UNIT-1 FUNDAMENTALS OF ROBOTS

Introduction
Robots, often portrayed in science fiction as advanced machines with human-like intelligence and
capabilities, have become a significant part of our reality. A robot is a programmable machine designed to
perform tasks autonomously or semi-autonomously, typically carrying out actions that are dull, dirty,
dangerous, or beyond human capabilities. The field of robotics encompasses a wide range of machines, from
industrial robots used in manufacturing to sophisticated humanoid robots and artificial intelligence (AI)
systems.

Definition
A robot is a machine that can sense its environment, process information, and take actions to achieve a
specific goal. Robots can be simple or complex, small or large, and can be used for a variety of purposes.

Classification of Robots Based on Robots Configuration

Polar Coordinate Body-and-Arm Assembly :
Consists of a sliding arm (L joint) actuated relative to the body, which can rotate about both a vertical axis (T joint)
and horizontal axis (R joint) Notation TRL:
Cylindrical Body-and-Arm Assembly:
Consists of a vertical column, relative to which an arm assembly is moved up or down. The arm can be moved in or
out relative to the column Notation TLO:

Cartesian coordinate Body-and-Arm Assembly:

Consists of three sliding joints, two of which are orthogonal other names include rectilinear robot and x-y-z robot
Notation LOO:

Jointed-Arm Robot:
Similar in appearance to human arm Rotated base, shoulder joint, elbow joint, wrist joint. Notation TRR:

Applications Based on the Industrial Use:

Industrial Robots: These robots are commonly used in manufacturing settings for tasks like assembly,
welding, painting, and packaging. They are designed to perform repetitive and precise tasks, enhancing
efficiency and accuracy in production lines.
Medical Robots: Robots are increasingly employed in the field of medicine for tasks like surgery,
rehabilitation, and patient care. Surgical robots, for example, enable minimally invasive procedures with
enhanced precision.
Service Robots: These robots are designed to assist humans in various environments. Examples include
cleaning robots, delivery robots, and customer service robots.
Humanoid Robots: Humanoid robots are built to resemble humans in their physical appearance and
movements. They are often developed for research purposes, entertainment, or to interact with humans in
social and caregiving roles.
Autonomous Vehicles: Autonomous cars, drones, and other vehicles incorporate robotic technology to
navigate and operate without human intervention. They rely on sensors, AI, and machine learning to
perceive their surroundings and make decisions.

History of Robotics
The history of robotics is a fascinating journey that stretches back centuries, filled with both fascinating
inventions and philosophical reflections. Here's a glimpse into different eras and milestones:

Ancient Beginnings:
While not robots in the modern sense, the concept of artificial humans dates back to ancient civilizations.
Automatons, or self-operating machines, were built in Egypt, Greece, and China, often inspired by
mythology and showcasing impressive craftsmanship.

The Industrial Revolution:

The 18th and 19th centuries saw advancements in mechanics and automation, laying the groundwork for
modern robotics. Jacquard looms (automatic weaving machines) and Vaucanson's automata showcased
increasing sophistication.

Birth of the Term "Robot" (1920s):

Karel Čapek's play "R.U.R." introduced the word "robot" (derived from the Czech word for "forced labor"),
igniting public imagination and raising questions about the ethical implications of artificial intelligence.

Industrial Robotics Takeoff (1950s and 1960s):

George Devol and Joseph Engelberger developed the Unimate, considered the first industrial robot, in 1954.
It performed dangerous tasks in car manufacturing, sparking the adoption of robots in industries worldwide.

Pioneering Research and Development (1970s and 1980s):

Research in vision systems, artificial intelligence, and sensor technology broadened robotic capabilities.
Robots like Shakey, designed for lunar exploration, explored navigation and mobility.

Rise of Service Robotics (1990s and 2000s):

Robots began moving beyond factories, with the Roomba vacuum cleaner entering homes and robots like
ASIMO showcasing advancements in humanoid design.

The Age of AI and Machine Learning (2010s and present):

Rapid developments in AI and machine learning have revolutionized robotics. Deep learning has enabled
robots to perform complex tasks, leading to breakthroughs in autonomous vehicles, surgical robots, and
personal assistants.The future of robotics is brimming with possibilities. Expect advancements in human-
robot interaction, collaborative robots, and robots addressing global challenges like climate
change and healthcare.
Classification and Precision of Motion

Characteristics of Robots:
1. Accuracy: Robots are designed to perform tasks with a high degree of precision. This accuracy is crucial
in applications such as manufacturing, surgery, and laboratory processes where exact movements are
essential.
2. Speed: Depending on their purpose, robots can execute tasks at high speeds. Industrial robots, for
instance, are often programmed to carry out repetitive actions quickly, contributing to increased production
efficiency.
3. Repeatability: Robots excel in repetitious tasks, consistently reproducing the same movements or actions.
This repeatability is essential in industries where precision and uniformity are critical.
4. Endurance: Unlike humans, robots don't experience fatigue, allowing them to work continuously for
extended periods without a decline in performance. This trait is advantageous in tasks requiring prolonged
focus and consistency.
5. Flexibility: Modern robots are designed to be versatile and adaptable. Through programming or learning
algorithms, they can be reconfigured to perform different tasks, making them valuable in dynamic
environments.
6. Sensors and Perception: Robots incorporate sensors to perceive their surroundings. These sensors,
including cameras, LiDAR, and touch sensors, enable robots to gather data, make decisions, and adjust their
movements based on real-time feedback.
7. Autonomy: Many robots are capable of autonomous operation, meaning they can perform tasks without
constant human intervention. This autonomy is particularly useful in applications like autonomous vehicles
and drones.

Precision of Motion:

1. Joint Accuracy: Industrial robots often have precise control over their joints, allowing for accurate
positioning. This is crucial in tasks like welding, painting, and assembly where components must align
precisely.

2. Path Planning: Robots can follow predefined paths with precision, ensuring that they navigate through
their environment accurately. This capability is essential in applications such as logistics and automation.

3. Feedback Control: Advanced robots use feedback control systems to continuously adjust their movements
based on sensor input. This closed-loop system enhances precision by correcting deviations from the
intended path or position.
4. Redundancy Resolution: Some robots have redundancy in their joints or limbs, allowing them to find
optimal solutions for movement. This is particularly useful in situations where obstacles or constraints may
affect the most straightforward path.

5. Force and Torque Control: In addition to precise positioning, robots can exert controlled force and torque,
enabling delicate tasks such as surgery or handling fragile objects.

Advantages of Robots:

Robots have become increasingly integrated into our lives, offering a wide range of benefits across various
sectors. Here are some key advantages:
Increased Productivity and Efficiency:
 Robots can work tirelessly and consistently, 24/7, completing tasks much faster than humans. This
leads to higher output and production in industries like manufacturing, agriculture, and logistics.
 Their accuracy and repeatability minimize errors and improve quality control, further boosting
efficiency.

Improved Safety:
 Robots can handle dangerous or hazardous tasks like bomb disposal, deep-sea exploration, and
nuclear waste cleanup, reducing risks for human workers.
 They can automate tasks in harsh environments like extreme temperatures or high radiation zones,
protecting human health.
Greater Precision and Quality:
 Robots perform tasks with exceptional precision and repeatability, minimizing errors and waste in
production. This is crucial for industries like electronics, healthcare, and aerospace.
 Robots can perform intricate procedures like microsurgery with greater accuracy than human
surgeons, leading to improved patient outcomes.
Reduced Costs:
 Automating tasks with robots can save on labor costs in the long run, especially for repetitive or
dangerous jobs.
 Increased efficiency often leads to reduced material waste and energy consumption, further lowering
operational costs.
Exploration and Discovery:
 Robots can explore dangerous or inaccessible environments like deep space, volcanic craters, or
underwater depths, aiding in scientific discovery and resource exploration.
  They can collect data and samples in these environments, minimizing human risk and expanding our
knowledge.
Companionship and Assistance:
 Personal robots can provide companionship and support to the elderly, lonely, or disabled
individuals, helping with daily tasks and fostering social interaction.
 They can offer reminders, medication assistance, and fall detection, promoting independent living
and well-being.

While challenges exist, the advantages of robots offer significant potential for progress and improvement in
various aspects of our lives.

Disadvantages of Robots:

While robots offer numerous advantages, their potential drawbacks require careful consideration. Here are
some key disadvantages to acknowledge:
Job Displacement:
 As robots become more sophisticated, they may automate tasks currently performed by humans,
leading to unemployment and job losses in various sectors.
 This raises concerns about economic instability and the need for workforce retraining and adaptation.
High Initial Cost:
 Developing, purchasing, and maintaining robots can be expensive, creating a barrier for adoption,
especially for smaller businesses.
 High upfront costs often limit accessibility and can lead to uneven implementation across different
industries and regions.
Limited Skills and Adaptability:
 Despite excelling at specific tasks, robots often lack the critical thinking, adaptability, and problem-
solving skills of humans.
 This limitation can hinder their application in unpredictable situations or tasks requiring creative
solutions.
Ethical Concerns:
 Issues like artificial intelligence and robotic autonomy raise ethical questions about bias,
responsibility, and potential misuse of technology.
 Concerns exist regarding robots making critical decisions, potential discrimination based on
algorithms, and the ethical implications of advanced AI.
Social Impact:
 Increased reliance on robots could lead to social isolation, decreased human interaction, and skills
gaps requiring adaptation.
  Overdependence on automation might reduce opportunities for human skill development and social
interactions, impacting social structures and community dynamics.

Safety Risks:
 Malfunctioning or improperly programmed robots could pose safety risks, harming humans or
causing property damage.
 Concerns exist regarding security vulnerabilities and potential hacking of robots, leading to
unintended consequences.
By acknowledging these disadvantages and proactively addressing them, we can ensure that robots are
developed and implemented responsibly, maximizing their benefits while minimizing their negative impacts
on society.

Applications:

Robots are rapidly transforming our world, finding applications in a vast array of industries and fields. Here
are some key areas where robots are making a significant impact:

Manufacturing:
 Industrial robots: These tireless workhorses handle repetitive tasks like welding, painting,
assembly, and material handling with unmatched precision and speed, boosting productivity and
efficiency.
 Collaborative robots (cobots): These robots work alongside human workers, assisting with tasks
like material handling and assembly, promoting human-robot collaboration and improving worker
safety.

Logistics and Warehousing:

 Automated guided vehicles (AGVs): These autonomous robots transport goods within warehouses
and distribution centers, streamlining logistics and reducing manual labor.
 Picking and packing robots: These robots can identify, pick, and pack items with incredible speed
and accuracy, significantly improving order fulfillment efficiency.
Healthcare:
 Surgical robots: These robots assist surgeons in performing minimally invasive procedures with
enhanced precision and control, leading to faster recovery times and improved patient outcomes.
 Rehabilitation robots: These robots help patients regain mobility and strength after injuries or
surgeries, providing personalized therapy and improving rehabilitation outcomes.
Agriculture:
 Autonomous tractors and harvesters: These robots can navigate fields, sow seeds, and harvest
crops with minimal human intervention, increasing agricultural efficiency and productivity.
 Drone-based crop monitoring: Drones equipped with sensors can collect data on crop health, soil
moisture, and pest infestation, enabling precision agriculture and optimizing resource use.
Service Industries:
 Customer service robots: These robots can answer questions, provide product information, and
resolve customer issues, offering 24/7 customer support and improving customer satisfaction.
 Delivery robots: These robots deliver food, packages, and other goods autonomously, offering
convenient and efficient delivery services.
Exploration and Research:
 Deep-sea exploration robots: These robots venture into the depths of the ocean, collecting data and
exploring uncharted areas, advancing our understanding of marine ecosystems.
 Space exploration robots: Robots like rovers and landers explore the surfaces of planets and
moons, collecting data and paving the way for future human exploration.
These are just a few examples of the diverse applications of robots. As technology continues to evolve, we
can expect robots to play an even greater role in shaping our future, transforming industries, and impacting
our lives in countless ways.

MATRIX REPRESENTATION

Representation of a Point in Space

A point P in space: 3 coordinate relative to a reference frame

P  ax i by j cz k
 Fig. 3.5 Representation of a point in space
Representation of a Vector in Space

A Vector P in space: 3 coordinates of its tail and of its head

HOMOGENEOUS TRANSFORMATION MATRICES
Transformation matrices must be in square form. It is much easier to calculate the inverse of square matrices. To
multiply two matrices, their dimensions must match.

Representation of a Pure Translation

 A transformation is defined as making a movement in space.

 A pure translation.

 A pure rotation about an axis.

 A combination of translation or rotations

Representation of a Pure Rotation about an Axis

Assumption: The frame is at the origin of the reference frame and parallel to it