SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur.

Jan-Apr, 2018

Database Management Systems

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Module 38: Query Processing and Optimization/1:
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Processing
Partha Pratim Das
NP
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur
[email protected]
Srijoni Majumdar
Himadri B G S Bhuyan
Gurunath Reddy M
Database System Concepts, 6th Ed.
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
www.db-book.com
 PPD
Module Recap
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

 Failure Classification
 Storage Structure
 Recovery and Atomicity
 Log-Based Recovery
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TE
NP
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 38.2 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 PPD
Module Objectives
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

 To understand the overall flow for Query Processing

 To define the Measures of Query Cost
 To understand the algorithms for processing Selection Operations, Sorting, Join Operations,
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and a few Other Operations
TE
NP
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 38.3 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 PPD
Module Outline
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

 Overview of Query Processing

 Measures of Query Cost
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 Selection Operation
 Sorting
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 Join Operation
 Other Operations
NP
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 38.4 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 PPD
• Overview of Query
Processing
• Measures of Query
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

Cost
• Selection Operation
• Sorting
• Join Operation
•
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Other Operations
TE
NP
OVERVIEW OF QUERY PROCESSING
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 38.5 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Basic Steps in Query Processing
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

1. Parsing and translation

2. Optimization
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3. Evaluation
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NP
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 38.6 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Basic Steps in Query Processing (Cont.)
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

 Parsing and translation

 translate the query into its internal form
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 This is then translated into relational algebra
TE
 Parser checks syntax, verifies relations
 Evaluation
 The query-execution engine takes a query-evaluation plan, executes that plan,
NP
and returns the answers to the query
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 38.7 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Basic Steps in Query Processing : Optimization
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

 A relational algebra expression may have many equivalent expressions

 E.g., σsalary<75000(∏salary(instructor)) is equivalent to
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∏salary(σsalary<75000(instructor))
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 Each relational algebra operation can be evaluated using one of several different
algorithms
 Correspondingly, a relational-algebra expression can be evaluated in many ways
NP
 Annotated expression specifying detailed evaluation strategy is called an evaluation-
plan.
 E.g., can use an index on salary to find instructors with salary < 75000,
 or can perform complete relation scan and discard instructors with salary ≥ 75000
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 38.8 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Basic Steps: Optimization (Cont.)
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

 Query Optimization: Amongst all equivalent evaluation plans choose the one with
lowest cost
Cost is estimated using statistical information from the database catalog
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
 e.g. number of tuples in each relation, size of tuples, etc.
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 In this module we study
 How to measure query costs
NP
 Algorithms for evaluating relational algebra operations
 How to combine algorithms for individual operations in order to evaluate a
complete expression
 In the next module
 We study how to optimize queries, that is, how to find an evaluation plan with
lowest estimated cost
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 38.9 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 PPD
• Overview of Query
Processing
• Measures of Query
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

Cost
• Selection Operation
• Sorting
• Join Operation
•
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Other Operations
TE
NP
MEASURES OF QUERY COST
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 38.10 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Measures of Query Cost
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

 Cost is generally measured as total elapsed time for answering query

 Many factors contribute to time cost
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 disk accesses, CPU, or even network communication
 Typically disk access is the predominant cost, and is also relatively easy to estimate
TE
 Measured by taking into account
 Number of seeks * average-seek-cost
NP
 Number of blocks read * average-block-read-cost
 Number of blocks written * average-block-write-cost
 Cost to write a block is greater than cost to read a block
– data is read back after being written to ensure that the write was successful
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 38.11 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Measures of Query Cost (Cont.)
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

 For simplicity we just use the number of block transfers from disk and the number
of seeks as the cost measures
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 tT – time to transfer one block
 tS – time for one seek
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 Cost for b block transfers plus S seeks
b * tT + S * tS
NP
 We ignore CPU costs for simplicity
 Real systems do take CPU cost into account
 We do not include cost to writing output to disk in our cost formulae
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 38.12 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Measures of Query Cost (Cont.)
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

 Several algorithms can reduce disk IO by using extra buffer space

 Amount of real memory available to buffer depends on other concurrent queries
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and OS processes, known only during execution
 We often use worst case estimates, assuming only the minimum amount of
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memory needed for the operation is available
 Required data may be buffer resident already, avoiding disk I/O
NP
 But hard to take into account for cost estimation
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 38.13 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 PPD
• Overview of Query
Processing
• Measures of Query
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

Cost
• Selection
Operation
• Sorting
• Join Operation
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• Other Operations
TE
NP
SELECTION OPERATION
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 38.14 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Selection Operation
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

 File scan
 Algorithm A1 (linear search). Scan each file block and test all records to see whether
they satisfy the selection condition
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 Cost estimate = br block transfers + 1 seek
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 br denotes number of blocks containing records from relation r
 If selection is on a key attribute, can stop on finding record
 cost = (br /2) block transfers + 1 seek
NP
 Linear search can be applied regardless of
 selection condition or
 ordering of records in the file, or
 availability of indices
 Note: binary search generally does not make sense since data is not stored
consecutively
 except when there is an index available,
 and binary search requires more seeks than index search
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 38.15 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Selections Using Indices
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

 Index scan – search algorithms that use an index

 selection condition must be on search-key of index
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 hi = height of B+ Tree
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 A2 (primary index, equality on key). Retrieve a single record that satisfies the
corresponding equality condition
 Cost = (hi + 1) * (tT + tS)
NP
 A3 (primary index, equality on nonkey) Retrieve multiple records
 Records will be on consecutive blocks
 Let b = number of blocks containing matching records
 Cost = hi * (tT + tS) + tS + tT * b
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 38.16 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Selections Using Indices
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

 A4 (secondary index, equality on nonkey).

 Retrieve a single record if the search-key is a candidate key
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 Cost = (hi + 1) * (tT + tS)
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 Retrieve multiple records if search-key is not a candidate key
 each of n matching records may be on a different block
 Cost = (hi + n) * (tT + tS)
NP
– Can be very expensive!
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 38.17 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Selections Involving Comparisons
 Can implement selections of the form σA≤V (r) or σA ≥ V(r) by using
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

 a linear file scan,

 or by using indices in the following ways:
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 A5 (primary index, comparison). (Relation is sorted on A)
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 For σA ≥ V(r) use index to find first tuple ≥ v and scan relation sequentially from
there
– Cost = hi * (tT + tS) + b * tT
NP
 For σA≤V (r) just scan relation sequentially till first tuple > v; do not use index
– Cost = tS + b * tT
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 38.18 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Selections Involving Comparisons
 Can implement selections of the form σA≤V (r) or σA ≥ V(r) by using
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

 a linear file scan,

 or by using indices in the following ways:
 A6 (secondary index, comparison).
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TE
 For σA ≥ V(r) use index to find first index entry ≥ v and scan index sequentially
from there, to find pointers to records
– Cost = (hi + n) * (tT + tS)
NP
 For σA≤V (r) just scan leaf pages of index finding pointers to records, till first entry
>v
 In either case, retrieve records that are pointed to
– requires an I/O for each record
– Linear file scan may be cheaper
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 38.19 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Implementation of Complex Selections
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

 Conjunction: σθ1∧ θ2∧. . . θn(r)

 A7 (conjunctive selection using one index)
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 Select a combination of θi and algorithms A1 through A6 that results in the least
cost for σθi (r)
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 Test other conditions on tuple after fetching it into memory buffer
 A8 (conjunctive selection using composite index)
NP
 Use appropriate composite (multiple-key) index if available
 A9 (conjunctive selection by intersection of identifiers)
 Requires indices with record pointers
 Use corresponding index for each condition, and take intersection of all the
obtained sets of record pointers
 Then fetch records from file
 If some conditions do not have appropriate indices, apply test in memory
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 38.20 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Algorithms for Complex Selections
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

 Disjunction:σθ1∨ θ2 ∨. . . θn (r).
 A10 (disjunctive selection by union of identifiers)
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 Applicable if all conditions have available indices
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 Otherwise use linear scan
 Use corresponding index for each condition, and take union of all the obtained sets
of record pointers
NP
 Then fetch records from file
 Negation: σ¬θ(r)
 Use linear scan on file
 If very few records satisfy ¬θ, and an index is applicable to θ
 Find satisfying records using index and fetch from file
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 38.21 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 PPD
• Overview of Query
Processing
• Measures of Query
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

Cost
• Selection Operation
• Sorting
• Join Operation
•
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Other Operations
TE
SORTING NP
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 38.22 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Sorting
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

 We may build an index on the relation, and then use the index to read the relation in
sorted order
May lead to one disk block access for each tuple
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
 For relations that fit in memory, techniques like quicksort can be used
TE
 For relations that do not fit in memory, external sort-merge is a good choice
NP
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 38.23 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Example: External Sorting Using Sort-Merge
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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TE
NP
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 38.24 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 External Sort-Merge
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

Let M denote memory size (in pages)

1. Create sorted runs. Let i be 0 initially
Repeatedly do the following till the end of the relation:
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(a) Read M blocks of relation into memory
(b) Sort the in-memory blocks
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(c) Write sorted data to run Ri; increment i.
Let the final value of i be N
NP
2. Merge the runs (next slide)…..
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 38.25 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 External Sort-Merge (Cont.)
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

2. Merge the runs (N-way merge). We assume (for now) that N < M
1. Use N blocks of memory to buffer input runs, and 1 block to buffer output. Read
the first block of each run into its buffer page
2. repeat
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TE
1. Select the first record (in sort order) among all buffer pages
2. Write the record to the output buffer. If the output buffer is full write it to disk.
NP
3. Delete the record from its input buffer page
If the buffer page becomes empty then
read the next block (if any) of the run into the buffer
3. until all input buffer pages are empty:
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 38.26 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 External Sort-Merge (Cont.)
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

 If N ≥ M, several merge passes are required

 In each pass, contiguous groups of M - 1 runs are merged.
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 A pass reduces the number of runs by a factor of M -1, and
creates runs longer by the same factor
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 E.g. If M=11, and there are 90 runs, one pass reduces
the number of runs to 9, each 10 times the size of the
NP
initial runs
 Repeated passes are performed till all runs have been
merged into one
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 38.27 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 PPD
• Overview of Query
Processing
• Measures of Query
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

Cost
• Selection Operation
• Sorting
• Join Operation
•
L
Other Operations
TE
NP
JOIN OPERATION
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 38.28 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Join Operation
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

 Several different algorithms to implement joins

 Nested-loop join
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 Block nested-loop join
Indexed nested-loop join
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
 Merge-join
 Hash-join
NP
 Choice based on cost estimate
 Examples use the following information
 Number of records of student: 5,000 takes: 10,000
 Number of blocks of student: 100 takes: 400
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 38.29 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Nested-Loop Join
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

 To compute the theta join r θs

for each tuple tr in r do begin
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for each tuple ts in s do begin
test pair (tr,ts) to see if they satisfy the join condition θ
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if they do, add tr • ts to the result.
end
end
NP
 r is called the outer relation and s the inner relation of the join
 Requires no indices and can be used with any kind of join condition
 Expensive since it examines every pair of tuples in the two relations
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 38.30 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Nested-Loop Join (Cont.)
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

 In the worst case, if there is enough memory only to hold one block of each relation, the estimated cost is
n ∗ b + b block transfers, plus
r s r
nr + br seeks
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 If the smaller relation fits entirely in memory, use that as the inner relation.
TE
 Reduces cost to br + bs block transfers and 2 seeks
 Example of join of students and takes:
 Number of records of student: 5,000 takes: 10,000
NP
 Number of blocks of student: 100 takes: 400
 Assuming worst case memory availability cost estimate is
 with student as outer relation:
 5000 ∗ 400 + 100 = 2,000,100 block transfers,
 5000 + 100 = 5100 seeks
 with takes as the outer relation
 10000 ∗ 100 + 400 = 1,000,400 block transfers and 10,400 seeks
 If smaller relation (student) fits entirely in memory, the cost estimate will be 500 block transfers
 Block nested-loops algorithm (next slide) is preferable
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 38.31 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Block Nested-Loop Join
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

 Variant of nested-loop join in which every block of inner

relation is paired with every block of outer relation
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for each block Br of r do begin
for each block Bs of s do begin
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for each tuple tr in Br do begin
for each tuple ts in Bs do begin
NP
Check if (tr,ts) satisfy the join condition
if they do, add tr • ts to the result.
end
end
end
end
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 38.32 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Block Nested-Loop Join (Cont.)
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

 Worst case estimate: br ∗ bs + br block transfers + 2 * br seeks

 Each block in the inner relation s is read once for each block
in the outer relation
 Best case: br + bs block transfers + 2 seeks.
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TE
 Improvements to nested loop and block nested loop algorithms:
 In block nested-loop, use M — 2 disk blocks as blocking unit
for outer relations, where M = memory size in blocks; use
NP
remaining two blocks to buffer inner relation and output
 Cost = br / (M-2) ∗ bs + br block transfers +
2 br / (M-2) seeks
 If equi-join attribute forms a key or inner relation, stop inner
loop on first match
 Scan inner loop forward and backward alternately, to make
use of the blocks remaining in buffer (with LRU replacement)
 Use index on inner relation if available (next slide)
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 38.33 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Indexed Nested-Loop Join
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

 Index lookups can replace file scans if

 join is an equi-join or natural join and
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 an index is available on the inner relation’s join attribute
 Can construct an index just to compute a join.
TE
 For each tuple tr in the outer relation r, use the index to look up
tuples in s that satisfy the join condition with tuple tr.
 Worst case: buffer has space for only one page of r, and, for each
NP
tuple in r, we perform an index lookup on s.
 Cost of the join: br (tT + tS) + nr ∗ c
 Where c is the cost of traversing index and fetching all matching s
tuples for one tuple or r
 c can be estimated as cost of a single selection on s using the join
condition.
 If indices are available on join attributes of both r and s,
use the relation with fewer tuples as the outer relation.
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 38.34 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Example of Nested-Loop Join Costs
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

 Compute student takes, with student as the outer relation.

 Let takes have a primary B+-tree index on the attribute ID, which contains 20 entries in each
index node.
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 Since takes has 10,000 tuples, the height of the tree is 4, and one more access is needed to
TE
find the actual data
 student has 5000 tuples
 Cost of block nested loops join
NP
 400*100 + 100 = 40,100 block transfers + 2 * 100 = 200 seeks
 assuming worst case memory
 may be significantly less with more memory
 Cost of indexed nested loops join
 100 + 5000 * 5 = 25,100 block transfers and seeks.
 CPU cost likely to be less than that for block nested loops join
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 38.35 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 PPD
• Overview of Query
Processing
• Measures of Query
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

Cost
• Selection Operation
• Sorting
• Join Operation
•
L
Other Operations
TE
NP
OTHER OPERATIONS
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 38.36 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Other Operations
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

 Duplicate elimination
 Projection
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 Aggregation
TE
 Set Operations
 Outer Join
NP
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 38.37 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Other Operations
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

 Duplicate elimination can be implemented via hashing or sorting

 On sorting duplicates will come adjacent to each other, and all but one set of
L
duplicates can be deleted
 Optimization: duplicates can be deleted during run generation as well as at
TE
intermediate merge steps in external sort-merge
 Hashing is similar – duplicates will come into the same bucket
NP
 Projection:
 perform projection on each tuple
 followed by duplicate elimination
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 38.38 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Other Operations : Aggregation
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

 Aggregation can be implemented in a manner similar to duplicate elimination

 Sorting or hashing can be used to bring tuples in the same group together, and
then the aggregate functions can be applied on each group

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Optimization: combine tuples in the same group during run generation and
TE
intermediate merges, by computing partial aggregate values
 For count, min, max, sum: keep aggregate values on tuples found so far in the
group
NP
– When combining partial aggregate for count, add up the aggregates
 For avg, keep sum and count, and divide sum by count at the end
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 38.39 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Module Summary
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

 Understood the overall flow for Query Processing and defined the Measures of Query Cost
 Studied the algorithms for processing Selection Operations, Sorting, Join Operations and a few
Other Operations
L
TE
NP
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 38.40 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 PPD
Instructor and TAs
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

Name Mail Mobile

Partha Pratim Das, Instructor [email protected] 9830030880
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Srijoni Majumdar, TA [email protected] 9674474267
Himadri B G S Bhuyan, TA [email protected] 9438911655
TE
Gurunath Reddy M [email protected] 9434137638
NP
Slides used in this presentation are borrowed from http://db-book.com/
with kind permission of the authors.
Edited and new slides are marked with “PPD”.
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 38.41 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan