The cell

v Cell is the smallest unit that can live and reproduce on its own or as part of a
multicelled organism.
v Each cell has a plasma membrane, a boundary between its interior and the
outside environment. The interior consists of cytoplasm and an innermost
region of DNA.

What is the cell theory?

1 - All organisms consist of one or more cells.

2 - A cell is the smallest unit with the properties of life.

3 - Each new cell arises from division of another, preexisting cell.

4 - Each cell passes hereditary material to its offspring.

Cell Types

The basic structural and functional unit of every organism is one of two types of cells:

-Prokaryotic cells -Eukaryotic cells

* Only organisms of the domains Bacteria and Archaea consist of prokaryotic cells.

* Protists, fungi, animals, and plants all consist of eukaryotic cells.

Basic features of all cells:

• Plasma membrane.

• Semifluid substance called cytosol.

• Chromosomes (carry genes).

• Ribosomes (make proteins).

General organization of prokaryotic and

eukaryotic cells
The Basics of Cell Structure

All types of cells composed of:

1. A plasma membrane is the cell’s outer membrane.

It separates metabolic activities from events outside of the cell, but does not isolate
the cell’s interior.

Water, carbon dioxide, and oxygen can cross it freely.

Other substances cross only with the assistance of membrane proteins. Still others are
kept out entirely.

2. All eukaryotic cells start life with a nucleus.

This double-membraned sac holds a eukaryotic cell’s DNA.

The DNA inside prokaryotic cells is concentrated in a region of cytoplasm called the
nucleoid.

3. Cytoplasm:

It is a semifluid mixture of water, sugars , ions, and proteins between the plasma
membrane and the region of DNA. Cell components are suspended in cytoplasm.

Prokaryotic cells

Generalized body plan of a prokaryote.

Bacteria and archaea are the

prokaryotes:

- The word prokaryote means “before

the nucleus” a reminder that the first
prokaryotes evolved before the first
eukaryotes.

- In general, they are the smallest and structurally the simplest cells.

- Prokaryotes inhabit nearly all of Earth’s environments.

- Domains Bacteria and Archaea comprise all prokaryotes, cells of the two domains
are alike in appearance and size, but differ in their structure and metabolic details.

- Some characteristics of Achaeans indicate they are more closely related to

eukaryotic cells than to bacteria.
Capsule, is around the wall of many types of bacteria.

- The sticky capsule helps these cells adhere to many types of surfaces, and it also
protects them from predators and toxins.

- Projecting from the wall of many prokaryotic cells are:

§ One or more flagella (singular, flagellum).

§ Protein filaments, or pili, anchor bacterial
cells to one another and to surfaces.

A rigid cell wall surrounds the plasma

membrane of nearly all prokaryotes.

- Dissolved substances easily cross this

permeable layer on the way to and from the
plasma membrane.
- The cell wall of most bacteria consists of peptidoglycan, which is a polymer
of crosslinked peptides and polysaccharides.
- The wall of most Achaeans consists of proteins. Some types of eukaryotic
cells (such as plant cells) also have a wall, but it is structurally different from a
prokaryotic cell wall.

-The plasma membrane bristles with transporters

and receptors, and it also incorporates proteins that
carry out important metabolic processes.

- The plasma membrane of photosynthetic bacteria

has arrays of proteins that capture light energy and
convert it to the chemical energy of ATP. The ATP
is then used to build sugars.

- Similar metabolic processes occur in eukaryotes, but they take place at specialized
internal membranes, not the plasma membrane.

The cytoplasm of prokaryotes contains thousands of ribosomes, structures upon which

polypeptides are assembled.

- A prokaryotic cell’s single chromosome, a circular DNA molecule, is located in an

irregularly shaped region called the nucleoid.

- Most nucleoids are not enclosed by a membrane.

- Many prokaryotes also have plasmids in the
cytoplasm. These small circles of DNA

carry a few genes (units of inheritance antibiotic

resistance)
 Comparing Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells :

Eukaryotic Cells

Eukaryotic cells carry out much of their metabolism inside organelles enclosed by
membranes.

• All eukaryotic cells start out life with a nucleus, a structure that carries out a
specialized function inside a cell.

• Many organelles, particularly those in eukaryotic cells, are bounded by membranes.

• Like all cell membranes, those around organelles control the types and amounts of
substances that cross them.
Organelles of Eukaryotic Cells

Plasma Membrane

§ The plasma membrane is the boundary that separates the living cell from its
surroundings.
§ Plasma membrane is a selective barrier that allows
passage of oxygen, nutrients, and waste to service the
volume of every cell.
§ Cellular membranes are fluid mosaics of double layer of
phospholipids (lipid bilayer) and proteins.
§ Phospholipids are amphipathic molecules, containing
hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions.

The nucleus

• The nucleus contains most of the cell’s genes and is usually the most conspicuous
organelle, it composed of :

1. The nuclear envelope encloses the nucleoplasm, separating it from the cytoplasm; it
is a double membrane; and each consists of a lipid bilayer;

2. Pores regulate the entry and exit

of molecules from the nucleus.

3. The nucleolus is rounded mass of

proteins located within the nucleus
and is the site of ribosomal RNA
(rRNA) synthesis.
4. Nucleoplasm, semifluid interior portion of the nucleus.

5. In the nucleus, DNA is organized into discrete units called chromosomes; each

chromosome is composed of a single DNA molecule associated with proteins.

• The DNA and proteins of chromosomes are together called chromatin;

• Chromatin condenses to form discrete chromosomes as a cell prepares to divide;

Ribosomes: Protein Factories

• Ribosomes are particles made of ribosomal RNA and

protein

• Ribosomes carry out protein synthesis in two locations

-In the cytosol (free ribosomes)

-On the outside of the endoplasmic reticulum or the nuclear envelope (bound
ribosomes)

The Endomembrane System

The endomembrane system regulates protein traffic and performs metabolic functions
in the cell.

Products are sorted and shipped to various destinations

Components of the endomembrane system;

§ Nuclear envelope;
§ Endoplasmic reticulum
§ Golgi apparatus
§ Lysosomes
§ Vacuoles
§ Plasma membrane

These components are either continuous or connected via transfer by vesicles.

The Endoplasmic Reticulum: Biosynthetic Factory

• The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) accounts for more than half of the total
membrane in many eukaryotic cells.
• The ER membrane is continuous with the nuclear envelope.
• There are two distinct regions of ER;
• Smooth ER,which lacks ribosomes
• Rough ER,surfaces studded with ribosomes

Functions of Smooth and Rough ER

The Golgi Apparatus: Shipping and Receiving Center

• The Golgi apparatus consists of flattened membranous sacs called cisternae.

• Functions of the Golgi apparatus

v Modifies products of the ER

v Manufactures certain macromolecules
v Sorts and packages materials into transport vesicles

The Lysosomes: Digestive Compartments

• A lysosome is a membranous sac of hydrolytic

enzymes that can digest macromolecules.
• Lysosomal enzymes can hydrolyze proteins,fats,polysaccharides & nucleic
acids.
• Lysosomal enzymes work best in the acidic environment inside the
lysosome.
• Some types of cell can engulf another cell by phagocytosis; this forms a food
vacuole.
• A lysosome fuses with the food vacuole and digests the
molecules.
• Lysosomes also use enzymes to recycle the cell’s own
organelles and macromolecules, a process called autophagy.
The Phagocytosis and Autophagy

Vacuoles: Diverse Maintenance Compartments

• A plant cell or fungal cell may have one or several vacuoles, derived from
the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus.
• Food vacuoles are formed by phagocytosis
• Contractile vacuoles, found in many freshwater protists,
pump excess
water out of cells
• Central vacuoles, found in many mature plant cells, hold
organic compounds and water
Mitochondria and chloroplasts
• Mitochondria and chloroplasts change energy from
one form to another.
• Mitochondria are the sites of cellular respiration, a metabolic process that
uses oxygen to generate ATP.
• Mitochondria resemble bacteria:
• Have own DNA, ribosomes.
• Divide on their own.
• Chloroplasts, found in plants and algae, are the sites of photosynthesis.
Mitochondria: Chemical Energy Conversion
• Mitochondria are in nearly all eukaryotic
cells.
• They have a smooth outer membrane and an
inner membrane folded into
cristae.
• The inner membrane creates two
compartments: intermembrane space and mitochondrial matrix.
• Some metabolic steps of cellular respiration are catalyzed in the
mitochondrial matrix.
• Cristae present a large surface area for enzymes that synthesize ATP.
Chloroplast Structure
• Chloroplast convert sunlight energy to ATP through photosynthesis
• Chloroplaststructureincludes:
• Thylakoids, membranous sacs, stacked to form a granum
• Stroma, the internal fluid
• The chloroplast is one of a group of plant organelles, called plastids.

Similarities of Mitochondria and Chloroplasts

• Mitochondria and chloroplasts have similarities with bacteria
v Enveloped by a double membrane
v Contain free ribosomes and circular DNA molecules
v Grow and reproduce somewhat independently in cells

The cytoskeleton

• The cytoskeleton is a network of fibers extending throughout the cytoplasm .

• Itorganizesthecell’sstructuresandactivities,anchoringmanyorganelles

• It is composed of three types of molecular structures:

• Microtubules: are the thickest of the three components of the cytoskeleton

• Microfilaments:also called actin filaments, are the thinnest components.

• Intermediate filaments: are fibers with diameters in a middle range.

Roles of the Cytoskeleton: Support and Motility

• The cytoskeleton helps to support the cell and maintain

its shape.

• It interacts with motor proteins to produce motility.

• Inside the cell,vesicles can travel along cytoplasm by

the cytoskeleton.

Motor proteins and the cytoskeleton

Extracellular components

• Extracellular components and connections between cells help coordinate

cellular activities Most cells synthesize and secrete materials that are external
to the plasma membrane.

• These extracellular structures include

• Cell walls of plants

• The extracellular matrix(ECM)of animal cells

• Intercellular junctions

v Cell walls of Plants:

• The cell wall is an extracellular structure that distinguishes plant cells from

animal cells.

• The cell wall protects the plant cell, maintains its shape, and prevents
excessive uptake of water.

• Plant cell walls are made of cellulose fibers embedded in other

polysaccharides and protein.

• Prokaryotes, fungi, and some protists also have cell walls.

 v Cell Junctions:

• Neighboring cells in tissues, organs, or organ systems often adhere,

interact, and communicate through direct physical contact.

• Intercellular junctions facilitate this contact.

• There are several types of intercellular

junctions:

• Tight junctions

• Desmosomes

• Gap junctions

• Plasmodesmata ( in plant cells )

Plasmodesmata in Plant Cells:

• Plasmodesmata are channels that perforate plant cell walls.

• Through plasmodesmata, water and small solutes (and sometimes proteins

and RNA) can pass from cell to cell .

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