WEEK – 2 READING SUMMARY
CSU ID: 2886073
NAME: Sriram Guntupally
Chapter - 3
SECTION 3.1 Concepts and Terminology
Transmission Terminology:
- Media distribution, referred to as transmission terminology, is guided media like twisted pair, coaxial
cable, etc., and unguided specifically through wireless. Transmission is also elementary, half-duplex, or
double–facilitated.
Time Domain Concepts
Frequency Domain Concepts
- Frequency, spectrum, and bandwidth: A signal always has frequency contents. Fourier analysis is a
tool that helps to analyze or decompose any given sinusoid into its components at various frequencies.
The spectrum of the signal is a set of frequencies. Bandwidth defines the width of the spectral gap.
This makes possible higher rates of digital signals and also provides wider bandwidth. Bandwidth d could
be increased twice compared to the data rate.
- Relationship between data rate and bandwidth: Digitally encoded signals have only theoretically
infinite bandwidth while, in practice, they are associated with a Band limit. Bandwidth restrains signal in
terms of its legitimate form yet permits economical transmission. Inherent in the high data rate means the
bandwidth to maintain signal quality is also more excellent.
SECTION 3.2 Analog and digital data transmission
Analog and Digital Data
- Analog data is a continuous process, and digital data is open-close. Analog signals are continuously
functioning electromagnetic waves, while digital signals denote a series of voltage pulses.
Analog and Digital Signals
- The propagation of analog signals is independent of the content from the transmission part that uses an
array and antenna. Digital transmission uses repeaters that can, in turn, recover the data it encodes from
analog signals, resulting in new clean signals.
Analog and Digital Transmission
- Compared to analog transmission, digital utilization has demonstrated superiority in terms of better
precision and performance level capability, which limits integration with service quality as well as cost.
Long-distance and local communication services have switched to digital transmission and signaling for
critical reasons.
Digital technology
Data integrity
Capacity utilization
Security and privacy
Integration
Asynchronous and Synchronous Transmission
• Involves sampling incoming signals to determine binary values.
• Can be affected by transmission impairments and timing issues.
• Two common approaches to synchronization:
- Asynchronous Transmission: Data is transmitted one character at a time, maintaining
synchronization within each character.
- Synchronous Transmission: A block of bits transmitted continuously without start and stop codes,
synchronizing the transmitter and receiver's clocks to prevent timing drift.
• Each block starts with a preamble bit pattern and ends with a potable bit pattern, with additional control
information bits added.
SECTION 3.3 Transmission Impairments
Communication System Impaired Signals
• Received signal may differ from transmitted signal.
• Analog signals introduce random modifications, degrading signal quality.
• Digital signals may introduce bit errors, affecting information-carrying capacity.
The most significant impairments are
• Attenuation and attenuation distortion
Attenuation is the decrease in signal strength over distance. It’s more in guided media, varies in unguided
media due to atmosphere, and is less in digital signals.
• Delay distortion
- Caused by signal propagation velocity.
- The highest signal velocity is near the center frequency.
- Results in different signal components.
-Critical for digital data, limiting bit rate.
• Noise
-Unwanted signals limit system performance.
-Categorized into thermal, intermodulation, crosstalk, impulse noise.
-Thermal noise is uniformly distributed across bandwidths.
SECTION 3.4 Channel Capacity
Digital Signal Implications and Channel Capacity
• Digital data impairments limit data rate.
• Key concepts: data rate, bandwidth, noise, error rate.
• High communication facility costs.
Nyquist Bandwidth:
Nyquist's Data Rate Limitations in Noise-Free Channels
• Based on signal bandwidth.
• Signals with frequencies no greater than B can carry the signal rate.
• The highest signal rate can be carried with a bandwidth of B due to intersymbol interference.
• Aids in developing digital-to-analog encoding schemes.
• Nyquist formulation becomes C = 2Blog2M with multilevel signaling.
Shannon Capacity Formula:
Shannon Capacity Formula in Digital Data Transmission
• Nyquist's formula suggests bandwidth doubling data rate.
• Data rate impacts noise, error rate, and bits.
• Shannon's formula sets the upper bound on achievable data rate.
• Maximum channel capacity follows C = Blog2 11 + SNR2.
• Communication is possible at a low data rate.
For convenience, this ratio is often reported in decibels:
The Expression Eb/N0:
Digital Communication System Performance and SNR Parameters
• Eb/N0 standard quality measure.
• Influences bit error rate in digital data.
• Requires higher transmitted signal power.
• Advantageous over SNR due to bandwidth dependence.
• Relates to SNR and spectral efficiency.
This is a valuable formula that relates the achievable spectral efficiency C/B to Eb/N0.
Chapter - 4
SECTION 4.1 Guided Transmission Media
Twisted Pair
Twisted Pair Guided Transmission Medium Overview
• Single communication link made of two insulated copper wires.
• Twisted lengths range from 5 to 15 cm on long-distance links.
• Common for both analog and digital signals.
• Offers Ethernet data rates up to 10 Gbps over 100 m cabling.
Two types of Twisted pair:
Unshielded Twisted Pair
Shielded Twisted Pair
Coaxial Cable
• It comprises a hollow outer cylindrical conductor and a single inner wire conductor.
• Held by insulating rings or solid dielectric material.
• Covered with a jacket or shield.
• Widely used in television distribution, long-distance telephone transmission, and local area
networks.
• Can carry over 10,000 voice channels simultaneously.
• Performance constraints include attenuation, thermal noise, and intermodulation noise.
Optical Fiber
• Thin, flexible mediums guide optical rays.
• Ultrapure fused silica fibers have the lowest losses.
• Higher-loss multicomponent glass fibers provide good performance.
• Plastic fiber is less costly and suitable for short-haul links.
• Optical Fiber Strand: Core, Cladding, Buffer coating.
• Optical Cable: Provides fiber protection from stress and environment.
