with
sounds, which are analyzed as a spectrum of
elementary frequencies.
- Knowing frequency, amplitude and phase of
each sine wave, it is possible to reconstruct the
signal (inverse Fourier transform).
Spatial Frequency

- Fourier transform is able to decompose images.

- Instead of analyzing a time varying signal, it
decomposes a variation of intensity (gray levels)
over distance.
- Time domain becomes space domain (time variable
replaced by X-coordinate) and frequency is called
spatial frequency.
K – Space.

- The readout MR signal is stored in K-space

which is equivalent to a Fourier plane.
- To go from a k-space data to an image
requires using a 2D inverse Fourier
Transform.
6. MRI sequences

- MRI is the imaging technique that has most benefited from

technological innovation.
- The many advances have led to improvements in quality and acquisition
speed.
- Each sequence is a subtle combination of radiofrequency pulses and
gradients. Whatever the type of sequence, the aims are to:

1. Favor the signal of a particular tissue

(contrast), (SIGNAL)
2. As quickly as possible (speed), (TIME)
3. While limiting the artifacts and without
altering the signal to noise ratio. (SNR)
There are over a hundred different
sequences and to complicate things further,
manufacturers tend to each choose their own
acronyms!
Acronyms. - Due to manufacturers each using their own terminology to denominate their sequences, there
are no standard denominations for each common type of sequence.
- Here is a sample table of the equivalent manufacturers’ acronyms with the corresponding type
of sequence

Type of sequence Philips Siemens GE Hitachi Toshiba

Spin Echo (SE) SE SE SE SE SE

Multi echo SE Multi SE Multi écho SE SE Multi écho
MS
Fast SE Turbo SE Turbo SE Fast SE Fast SE Fast SE
Ultra fast SE SSH-TSE SSTSE SS-FSE FSE - ADA (Super)FASE

UFSE HASTE DIET

IR IR IR/IRM IR IR IR

IR TSE TurboIR/TIRM FSE-IR FIR Fast IR

STIR STIR STIR STIR STIR STIR

STIR TSE Turbo STIR Fast STIR Fast STIR Fast STIR
FLAIR FLAIR FLAIR FLAIR FLAIR FLAIR

FLAIR TSE Turbo FLAIR Fast FLAIR Fast FLAIR Fast FLAIR
7. MRI Block Diagram

The basic components of an NMR imaging system are

shown in Fig. These are:

- A magnet, which provides a strong uniform, steady,

magnet field B0;
- An RF transmitter, which delivers radio-frequency
magnetic field to the sample;
- A gradient system, which produces time-varying
magnetic fields of controlled spatial non-uniformity;
- A detection system, which yields the output signal; and
- An imager system, including the computer, which
reconstructs and displays the images.

- Functions such as gates and envelopes for the NMR pulses, blanking for the pre-amplifier and RF power
amplifier and voltage waveforms for the gradient magnetic fields are all under software control.
- The computer performs the various data processing tasks including the FT, image reconstruction, data filtering,
image display and storage.
- Therefore, the computer must have sufficient memory and speed to handle large image arrays and data
processing, in addition to interfacing facilities.
The Magnet

- Four factors characterize the performance of the magnets used in

MR systems;
1. Field strength (Bo),
2. Temporal stability,
3. Homogeneity and
4. Bore size.
- Such a magnetic field can be produced by means of four
different ways:
1. Permanent magnets,
2. Electromagnets,
3. Resistive magnets and
4. Super-conducting magnets.

- There is an increasing tendency to use higher magnetic Fields (3.0T) which stems from the fact that
SNR increases with the field strength, allowing greater sensitivity to contrasts of interest, including
functional blood oxygen level dependent (BOLD) contrasts, and higher spatial resolution.
- However, as more experience is gained in functional MR imaging at 3.0 T and higher, it turns out that
there are also rather complex physiological dependencies that are much less obvious and cannot be
assessed easily by physical laws.
RF Receiver:

- An RF receiver is used to process the signals from the receiver coils.

- Most modern MRI systems have six or more receivers to process the signals from
multiple coils.
- The signals range from approximately 1 MHz to 300 MHz, with the frequency
range highly dependent on applied Bo.

- The bandwidth of the received signal is

small, typically less than 20 kHz, and
dependent on the magnitude of the
gradient field.
- The receiver is also a detection system
whose function is to detect the nuclear
magnetization and generate an output
signal for processing by the computer.
The receiver coil usually surrounds the sample
and acts as an antenna to pick up the
fluctuating nuclear magnetization of the
sample and converts it to a fluctuating output
voltage V(t)
- The RF signals constitute the variable measured in
magnetic resonance tomography. SNR ~ K (Q/Vc)
- These are extremely weak signals having an amplitude in
the nV (nano-Volt) range thus requiring specially - Where K is a numerical constant, specific to
designed RF antennas. the coil geometry,
- Q is the coil magnetization factor, and
- The sensitivity of an MR scanner therefore depends on
- Vc is the coil volume.
the quality of its RF receiving antenna.
- For a given sample magnetization, Bo and sample
volume, the SNR of the RF signal at the receiver depends
in the following manner upon the RF-receiving antenna.
Gradient System for Spatial Coding:

- Spatial distribution information can be obtained by using the fact that the resonance frequency depends on
the Bo.
- By varying the field in a known manner through the specimen volume, it is possible to select the region of
the specimen from which the information is derived on the basis of the frequency of the signal (Slice
Selection).
- The strength of the signal at each frequency can be interpreted as the density of the hydrogen nuclei in the
plane within the object where the magnetic field corresponds to that frequency.
- NMR imaging methods exploit this property by way of carefully controlled, well-defined gradients to
modulate the NMR signal in a known manner such that the spatial information can later be decoded and
plotted as an image.
- Typically, the gradients are chosen with linear spatial dependence so that the NMR frequency spectrum
directly corresponds to the position or even one or more spatial co-ordinate axes.
- The imaging methods differ mainly in the nature of the gradient time dependence (static, continuously time-
depended or pulsed), and in the type of NMR pulse sequence employed.
A block diagram of the system used is shown in Fig. The hardware can be broken down into four sub-systems.
First sub-system:
- Includes the interface between the computer and the gradient control system.
- Its primary function is to allow the independent positioning of the three time invariant planes (X, Y and Z).

- The circuit is essentially a

serial to parallel converter
with independent reset
times.
- A set of switches allows
either manual or program
control over each plane
position.
- The digital oscillator
consists of a 555 timer
followed by shift registers.
- Twelve registers shift out a
sine while the other twelve
shift out a cosine wave.
Second sub-system:
- A digital oscillator facilitates varying the output frequency over an extremely wide range through the use of
a single control.
- Also the digital oscillator could easily be modified to allow computer-controlled stepping of the output to
yield pre-set sine and cosine vectors.
- The 8-bit input from the interface circuit is used directly to control one attenuator while the same 8-bits are
inverted to control the second attenuator.
- This results in two complementary sine wave outputs which can be stepped through 256 positions.
- The resultant current I0 is given by:
- I0 = Icoil 1 – Icoil 2.

Third sub-system:
- The output of the attenuators is then voltage-amplified by two op amps prior to the driven circuits.
- Current control requires through the shim coil so that the control used to adjust the static field gradients be
available for setting the DC levels upon which the alternating gradients are superimposed.
- An op amp serves the differential voltage drop across a dummy load (having the same resistance as the
shim coil) and produces an output which is then DC coupled to the drivers.
- The high current drivers use a conventional design with a single op amp providing the input to a driver and
a complimentary pair of power transistors to provide a sufficient current to the gradient coil.
 Fourth sub-system:
- In typical scanners, gradient coils have an electric resistance of about 1 W and an inductance of 1 mH.
- The gradient fields are required to be switched from 0 to 10 mT/m in about 0.5 ms.
- The current switches from 0 to about 100 A in this interval.
- The power dissipation during the switching interval is about 20 kW.
- This places very strong demands on the power supply and it is often necessary to use water cooling to prevent
overheating of the gradient coils.

Imager System:

- The imager system includes the computer for

image processing, display system and control
console.
- The timing and control of RF and gradient pulse
sequences for relaxation time measurements and
imaging, in addition to FT image reconstruction
and display necessitate the use of a computer.
- The computer is the source of both the voltage
waveforms of all gradient pulses and the envelopes
of the RF pulses.