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003 Xii Phy Study Material Quick Revision For High Achievers

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
112 views52 pages

003 Xii Phy Study Material Quick Revision For High Achievers

Uploaded by

bibhukumarsahu
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA

SANGATHAN
CHENNAI REGION

CLASS – XII
PHYSICS
QUICK REVISION MATERIAL
FOR HIGH ACHIEVERS

1
CHIEF PATRON

Ms. T.Rukmani
Offg.Deputy Commissioner
KVS Chennai Region
PATRON
Mr.P I Thanga Raja
Assistant Commissioner
KVS Chennai Region
COURSE DIRECTOR
Mr. R.N.Senthil Kumar
Principal
Kendriya Vidyalaya, Nagercoil.

2
CONTENT DEVELOPMENT TEAM

S.No NameoftheChapter NameoftheTeacher NameoftheKV


Unit - 1 Electrostatics (Chapters 1 & 2) MRS. R SUGUNA CHENNAI AFS AVADI
1
Unit - II Current Electricity (Chapter-3) &
Preparation of Questions Paper for 35 MRS. GEETHA RAMESH CHENNAI ANNANAGAR
2 marks from Unit 1 & 2

Unit - III Magnetic Effects of Current and


Magnetism (Chapters 4&5) MR.T.MURALI CHENNAI DGQA
3

Unit - IV Electromagnetic Induction and


Alternating (Chapters 6 & 7) MRS.RADHA MUKUNDAN CHENNAI MINAMBAKKAM
4

Unit - V Electromagnetic Waves


(Chapter-8) & Preparation of Questions MR.SANKARRAMAN CHENNAI MINAMBAKKAM
5 Paper for 35 marks from Unit 3 & 4

6 Unit - VI Optics (Chapters 9&10) MR .V SIVARAMAKRISHNAN COIMBATORE


Unit - VII Dual Nature of Radiation and
Matter (Chapter- 11) & Preparation of MR. K. RENGANATHAN TRICHY NO.1
7 Questions Paper for 35 marks from Unit
5&6
Unit - VIII Atoms and Nuclei (Chapter 12 MR. C. MURUGAVEL PONDICHERRY NO.1 Shift 1
8 & 13)
Unit - IX Electronic Devices (Chapter 14) MR SATYA
& Preparation of Questions Paper for 35 SURYANARAYANA PORT BLAIR NO.2
9 marks from Unit 7, 8 & 9 SURMPUDI

EDITING AND COMPILATION BY RESOURCE PERSONS

MR.P.SEENIVASAN, K.V No.1, NARIMEDU, MADURAI


MR.K V SRINIVASAN, K.V No.1, TAMBARAM, CHENNAI
MR.S DHAMODHARAN, KV GILL NAGAR, CHENNAI
MR.S KUMAR, KV CRPF AVADI
MR.S CHANDRA KUMAR, KV NAGERCOIL
MRS.A. BEULAH JASMINE, KV NAGERCOIL

3
Unit - 1 Electrostatics(Chapters 1&2)
QUICK REVISION NOTES
 Study of charges at rest.
 Charging a body can be done by friction, induction and conduction.
 Like charges repel and unlike charges attract.
 Charges are additive in nature i.e., Q=∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑞𝑖
 Charges are quantized. i.e., Q= ± ne [n=1,2,3,… & e=1.602 X10 -19 C]
 Charge in a body is independent of its velocity.
 Charge is conserved.
 To measure charge electroscopes are used.
𝑘𝑞 𝑞 1
 Coulomb’s law: 𝐹⃗ = 𝑟12 2 𝑟̂ k=4𝜋𝜀 = 9X109 Nm2c-2
0
 𝜀0= permittivity of free space
Q1Q2 1 Q1Q2

F
Ftotal = F12 + F 13 + ….
 Principle of superposition: 𝐹𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑖 [vector sum of individual forces]
qq  qq 
 1 122 r12  1 123 r13  ....
4 r12 4 r13

F
E Q E
 Electric field: Force per unit positive test charge. It is a vector. SI unitNC -1.
𝑘𝑄
 𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝑟 2 𝑟̂

𝐹⃗ r2
 𝐸⃗⃗ = lim 𝑞
𝑞0→0 0
𝑘𝑄
 Field due to a point charge:𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝑟 2 𝑟̂
 Principle of superposition: 𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸𝑖 [vector sum of individual fields]
 Dipole: Two equal and opposite charges separated by a small distance.
 Dipole moment: Product of magnitude of charge and distance of separation
between them. It is a vector. SI unit: Cm 𝑝⃗=Q.2𝑎⃗ ; direction of 𝑝⃗ is negative
to positive charge.
 Dipole in a uniform electric field experiences no net force and instead
⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐸⃗⃗ ⇒ 𝜏⃗=|𝑝⃗||𝐸⃗⃗ | sin 𝜃 𝑛̂
experiences a torque. 𝜏⃗=𝑝
 If 𝜃= 0° ⇒ stable equilibrium; If 𝜃= 180° ⇒ unstable equilibrium.

4
2𝑘𝑝⃗
 Electric field due to a dipole at a point on the axial line: in the direction
𝑟3
of dipole moment
𝑘𝑝⃗
 Electric field due to a dipole at a point on the equatorial line: 𝑟 3 against
the direction of dipole moment.
 Electric flux: ∅=∆𝑆
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗. 𝐸⃗⃗ =|𝐸⃗⃗ ||∆𝑆
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 ; It is a scalar; SI unit: NC-1m2 or Vm.
𝑞
 Gauss’ theorem in electrostatics:∅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
0 𝜀

 Uniform Charge distribution:


∆𝑞
 Linear charge distribution: 𝜆 = ∆𝑙 [𝜆 ⇒ linear charge density Unit Cm-1]
∆𝑞
 Surface charge distribution: 𝜎 = ∆𝑆 [𝜎 ⇒ surface charge density Unit Cm-2]
∆𝑞
Volume charge distribution: 𝜌 = [𝜌 ⇒ Volume charge density Unit Cm3]
∆𝑉
 Applications of Gauss’ theorem for uniform charge distribution:
Expression Infinite Infinite plane Thin spherical shell
for Linear sheet
Flux ∅ 𝜆𝑙 𝜎𝑠 𝜎4𝜋𝑟 2
𝜀0 𝜀0 𝜀0
Magnitude 𝜆 𝑄
[for points on/outside the
of 𝜎 4𝜋𝑟 2 𝜀0
2𝜋𝑟𝜀0 shell]
Field E 𝜀0
=0 [for points inside the shell]
Charge ∆𝑞 ∆𝑞 𝜎
𝜆= 𝜎= 4𝜋𝑟 2
density ∆𝑙 ∆𝑆
 Properties of electric field lines:
 Arbitrarily starts from +ve charge and end at –ve charge
 Continuous, but never form closed loops
 Never intersect
 Relative closeness of the field lines represents the magnitude of the
field strength.
 For a set of two like charges – lateral pressure in between
 For a set of two unlike charges – longitudinal contraction in between.
 Electrostatic Potential: Work done per unit positive Test charge to move it
from infinity to that point in an electric field. It is a scalar. SI unit:
o J/C or V
5
o V = W / qo
𝑘𝑞
o Electric potential for a point charge: V = kq / r𝑉 = 𝑟

 Electric field is conservative. This means that the work done is the
independent of the path followed and the total work done in a closed path is zero.
 Potential due to a system of charges: v   in1 i kq
total ri
 Potential due to a dipole at a point on its axial line:
𝑘 |𝑝⃗| 𝑘 |𝑝⃗|
𝑉𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 = [or] 𝑟 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑟2
 Potential due to a dipole at a point on its equatorial line:𝑉𝑒𝑞 = 0
1 1
 Potential difference 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 = 𝑘𝑞 [𝑟 − 𝑟 ]
𝐴 𝐵
𝑘𝑞1 𝑞2
 Potential energy of two charges: U = 𝑟
 ⃗⃗⃗⃗. 𝐸⃗⃗ = p E [𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃0 - 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 ]
Potential energy of a dipole : U = 𝑝
 Electro static of conductors
a. Inside a conductor Electrostatic field is zero
b. On the surface E is always Normal t
c. No charge inside the conductor
d. Potential is constant inside and on the surface
 Equipotential surfaces: The surfaces on which the potential is same
everywhere.
o Work done in moving a charge over a equipotential surfaces is zero.
o No two equipotential surfaces intersect.
o Electric field lines are always perpendicular to the equipotential surfaces.

𝑑𝑉 1
o As E= - 𝑑𝑟 If Vis constant, E∝ 𝑟 and if E is constant, V∝ 𝑟
 Capacitor: An instrument to store charges and electrostatic potential energy.
Q
 Capacitance: C  , ,Ratio of charge and unit potential difference. Scalar,
V
 SI unit: farad [F]

6
Q C
Q
𝐶 V
𝑉 𝑉 𝑜𝑟 𝑄
𝜀0 × 𝐴
 Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor: 𝐶 = 𝑑
 Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with a dielectric medium in between:
𝜀0
 𝐶𝑚 =(𝑑−𝑡+ 𝑡 𝐴
) 𝐾
𝜀0 × 𝐴
 If t =0 ⇒𝐶0 = 𝑑
𝐾𝜀0 × 𝐴
 If t =d ⇒𝐶𝑚 = ⇒ 𝐶𝑚 = 𝐾𝐶0
𝑑

𝐶𝑚

𝐶0 K

 Grouping of capacitors:
n
1 1
 Capacitors in series:  
c i 1 ci
n
 Capacitors in parallel : c   ci
i 1

1 2 1 1 Q2
 Energy stored in capacitors: U  CV  QV 
2 2 2 C
1
 Area shaded in the graph = U =2 𝑄𝑉
V

Q
1 𝜎2
 Energy density :𝑈𝑑 = 2 𝜀0 𝐸 2=2𝜀
0
 Introducing dielectric slab between the plates of the charged capacitor
with:
Property⇣ Battery connected Battery disconnected
Charge K Q0 Q0
Potential difference V0 V0/K
Electric field E0 E0/K
Capacitance KC0 KC0
Energy 1 2 1
K times2 𝜀0 𝐸 1/K times2 𝜀0 𝐸 2
[Energy is supplied [Energy used for
By battery] Polarization]

7
 On connecting two charged capacitors:
𝐶 𝑉 +𝐶 𝑉
Common Potential:𝑉 = 1 𝑉1 +𝑉2 2
1 2
1 𝐶1 ×𝐶2
Loss of energy ∆𝑈 = 2 𝐶 (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )2
1 +𝐶2

Unit - II Current Electricity (Chapter-3)


QUICK REVISION NOTES
Current electricity - The study of electric charges in motion is called current
electricity.
Electric current - Electric current across an area held perpendicular to the
direction of flow of charge is defined as the amount of charge flowing across
that area per unit time.
q
For a steady flow of charge, I =
t
If the rate of flow of charge varies with time, then dq
I 
dt
Electric current is a scalar quantity. Electric currents do not obey the laws of
vector addition.
Ohm’s law - The potential difference across two ends of a conductor is directly
proportional to the current flowing through it, provided the temperature and
other physical conditions remain unchanged.
V α I or V = RI
Resistance – It is the opposition offered by a conductor to flow of charges
through it It depends on the length I, area of cross-section A, nature of material
of the conductor and temperature.
l m l
R   2
A ne  A
SI unit of resistance is ohm (Ω). The resistance of a conductor is 1 ohm if a
current of I ampere flows through it on applying a potential difference of I
volt across its ends.
Resistivity or specific resistance - It is the resistance offered by a unit cube of
the material of a conductor. It depends on the nature of the material of the
conductor and the temperature.
1
 = m2 and  
ne  en e
Current density - It is the amount of charge flowing per second per unit area
normal to the flow of charge. It is a vector quantity having the same direction
 
as that of the motion of the positive charge. SI unit - Am. I  j . A and
j  nevd  neE   E
Conductance -It is the reciprocal of resistance. SI unit - mho or siemen.
Conductivity - It is the reciprocal of resistivity. SI unit – mho/ m.
ne2
  ne  
m
8
Carriers of current – Metal - free electrons, Ionized gases - electrons and
positive ions Electrolyte - both positive and negative ions, Semiconductor -
electrons and holes.
Drift velocity - The average velocity acquired by the free electrons of a
conductor in the opposite direction of the applied electric field is called drift
eE eV
velocity. vd   
m ml
Relaxation time - The average time interval between the two successive
collisions of an electron is called relaxation time (τ).
Temperature coefficient of resistivity - It is defined as the change in
resistivity per unit original resistivity per degree rise in temperature.
t  0

 0 (T  T0 )
 
 T   0 1   T  T0 
Effect of temperature on resistivity - For metals α is positive i.e., resistivity
of metals increases with the increase in temperature.For semiconductors and
insulators, α is negative i.e., their resistivity decreases with the increase in
temperature.For alloys like constantan and manganin, α is very small. So they
are used for making standard resistors.
Mobility of a charge carrier - The mobility of a charge carrier is the drift
velocity acquired by it
vd e
per unit electric field. μ = = τ
E m
Ohmic conductors - The conductors which obey Ohm’s law are called Ohmic conductors.
For these conductors, V-I graph is a straight line passing through the origin. For
example, a metallic conductor for small currents is an Ohmic conductor.
Non-ohmic conductors - The conductors which do not obey Ohm’s law are
called non-ohmic conductors. The Non-ohmic situations –
(i) The straight-line V-I graph does not pass through the origin.
(ii) V-I relationship is non-linear.
(iii) V-I relationship depends on the sign of V.
(iv) V-I relationship is non-unique.
Examples - water voltameter, thyristor, a p-n junction, etc.
Electromotive force (emf) - It is the energy supplied by the source in taking a
unit positive charge once round the complete circuit. It is equal to the terminal
p.d. measured in open circuit
Terminal potential difference (V) -The potential drop across the terminals of a
cell when a current is drawn from it is called its terminal potential difference.
It is less than the emf of the cell in a closed circuit. V=E-Ir
Terminal p.d. of a cell when it is being charged is V=E + Ir
Internal resistance -The resistance offered by the electrolyte of a cell to the flow
of current between its electrodes is called internal resistance of the cell. It
depends on
(v) Nature of the electrolyte, (ii) concentration of the electrolyte, (iii) distance
9
between the electrodes, common area of the electrodes dipped in the
electrolyte and (v) temperature of the electrolyte.
E V E V E 
r  R    1R
I V V 
Cells in series - If n cells of emf E and internal resistance r each are
connected in series, then current flowing through external resistance R is I
nE
=
R  nr
Cells in parallel - If m cells are connected in parallel, then current drawn
through external resistance
mE
R is I 
mR  r
Cells in mixed grouping - If n cells are connected in series in each row and m
such rows are connected in
parallel, then current drawn through an external resistance R is
mnE
I .
mR  nr
For maximum current, the external resistance must be equal to the total
internal resistance, i.e.,
nr
R=  mR = nr.
m
Heating effect of current - The phenomenon of the production of heat in a resistor by
the flow of an electric current through it is called heating effect of current or Joule
heating.
V2
H  VIt  I Rt 
2
t
R
Electric power - It is the rate at which an electric appliance converts electric energy
into other forms of energy. Or, it is the rate at which work is done by a source of emf
V2
in maintaining an electric current through a circuit. P  VI  I 2 R 
R
Electric energy - It is the total work done in maintaining an electric current in an
electric circuit for a given time.
W = Pt = VI t = I2Rt joule
Kirchhoff’s laws –
(1) Junction rule: In an electric circuit, the algebraic sum of currents at any
junction is zero. Or, at any junction of electrical circuit the sum of currents entering
the junction must be equal to the sum of currents leaving it i.e. Σ I = 0 .
This law is based on the conservation of charge.
(2) Loop Rule: Algebraic sum of changes in the potential around any closed loop
must be zero i.e.
Σ V = IR . This law is based on the conservation of charge.

10
Wheatstone bridge – It is an arrangement of four resistances P. Q, R and S joined to
form a quadrilateral ABCD with a battery between A and C and a sensitive
galvanometerbetween B and D. The resistances are so adjusted that no current flows
through the galvanometer.
P R
The bridge is then said to be balanced. In the balanced condition, 
Q S
A Wheatstone bridge is most sensitive when the resistances in its four arms
are of the same order. Slide wire bridge or metre bridge - It is an application of
Wheatstone bridge in which R is fixed and a balance point is obtained by varying
P and Q i.e., by adjusting the position of a jockey on a 100 cm long resistance wire.
If the balance point is obtained at length 1, then
R l  100  l 
 S  R
S 100  l  l 

Unit - III Magnetic Effects of Current and Magnetism (Chapters 4&5)


QUICK REVISION NOTES
MAGNETIC FIELD:
The region around a magnet or current carrying conductor with in which it
influences other magnets or magnetic material. Its SI unit is Tesla (T).
COMPARISON BETWEEN ELECTRIC FIELD AND MAGNETIC FIELD:
S.NO ELECTRIC FIELD MAGNETIC FIELD
1. Source Charge Current element
(vector)
2. Field Starts at one point and ends at another Starts and ends at the
lines point. same point.
BIOT – SAVART LAW:
It states that the magnetic field due to a current element at a particular point is
directly proportional to current, length of element, sine of angle between the
direction of the current and the line joining the elementary portion to theobservation
point and inversely proportional to the square of distance.
(i.e.) dB α I
dB α dl
dB α sinθ
1
dB α 𝑟2
𝐼𝑑𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
dB = K 𝑟2
µ0 𝐼𝑑𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 µ0
dB = 4𝜋 𝑟2 [where, 4𝜋= 10-7 TA-1m]
MAGNETIC FIELD AT THE CENTRE OF A CURRENT CARRYING
CIRCULAR COIL:

11
Magnetic field due to a small element,
µ0 𝐼𝑑𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
dB = 4𝜋 𝑟2
µ0 𝐼𝑑𝑙
Since, θ = 90, sin90 = 1 dB = 4𝜋 𝑟2
µ0 𝐼
Total magnetic field, B = ∫dB = 4𝜋 𝑟2
∫dl
µ0 𝐼
B= 2𝑟

MAGNETIC FIELD AT A POINT ON THE AXIS OF CURRENT CARRYING


COIL:
Magnetic field due to a small
element,
µ0 𝐼𝑑𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
dB = 4𝜋 𝑟2
since θ = 90, sin90 = 1
µ0 𝐼𝑑𝑙
dB = 4𝜋 𝑟2 →1
Resolve ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐵 into dbcosα and
dBsinα. Net value of dBcosα is
zero and effective component is
dBsinα
Total magnetic field, B =
µ0 𝐼
∮ 𝑑𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼= 4𝜋 𝑟2 sinα∮ 𝑑𝑙 =
µ0 𝐼
sinα× 2πR
4𝜋 𝑟2
µ0 𝐼 𝑅 µ0𝐼𝑅2
B= 2πRB =
4𝜋 𝑟2 𝑟 2(𝑅2+𝑥2)3\2
µ0𝑁𝐼𝑅2 µ0𝐼
In case of N-turns, B = 2(𝑅 2+𝑥 2 )3\2 If x = 0, then, B = 2𝑅
AMPERE’S CIRCUITAL LAW:
It states that the line integral of magnetic field over any closed surface is μ 0 time the
total current threading the loop.
𝐵. ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑙= μ0
I

MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A CURRENT CARRYING STRAIGHT


CONDUCTOR:

12
WKT,
Line integral of magnetic field,
∮ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 = ∮ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 [since,
θ = 0]
= B∮ 𝑑𝑙= B × 2πr
→1
According to Ampere’s circuital
law, ∮ 𝐵. ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = μ0
⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑙
I →2
Eq. 1 = Eq. 2
µ0𝐼
B × 2πr = μ0 I B = 2𝜋𝑟
MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A CURRENT CARRYING SOLENOID:
Let, n → Number of turns per unit Note:
length If no. of turns is given, then:
I → Current through the solenoid n → Number of turns
L → Length of the solenoid B= 𝐿
µ0𝑛𝐼

B = μ0 n I
FORCE ON A MOVING CHARGE [ LORENTZ FORCE]:
Force, F α BF α q F α vsinθ
ie, F α BqvsinθF = K Bqvsinθ In SI unit, K = 1
F = Bqvsinθ
The direction is given by Fleming’s left-hand rule.
Note:
Two pairs of Special case: Lorentz force,
perpendicular vectors, If, θ = 0, F = 0 𝐹⃗ = 𝐹⃗ e +𝐹⃗ m
1. 𝐹⃗ and 𝑣⃗ θ = 180, F = 0 𝐹⃗ = q [𝐸⃗⃗ + (𝑉
⃗⃗× 𝐵⃗⃗)]
2. 𝐹⃗ and 𝐵⃗⃗ θ = 90, F= Bqv
RADIUS OF PATH FOLLOWED BYMOVING CHARGE IN THE
MAGNETIC FIELD:
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉 is perpendicular to 𝐵⃗⃗:
Radius, Time period, Frequency,
Magnetic Lorentz force = 2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋 𝑚𝑣
T = 𝑣 = 𝑣 𝐵𝑞 1 𝐵𝑞
Centripetal force = 2𝜋𝑚
𝑇
𝑚𝑣2 𝑚𝑣
Bqv = = 2𝜋𝑚
𝑟 𝐵𝑞 T= 𝐵𝑞
FORCE ON A CURRENT:

13
B → Mag. Field , Vd → Drift velocity
Il →Current element, l → Length of the
conductor
A → Area of cross-section, n → number
density
WKT
I = nAeVdIl = nAelVd
In general form, ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗d
𝐼𝑙 = -nAel𝑉
Force experienced by one electron,𝐹⃗ = -e
⃗⃗d × 𝐵⃗⃗) Special case:
(𝑉
If θ = 0, F = 0
Total no. of electrons, N = nAl
If θ = 90, F = BIl (maximum)
Total force experienced by the conductor,
𝐹⃗ = N𝑓⃗ = nAl𝑓⃗
𝐹⃗ = -neAl (𝑉 ⃗⃗d× 𝐵⃗⃗)
⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐵
𝐹⃗ = (𝐼𝑙 ⃗⃗) F = BIlsinθ

FORCE BETWEEN TWO INFINITELY LONG CURRENT CARRYING


PARALLEL CONDUCTORS:
NOTE:
If currents are in same direction the wires will
attract each other. If the currents are in opposite
directions, they will repel each other.
Mag. Field at ‘P’ due to current I1,
µ0 2𝐼1
B1 = 4𝜋 𝑟 →1
Force experienced by CD due to B1,
F1 = B1I2Lsinθ [θ = 90]
F1 = B1I2[L=1]
µ0 2𝐼1𝐼2
Force per unit length, F1 = 4𝜋 𝑟 →2

µ0 2𝐼1𝐼2
llly, F2 = 4𝜋 →3
𝑟
Force per unit length, µ0 2𝐼1𝐼2
F = 4𝜋 𝑟
ONE AMPERE:
The electric current flowing through a conductor is said to be 1 ampere when it is
separated by 1 meter from similar conductor carrying same current in the same
direction experiences a repulsive for of 2×10-7 N per meter length.
TORQUE ACTING ON A CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR:

14
⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐵
𝐹⃗ 1 = 𝐼𝑏 ⃗⃗= IbBsin (90+θ)
= IbBcosθ → 1
IIIy,
𝐹⃗ 2= IbBsin (90-θ)
= IbBcosθ→ 2
𝐹⃗ 1 and 𝐹⃗ 2is equal, opposite and acting on a same line.
Hence, the cancel each other.

Force on SR, 𝐹⃗ 3 = BILsinθ


= BIL →3
y
III ,
𝐹⃗ 4 = BIL →4
𝐹⃗ 3 and 𝐹⃗ 4is equal, opposite and not acting on a same line. Hence, they produce
torque[τ]. Torque = Force × perpendicular distance
τ = BILbsinθτ = BIAsinθ𝜏⃗⃗⃗= ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝐴 × 𝐵⃗⃗
MOVING COIL GALVANOMETER:
Galvanometer: It is a device used to measure
small amount of current and potential
difference.
Principle: When a current carrying coil is
placed in a magnetic field, it experiences
torque.
Working:
Deflection torque = Restoring torque
nBIAsinθ = Kϕ (ϕ = Steady angular deflection)
𝐾 𝜙
I = 𝑛𝐵𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝜙
= G 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 →1
Where, G→ Galvanometer constant
𝐾
G=( )
𝑛𝐵𝐴
K→ Force constant
It implies that the galvanometer cannot read the current in linear scale. To overcome
this problem, a radial magnetic field is used. In radial magnetic field the plane of the
coil is parallel to the magnetic field. It means that the normal to the plane of the coil
is perpendicular to the magnetic field;
(i.e.) I = Gϕ
Iαϕ
● Current sensitivity:
It is defined as the deflection produced in galvanometer on passing unit
current through its coil.

15
𝜙 𝑛𝐵𝐴
(i.e.) 𝐼 = 𝐾
● Voltage sensitivity: It is defined as deflection per unit potential difference.
𝜙 𝑛𝐵𝐴 𝜙 𝑛𝐵𝐴
i.e.) 𝐼𝑅 = 𝐾𝑅 𝑉 = 𝐾𝑅
Note: Change in current sensitivity may not necessarily change the voltage
sensitivity.
Conditions for sensitivity:
a. n is large b. B is large c. A is large d. K is small (small for phosphor
bronze, quartz fiber.
●Ammeter:
It is an instrument used for measuring current in the electrical circuits.
Galvanometer can be converted into an ammeter by connecting a shunt resistance in
parallel.
𝐼𝑔𝑅𝑔
Resistance of the ammeter, Ra S=
𝑅𝑔𝑆 𝐼−𝐼𝑔
= 𝑅𝑔+𝑆

●Voltmeter:
It is the instrument used to measure potential difference across a conductor.
Galvanometer is modified into voltmeter by
connecting a large resistance in series.

WKT, V = IR V = (Rg+R) Ig
𝑉
𝑉 R =𝐼𝑔- Rg
Rg+R = 𝐼𝑔
Resistance of voltmeter, Rv = Rg + R
MAGNETISM:
Magnetic pole: The preferred regions of attraction near the two ends of a magnet
where the magnetic force due to a bar magnet is maximum are called the poles of
the magnet.
Characteristics:
1. Attracting property.
2. Directive property.
3. Unlike poles attract each other and like poles repel each other.
4. Magnetic poles exist in pairs.
5. Inductive property.
Key points:
When a magnet having pole strength ‘m’ is cut into equal parts.
a. Longitudinally, the new pole strength is m/2.
b. Vertically/Transversely, the new pole strength will remain same as ‘m’.
Magnetic dipole:

16
An arrangement of two magnetic poles of equal and opposite separated by a finite
distance is called magnetic dipole.
Magnetic dipole moment:
The product of strength of either pole and the magnetic length of the magnet is
called magnetic dipole moment.
Current loop as a magnetic dipole:Magnetic dipole moment, Mα IM α AM α IA
M = KIAIn SI units, K = 1M = IA
In case of ‘n’ turns;
Note: M=
⃗⃗⃗
● Torque:τ = MBsinθ𝜏⃗ = 𝑀 × 𝐵 ⃗⃗ nIA
● Potential energy:P.E = MB (cosθ1– cosθ2)
SOME IMPORTANT TERMS:
𝐵0
1. Magnetic intensity (H):H = µ0 [SI unit = A/m]
𝑀
2. Intensity of magnetization (I):I = 𝑉 [SI unit = A/m]
𝐵. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
3. Magnetic flux (ϕ):ϕ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∆𝑆
4. Magnetic induction (B):
No. of mag. field lines of induction crossing the unit area normally through the
magnetic
substance. Its SI unit is Tesla.
5. Magnetic susceptibility (χm):
𝐼
χm = 𝐻 [Dimensionless physical quantity]
6. Magnetic permeability (μ):
𝐵
Μ = 𝐻 [SI unit = Tm/ A]
Relation b/w B,H,I three physical quantities is;B = μ 0 (H + I)
DIAMAGNETIC MATERIAL;
It consists of only paired electrons.Thus, the magnetic moment due to orbital motion
of one electron is cancelled by the magnetic moment due to orbital motion of
another electron. It makes the net magnetic moment zero. When a diamagnetic
substance is subjected to an external mag. field, the atoms acquire feeble mag.
moment due to Lorentz force exerted by external mag. field.

PARAMAGNETIC
MATERIAL:The atom of a paramagnetic substancepossesses mag. moment due to
the orbital motion of the unpaired electrons. As the interaction b/w the atomic
magnet is very weak, therefore, they may be independent of each other. Due to
thermal agitation, the atomic magnets are randomly oriented.

17
S. PROPERT DIAMAGNETIC PARAMAGNETIC FERROMAGNETIC
NO IES
1. Nature Non-polar dielectric Polar dielectric Ferro electric type
dielectric
2. Magnetizi Feebly magnetized Feebly magnetized Strongly magnetized
ng in the opposite along the mag. field along the mag. field
capacity direction
3. Magnetic Little less Little more Very strong
field B < B0 B > B0 B >> B0
inside the
specimen
4. Magnetic
field lines

5. Non- Tends to move from Tends to move from Tends to move from
uniform stronger to weaker weaker to stronger weaker to stronger region
region slowly. region slowly. quickly.
6. Liquid
substance

7. Intensity Slightly Slightly Highly


of -ve +ve +ve
magnetizat
ion
8. Susceptibi Small-ve Small+ve Highly+ve
lity
9. Permeabili <1 >1 >> 1
ty
10. Magnetic B < B0 B > B0 B >> B0
induction
18
11. Examples Cu, Zn, Ag, Au, Pb, Al, Na, Sb, Pt, Ni, Fe, Co, Alnico etc..
glass, marble, H2O, CuCl2, Mn, Cr,
He, Ar, NaCl Liquid O2, Ca etc..
FERROMAGNETIC MATERIAL:
The atom of ferromagnetic material possesses non-zero mag. effect. Due to
exchange interaction, an unpaired electron in one atom interacts strongly with the
unpaired electron in the neighboring atom in such a way that they align themselves
in a common direction over a small volume of material.

When a ferromagnetic substance is


introduced in a magnetic field, the size of
domain will increase and the no. of
domains will go on decreasing. By this
way, the ferromagnetic substance is
magnetized strongly along the direction
of external mag. field.
PROPERTIES OF MAGNETIC SUBSTANCES:
RETENTIVITY:
The ability of a substance to retain or resist magnetization, frequently measured as
the strength of the magnetic field that remains in a sample after removal of an
inducing field.
COERCIVITY:
The value of reverse H field required so as to reduce residual magnetism to zero is
called coercivity of the material.
APPLICATIONS OF FERROMAGNETIC SUBSTANCES:
1. Permanent magnet:
Ferromagnetic materials should possess high value of retentivity, coercivity.
Ex: Cobalt steel, carbon steel, alnico
2. Electromagnet:
It should possess low retentivity, low coercivity and high permeability and the
area of the loop should be small. All these requirements are fulfilled by soft
iron.
3. Transformer coil:
It should possess high permeability, low hysteresis loss, low coercivity and high
resistivity.

Unit - IV Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating (Chapters 6 & 7)


QUICK REVISION NOTES
Magnetic Flux
The magnetic flux Φ through any surface held in a magnetic field is measured by
the total number of magnetic lines of force crossing the surface.

19
Where, θ is the smaller angle between and , which normal to the surface area
makes with
SI unit of f is weber and magnetic flux is a scalar quantity.
Faraday's laws of electromagnetic induction:
First law − whenever the amount of magnetic flux linked with a circuit changes,
an emf is induced in the circuit. The induced emf lasts as long as the change in
magnetic flux continues.
Second law − the magnitude of emf induced in a circuit is directly proportional to
the rate of change of magnetic flux linked with the circuit.
According to Faraday’s second law, induced emf
For N turns,

Lenz’s Law-The direction of the induced emf or induced current is such that it
opposes the change that is producing it.
Lenz Law and Principle of Conservation of Energy

Methods of producing Induced emf:


1. By changing Magnetic Field B:
Magnetic fluxΦ can be changed by changing the magnetic field B and hence
emf can be induced in the circuit (as done in Faraday’s Experiments).
2. By changing the area of the coil A available in Magnetic Field:
Magnetic flux Φ can be changed by changing the area of the loop A which is
acted upon by the magnetic field B and hence emf can be induced in the
circuit.
MOTIONAL ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE

Consider that at any time t, the part of the coil is inside the magnetic
field. Let l be the length of the arm of the coil.
Area of the coil inside the magnetic field at time t,

∴Magnetic flux linked with the coil at any time t,


Φ =BΔS= Bly
The rate of change of magnetic flux linked with the coil is given by,

20
Where,
v→Velocity with the coil pulled out of the magnetic field
If e is the induced emf, then according to Faraday’s law,

From Fleming’s Right hand rule, the current due to induced emf will flow from the
end R to Q i.e., along QPSR in the coil.
Power
Current I in the loop is,

Due to the presence of the magnetic field, there is a force on the arm PQ. This force
is directed outwards in the direction opposite to the velocity of the rod. The
magnitude of this force is,

Alternatively, the arm PQ is being pushed with a constant speed v. The power
required to do this is,

The agent that does this work is mechanical. This mechanical energy is dissipated as
joule heat and is given by,

This is identical to equation (ii).


Thus, mechanical energy, which was required to move the arm PQ, is converted into
electrical energy and then to thermal energy.

21
Self Induction:

Self Induction is the phenomenon of inducing emf in the self coil due to
change in current and hence the change in magnetic flux in the coil.

The induced emf opposes the growth or decay of current in the coil and
hence delays the current to acquire the maximum value.

Self induction is also called inertia of electricity as it opposes the growth or


decay of current.
Self Inductance:
Φ α I or Φ = LI (where L is the constant of proportionality and is known as
Self Inductance or co-efficient of self induction)
If I = 1, then L = Φ

Thus, self inductance is defined as the magnetic flux linked with a coil
when unit current flows through it.
Also, E = - dΦ / dt or E = - L (dI / dt)
If dI / dt = 1, then L = E
Thus, self inductance is defined as the induced emf set up in the coil
through which the rate of change of current is unity.

SI unit of self inductance is henry (H).


Self inductance is said to be 1 henry when 1 A current in a coil links magnetic
flux of 1 weber.
or
Self inductance is said to be 1 henry when unit rate of change of current
(1 A / s) induces emf of 1 volt in the coil.

Self inductance of a solenoid: A


Magnetic Field due to the solenoid is
B = μ0nI I l
Magnetic Flux linked across one turn of the
coil is
Φ per turn = B A = μ0nIA = μ0NIA / l
Magnetic Flux linked across N turns of the
coil is

Φ = μ0N2IA / l

But, Φ = LI
So, L = μ0N2A / l = μ0n2Al

Mutual Induction
The phenomenon according to which an opposing emf is produced in a coil as a
result of change in current, hence, the magnetic flux linked with a neighbouring coil
is called mutual induction.
Coefficient of mutual induction −
Φ∝I
Φ = MI… (i)
Where, M is called coefficient of mutual induction
If ‘e’ is the induced emf produced in the S-coil, then

22
Mutual inductance of two long co-axial solenoids:
Magnetic Field due to primary solenoid is
B1 = μ0n1I1
Magnetic Flux linked across one turn of the G
secondary solenoid is
S
Φ21 per turn = B1 A = μ 0 n1 I1 A = μ0N1I1A / l A
Magnetic Flux linked across N turns of the secondary P
solenoid is I1 l
Φ21 = μ0N1N2I1A / l

But, Φ21 = M21I1


M21 = μ0N1N2A / l = μ0n1n2Al

lllly M12 = μ0N1N2A / l = μ0n1n2Al


For two long co-axial solenoids of same length and cross-sectional
area, the mutual inductance is same and leads to principle of
reciprocity.
M = M12 = M21

ALTERNATING CURRENT
An alternating current is that which changes continuously in magnitude and
periodically in direction. It can be represented by a sine curve or a cosine curve i.e.,

Average or Mean Value of Alternating Current:

Average or Mean Value of Alternating Current:


Average or Mean value of alternating current over half cycle is that steady
current which will send the same amount of charge in a circuit in the time of
half cycle as is sent by the given alternating current in the same circuit in
the same time.
dq = I dt = I0 sin ωt dt
T/2

q = ∫ I0 sin ωt dt
0

q = 2 I0 / ω = 2 I0 T / 2π = I0 T / π

Mean Value of AC, Im = Iav = q / (T/2)

Im = Iav = 2 I0 / π = 0.637 I0 = 63.7 % I0

Average or Mean Value of Alternating emf:


Em = Eav = 2 E0 / π = 0.637 E0 = 63.7 % E0

Note: Average or Mean value of alternating current or emf is zero over a


cycle as the + ve and – ve values get cancelled.

23
Root Mean Square or Virtual or Effective Value of
Alternating Current:
Root Mean Square (rms) value of alternating current is that steady current
which would produce the same heat in a given resistance in a given time as
is produced by the given alternating current in the same resistance in the
same time.
dH = I2R dt = I02 R sin2 ωt dt
T

H = ∫ I02 R sin2 ωt dt
0

H = I02 RT / 2 (After integration, ω is replaced with 2 π / T)


If Iv be the virtual value of AC, then
Iv = Irms = Ieff = I0 / √2
H = Iv 2 RT = 0.707 I0 = 70.7 % I0

Root Mean Square or Virtual or Effective Value of


Alternating emf: Ev = Erms = Eeff = E0 / √2 = 0.707 E0 = 70.7 % E0
Note:
1. Root Mean Square value of alternating current or emf can be calculated over any
period of the cycle since it is based on the heat energy produced.
2. Do not use the above formulae if the time interval under the consideration is less than
one period.

AC Circuit Containing Resistance only


All a.c. instruments measure virtual values of a.c. The behavior of an ohmic
resistance R in a.c. circuit
is the same as in d.c. circuit. Through alternating EMF and alternating current are in
same phase.
AC Circuit with a Pure Resistor: R
E = E0 sin ωt

I = E/ R
= (E0 / R) sin ωt E = E0 sin ωt

I = I0 sin ωt (where I0 = E0 / R and R = E0 / I0)

Emf and current are in same phase.

E = E0 sin ωt y
E,I I = I0 sin ωt
E0 E0
I0
I0
0
π/2 π 3π/2 2π 5π/2 3π 7π/2 4π θ = ωt

T/4 T/2 3T/4 T 5T/4 3T/2 7T/4 2T


t 0 ωt
x

AC Circuit Containing Pure Inductance only

Through a pure inductor, alternating current lags behind the alternating EMF by
phase. angle of 90o

24
AC Circuit with a Pure Inductor:
E = E0 sin ωt
Induced emf in the inductor is - L (dI / dt) L

In order to maintain the flow of current, the


applied emf must be equal and opposite to
E = E0 sin ωt
the induced emf.
I = ∫ (E0 / L) sin ωt dt
E = L (dI / dt)
E0 sin ωt = L (dI / dt) I = (E0 / ωL) ( - cos ωt )

dI = (E0 / L) sin ωt dt I = I0 sin (ωt - π / 2)

(where I0 = E0 / ωL and XL = ωL = E0 / I0) Current lags behind emf by π/2 rad.


XL is Inductive Reactance. Its SI unit is ohm.
y E0
E = E0 sin ωt
E,I I = I0 sin (ωt - π / 2)
E0
I0
ωt
0 0
π/2 π 3π/2 2π 5π/2 3π 7π/2 4π θ = ωt π/2 x
T/4 T/2 3T/4 T 5T/4 3T/2 7T/4 2T
t I0

AC Circuit Containing Pure Capacitance only


Through a pure capacitor, alternating current leads the alternating
EMF by a phase angle of 90o. XL and Xc both are measured in ohms.

AC Circuit with a Capacitor:


E = E0 sin ωt C

q = CE = CE0 sin ωt
E = E0 sin ωt
I = dq / dt
= (d / dt) [CE0 sin ωt] (where I0 = E0 / (1 / ωC) and
I = [E0 / (1 / ωC)] ( cos ωt ) XC = 1 / ωC = E0 / I0)
XC is Capacitive Reactance.
I = I0 sin (ωt + π / 2)
Its SI unit is ohm.

Current leads the emf by π/2 radians.

E = E0 sin ωt
y E0
E,I I = I0 sin (ωt + π / 2) I0
E0
I0
π/2
0 ωt
π/2 π 3π/2 2π 5π/2 3π 7π/2 4π θ = ωt
0 x
T/4 T/2 3T/4 T 5T/4 3T/2 7T/4 2T
t

25
Variation of XL with Frequency:
XL
I0 = E0 / ωL and XL = ωL
XL is Inductive Reactance and ω = 2π f
XL = 2π f L i.e. XL α f

0 f

Variation of XC with Frequency:


XC
I0 = E0 / (1/ωC) and XC = 1 / ωC
XC is Inductive Reactance and ω = 2π f
XC = 1 / 2π f C i.e. XC α 1 / f

0 f

TIPS:
1) Inductance (L) can not decrease Direct Current. It can only decrease
Alternating Current.
2) Capacitance (C) allows AC to flow through it but blocks DC.

L R
AC Circuit with L, C, R in Series C
Combination: VR
VL
The applied emf appears as VC
Voltage drops VR, VL and VC
across R, L and C respectively.
E = E0 sin ωt
1) In R, current and voltage are in
phase. VL VL
2) In L, current lags behind voltage by
- VC
π/2
π/2 π/2
3) In C, current leads the voltage by 0
π/2 π/2 I VR I VR
E = √ [VR2 + (VL – VC)2] VC VC
E
I = E
√ [R2 + (XL – XC)2] VL - VC Φ
Z = √ [R2 + (XL – XC)2] I VR
E = √ [VR2 + (VL – VC)2]
Z = √ [R2 + (ω L – 1/ωC)2]

XL – XC ω L – 1/ωC
tan Φ = or tan Φ =
R R

RESONANCE IN AC CIRCUIT
When XL = XC i.e. ω L = 1/ωC, tan Φ = 0 or Φ is 0° and

Z = √ [R2 + (ω L – 1/ωC)2] becomes Zmin = R and I0max = E / R

At resonant angular frequency ωr,

ωr L = 1/ωrC or ωr = 1 / √LC or fr = 1 / (2π √LC)

The impedance offered by the circuit is minimum and the current is maximum.
This condition is called resonant condition of LCR circuit and the frequency is
called resonant frequency
POWER IN AC CIRCUIT: THE POWER FACTOR

26
P

Pav = Ev Iv cos Φ Wattless Current or Idle


Current:
Power in AC Circuit with R: Ev
In R, current and emf are in phase.
Iv cos Φ Iv
Φ = 0° Φ
Pav = Ev Iv cos Φ = Ev Iv cos 0° = Ev Iv 90°

Power in AC Circuit with L: Iv sin Φ

In L, current lags behind emf by π/2. The component Iv cos Φ


generates power with Ev.
Φ = - π/2
Pav = Ev Iv cos (-π/2) = Ev Iv (0) = 0 However, the component
Iv sin Φ does not
Power in AC Circuit with C: contribute to power along
Ev and hence power
In C, current leads emf by π/2.
generated is zero. This
Φ = + π/2 component of current is
called wattless or idle
Pav = Ev Iv cos (π/2) = Ev Iv (0) = 0
current.
Note: P = Ev Iv sin Φ cos 90° = 0
Power (Energy) is not dissipated in Inductor and Capacitor and hence they
find a lot of practical applications and in devices using alternating current.

L C Oscillations:
L L
+ + + + + + + +
L C C C
- - - - - - - -

At t = 0, UE=Max. & UB=0 At t = T/8, UE = UB At t = 2T/8, UE=0 & UB=Max.

L L L
- - - - - - - - - - -
C C C
+ + + + + + + + + + +

At t =3T/8, UE = UB At t = 4T/8, UE=Max. & UB=0 At t =5T/8, UE = UB

L L
+ + + + + + + +
L
C C
- - - - - - - -C

At t = 6T/8, UE=0 & UB=Max. At t =7T/8, UE = UB At t =T, UE=Max. & UB=0

TRANSFORMER
Principle − It works on the principle of electromagnetic induction. It converts low
voltage high current into high voltage
low current or vice versa.
Construction

27
Step-down transformer Step-up transformer
Working
Alternating emf is supplied to the primary coil PP’. The resulting current produces
an induced current in secondary.
Magnetic flux linked with primary is also linked with the secondary. The
induced emf in each turn of the secondary is
equal to that induced in each turn of the primary.
Let,
EP − Alternating emf applied to primary
nP − Number of turns in the primary

− Rate of change of flux through each turn of primary coil

Es− Alternating emf of secondary


ns − Number of turns in secondary

Dividing equation (2) by (1),

 For step-up transformer, K > 1


∴ Es > Ep
 For step-down transformer, K < 1
∴ Es < Ep
 According to law of conservation of energy,
Input electrical power = Output electrical power
EpIp = EsIs

Transformers are used in telegraph, telephone, power stations, etc.


Losses in transformer:
Copper loss − Heat in copper wire is generated by working of a transformer. It can
be diminished using thick copper wires.
Iron loss − Loss is in the bulk of iron core due to the induced eddy currents. It is
minimized by using thin laminated core.

28
Hysteresis loss − Alternately magnetizing and demagnetizing, the iron core cause
loss of energy. It is minimized
using a special alloy of iron core with silicon.
Magnetic loss − It is due to the leakage of magnetic flux.

AC Generator

Principle − Based on the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction


It converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Construction
Main parts of an ac generator:
Armature − Rectangular coil ABCD
Field Magnets − Two pole pieces of a strong electromagnet
Slip Rings − The ends of coil ABCD are connected to two hollow metallic rings
R1 and R2.
Brushes − B1 and B2 are two flexible metal plates or carbon rods. They are fixed
and are kept in tight contact with R1
and R2 respectively.
Theory and Working − As the armature coil is rotated in the magnetic field,
angle θ between the field and normal to the
coil changes continuously. Therefore, magnetic flux linked with the coil changes.
An emf is induced in the coil. According
to Fleming’s right hand rule, current induced in AB is from A to B and it is from C
to D in CD. In the external circuit,
current flows from B2 to B1.
To calculate the magnitude of emf induced:
Suppose
A → Area of each turn of the coil
N → Number of turns in the coil
→ Strength of magnetic field
θ → Angle which normal to the coil makes with at any instant t
∴ Magnetic flux linked with the coil in this position:

29
= NBA cosθ= NBA cosωt …(i)
Where, ‘ω’ is angular velocity of the coil

∴e = NAB ω sinωt

Unit - V Electromagnetic Waves (Chapter-8)


QUICK REVISION NOTES
INTRODUCTION
• Electromagnetic waves are one of the predictions of Maxwell’s
equations.
• Electromagnetic waves are time varying electric and magnetic fields that
propagate in space.
• Hertz experimentally confirmed the existence of electromagnetic waves
with the help of spark gap oscillator.
• J C Bose produced electromagnetic waves of smaller wavelength (5mm
25mm).
• Marconi discovered that electromagnetic wave can radiate up to several
kilometers.
DISPLACEMENT CURRENT
∙ From Maxwell’s correction to Ampere’s circuital law , the total current i is
the sum of the conduction current denoted by ic, and the displacement
current denoted by id.

∙ The current due to changing electric field (or electric displacement) is


called
displacement current or Maxwell’s
displacement current.
∙ The current carried by conductors due to flow of charges is called
conduction
current.
∙ Thus the generalized Ampere’s circuital law (Ampere-Maxwell law ) is
30
given by

Nature of electromagnetic waves


∙ An electric charge oscillating with a frequency produces em waves of
the same frequency.
• The electric and magnetic fields in an electromagnetic wave are
perpendicular to each other, and to the direction of propagation.

∙ The electric and magnetic fields are represented by

• Here k is related to the wave length λ of the wave by the equation,

• The speed of propagation of the wave is (ω/k ).


• The magnitude of the electric and the magnetic fields in an electromagnetic
wave are related as

∙ Pressure exerted by em wave is called radiation pressure


Properties of EM waves
• They are self-sustaining oscillations of electric and magnetic fields in free
space, or vacuum.
• Shows transverse wave nature.
• No material medium is needed for its propagation.
• EM waves are not deflected in electric field and magnetic field.
• The velocity of em waves in any media is given by

∙ EM waves are polarised.


∙ Electromagnetic waves carry energy and momentum like other waves.
∙ If the total energy transferred to a surface in time t is U, the magnitude of
the total momentum delivered to this surface (for complete absorption)
is,

31
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
∙ An arrangement of electromagnetic radiations according to their
wavelength or frequency. ∙ Some of the waves in the increasing order of
frequency (decreasing order of
wavelength) are :
Radio waves, microwaves, infra
red, visible light, ultra violet, x-rays, Gamma rays

Radio waves
• Radio waves are produced by the accelerated motion of charges in
conducting wires.
• They are used in radio and television communication systems.
• They are generally in the frequency range from 500 kHz to about 1000
MHz.
• The AM (amplitude modulated) band is from 530 kHz to 1710 kHz.
• Higher frequencies up to 54 MHz are used for short wave bands. TV waves
range from 54 MHz to 890 MHz.
• The FM (frequency modulated) radio band extends from 88 MHz to 108
MHz.
• Cellular phones use radio waves to transmit voice communication in
the
ultrahigh frequency (UHF) band.
Microwaves
• Microwaves are produced by special vacuum tubes such as klystrons,
magnetrons and Gunn diodes.
32
• Microwaves are used for the radar systems used in aircraft navigation.
Radar also provides the basis for the speed guns
used to time fast balls, tennis serves, and automobiles.
• Used in Microwave ovens.
• In such ovens, the frequency of the microwaves is selected to match the
resonant frequency of water molecules so that energy from the waves is
transferred efficiently to the kinetic energy of the molecules. This raises
the temperature of any food containing water.
• Also used in satellite communication.
Infrared waves
• Infrared waves are produced by hot bodies and molecules.
• Infrared waves are referred to as heat waves. This is because water
molecules present in most materials readily absorb infrared waves (many
other molecules, for example, CO2, NH3, also absorb infrared waves).
After absorption, their thermal motion increases, that is, they heat up and
heat their surroundings.
• Infrared radiation plays an role in maintaining the earth’s warmth or average
temperature through the greenhouse effect.
• Incoming visible light is absorbed by the earth’s surface and reradiated as
infrared radiations. This radiation is trapped by greenhouse gases such as
carbon dioxide and water vapour.
• Infrared detectors are used in Earth satellites, both for military purposes
and to observe growth of crops.
• Electronic devices (for example
semiconductor light emitting diodes) also emit infrared and are widely
used in the remote switches of household electronic systems such as TV
sets, video recorders and hi-fi systems.
• Used in secret signaling and burglar alarms.
• Used in the treatment of dislocations, paralysis etc.
• Used to take the photographs of distant objects.
• Used in physiotherapy
• Used for determination of molecular structure.
Visible rays
• It is the part of the spectrum that is detected by the human eye.
• It runs from about a wavelength range of about 700 – 400 nm.
• Visible light emitted or reflected from objects around us provides us
information about the world. Our eyes are sensitive to this range of
wavelengths.
33
• Different animals are sensitive to different range of wavelengths. For
example,
snakes can detect infrared waves, and the ‘visible’ range of many insects
extends well into the ultraviolet.
Ultraviolet rays
• Ultraviolet (UV) radiation is produced by special lamps and very hot
bodies
• The sun is an important source of ultraviolet light. But most of it is absorbed
in the ozone layer in the atmosphere at an altitude of about 40 – 50 km.
• UV light in large quantities has harmful effects on humans. Exposure to
UV
radiation induces the production of more melanin, causing tanning of the
skin.
• UV radiation is absorbed by ordinary glass. Hence, one cannot get tanned
or sunburn through glass windows.
• Welders wear special glass goggles or face masks with glass windows to
protect their eyes from large amount of UV produced by welding arcs.
• Due to its shorter wavelengths, UV radiations can be focused into
very
narrow beams for high precision applications such as LASIK (Laser assisted
in situ keratomileusis) eye surgery.
• UV lamps are used to kill germs in water purifiers.
• Ozone layer in the atmosphere plays a protective role.
• Used in the manufacture of fluorescent tubes
• Used in the determination of age of written documents
• Used in the detection of finger prints. • Helps to produce vitamin D in
our skin. X-rays
• Beyond the UV region of the electromagnetic spectrum lies the X-ray region.
• W Roentgen discovered x-rays
• One common way to generate X-rays is to bombard a metal target by high
energy electrons.
• X-rays are used as a diagnostic tool in medicine and as a treatment for
certain forms of cancer.
• Because X-rays damage or destroy living tissues and organisms, care must be
taken to avoid unnecessary or over exposure.
• Used to study structure of atoms
molecules and crystals
• Used to detect cracks and holes inside a sheet of metal.
• Used to detect hidden materials.

34
Gamma rays

• They lie in the upper frequency range of the electromagnetic spectrum.


• This high frequency radiation is produced in nuclear reactions and also
emitted by radioactive nuclei.
• They are used in medicine to destroy cancer cells.
• Used to study structure of nuclei of atom.

• Used to sterilize surgical Instruments, • Used to detect cracks in


underground metal pipes etc
Production and detection of em waves

35
Unit - VI Optics (Chapters 9&10)
QUICK REVISION NOTES
RAY OPTICS

Principle of Reversibility of Light:

If a ray of light, after suffering any number of reflections and/or


Refractions has its path reversed at any stage, it travels back to
The source along the same path in the opposite direction.
A natural consequence of the principle of reversibility is that the image and object
positions can
Be interchanged. These positions are called conjugate positions.

Refraction through a Parallel Slab:

Apparent Depth of a Liquid:

36
Total Internal Reflection:

N N N N

Rarer μa
r =90° (air)

ic i>ic i

Denser μg
O (glass)

Conditions for TIR:

1. Incidentraymustbein opticallydenser medium.


2. Theangleofincidence in thedenser medium mustbegreater than thecriticalanglefor
thepair ofmediaincontact.

RelationbetweenCriticalAngleandRefractive Index:
Critical angle is theangle ofincidence in thedensermediumforwhichthe angle
ofrefractioninthe rarermediumis 90°.

37
Refraction at Convex Surface:

(From Rarer Medium to Denser Medium - Real Image)

Refraction at Convex Surface:


(From Rarer Medium to Denser Medium
-Virtual Image)

38
Refraction at Concave Surface:
(From Rarer Medium to Denser Medium
- Virtual Image)

Lens Maker’s Formula:

39
Refraction of Light through Prism:

Variation of angle of deviation with angle of incidence:


When angle of incidence increases,
The angle of deviation decreases.
At a particular value of angle of incidence
The angle of deviation becomes minimum
And is called ‘angle of minimum deviation’.
At δm, i = e and r1 = r2 = r (say)
After minimum deviation, angle of deviation Increases with angle of incidence

40
Refractive Index of Material of Prism:

Objective: The converging lens nearer to the object.


Eyepiece: The converging lens through which the final image is seen.
Both are of short focal length.
Focal length of eyepiece is slightly greater than that of the objective.
Astronomical Telescope: (Image formed at infinity – Normal Adjustment)

41
Focal length of the objective is much greater than that of the eyepiece.
Aperture of the objective is also large to allow more light to pass through it.
WAVE OPTICS

Wavefront:
A wavelet is the point of disturbance due to propagation of light.
A wavefront is the locus of points (wavelets) having the same phase of oscillations.
A line perpendicular to a wavefront is called a ‘ray’.

•Each point on a wavefront acts as a fresh source of disturbance of light.


• The new wavefront at any time later is obtained by taking the forward
Envelope of all the secondary wavelets at that time.
Note: Backward wavefront is rejected. Why?
Laws of Reflection at a Plane Surface (On Huygens' Principle):

42
Amplitude of secondary wavelet is proportional to % (1+cos0). Obviously, for
the backward wavelet 0= 180° and (1+cose) is 0.

AB – Incident wavefront
CD – Reflected wavefront
XY – Reflecting surface
If c be the speed of light, t be the time taken by light to go from B to C or A to D or
E to G through F, then

For rays of light from different parts on the incident wavefront, the values of AF are
Different. But light from different points of the incident wavefront should take the
Same time to reach the corresponding points on the reflected wavefront.
So, t should not depend upon AF. This is possible only if sin i – sin r = 0.
i.e. sin i = sin r or i = r

43
Condition for Constructive Interference of Waves:
For constructive interference, I should be maximum which is possible
only if cos Φ = +1.
i.e.Φ = 2nπ where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, …….

Corresponding path difference is Δ = (λ / 2 π) x 2nπ

Condition for Destructive Interference of Waves:


For destructive interference, I should be minimum which is possible only if cos Φ =
- 1.

44
Young’s double slit Experiment:

Distribution of Intensity:
Suppose the two interfering waves have same amplitudes ‘a’,then
Imaxα(a+a)2i.e.Imaxα4a2
45
All the bright fringes have this same intensity.
Imin=0
All the dark fringes have zero intensity.

INTENSITY

Y 0 Y
Conditions for sustained interference:
• The two sources producing interference must be coherent.
• The two interfering wave trains must have the same plane of polarisation.
• The two sources must be very close to each other and the pattern must be
observed at a larger distance to have sufficient width of the fringe.(Dλ/ d)
• The sources must be monochromatic. Otherwise, the fringes of different
colours ill overlap.
• The two waves must be having same amplitude for better contrast between
bright and dark fringes.
Diffraction of light at a single slit:

46
Unit - VII Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter (Chapter- 11)
QUICK REVISION NOTES IN POINTS
1) WORK FUNCTION - The minimum energy needed by an electron to come out
from a metal surface (ϕ0).
2) ELECTRON EMISSION - The electrons from a metal surface can be emitted by
supplying energy greater than W0 by suitably heating (thermionic emission) or
applying strong electric field (field emission) or irradiating it by light of suitable
frequency (photoelectric emission).
3) K.E GAINED BY AN ACCELERATED ELECTRON - An electron accelerated
from rest through a p.d. of V volts. Gain in K. E = 1/2 x m x v 2 = eV
4) ELECTRON VOLT - Kinetic energy gained by an electron when accelerated
through a p.d. of V volts. 1eV = 1.6 x 10 - 19 J , 1 MeV = 1.6 x 10-3 J
5) PARTICLE NATURE OF LIGHT - THE PHOTONS - According to Planck's
quantum theory of radiation, an electromagnetic wave travels in the form of discrete
packets of energy called quanta. One of quantum of light radiation is called a
photon.
6) PHOTON PICTURE OF ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION –
1. In its interaction with matter, radiation behaves as if it is made of particles, called
photons.
2. Each photon carries an energy (E = hv) and momentum p (= h / λ ) , which
depend on the frequency of radiation and not on its intensity.
3. Photons are electrically neutral not deflected by electric and magnetic fields.

47
4. In a photon-electron collision, total energy and total momentum are conserved but
the number of photons may not be conserved. 5. The rest mass of a photon is zero.
6. The equivalent mass of a photon is given by
E = mc2 = hv or m = (hv)/(c2)
7) PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT - The phenomenon of emission of electrons
from a metal surface, when electromagnetic radiations of sufficiently high frequency
are incident on it. Metals like Li, Na, K, Ce show photoelectric effect with visible
light while metals like Zn, Cd, Mg respond to ultraviolet light.
8) PHOTOELECTRIC CURRENT - The current constituted by photoelectrons. It
depends on (i) the intensity of incident light, (ii) p.d. applied between the two
electrodes, and (iii) the nature of emitter material.
9) CUT OFF OR STOPPING POTENTIAL - The minimum value of negative
potential applied to the anode of a photocell to make the photoelectric current zero.
It depends on (i) frequency of incident light, and (ii) the nature of emitter material.
For a given frequency of incident light, it is independent of its intensity. It is related
to the maximum K.E. of the emitted electrons as , Kmax 1/2 mv2max = eVo
10) THERSHOLD FREQUENCY - The minimum value of the frequency of
incident radiation below which the photoelectric emission stops altogether. It is a
characteristic of the metal.
11) LAWS OF PHOTOELECTRIC EMISSION -
1. For a given metal and a radiation of fixed frequency, the rate of emission of photo
electrons is proportional to the intensity of incident radiation.
2. For every metal, there is a certain minimum frequency below which no
photoelectrons are emitted, howsoever high is the intensity of incident radiation.
This frequency is called threshold frequency.
3. For the radiation of frequency higher than the threshold frequency, the maximum
kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is directly proportional to the frequency of
incident radiation and is independent of the intensity of incident radiation.
4. The photoelectric emission is an instantaneous process.
12) FAILURE OF WAVE THEORY TO EXPLAIN PHOTOELECTRIC
EFFECT - The picture of continuous absorption of energy from the radiation could
not explain
1. the independent of Kmax on intensity,
2. the existence of threshold frequency v0 , and
3. the instantaneous nature of photoelectric emission.
13) EINSTEIN’S THEORY OF PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT -
When a radiation of frequency v is incident on a metal surface, it is absorbed in the
form of discrete photons each of energy hv. Photoelectric emission occurs because
of single collision of a photon with a free electron. The energy of the photon is used
to
1. free the electron from the metal surface. It is equal to the work function W0, of the
metal.
2. provide kinetic energy to the emitted electron.

48
hv = Kmax + W0
or Kmax=1/2 mv2max =hv-W0
This is Einstein's photoelectric equation.
14) EXPLANATION OF PHOTOELECTRIC EMISSION ON THE BASIS OF
EINSTEIN’S PHOTOELECTRIC EMISSION -
1. Clearly, above the threshold frequency v0, Kmax ∝ v i.e., the maximum K.E. of the
emitted electrons depends linearly on the frequency of incident radiation.
2. When v < v0 Kmax becomes negative. The kinetic energy becomes negative which
has no physical meaning. Hence there is no photo electric emission below the
threshold frequency v0.
3. It is obvious from the photo-electric equation that the maximum K.E. of photo-
electrons does not depend on the intensity of incident light.
15) DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION - Light has dual nature. It manifests itself
as a wave in diffraction, interference, polarisation, etc., while it shows particle
nature in photoelectric effect, Compton scattering, etc.
16) DUAL NATURE OF MATTER - According to de-Broglie hypothesis,
material particles in motion display wave like properties. This hypothesis was based
on (i) de-Broglie concept of nature loves symmetry, and (ii) matter can be converted
into energy and vice versa. So moving particles like protons, neutrons, electrons,
etc. are associated with de-Broglie waves and their wavelength is given by λ = h/p =
h/mv
17) DAVISSION AND GERMER EXPERIMENT - This electron diffraction
experiment has verified and confirmed the wave-nature of electrons.
18) DE-BROGLIE WAVELENGTH OF AN ELECTRON - The wavelength
associated with an electron beam accelerated through a potential difference of V
volts is given by,
λ=√2𝑚𝑒𝑣 = 1.227/√𝑉 nm

Unit - IX Electronic Devices (Chapter 14)


QUICK REVISION NOTES
Classification of solids:Solids can be classified as metals, insulators and
semiconductors basing on conductivity (or) band theory
Classification according to conductivity is as follows
Metals have high conuctivity 108 to102 Sm1  (or) low resistivity
Insulators have low conductivity 10
19
to1011 Sm1  (or) high resistivity
10 to10
5 6
Sm1 
Semiconductors have conductivity 10 11
to1019 m (or) resistivity ,
intermediate to metals and insulators 105 to106 m
Energy Band theory in solids:An isolated atom has well defined energy levels
and energy of an electron depends on its orbit (Principal quantum number)

49
But in solids atoms are so close such that outer orbits are very close (or)
overlaped to form energy band.
Inside the crystal each electron has a unique position and no two electrons
see exactly same pattern of surrounding charges and each electron has
different energy level.
Different energy level with continuous energy variation form energy bands
(According to Pauli’s principle)
The energy band formed by a series of energy bands containing valance
electrons is valance band.
At 0 K, electrons start filling energy level in valance band starting from the
lowest one.
The highest energy level, occupied by an electron in the valance band at 0K
is called Fermi level.
The lowest unfilled energy band formed just above valance band is called
conduction band.
Depending on the forbidden energy gap between valance band and
conduction band, the solids are classified as conductors, insulators and
semiconductors.
Distinction between Conductors (metals), insulators and semiconductors on the
basis of Energy bands

 Conductors (Metals) :
In conductors either conduction and valence band partly overlap each other
or the conductionband is partially filled. Forbidden energy gap does not exists (
. This makes a large number of free electrons available for electrical
conduction. So the metals have high conductivity.
 Semiconductors :
In semiconductors, conduction band is empty and valance band is totally
filled. is quite small ( 3 eV). At , electrons are not able to cross this energy gap
and semiconductor behaves as an insulator. But at room temperature, some
electrons are able to jump to conduction band and semiconductor acquires
small conductivity
 Insulators
In insulators, conduction band is empty and valance band is totally filled. is
very large ( 6 eV). It is not possible to give such large amount of energy to
electrons by any means. Hence conduction band remains total empty and the
crystal remains as insulator

50
 Intrinsic Semiconductor -
1. It is a pure semiconductor
2. ne  nh
3. Low conductivity at room temperature
4. Its electrical conductivity depends on temperature only.
Extrinsic Semiconductor-
1.It is a semiconductor with added impurity
2. ne  nh
3. High conductivity at room temperature
4. Its electrical conductivity depends on temperature and the amount of
doping.
 n-type semiconductor-
1.It is obtained by adding controlled amount of pentavalent impurity to
a pure semiconductor
2. ne  nh
3. Its electrical conductivity is due to free electrons
 p-type semiconductor-
1.It is obtained by adding controlled amount of trivalent impurity to a
pure semiconductor
2. nh  ne
3. Its electrical conductivity is due to holes
 In semi conductors the total current I is the sum of electron current Ie
and holes current Ih
I = Ie + Ih
 Electrical conductivity    e   h  ne ee  nh he
 p-n junction : When a semiconductor crystal is so prepared that, it’s one
half is p-type and other is n-type, then the contact surface dividing the
two halves, is called p-n junction
 Due to different concentration gradient of the charge carriers on two
sides of the junction, electrons from n-side starts moving towards p-side
and holes start moving from p-side to n-side. This process is called
Diffusion.
 Due to diffusion, positive space charge region is created on the n-side of
thejunction and negative space charge region is created on the p-side of
the junction. Hencean electric field called Junction field is set up from n-
side to p-side which forces the minority charge carriers to cross the
junction. This process is called Drift.
 Forward biasing :When the positive terminal of external battery is
connected to p-side and negative terminal to the n-side, then the p-n
junction is said to be forward biased
 Reverse biasing :When the positive terminal of external battery is
connected to n-side and negative terminal to the p-side, then the p-n
junction is said to be reverse biased
51
 V-I characteristics : A graph showing the variation of current through a
p-n junction with the voltage applied across it, is called the voltage –
current (V-I) characteristics of that p-n junction.

 Half wave rectifier :

 Full wave rectifier

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