SCHOOL OF BUILDING AND ENVIRONMENT

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIT – I – APPLIED HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING – SCIA1402

1.0 Introduction

1.1 Rigid and Mobile Boundary Channels:

Rigid channels are those in which the boundary is not deformable. The shape and roughness
magnitudes are not functions of flow parameters. For example, lined canals and non erodible
unlined canals. In Rigid channels the flow velocity and shear stress distribution will be such that
no major scouring, erosion or deposition will take place in the channel and the channel geometry
and roughness are essentially constant with respect to time.

When the boundary of the channel is mobile and flow carries considerable amounts of sediment
throughsuspension and is in contact with the bed. Such channels are classified as mobile channels.
In the mobile channel, not only depth of flow but also bed width, longitudinal slope of channel
may undergo changes with space and time depending on type of flow.
The resistance to flow, quantity of sediment transported and channel geometry all depends on
interaction of flow with channel boundaries. A general mobile boundary channel can be considered
to have four degree of freedom. In rigid channel we have one degrees of freedom.
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3
School of Building and Environment
1.2 Specific Energy

Bernoulli's theorem expresses the energy content of unit volume of fluid as U = ρgz + p + ρV2/2,
and states that it is constant along a streamline in the absence of dissipation. It is usually more
convenient to express the terms as lengths, or "heads," by dividing by γ = ρg: H = z + p/γ + V2/2g.
The three energy components are elevation, pressure, and velocity. All play a role in open-channel
flow. For any flow, there is an energy grade line that can be imagined above the flow, and its slope
is S'. The water surface is the hydraulic grade line (HGL), which is below the energy grade line
by the velocity head V2/2g. Below this is the bed grade line, with slope S, and (usually) below that
is the horizontal datum, the reference surface.

The streamlines of the flow are parallel. Along any streamline, z + p/γ + V2/2g is a constant. Let
us now assume z is the elevation of the bottom streamline, so that if the flow depth is y, the
elevation of the surface streamline is z + y. The gauge pressure here is zero, so Bernoulli's Equation
for this streamline is z + y + V2/2g = C. Now for the bottom streamline, the gauge pressure is γy,
so that p/γ = y, and Bernoulli's equation is z + y + V2 = C, where C has the same value as for the
top streamline. At any intermediate height y', z + y' + γ(y - y')/γ + V2/2g = C. Therefore, C, the
energy per unit weight, has the same value at any depth. The part y + V2/2g is called the specific
energy E, and is the energy per unit weight referred to the stream bed.

When a closed channel runs full, then the depth can no longer vary to accommodate thedischarge,
and the pressure becomes different from the atmospheric pressure, and must be taken into account
in using Bernoulli's theorem. This is the fundamental difference between open channel flow and
pipe flow.

We can express E as a function of Q easily, using Q = AV: E = y + Q2/2gA2. For simplicity,

consider a rectangular channel of width b, for which A = by. Then E = y + q2/2gy2, expressing E
as a function of the discharge q and the depth y, or q = y√[2g(E - y)], expressing q as a function

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of E and y.

The curve of q as a function of y for a fixed E is plotted at the right. We notice that q is a double-valuedfunction
of y, and has a maximum possible value qm. The corresponding depth y can be found by differentiating q with
respect to y and setting the derivative equal to zero. The result is yc = 2E/3, called the critical depth. The
corresponding value of q, qm = √(gyc 3) is the critical flow, and Vc = qc/yc is the critical velocity. For depths greater
than the critical depth, the velocity is smaller than the critical velocity. Flow in this region is called subcritical.
For depths smaller than the critical depth, the velocity is greater than the critical velocity. Flow in this region is
called supercritical. Note that the sub- and super- refer to the velocity of flow. The same discharge q is possible
with given E in either region. In the upper region, we have greater flow area, in the lower region greater flow
velocity. Because the frictional resistance varies rapidly with velocity, subcritical uniform flow is associated with
gentle slopes, supercritical uniform flow with steep slopes.

Note that the curve is plotted with respect to dimensionless variables, so the same curve can be used for any E or
qm. Consider flows described by points a and c. Since they are on the same vertical line, the discharge is the same
for each. The distance from the y = 0 axis to point a corresponds to the static part of E, while the distance from a
to the y = E line corresponds to the kinetic energy, which sum to E. The sameholds for point c, but here the static
part is much smaller and the dynamic part larger. At the point of maximum discharge for this value of E, point e,
the static energy is twice the dynamic energy.

Suppose that there is a lateral constriction in the channel, reducing its area so that q/qm increases from 0.6 to 0.8.
Assume there is no head loss, the specific energy does not change, so the flows in the constriction are represented
by points b and d. We note that in subcritical flow, the depth of flow decreases, while in supercritical flow the
depth increases.

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Problem 2 : Find the slope of the bed of a rectangular channel of width 5 m when depth of water is 2 m
and rate of flow is given as 20 m3/s. Take Chezy’s constant, C=50.

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 Problem 2 : Find the velocity of flow and rate of flow of water through a rectangular channel of 6 m wide
and 3 m deep, when it is running full. The channel is having bed slope as 1 in 2000. Take Chezy’s
constant C = 55.

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 SCHOOL OF BUILDING AND ENVIRONMENT

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIT – II – APPLIED HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING – SCIA1402

 UNIT II

GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW

2.1 NON UNIFORM FLOW

In a channel the depth of flow changes from section to section along the length of the channel.

Types

1. Gradually varied flow(G.V.F)

2. Rapidly Varied flow (R.V.F)

Gradually Varied Flow (G.V.F)

If the depth of flow in a channel changes gradually over a long length of the channel the
flow is said tobe gradually varied FLOW.

Dynamic Equation Of Gradually Varied Flow (G.V.F)

Assumptions:

The bed slope of the channel is small

2.Steady flow (constant discharge)
3.Acceleration effect is negligible
4.Energy correction factor α is unity
5.Roughness co-efficient is constant
6.Chezy’s and Manning’s formulas are applicable
7.The Channel is Prismatic.

Consider a rectangular channel having G.V.F. The depth of flow is gradually decreasing in
the direction of flow.

Let,
z- Height of bottom of channel above
datum.h- depth of flow.
v- mean velocity of
flow. ib-slope of the
channel bedie–slope
of the energy lineb-
width of the channel
Q-discharge through the channel

Energy equation at any section by Bernoullis equation,

E = Z+h+V2/2g (1)
Differentiate equation (1) with respect to x, where x is measured along the bottom of the channel in
thedirection of flow

(2)

( ; ; )

Substitute the value of in equation (2)

(3)

Now, ;
-ve sign of ie,ibindicates that with the increaseof x the value of
E and Z decreases. Substitute the value of in equation
(3)

When, depth of water above the bottom of the channel is constant.

When, depth of water increases in the direction of flow. The profile of the water so
obtained is called back water curve.
When, depth of water decreases in the direction of flow. The profile of the water so
obtained is called drop down curve.

CLASSIFICATION OF CHANNEL BOTTOM SLOPE AND SURFACE PROFILE

The surface curves of water are called flow profiles or (water surface
profiles) Depending on the slope and profile of the bed the classification of
water profile are,
1. Mild slope (M1,M2,M3)
2. Steep slope (S1,S2,S3)
3. Critical slope (C1,C2,C3)
4. Horizontal slope(H2,H3)
5. Adverse slope ( A2,A3)
In all the curves letter indicate slope type and subscript indicate the zone.
Profile determination by Numerical method:

Length of surface profile is determined with the help of anyone of the following
methods. 1.Graphical Integration method
1. Direct step method 3.Standard step method

Graphical Integration method:

The differential equation of the gradually varied flow may be inverted and integrated to give the
length of thesurface profile between Y1 and Y2 . Hence the equation for gradually varied flow is
given by,

By Plotting dx/dy against Y and computing the area under the curve enclosed by the Y axis and
the ordinatesof dx/dy corresponding to depths Y1 and Y2.

Direct Method:

The channel is divides into short distances and computations are carried out between two ends. Two
ends are mentioned as sections (1-1) and (2-2). Bernoullis equation is used to calculate the length
of backwater. It is called as step by step method. It is applicable to prismatic channels only.

Standard Step method:

This method is used for non-prismatic/natural channels. In natural channels, the cross-section varies
from section to section and also the cross section is known only at a few locations along the channel.
The cross section information at two adjacent sections and the discharge and datum at one section
are required to determine the datum at the other section.
The section of the above problem is obtained by a trail and error method from the basic energy equation

APPLICATIONS:

Direct step method, Standard step methOd and graphical methods are used for the determination of
length of the surface profile for gradually varied flows(GVF). For GVF problems, the channel is
divided into short distances and computations are carried out from one end of the reach to the other.
In direct step method, Mannings formula is sufficient to accurately evaluate the slope of the total
energy line. The standard step method is mainly applicable to non-prismatic channels, example:
natural river.A trial and error method is employed in this method.

Problem.
A long rectangular channel of width 5 m has a slope of 1:5000 and a Manning’s roughness
coefficient 𝑛 of 0.02 m–1/3 s. The total discharge is 10 m3 s–1. The channel narrows to a width
of 1.2 m over a short length.

(a) Determine the normal depth at this flow rate in the 5 m-wide channel.
(b) Show that critical conditions occur at the narrow section.
(c) Determine the depth just upstream of the narrowed section, where the width is 5 m.
(d) Determine the distance upstream to where the depth is 5% greater than the normal
depth, using two steps in the gradually-varied-flow equation.
Answer: 2.45 m.

(b) To determine whether critical conditions occur, compare the total head in the approach flow
with that assuming critical conditions at the throat.

The total head, assuming normal flow and measuring heights from the bed of the channel is
2
𝑉𝑛 𝑄2
𝐻𝑎 = 𝐸𝑎 = ℎ𝑛 + = ℎ𝑛 + = 2.487 m
2𝑔 2𝑔𝑏2ℎ2𝑛

At the throat the discharge per unit width is

𝑖 ℎ𝑖 𝑥𝑖 ℎ𝑚𝑖𝑑 (d𝑥⁄dℎ)𝑚𝑖𝑑 Δ𝑥
0 2.855 0
2.786 17120 –2388
1 2.716 –2388
2.646 26800 –3739
2 2.576 –6127
 𝑄 = 8.333 m2 s−1
𝑞𝑚 =
𝑏min

The critical depth and critical specific energy at the throat are
1/3
𝑞2
𝑚
ℎ𝑐 = ( ) = 1.920 m
𝑔
3

𝐸𝑐 = ℎ𝑐 = 2.880 m
2
Since the bed of the flume is flat (𝑧𝑏 = 0), the critical head 𝐻𝑐 = 𝐸𝑐 .

Since the approach-flow head 𝐻𝑎 is less than the critical head 𝐻𝑐 (the minimum head required
to pass this flow rate through the venturi), the flow must back up and increase in depth just
upstream to supply this minimum head. It will then undergo a subcritical to supercritical
transition through the throat. The total head throughout the venturi is 𝐻 = 𝐻𝑐 = 2.880 m.

(c) In the vicinity of the venturi the total head is 𝐻 = 2.880 m. Just upstream (where width
𝑏 = 5 m), we seek the subcritical solution of
𝑉2 𝑄2
𝐻 = 𝑧𝑠 + =ℎ+
2𝑔 2𝑔𝑏2ℎ2
Rearrange for the deeper solution:
𝑄2
ℎ=𝐻−
2𝑔𝑏2ℎ2
Here, with lengths in metres:
0.2039
ℎ = 2.880 −
ℎ2
Iterate (from, e.g., ℎ = 2.880) to get the depth just upstream of the venturi:
ℎ = 2.855 m

Answer: 2.85 m

(d) Do a GVF calculation (subcritical, so physically it

h0 = 2.855
should start at the fixed downstream control and work
upstream, although mathematically it can be done the h =12.716
h 2= 2.576
other way) from the pre-venturi depth (ℎ = 2.855 m) to
where ℎ = 2.576 m (i.e. 1.05 × ℎ𝑛). Using two Step 2 Step 1

steps the depth increment per step is

x2 x1 x0 raised bed
2.576 − 2.855

Δℎ = = −0.1395 m
2

Both depth and specific-energy methods are shown on the following pages.
METHOD 1: using the depth form of the GVF equation
dℎ 𝑆0 − 𝑆𝑓
=
d𝑥 1 − Fr2

d𝑥 1 − Fr2
 =
dℎ 𝑆 − 𝑆
0 𝑓

Δ𝑥 d𝑥
≈( )
Δℎ dℎ 𝑚𝑖𝑑

(‘mid’ means mid-point of interval, half way between ℎ𝑖 and ℎ𝑖+1; sometimes written ℎ𝑖+1⁄2)

For convenience, work out numerical expressions for Fr2 and 𝑆𝑓 in terms of ℎ:
𝑉2 𝑄2/𝑏2 0.4077
Fr2 = = =
𝑔ℎ 𝑔ℎ3 ℎ3

Manning’s equation (see earlier) gave

𝑏√𝑆 ℎ5/3
𝑄=
𝑛 (1 + 2ℎ/𝑏)2/3

Assuming that the rate of loss of energy (𝑆𝑓) at a general depth ℎ is the same as the channel
slope that would give normal flow at that depth, rearrangement for the slope gives
𝑛𝑄 2 (1 + 2ℎ/𝑏)4/3 (1 + 0.4ℎ)4/3
𝑆𝑓 = ( ) = 16 × 10−4
𝑏 ℎ10/3 ℎ10/3
Hence,

0.4077
d𝑥 1 − Fr2 1− ℎ3
=
= − 𝑆𝑓 (1 + 0.4ℎ)4/3
dℎ 𝑆0 (2 − 16 × ) × 10−4
ℎ10/3
With
 d𝑥
and Δℎ = – 0.1395 m
Δ𝑥 = ( ) Δℎ
dℎ 𝑚𝑖𝑑
working may then be set out in tabular form. (All depths assumed to be in metres.)

This gives a distance of about 6.1 km upstream.

Problem : Water flows at a depth of 10 cm with a velocity of 6 m/s in a rectangular channel.

Is the flow subcritical or supercritical? What is the alternate depth?

Check Froude number

Fr = V/ √ gy = 6 m/s / 9.81 /s2 x 0.1 m = 6.06 > 1

so the flow is supercritical.

E = y + V 2 / 2g = 0.1 m + (6 m/s) 2 2 x 9.81 m/s2 = 1.935 m

Solving for the alternate depth for an E = 1.935 m yields yalt = 1.93 m

Problem : Rain water flows on a concrete surface. For given values of flow depth and velocity,
it is to be determined whether the flow is subcritical or supercritical.

Sol:

Assumptions 1 The flow is uniform. 2 The thickness of water layer is constant.

The Froude number is

which is greater than 1. Therefore, the flow is supercritical

Problem : Water flows with a velocity of 2 m/s and at a depth of 3 m in a rectangular channel.
What is the change in depth and in water surface elevation produced by a gradual upward change
in bottom elevation (upstep) of 60 cm? What would be the depth and elevation changes if there
were a gradual downstep of 15 cm? What is the maximum size of upstep that could exist before
upstream depth changes would result? Neglect head losses.

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 SCHOOL OF BUILDING AND ENVIRONMENT

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIT – III– APPLIED HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING – SCIA1402

1
 UNIT III

RAPIDLY VARIED FLOW

3.1 RAPIDLY-VARIED FLOW (RVF)

Rapidly-varied flow is a significant change in water depth over a short distance (a few times
water depth). It occurs where there is a local disturbance to the balance between gravity and friction
(e.g. at a weir, venturi, sluice, free overfall, sudden change in slope,) or a mismatch between the
depths imposed by upstream and downstream conditions (hydraulic jump).
Often there is a flow transition between deep, slow flow (subcritical; Fr < 1) and shallow, fast flow
(supercritical; Fr > 1).
The assumption that the flow varies rapidly over a relatively short distance means that bed
friction is unimportant. Thus, for a smooth transition (e.g. weir, venturi or sluice), the total head
is usually assumed constant through this short region.
For an abrupt transition (hydraulic jump) there may be significant head loss, but it is associated
with high levels of turbulence, not bed friction. Note: that the hydrostatic pressure assumption can
only be applied where near-parallel flow has been established, either side of the rapidly-varying-
flow region.

Hydraulic Jumps

Whenever the flow profile changes from supercritical to subcritical, hydraulic jumps will occur. A
hydraulic jump represents a significant head loss that manifests in available energy for scour and
creation of turbulence.
A hydraulic jump is an abrupt change from a shallow, high-speed flow to a deep, low-speed flow
of lower energy. It occurs when a depth difference is imposed by upstream and downstream
conditions. Rapid, shallow flow may be created by, for example, a steep spillway or sluice. A
slower and deeper downstream flow may be controlled by a downstream weir or by a reduction in
slope. The triggering of a hydraulic jump at the base of a spillway is desirable to remove surplus
kinetic energy in order to reduce downstream erosion.

2
 Across a hydraulic jump:
• mass is conserved;
• the momentum principle is satisfied;
• Mechanical energy is lost (mostly as heat).
Assume, for simplicity:
• velocity uniform over upstream and downstream cross-sections;
• small slope (so that the down slope component of weight can be neglected);
• the length of the jump is short (so that bed friction can be neglected);
• Wide or rectangular cross-section (but see the Examples for an alternative).

Energy Principles in open channel flow

3
Alternate depth
In the open-channel flow of rectangular channels, the alternate depth equation relates the upstream
(y1) and downstream (y2 ) steady-state flow depths of a flow that encounters a control device, such
as a sluice gate, which conserves energy for a given discharge.
Conjugate Depth
In fluid dynamics, the conjugate depths refer to the depth (y1) upstream and the depth (y2)
downstream of the hydraulic jump whose momentum fluxes are equal for a given discharge
(volume flux) q. The depth upstream of a hydraulic jump is always supercritical.

Conjugate depths can also be calculated using the Froude number and depth of either the
supercritical or subcritical flow. The following equations can be used to determine the conjugate
depth to a known depth in a rectangular channel:

4
Descriptive Hydraulic Jump Characteristics

Characteristic Before the jump After the jump

supercritical (faster than the wave
fluid speed speed) also known as shooting or subcritical also known as tranquil or
supernal subundal
fluid height low high
flow typically smooth turbulent typically turbulent flow (rough
andchoppy)

If water depth or velocity change abruptly over a short distance and the pressure distribution is not
hydrostatic, the water surface profile is characterized as Rapidly Varying Flow (RVF). The
occurrence of RVF is usually a local phenomenon. RVF can often be observed near the inlet and
outlet of culverts, and wherever hydraulic jumps occur.

Hydraulic Jump Characteristics

Amount upstream flow is supercritical Ratio of height after to Fraction of energy

(i.e., prejump Froude Number) height before jump dissipated by jump
≤ 1.0 1.0 none
1.0–1.7 1.0–2.0 < 5%
1.7–2.5 2.0–3.1 5% – 15%
2.5–4.5 3.1–5.9 15% – 45%

What are the effects of hydraulic jump?

The use of hydraulic jump in hydraulic engineering is not uncommon and the creation of such
jumps has several purposes:
5
(i) Its main aim is to perform as an energy-dissipating device to reduce the excess energy of

6
water flows.
(i) The jump generates significant disturbances in the form of eddies and reverse flow rollers to
facilitate mixing of chemicals.
( ) During the jump formation, considerable amount of air is entrained so that it helps in the
aeration of streams which is polluted by bio-degradable wastes.
(iv) It enables efficient operation of flow measuring device like flumes.

Uses of Hydraulic Jump:

The hydraulic jump is necessarily formed to reduce the energy of water while the discharge
downfalls a spillway. It becomes necessary to reduce its energy and maintain stable velocities, that
phenomenon is called energy dissipation in hydraulic structures.

Subcritical flow is deep, slow flow with a low energy state and has a Froude number less than one
(F<1). Critical flow occurs when the Froude number equals one (F=1); there is a perfect balance
between the gravitational and inertial forces.

Basic Characteristics of Hydraulic Jump:

1. The jump is unsteady, irregular2. Based on wind directions and heavy wind blow, it changes
its property and can be choppy and undular sometimes.

Types of Hydraulic Jumps – Based on Froude’s Number:

Basically a hydraulic jump occurs in many types depending on topographical features and bed
surface roughness and many other natural interface relations. This hydraulic jump types can be
probably expressed based on Froude’s number:

1. Undular Hydraulic Jump – Froude Number (1 to 3):

Undular Jump is irregular, not properly formed and there are certain turbulences in water particles.

2. Weak Jump – Froude Number (3 to 6)

Weak jump takes place when the velocity in water is very less and the water particles cannot be
stable and flows in various ways.

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 3. Oscillating Hydraulic Jump – Froude Number (6-20)
Oscillating jump forms when an oscillating jet enter into super critical state and there
the numberof particles starts oscillating in clockwise or either anticlockwise direction,
forming slighter tidesor waves to the top surface. Also the flow is dependent on heavy
blow of air in one direction.

4. Steady Hydraulic Jump – Froude Number (20 to 80)

The rapidly-varied transient phenomenon is an open channel, commonly known

under the general term surge, occurs wherever there is a sudden change in the
discharge or depth or both. Such situations occur,for example, during the sudden
closure of a gate.

Positive and Negative Surge

A surge producing an increase in depth is called positive surge and the one which
causes a decrease indepth is known as negative surge.

Types of Positive Surge:

Type A- This may occur when a gate provided at the head of a channel is suddenly
opend.It is having anadvancing wave front moving downstream.
Type – B- This may occur when a gate provided at the tail end of a channel is
suddenly closed.It ishaving an advancing wave front moving upstream.

Types of Negative Surge:

Type- C- This may occur when a gate provided at the head of a channel is

suddenly closed. Type – B- This may occur when a gate provided at the tail

end of a channel is suddenly opened.

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8
Flumes & Channel Transitions

I. General Characteristics of Flumes

• Flumes are often used: Along contours of steep slopes where
minimal excavation isdesired
• On flat terrain where it is desired to minimize pumping, except perhaps at the
source
• On flat terrain where it is desired to avoid pumping, except maybe at the water
source
• Where cross-drainage is required over a depression

8
9
 • The average flow velocity in a flume is higher than that for most canals
But the flow regime in flumes is usually subcritical, as opposed to chutes,
which usuallyoperate under supercritical flow conditions

Flume cross-section shapes are typically rectangular, but may also be

semi-circular orparabolic
Several irrigation systems in Morocco have networks of elevated semi-circular
flumes
Flumes with non-rectangular sections are usually pre-cast concrete, or
concrete mixedwith other materials
Flumes may have under-drains, side inlet structures, and over-pass
structures to handlecross flows, especially for cross flows going down a
slope

Function of Channel Transitions

Channel transitions occur at locations of cross-sectional change, usually

over a shortdistance
Transitions are also used at entrances and exits of pipes such as culverts
and invertedsiphons
Below are some of the principal reasons for using transitions:

1. Provide a smooth change in channel cross section

2. Provide a smooth (possibly linear) change in water surface elevation
3. Gradually accelerate flow at pipe inlets, and gradually decelerate flow at pipe
outlets
4. Avoid unnecessary head loss through the change in cross section
5. Prevent occurrence of cross-waves, standing waves, and surface turbulence in
general
6. Protect the upstream and downstream channels by reducing soil erosion
7. To cause head loss for erosion protection downstream; in this case, it
is an energydissipation & transition structure
Energy Dissipation

Outlet protection for culverts, storm drains, BMP outlets, and steep open channels is
essential topreventing erosion from damaging downstream channels and drainage

9
10
structures. Erosion problems at culverts or at the outlet from detention basins are a
commonoccurrence. Determination of the flow conditions, scour potential, and
channel erosion resistance shall be standard procedure for all designs.
Outlet protection can be a channel lining, structure, or flow barrier
designed to lowerexcessive flow velocities and prevent erosion and
scour.
Outlet protection shall be employed whenever the velocity of flow at a pipe or open
Channel outlet exceeds the erosive velocity of the immediate downstream reach
Energy dissipation n may take the form of the following:
Erosion control stone-lined channel
Riprap outlet basins; or
Concrete baffled outlets.

I. Locations of Excess Energy

What are the locations of excess energy in open channels?

• Channel constrictions (such as gates, weirs, others)
• Steep longitudinal bed slopes
• Drops in elevation

• Energy dissipation is almost always needed downstream of supercritical flow

sections

• Energy dissipation may also be desired in lined channelsEnergy dissipation

structures are typically located at:

1. Sudden drops in bed elevation
2. Downstream ends of channel branches, flumes and chutes
(especiallywheredischarging into earthen sections)
10
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 3. Outlets of culverts and inverted siphons
4. Structures causing supercritical flow (e.g. underflow gates)
5. Structures causing downstream turbulence and eddies

II. Energy Dissipation Structure Types

Most energy dissipation structures in open channels are based on:

1. The creation of a stable hydraulic jump
2. Head-on impaction a solid, immovable obstruction

Hydraulic Jumps for Energy Dissipation

• In open channels, a transition from subcritical to supercritical flow
regimes results invery little localized hydraulic energy loss
• But, the opposite transition, from supercritical to subcritical, involves a
hydraulic jumpand energy loss
• The energy loss through a hydraulic jump can be significant, so
jumps can be applied toenergy dissipation applications in open channels

Problem :

Water flows at a depth of 10 cm with a velocity of 6 m/s in a rectangular channel. Is the flow
subcritical or supercritical? What is the alternate depth?

Problem :

Water flows with a velocity of 2 m/s and at a depth of 3 m in a rectangular channel. What is the
change in depth and in water surface elevation produced by a gradual upward change in bottom
elevation (upstep) of 60 cm? What would be the depth and elevation changes if there were a
gradual downstep of 15 cm? What is the maximum size of upstep that could exist before upstream
depth changes would result? Neglect head losses.

12
Problem : The spillway shown has a discharge of 1.2 m3 /s per meter of width occurring over
it. What depth y2 will exist downstream of the hydraulic jump? Assume negligible energy loss
over the spillway

13
Problem:
Water flows at a depth of 10 cm with a velocity of 6 m/s in a rectangular channel. Is the flow
subcritical or supercritical? What is the alternate depth

Problem : Determine the flow depth and velocity before the jump as well as the fraction of
mechanical energy dissipated. The flow depth and average velocity of water after a hydraulic
jump are measured and given in fig.

1 The flow is steady or quasi-steady. 2 The channel is sufficiently wide so that the end effects are
negligible. 3 The channel is horizontal.
The Froude number after the hydraulic jump is

14
which is greater than 1. Therefore, the flow is indeed supercritical before the jump. The head loss
is determined from the energy equation to be

15
 SCHOOL OF BUILDING AND ENVIRONMENT

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIT – IV – APPLIED HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING – SCIA1402

1
 UNIT IV

HYDRAULIC MACHINES-TURBINES

Impact of jets on curved plates

The impact of jet on the curved surface is of much practical significance. The jet of water can be
introduced tangentially, whereas in other case it can strikes at some angle to the entrance portion
of the surface. Here, both such cases deserve individual consideration.
Consider the case when the jet strikes horizontally at the centre of the vane on the concave side
as shown in figure below.

After it strikes, it gets divided, glides over the surface and leaves the vane tangentially with same
velocity ‘v’.

The velocity at outlet of the plate can be resolved into two Components, one in the direction of the
jet and the other perpendicular to the direction of the jet.

Component of velocity in the direction of the jet is given by, - V cosθ here -ive sign has been
considered because; outlet velocity is in the opposite direction of the jet of water coming out of
2
 from nozzle.

Component of velocity perpendicular to the jet is given by, V sinθ

Force exerted by the jet in the direction of jet is given

Fx= ρav{ v- v cos θ}

= ρav2 {1+ cos θ}

Similarly, the force exerted by the jet in the direction normal to jet direction is given by,

Fy= ρav{ 0- v sin θ}

=[ -ρav2 sins θ]
If θ is made 90 (cosθ=0) then the jet gets deflected through 900 as in the case of a flat plate.
0

When θ= 0 (cosθ=1) then the vane becomes semicircular and the jets coming off the outlet tips
are parallel and reverse in direction to the striking jet.
F= 2 ρav2 = 2∗force on flat plate
Thus, it is observed that, as the angle of deflection increases, the value of F increases.

Turbines

3
 Definition: A turbine is a turbo machine with at least one moving part called a rotor assembly,
which is a shaft or drum with blades attached. Moving fluid acts on the blades so that they move
and impart rotational energy to the rotor.
Classification of Hydraulic Turbines: Based on flow path
Water can pass through the Hydraulic Turbines in different flow paths. Based on the flow path of
the liquid Hydraulic Turbines can be categorized into three types.

1. Axial Flow Hydraulic Turbines: This category of Hydraulic Turbines has the flow path of
the liquid mainly parallel to the axis of rotation. Kaplan Turbines has liquid flow mainly in
axial direction.
2. Radial Flow Hydraulic Turbines: Such Hydraulic Turbines has the liquid flowing mainlyin
a plane perpendicular to the axis of rotation.
3. Mixed Flow Hydraulic Turbines: For most of the Hydraulic Turbines used there is a
significant component of both axial and radial flows. Such types of Hydraulic Turbines are
called as Mixed Flow Turbines. Francis Turbine is an example of mixed flow type, in Francis
Turbine water enters in radial direction and exits in axial direction.
None of the Hydraulic Turbines are purely axial flow or purely radial flow. There is always a
component of radial flow in axial flow turbines and of axial flow in radial flow turbines.

4. Tangential flow turbine: if the water flows along the tangent of the runner it is known as
tangential flow turbine.

4
 Classification of Hydraulic turbines:
1) Based on type of energy at inlet to the turbine:

• Impulse Turbine: The energy is in the form of kinetic form. e.g: Pelton wheel, Turbo
wheel.
• Reaction Turbine: The energy is in both Kinetic and Pressure form. e.g: Tubular, Bulb,
Propeller, Francis turbine.

2) Based on direction of flow of water through the runner:

• Tangential flow: water flows in a direction tangential to path of rotational, i.e.

Perpendicular to both axial and radial directions.
• Radial outward flow e.g : Forneyron turbine.
• Axial flow: Water flows parallel to the axis of the turbine. e.g: Girard, Jonval, Kalpan
turbine.
• Mixed flow: Water enters radially at outer periphery and leaves axially. e.g : Modern
Francis turbine.

3) Based on the head under which turbine works:

• High head, impulse turbine. e.g : Pelton turbine.

• Medium head, reaction turbine. e.g : Francis turbine.

• Low head, reaction turbine. e.g : Kaplan turbine, propeller turbine.

4) Based on the specific speed of the turbine:

• Low specific speed, impulse turbine. e.g: Pelton wheel.

• Medium specific speed, reaction turbine. e.g : Francis wheel.
• High specific speed, reaction turbine. e.g : Kaplan and Propeller turbine.

5) Based on the name of the originator:

• Impulse turbine – Pelton wheel, Girard, Banki turbine.

• Reaction turbine – Forneyron, Jonval, Francis, Dubs, Deriaze, Thomson kalpan, Barker,
Moody, Nagler, Bell.

Classification of Hydraulic Turbines: Based on pressure change (or type of energy)

One more important criterion for classification of Hydraulic Turbines is whether the pressure of
liquid changes or not while it flows through the rotor of the Hydraulic Turbines. Based on the
5
 pressure change Hydraulic Turbines can be classified as of two types.

1. Impulse Turbine: The pressure of liquid does not change while flowing through the rotor of
the machine. In Impulse Turbines pressure change occur only in the nozzles of the machine.
One such example of impulse turbine is Pelton wheel.
2. Reaction Turbine: The pressure of liquid changes while it flows through the rotor of the
machine. The change in fluid velocity and reduction in its pressure causes a reaction on the turbine
blades; this is where from the name Reaction Turbine may have been derived. Francis and Kaplan
Turbines fall in the category of Reaction Turbines.

Differences between Impulse and Reaction Turbines:

S.No Impulse Turbine Reaction Turbine

In Impulse Turbine all hydraulic

In Reaction Turbine only some
energy is converted into kinetic
1 amount of the available energy is
energy by a nozzle and it is is the
converted into kinetic energy
jet so produced which strikes the
before the fluid enters the runner.
runner blades.

6
 Both pressure and velocity changes
The velocity of jet which changes,
2 as fluid passes through a runner.
the pressure throughout remaining
Pressure at inlet is much higher
atmosphere.
than at outlet.

Water-tight casing is not

necessary. Casing has no The runner must be enclosed within
3 hydraulic function to perform. It a watertight casing.
only serves to prevent splashing
and guide water to the tail race.

Water is admitted only in the form

4 of jets. There may be one or more Water is admitted over the entire
jets striking equal number of circumference of the runner.
buckets simultaneously.

Water completely fills at the

The turbine doesn’t run full and passages between the blades and
5 while flowing between inlet and
air has a free access to the bucket.
outlet sections does work on the
blades.

Reaction turbine are generally

The turbine is always installed connected to the tail race through a

6 above the tail race and there is no draft tube which is a gradually

draft tube used. expanding passage. It may be

installed below or above the tail
race.

7
 The flow regulation in reaction
Flow regulation is done by means turbine is carried out by means of a
7 of a needle valve fitted into the guide-vane assembly. Other
nozzle. component parts are scroll casing,
stay ring runner and the draft tub.

Example of Impulse turbine is Examples of Reaction Turbine are

8
Pelton wheel. Francis turbine, Kaplan and

Propeller Turbine, Deriaz Turbine,

Tubuler Turbine, etc.

Impulse Turbine have more Reaction Turbine have relatively

9
hydraulic efficiency. less efficiency.

Impulse Turbine operates at high Reaction turbine operate at low and

10
water heads. medium heads.

Water flow is tangential direction Water flows in radial and axial

11
to the turbine wheel. direction to turbine wheel.

Needs medium and high discharge

12 Needs low discharge of water.
of water.

Degree of reaction is more than

13 Degree of reaction is zero.
zero and less than or equal to one.

Impulse turbine involves less Reaction turbine involves more

14
maintenance work. maintenance work.

8
Classification according to the head at the inlet of turbine.

1. High head

2. Medium head

3. Low head.

9
Classification according to specific speed

1. Low
2. Medium
3. High

Efficiencies of turbine

Power delivered to the runner

1. Hydraulicefficiency (ᶯh) = -----------------------------------------

Power supplied at inlet

= R.P/ W.P

2. Mechanical efficiency((ᶯm) = power at the shaft 0f the turbine/power

delivered by the water to the runner

= S.P/R.P.

3. Volumetric efficiency (ᶯv) = volume of the water actually striking the runner/

Volume of water supplied to the turbine

4. Overall efficiency ((ᶯh) = shaft power/water power.

= ᶯm X ᶯh

Pelton wheel turbine

The Pelton wheel is an impulse type water turbine. It was invented by Lester Allan Pelton in the
1870s. The Pelton wheel extracts energy from the impulse of moving water, as opposed to water's
dead weight like the traditional overshot water wheel.

The Basic Working Principle

10
Working principle of Pelton turbine is simple. When a high speed water jet injected through a
nozzle hits buckets of Pelton wheel; it induces an impulsive force. This force makes the turbine
rotate. The rotating shaft runs a generator and produces electricity.

Pelton – An Impulse Turbine

Since the water jet is always open to atmosphere, inlet and exit pressure of water jet will be same
and will be same as atmospheric pressure. However absolute velocity of fluid will have huge drop
from inlet to exit of bucket. This kinetic energy drop is the maximum energy the bucket canabsorb.

So it is clear that Pelton turbine gains mechanical energy purely due to change in kinetic energy
of jet, not due to pressure energy change. Which means Pelton turbine is a pure impulse machine.

Impulse force produced by water jet is high when jet is having high velocity. Water stored at high
altitude can easily produce high jet velocity. This is the reason why Pelton turbine is most suitable
for operation, when water is stored at high altitude.

You can easily understand why there is a nozzle fitted at water jet injection portion. Nozzle will
increase velocity of jet further, thus will aid in effective production of impulse force.

11
The only hydraulic turbine of the impulse type in common use, is named after an American
engineer Laster A Pelton, who contributed much to its development around the year 1880.
Therefore this machine is known as Pelton turbine or Pelton wheel. It is an efficient machine
particularly suited to high heads. The rotor consists of a large circular disc or wheel on which a
number (seldom less than 15) of spoon shaped buckets are spaced uniformly round is periphery

as shown in Figure .The wheel is driven by jets of water being discharged at atmospheric pressure
from pressure nozzles. The nozzles are mounted so that each directs a jet along a tangent to the
circle through the centers of the buckets. Down the center of each bucket, there is asplitter ridge
which divides the jet into two equal streams which flow round the smooth inner surface of the
bucket and leaves the bucket with a relative velocity almost opposite in direction to the original
jet.

12
 For maximum change in momentum of the fluid and hence for the maximum driving force on the
wheel, the deflection of the water jet should be 1800. In practice, however, the deflection is limited
to about 1650 so that the water leaving a bucket may not hit the back of the following bucket.
Therefore, the camber angle of the buckets is made as 165 0.

The number of jets is not more than two for horizontal shaft turbines and is limited to six for
vertical shaft turbines. The flow partly fills the buckets and the fluid remains in contact with the
atmosphere. Therefore, once the jet is produced by the nozzle, the static pressure of the fluid

remains atmospheric throughout the machine. Because of the symmetry of the buckets, the side
thrusts produced by the fluid in each half should balance each other.

Velocity triangles

What does velocity triangle indicates?

In turbo machinery, a velocity triangle or a velocity diagram is a triangle representing the various
components of velocities of the working fluid in a turbo machine. Velocity triangles may be
drawn for both the inlet and outlet sections of any turbo machine.

Terms used in velocity triangles.

1. 𝑉1 = 𝐽𝑒𝑡 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡

2. 𝑉𝑓1 = 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
3. 𝑉2 = 𝐽𝑒𝑡 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑡
4. 𝑣𝑤1 = 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑟𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡
5. 𝑣𝑤2 = 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑟𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡,

13
6. 𝑉𝑟1 = 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡
7. 𝑣𝑟2 = 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡.

8. 𝑉𝑓2 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡

9. 𝛼 = 𝑔𝑢𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑏𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡
10. 𝜃 = 𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡
11. Ø = 𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡
12. 𝛽 = 𝑔𝑢𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑏𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡
13. 𝑢 = 𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
14. 𝑢1 = 𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 = 𝜋𝐷𝑁/60
15. 𝑢2 = 𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡 = 𝜋𝐷𝑁/60
16. 𝑢 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑒

Inlet triangle: for pelton wheel.

The diagram of velocity vector at inlet becomes simply a straight line and the relative
velocity isgiven by 𝑣𝑟1 = 𝑉1 − 𝑢1

= 𝑉1 − 𝑢

Because u=u1= u2= πDN / 60

Also 𝑤1 = 𝑉1

α=00 θ= 00

𝑉1 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑗𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 = √2𝑔𝐻

𝑉𝑤1 = 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑟𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡

14
 Velocity triangle at outlet

𝑉𝑟2 = 𝑉𝑟1

𝑉𝑤2 = 𝑉𝑟2 𝑐𝑜𝑠Ø − 𝑢2

Work done by the jet on the runner per second=𝐹𝑥 ∗ 𝑢 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉1(𝑉𝑤1 + 𝑉𝑤2) ∗ 𝑈 𝑁𝑚/𝑠

Power given to the runner by the jet

𝜌𝑎𝑉1(𝑉𝑤1 + 𝑉𝑤2) ∗ 𝑈
𝑘𝑊
1000

Work done /s per unit weight of water striking/s

𝑈
=𝜌𝑎𝑉1(𝑉𝑤1 + 𝑉𝑤2) ∗
/ 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ht 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔
Problem:

At a project site, the head available is 160 m of water at a flow rate of 0.005 m3 /s. Select and
design a suitable turbine to generate power, assuming the required coefficients with justification
and stating all the relevant parameters.

15
16
17
 SCHOOL OF BUILDING AND ENVIRONMENT

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIT – V – APPLIED HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING – SCIA1402

1
 PUMPS

Pumps are used to transfer and distribute liquids in various industries. Pumps convert mechanical
energy into hydraulic energy. Electrical energy is generally used to operate the various types of
pumps.
Pumps have two main purposes.
Transfer of liquid from one place to another place (e.g. water from an underground into
a water storage tank).
Circulate liquid around a system (e.g. cooling water or lubricants through machines and
equipment).

Components of a Pumping System

• Pump casing and impellers

• Prime movers: electric motors, diesel engines or air system
• Piping used to carry the fluid
• Valves, used to control the flow in the system
• other fittings, controls and instrumentation
• End-use equipment, which have different requirements (e.g. pressure, flow) and
therefore determine the pumping system components and configuration. Examples
include heat exchangers, tanks and hydraulic machines.

Classification

There exist a wide variety of pumps that are designed for various specific applications. However,
most of them can be broadly classified into two categories as mentioned below.
i. positive displacement
ii. Dynamic pressure pumps

2
Positive Displacement Pumps

The term positive displacement pump is quite descriptive, because such pumps are designed to
displace a more or less fixed volume of fluid during each cycle of operation. The volumetric flow
rate is determined by the displacement per cycle of the moving member (either rotating or
reciprocating) times the cycle rate (e.g. rpm). The flow capacity is thus fixed by the design, size,
and operating speed of the pump. The pressure (or head) that the pump develops depends upon the
flow resistance of the system in which the pump is installed and is limited only by the size of the
driving motor and the strength of the parts. Consequently, the discharge line from the pump should
never be closed off without allowing for recycle around the pump or damage to the pump could
result. They can be further classified as:
Types of Positive Displacement Pumps Reciprocating pumpsPumping takes place by to and fro

motion of the piston or diaphragm in the cylinder. It is often used where relatively small quantity

of liquid is to be handled and where delivery pressure is quite large.

3
Piston pump: A piston pump is a type of positive displacement pump where the high- pressure seal
reciprocates with the piston. The pump has a piston cylinder arrangement. As the piston, goes
away after the delivery stoke, low pressure is created in the cylinder which opens the suction
valve. On forward stoke, the fluid filled inside the cylinder is compressed which intern opens the
delivery valve for the delivery of liquid.

Fig. Piston pump

Diaphragm pump: uses a combination of the reciprocating action of a rubber, thermoplastic or

Teflon diaphragm and suitable non-return check valves to pump a fluid. Sometimes this type of
pump is also called a membrane pump.

4
 Fig. Diaphragm pump

Rotary pumps

In rotary pumps, relative movement between rotating elements and the stationary element of the
pump cause the pumping action. The operation is different from reciprocating pumps, where valves
and a piston are integral to the pump. They also differ from centrifugal pumps, where highvelocity
is turned into pressure. Rotary pumps are designed so that a continuous seal is maintained between
inlet and outlet ports by the action and position of the pumping elements and close running
clearances of the pump. Therefore, rotary pumps do not require valve arrangements similar to
reciprocating pumps.

Gear pumps: uses the meshing of gears to pump fluid by displacement. They are one of the most
common types of pumps for hydraulic fluid power applications. The rigid design of the gears and
houses allow for very high pressures and the ability to pump highly viscous fluids.

Fig. Gear pump

5
Screw Pump: These pumps are rotary, positive displacement pumps that can have one or more
screws to transfer high or low viscosity fluids along an axis. Although progressive cavity pumps
can be referred to as a single screw pumps, typically screw pumps have two or more intermeshing
screws rotating axially clockwise or counter clockwise. Each screw thread is matched to carry a
specific volume of fluid. Screw pumps provide a specific volume with each cycle and can be
dependable in metering
applications.

Fig. Screw pump

Vane pump: A rotary vane pump is a positive-displacement pump that consists of vanes mounted
to a rotor that rotates inside of a cavity. In some cases, these vanes can be variable length and/or
tensioned to maintain contact with the walls as the pump rotates.

Fig. Vane pump

6
 Dynamic Pressure Pumps

In dynamic pressure pump, during pumping action, tangential force is imparted which accelerates
the fluid normally by rotation of impeller. Some systems which contain dynamic pump may require
positive displacement pump for priming. They are normally used for moderateto high discharge
rate. The pressure differential range for this type of pumps is in a range of low to moderate. They
are popularly used in a system where low viscosity fluids are used.

Centrifugal pumps

They use a rotating impeller to increase the pressure of a fluid. Centrifugal pumps are commonly
used to move liquids through a piping system. The fluid enters the pump impeller along or near
to the rotating axis and is accelerated by the impeller, flowing radially outward into a diffuser or
volute chamber (casing), from where it exits into the downstream piping system. Centrifugal
pumps are used for large discharge through smaller heads. These types of pumps are used for
supply of water and handling of milk in dairy plants.

Fig. Centrifugal pump

Propeller pump

7
A propeller pump is a high flow, low lift impeller type device featuring a linear flow path. The
propeller pump may be installed in a vertical, horizontal, or angled orientation and typically has
its motor situated above the water level with the impeller below water. These pumps function by
drawing water up an outer casing and out of a discharge outlet via a propeller bladed impeller head.

Fig. Propeller pump

Turbine pump

Turbine pumps are centrifugal pumps that use pressure and flow in combination with a rotary
mechanism to transfer fluid. They typically employ blade geometry, which causes fluid circulation
around the vanes to add pressure from inlet to outlet. Turbine pumps operate using kinetic energy
to move fluid utilizing an impeller. The centrifugal force drives the liquid to the housing wall in
close proximity to the vanes of the impeller or propeller. The cyclical movement of the impeller
produces pressure in the pumping bowl. The shape of turbine pumps also contributes to suction
and discharge rates.

8
 Fig. Turbine pump

Centrifugal Pump

Main parts of centrifugal pump:

1. Impeller
2. Casing
3. Suction pipe with a float value and a strainer
4. Delivery pipe.

Working Principle of a Centrifugal Pump

1. A centrifugal pump can be defined as a special form of rot dynamic pump that uses a rotating
impeller for raising the rate of the fluid.
2. The main function of centrifugal pumps is to convert the electric energy of a motor into
usable kinetic energy that causes pressure and forces the liquid to come out.
3. The pump is comprised of two main components, i.e. the impeller and the volute in which
the change of energy takes place. Kinetic energy is directly converted into pressure in the
volute, which is an inactive part of the pumping device.
4. The impeller, on the other hand, is the active revolving part that directly converts the driver
energy into kinetic energy.
5. The centrifugal force is developed as the liquid travels into the pumping section and also
the eye part of the impeller. As the impeller starts to revolve, the liquid is instantly turned
9
 into centrifugal force that vanes outward. As this liquid moves out of the impeller, it causes
a low pressure area to develop that allows more liquid to come out easily.

There are numerous different types of centrifugal pumps currently available in the market.
These include single stage centrifugal pumps and multistage centrifugal pumps. They can also
be classified based on their flow types, i.e. radial flow; axial flow and mixed flow. The pumps
can also differ based on their individual capacities and sizes.

Centrifugal Pump

10
 Velocity triangle

11
12
Working Mechanism of a Centrifugal Pump

A centrifugal pump is one of the simplest pieces of equipment in any process plant. Its purpose is
to convert energy of a prime mover (a electric motor or turbine) first into velocity or kinetic energy
and then into pressure energy of a fluid that is being pumped. The energy changes occur by virtue
of two main parts of the pump, the impeller and the volute or diffuser. The impeller is the rotating
part that converts driver energy into the kinetic energy. The volute or diffuser is the stationary part
that converts the kinetic energy into pressure energy.

Generation of Centrifugal Force

The process liquid enters the suction nozzle and then into eye (center) of a revolving device known
as an impeller. When the impeller rotates, it spins the liquid sitting in the cavities between the
vanes outward and provides centrifugal acceleration. As liquid leaves the eye of the impeller a
low-pressure area is created causing more liquid to flow toward the inlet. Because the impeller
blades are curved, the fluid is pushed in a tangential and radial direction by the centrifugal force.
This force acting inside the pump is the same one that keeps water inside a bucket that is rotating
at the end of a string.

Figure below depicts a side cross-section of a centrifugal pump indicating the movement of the

13
liquid.
General Components of Centrifugal Pumps

A centrifugal pump has two main components:

I. A rotating component comprised of an impeller and a shaft

II. A stationary component comprised of a casing, casing cover, and bearings.

The general components, both stationary and rotary, are depicted in Figure 1. The main
components are discussed in brief below. Figure 2 shows these parts on a photograph
of a pump in the field.

The impellers are fitted inside the casings.

1. Volute casings build a higher head; circular casings are used for low head and high
capacity.
• A volute is a curved funnel increasing in area to the discharge port as shown in
Figure
B.03. As the area of the cross-section increases, the volute reduces the speed of
the liquidand increases the pressure of the liquid.
• One of the main purposes of a volute casing is to help balance the hydraulic
pressure on the shaft of the pump. However, this occurs best at the
manufacturer's recommended capacity. Running volute-style pumps at a lower
capacity than the manufacturer recommends can put lateral stress on the shaft
of the pump, increasing wear-and-tear on the seals and bearings, and on the shaft
itself. Double-volute casings are used when the radial thrusts become significant
at reduced capacities.

What is a multistage pump?

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A centrifugal pump containing two or more impellers is called a multistage centrifugal
pump. The impellers may be mounted on the same shaft or on different shafts. For
higher pressures at

the outlet, impellers can be connected in series. For higher flow output, impellers can
beconnected parallel.

1. single stage pump refers to only one impeller pump, highest head is only 125 meters;
2. the multistage pump means to have two or more impeller pump, highest head
can more than 125 meters; Multistage pumps in single stage pump head must
match two levels motor cases, by adding more impeller number to equip with
level 4 motor, which can improve pump using life and reduces the noise, but
multistage pumps maintenance is relatively more difficult than single stage
pump.
3. pump actual required head is less than 125 m, can according to pump room area,
pump prices (multistage pump price usually higher than single stage pump)
factors comprehensive consideration to choose single stage pump or multistage
pumps. With the development of technology, single stage impeller pump
through improving the speed of the pump to improve pump head, can replace
multistage pumps, just the price is more expensive.

Reciprocating Pumps

Reciprocating pumps are very important part of the ships machinery and any other
industry which is present in the world. High pressure is the main characteristic of this
pump and this high pressure output are being used in places like starting of the engine

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or you can say the building of pressure in the fluids. But there are used in limited
application because they require lot of maintenance. These pumps are positive
displacements pumps and that is the reason they do not

require any type of priming for their functioning in the starting period of the pump.

Reciprocating Pump is a plunger Pump that is used for positive displacement. Pump
that is Reciprocating is used for handling a relatively low or small quantity of liquid.
The delivery pressure of a Pump that is Reciprocating is considerably large.

A reciprocating pump is a class of positive-displacement pumps which includes the

piston
pump, plunger pump and diaphragm pump In reciprocating pumps, the
chamber inwhich the liquid is trapped, is a stationary cylinder that contains
the piston or plunger.

Description

The main parts of a single acting reciprocating pump are discussed below.

1. Cylinder, Piston, Piston Rod, Connecting Rod and Crank

A single action reciprocating pump consists of a piston, which moves forwards

and backwards inside a close fitting cylinder. The movement of the piston is obtained
by connecting the piston rod to the crank by means of a connecting rod. The crank
is rotated by an electric
motor.
2. Suction Pipe and Suction Valve

Suction pipe is connected to the cylinder. Suction valve is a one way valve, i.e.,
non-return valve. It allows the liquid to flow in one direction only. That is, it permits
the liquid from the suction pipe to the cylinder.

3. Delivery Pipe and Delivery Valve

Delivery pipe is connected to the cylinder. Delivery valve is also one non-return
valve. It permits the liquid to flow in one direction only. That is, it allows the liquid
from the cylinder to the delivery pipe.

Working principal of the reciprocating pump

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The working of the reciprocating pump is very simple and just like an I.C engine. First of all the
piston has the function of providing the suction force, so that the liquid can be lift up or can be
sucked in with great force. After that comes the compression part which will impart the required
pressure energy to the fluids. In this part of the phase the piston have to do a great work so that
the liquid can be compressed properly and its pressure can increased to the desired level. The
inlet and the outlet valve open at a certain pressure which is set by the manufacturer.
If the piston is of single acting type which means it can suck from one side and transmit
to the same side only. But we can have the double reciprocating pump too which have
the function of the giving suction and discharge simultaneously in each stroke. This
pump can be used as the compressor also but for that we have to have a good valve
arrangement which can operate with good frequency.

Note: It is to be noted that the reciprocating pump is a positive displacements pump

which meansthat the fluid can only move in one direction and can never reverse back.
So due to this the pumpis always started with outlet valve open otherwise the pressure
will keep on building and this willlead to rupturing of the pipeline or even the pump
itself. But if relief valve is fitted then this pressure will come down

Uses of reciprocating pump

There are various uses of the reciprocating pump and they are as following:
1) The lubricating pump is a reciprocating pump and it supplies the lubrication oil
to the mainengine.
2) Main bilge suction pump is also a reciprocating pump.
3) For ballast they are sometimes used.

Advantages of Reciprocating pump

Advantages of the reciprocating pump are as given below:
1) Gives high
pressure at outlet.2)
Gives high suction
lift.
3) Priming is not required in
this pump. 4) They are used
for air also.
Disadvantages of Reciprocating pump
Disadvantages of the reciprocating pump are
given below:1)High wear and tear, so requires a
lot maintenance.
2) The flow is not uniform, so we have to fit a bottle at both ends.
3) The flow is very less and cannot be used for high flow
operations. 4) More heavy and bulky in shape.
5) Initial cost is much more in this pump.
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The air vessel, in a reciprocating pump, is a cast iron closed chamber having an
opening at itsbase. These are fitted to the suction pipe and delivery pipe close to the
cylinder of the pump.
The vessels are used for the following purposes: (a) To get continuous supply
of liquid at auniform rate.

Reciprocating Pump Fitted With Air Vessel At Both Suction AndDelivery Side

Air Vessel
An air vessel usually fitted in the discharge pipe work to dampen out the pressure
variations during discharge. As the discharge pressure rises the air is compressed in
the vessel, and as the pressure falls the air expands. The peak pressure energy is thus
stored in the air and returned tothe system when pressure falls. Air vessels are not
fitted on the reciprocating boiler feed pumpssince they may introduce air into the de-
aerated water.
Purposes of Air vessel:

1) To obtain liquid at uniform discharge.

2) Due to air vessel frictional head and acceleration head decreases and the work
overcomingfriction resistance in suction and delivery pipe considerably decreases
which results in good amount of work.
3) Reciprocating pump can run at high speed without flow separation

Working:
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 The top half contains compressed air and lower half contains fluid being pumped. Air
and water are separated by a flexible diaphragm which is movable as per difference
of pressure betweentwo fluids. Air vessel is connected very near to the pump at nearly
pump level. Without air vesselfrictional head increases and reaches a maximum value
at mid stroke and decreases to zero. With air vessel frictional head is constant
throughout the stroke.

Problem : Calculate the discharge of reciprocating pump (single cutting) if area of cylinder is
0.25 m2, length of stroke is 0.15 m, number of cylinder =1 and speed of pump is 50 rpm.

Problem :

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