Semiconductors

Semiconductor is a material which has a resistance between a conductor

and an insulator.
The special features of semiconductor elements however, is that the
atom structure allows conductivity to be increased by adding impurity
element, a process is called Doping. The purpose is to increase number
of free electrons charges that can be moved by the eternal.
 Types of Semiconductor
There are two types of Conductor
1. Intrinsic Semiconductor
2. Extrinsic Semiconductor
•Intrinsic Semiconductor:
As per theory of semiconductor, it is pure semiconductor without any
doping refined to reduce the number of impurities to a very low level,
this are in group four in periodic table (Chemistry).
•Extrinsic Semiconductor:
As per theory of semiconductor, these are impure semiconductors so the
number of free electrons to increase conductivity impurities should be
added to them and the process is also called dopant.
Therefore, there are some dopant used other material. Thus we have two
dopants as
i. Pentavalent atoms, these atoms have 5 Valence such atom arsenic
(as), Phosphorous (pi), antimony (Sb).
ii. Trivalent atoms these atoms have three (3) Valence such as Indium
(In), Aluminum (Al), Boron (B).
In that case from above explanation we have two types of
semiconductors these are,
 a) N type semiconductor
b) P type semiconductor
Characteristics of N type of semiconductor: (silicon Si)
The purpose of doping is to increase the number of (free electrons)
charges that can be moved by external applied voltage.
When the number of free electrons charges is increased, the doped
semiconductor is negative while reducing the number of free electrons
make the material P type of semiconductor.
Note that: pentavalent impurities such as phosphorous, arsenic,
antimony and (5) valence electrons, however when phosphorus
impurities are added to the silicon knowing that phosphorus atom have
four valence electron are locked up in covalent bond with valence
electron of four neighboring Si atom, there by the 5th valence electron of
phosphorous atom does not find a binding electron, thus remain free to
float.
When the phosphorous is added to Si atom, we say that Si is doped with
phosphorous. The resulting mixture is called N type silicon (N Negative
charge silicon).
Now, the pentavalent impurities are refereed as Donor impurities
OR
We may say the diffused impurities with 5 valence electron are called
Donor atom
P- Type of Semiconductor (silicon):
• Trivalent Impurities e.g. Boron, aluminum, indium and gallium has 3
valence electron.
• When boron is added to Si every boron atom, 3 valence electron are
locked up in covalent bond with valence electrons of three neighboring
Si atoms. However, a vacant spot “hole” is created with covalent bond
between one boron atom and neighboring Si atom.
The holes are considered to be positive charge carriers.
• When voltage is applied across the silicon boron, mixture, a hole
moves towards the negative village while neighboring electron fills in its
place.
• When boron is added to Si to yield the above effect, we say that Si is
doped with boron.
The resulting is called P- type silicon (P: positive charge carriers silicon)
The trivalent impurities are referred to as Acceptor impurities
In this type of semiconductor majority carriers are holes and minority
are electron
In short generation of carriers as the process in which free electrons and
holes are generated in pair.

•P&N Junction (Electrostatic):

Barrier or surface or depleted region

What is the affect of P- type and N- type formed together?
Barrier or surface → H is where the PN Junction met and it is also called
the region depleted where mobile charge carrier exist in metallurgical
junction due to mobile charge corner redistribution. In short holes
diffusing into the N- type region and an electron into the P- type region.
• Current in P&N junction:
With doping and N type of semiconductor now has large supply of free
electrons.
Step 1- electrons in N sides are attracted the P side.
Step 2- sometime an equal number hole charges move in opposite
direction.
Step 3- These charges produce neutral electrons in the hole’s pair
however this effect at junction uncovers the charge ions of impurity
atoms.
Step 4- These ions of impurities provide an internal barrier potential (V s)
across two sides of junction.
Step 5- Vd has the polarity to prevent anymore free electrons or hole
charges from crossing the junction.
Step 6- In effect Vb maintain the free electron in the N semiconductor
and the Hole charges in the P semiconductor to prevent the opposite side
from becoming neutralized.
Ion: Is an atom or molecule with net electrical charge considered to be
negatively be convection and is equal to opposite charge of proton-
positive.
P&N junction with depletion zone magnificent to show how ions charge
are produced internal Vb at the barrier.
The internal barrier potential Vb.
It is the international potential the affect can be overcome by 0.3V for
0.7V for Si.
• Forward Voltage:
Forward voltage is applied by wire conductors to the P and electrodes
for bulk materials.
Such a connection without any barrier potential is called an Ohmic
Contact. The external voltage is applied through the bulk materials to
PN junction.
Forward current flows as forward voltage neutralizes Vb. The required
polarity is → + Vf to the P- Electrode – Vf to the N electrode: forward.
In other words, the polarity of Vf corresponds to the semiconductor type.
This polarity of the external Vf can neutralize the internal Vb. The reason
is that → Vf at the P electrodes repels hole charges to the side of the
junction that has negative ion charges for Vb then the negative ions are
neutralized also (-f) repels electron to the junction at the positive side of
Vb to neutralize the positive ions.
• Reversed Voltage:
 Polarity for reverse voltage VR then there is no forward current.
The reverse voltage VR attracts minority charges away from the junction.
Then ions charges at the junction remain intact to maintain Vb. The
polarity of VR is reversed from specifically the required polarity is
VR to the P electron, y reverse
+VR to the N electron
• Current Characteristics:
Forward current:
As shown in Fig for Si with Vb of 0.7V forward current flows when Vf
approach 0.5V → with 0.7V or more Vb forward current increase sharply
to the maximum value at saturation, then the external Vf completely
neutralizes the external Vb.
A middle of Vf for forward current is 0.6 for Si junction, similarly for Ge
junction the range of Vf for forward current is 0.1V to 0.3V, Typical
values of forward current are 0.2 to 20A.
Reverse Current:
With reverse voltage, only small reverse current of minority charges can
flow as shown in figure
•The separate curves indicate typical values of 1ma for Si
Note: the advantage of Si with practically zero reverse current
•This current has the symbol ICO inductor a small cut off current. The
junction is practically an open circuit with reverse voltage compare to
short circuit with forward voltage.
•ICO is the opposite direction from the forward current since ICO
consist of minority charges the current increases with temperature.
For every 10°C rise, the Ico doubles approximately for both Ge and Si
Junction breakdown:
The reverse current is constant at a very small value until VR
reaches the junction breakdown voltage shown as 25V in the above
figure.
Then a relatively large reverse current can flow. Most importantly the
reverse voltage across the junction is constant at breakdown value
This effect is used for voltage regulation diodes.
NOTE: For transistors, amplifiers and rectifier diodes, though the
forward characteristics are used. Then forward current can be controlled
to provide amplication and rectification.