CE 244: Transportation Engineering

Avijit Maji
Room – CE 134
e-mail: [email protected]
 MODULE 4: FUNDAMENTALS OF GEOMETRIC
DESIGN: HIGHWAYS, RAILWAYS AND AIRPORTS

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 Grade compensation
• The reduction of gradient at horizontal curve is called grade
compensation
• Purpose
– While traversing a horizontal curve the curve resistance developed =
𝑇 1 − cos 𝛼 Where, 𝛼 is turning angle
– When there is a horizontal curve in addition to gradient there will be
increased resistance to traction due to both
– In such cases total resistance should not exceed the resistance due to
maximum value of gradient specified
– The gradient should be decreased to compensate for the loss tractive
effort due to curve

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 IRC specifications
• Grade compensation is not required for grades flatter than 4%
because the loss of tractive force is negligible

!"#$
• Grade compensation is, % where R is the radius of the
$
horizontal curve in meters

%&
• The maximum grade compensation is limited to %
$

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 Example
• Find the compensated grade for a 4.5% gradient with 120 m radius
curve.
• Grade compensation required = Min of (30+120)/120% and
75/120% = Min of 1.25% and 0.625%
• Hence, grade compensation of 0.625% is provided.
• Compensated grade = (4.5-0.625)% = 3.875%
• But grade compensation is not required for grades flatter than 4%
• Therefore, the compensated grade = 4.0%

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 Design elements

Vertical
profile

Vertical
Tangent
curve

Summit Valley
curve curve
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 VERTICAL CURVE

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 Vertical curves
• Due to changes in the grade in the vertical alignment vertical
curve is necessary at the intersections of different grades to
smoothen out the vertical profile
• Types of vertical curves
– Summit/crest curves with convexity upwards
– Valley/sag curves with concavity upwards

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 Summit Curves

N is positive

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 Types of summit curves
• Circular curve
– Circular summit curve is ideal as sight distance available throughout
the length of curve is constant
– As the deviation angles of vertical curves are very small a simple
parabola is nearly congruent with circular curve
• Simple parabola
– Parabola is very easy for arithmetical manipulations
– Parabola gives good riding comfort too
– Parabola is mostly used as summit curve

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 Design considerations of summit curve
• Comfort and safety of drivers
• Appearance of profile alignment
• SSD requirements for safety is the most important factor in
design of summit curves
• In summit curves there is less discomfort to passengers as
centrifugal force acts upwards

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 Vertical curve property
• 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 !
! "! % "" %
• 𝑎𝐿 = × − ×
#$$ ! #$$ !
"! &""
• 𝑎𝐿! = ×𝐿
!$$
"! &""
• 𝑎=
!$$%
"! &""
• 𝑦= !$$%
𝑥!
"! &""
• 𝑁= = 𝑔# − 𝑔!
#$$

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 Length of curve > sight distance
" !
• 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 ! = 𝑥
!#
%
• 𝐻 = 𝑎𝑠$! ⟹ 𝑠$ =
&
'
• ℎ= 𝑎𝑠!! ⟹ 𝑠! =
&

% '
• 𝑆 = 𝑠$ + 𝑠! = +
& &
! !
%( ' !# %( '
• 𝑆! = =
& "
") !
• 𝐿= !
! %( '

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 Length of curve < sight distance
CHAPTER 17. VERTICAL ALIGNMENT-I
!* !+ # !* !+ #
• 𝑆= + + = + + N =n1+n2
"* "+ $ "* %&"* $
'( &!* !+
• '"*
= "*+
+ %&"* +
=0
h1/n1 L/2 h2/n2
% !*!+&%!*
• 𝑛) =
!+&!* h1 h2
!* !+ #
• 𝑆= , -*-+.,-*
+ , -*-+.,-*
+ $
L
%& S
-+.-* -+.-* +n1 −n2
+
$ !** !+
• 𝐿 = 2𝑆 − %
Figure 17:4: Length of summit curve (L < S

Case a. Length of summit curve greater than sight distance(L > S)

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The situation when the sight distance is less than the length of the curve is
 Length of summit curve for safe OSD
• Use height of object equal to driver eye height in the previous
equations
• Generally, height of the driver eye is taken as 1.2m and that of
objective is taken as 0.15m

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 Setting out summit curve

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any of the following four ways:

Valley curves

N = −n1

N = nn12 –
+nn
12 (b)
(a)
N is negative

N = −(n1 + n2) n12–−n2n1)

N = (n

(c) (d)
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 Design considerations
• Sight Distance
– During daytime no restriction to sight distance
– During night sight distance reduces due to headlight glare
– Hence valley curves designed taking headlight sight distance into
account
• Impact free movement of vehicles at design speed
• Availability of SSD under headlights

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 Length of valley curve based on comfort criteria
#"
&$ %
$
• 𝑐= 𝑡=
' (
(% (%
• 𝑐 = %) ⟹ 𝐿 = *)
% +( %
• 𝑅= 𝐿=
+ *

+( %
• 𝐿',' = 2× *
• 𝑐 is centrifugal acceleration rate
0.6m/sec3
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 Length of valley curve > SSD

"
+- 18.
!
• ℎ# + 𝑆 tan 𝛼 = 𝑎𝑆 = CHAPTER VERTICAL ALIGNMENT -II
!%
+- "
• 𝐿=! .! /- 012 3 A
F C
E α G Stanα

Where, h1
B I
h1

S
ℎ# = Height of headlight = 0.75 𝑚 D N

𝛼 = Beam angle = 14 Figure 18:3: Valley curve, case 1, L > S

h α L D
A
C
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S tan α
 Length of valley curve < SSD A
h1
E α G
F C
Stanα
h1
B I
S
D N

Figure 18:3: Valley curve, case 1, L > S

%
• ℎ# + 𝑆 tan 𝛼 = 𝑆 − 𝑁 S
!
! .! /- 012 3 h α L D

• 𝐿 = 2𝑆 − A
C
+ S tan α

Where, B N

ℎ# = Height of headlight = 0.75 𝑚 h

𝛼 = Beam angle = 14
L/2 S − L/2

Figure 18:4: Valley curve, case 2, S > L

Case 2 Length of valley curve less than stopping sight distance (L < S)

The length of the curve L is less than SSD. In this case the minimum sight distance is
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the curve. The important points are the beginning of the curve and the bottom most pa
 Summary of valley curves
• Cubic parabola is common form of valley curves equation
,
2𝑁
𝑦 = 𝐵𝑥 , 𝐵 = -
3𝐿
• However, IRC recommends square parabola for valley curve
• Lowest point is to be located for providing cross drainage facility
– It will be on angle bisector of two grades in case of equal grades
"*
– In case of unequal grades, it is at a distance of 𝐿 $%
from tangent point of
first grade

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 Example
Find the vertical curve length for the given information:
𝑛# = +1/100 𝑛! = −1/120 Sight distance = 470 m

# # ##
Solution: 𝑁 = + = Summit curve
#$$ #!$ 5$$
+- +
Assume, 𝐿 > 𝑆𝐷 𝐿= + = 422 𝑚 < 470𝑚 Incorrect assumption
! 6/ .
+
! .* / .+
Assume, 𝐿 < 𝑆𝐷 𝐿 = 2𝑆 − = 417𝑚 Correct assumption
+
Design length of vertical curve = 417𝑚 ≈ 420𝑚

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 Example
Find the curve length for the following information:
𝑛! = −1/25 𝑛" = +1/30 Sight distance = 130 m 𝑉 = 80 𝑘𝑚𝑝ℎ

! ! !!
Solution: 𝑁 = − − =− Valley curve
"# $% !#%
() !
For comfort 𝐿&'& = 2× *
= 73.1𝑚
(+ "
Assume, 𝐿 > 𝑆𝐷 𝐿 = = 205.24𝑚 > 130𝑚 Correct assumption
" ,# -+ ./0 1
The valet curve length based on headlight sight distance is higher than the length
based on comfort criteria.
Therefor, the design length of the curve = 205.24𝑚 ≈ 205𝑚

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 Combination of Horizontal and Vertical Alignment
• Horizontal and vertical alignments should complement each other
• Curvature and grade should be in proper balance and avoid
– Excessive curvature to achieve flat grades
– Excessive grades to achieve flat curvature
• Sharp horizontal curve should not be introduced at or near the top/bottom of a
pronounced summit/sag curve
– Drivers may not perceive change in horizontal alignment especially at night
– Horizontal curves appear distorted
– Vehicle speeds (especially trucks) are highest at the bottom of a sag vertical curve
– Can result in erratic motion
• At intersections horizontal curvature and vertical profile should be as flat as
possible

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 Combination of Horizontal and Vertical Alignment
• Balance
– Horizontal curvature and grades should be in proper balance
– Maximum curvature with flat grades or flat curvature with maximum
grades does not achieve this desired balance
• Coordiation
– Vertical curvature superimposed upon horizontal curvature (i.e., vertical
and horizontal P.I.’s at approximately the same stations) generally results in
a more pleasing appearance and reduces the number of sight distance
restrictions
– Successive changes in profile, not in combination with horizontal
curvature, may result in a series of humps visible to the driver for some
distance, which may produce an unattractive design

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 Coordination of Vertical and Horizontal Alignment

• When possible, alignment should enhance scenic views of the

natural and manmade environment
– Highway should lead into not away from outstanding views
– Fall towards features of interest at low elevation
– Rise towards features best seen from below or in silhouette against
the sky

Source: A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets (The Green Book). Washington, DC. American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials, 2001 4th Ed.

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 Coordination of Horizontal and Vertical Alignment

Source: FHWA, Chapter 5

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 Coordination of Horizontal and Vertical Alignment

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 Coordination of Horizontal and Vertical Alignment

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 Thank you

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