003 Xii Phy Study Material Quick Revision For High Achievers
003 Xii Phy Study Material Quick Revision For High Achievers
SANGATHAN
CHENNAI REGION
CLASS – XII
PHYSICS
QUICK REVISION MATERIAL
FOR HIGH ACHIEVERS
1
CHIEF PATRON
Ms. T.Rukmani
Offg.Deputy Commissioner
KVS Chennai Region
PATRON
Mr.P I Thanga Raja
Assistant Commissioner
KVS Chennai Region
COURSE DIRECTOR
Mr. R.N.Senthil Kumar
Principal
Kendriya Vidyalaya, Nagercoil.
2
CONTENT DEVELOPMENT TEAM
3
Unit - 1 Electrostatics(Chapters 1&2)
QUICK REVISION NOTES
Study of charges at rest.
Charging a body can be done by friction, induction and conduction.
Like charges repel and unlike charges attract.
Charges are additive in nature i.e., Q=∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑞𝑖
Charges are quantized. i.e., Q= ± ne [n=1,2,3,… & e=1.602 X10 -19 C]
Charge in a body is independent of its velocity.
Charge is conserved.
To measure charge electroscopes are used.
𝑘𝑞 𝑞 1
Coulomb’s law: 𝐹⃗ = 𝑟12 2 𝑟̂ k=4𝜋𝜀 = 9X109 Nm2c-2
0
𝜀0= permittivity of free space
Q1Q2 1 Q1Q2
F
Ftotal = F12 + F 13 + ….
Principle of superposition: 𝐹𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑖 [vector sum of individual forces]
qq qq
1 122 r12 1 123 r13 ....
4 r12 4 r13
F
E Q E
Electric field: Force per unit positive test charge. It is a vector. SI unitNC -1.
𝑘𝑄
𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝑟 2 𝑟̂
𝐹⃗ r2
𝐸⃗⃗ = lim 𝑞
𝑞0→0 0
𝑘𝑄
Field due to a point charge:𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝑟 2 𝑟̂
Principle of superposition: 𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸𝑖 [vector sum of individual fields]
Dipole: Two equal and opposite charges separated by a small distance.
Dipole moment: Product of magnitude of charge and distance of separation
between them. It is a vector. SI unit: Cm 𝑝⃗=Q.2𝑎⃗ ; direction of 𝑝⃗ is negative
to positive charge.
Dipole in a uniform electric field experiences no net force and instead
⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐸⃗⃗ ⇒ 𝜏⃗=|𝑝⃗||𝐸⃗⃗ | sin 𝜃 𝑛̂
experiences a torque. 𝜏⃗=𝑝
If 𝜃= 0° ⇒ stable equilibrium; If 𝜃= 180° ⇒ unstable equilibrium.
4
2𝑘𝑝⃗
Electric field due to a dipole at a point on the axial line: in the direction
𝑟3
of dipole moment
𝑘𝑝⃗
Electric field due to a dipole at a point on the equatorial line: 𝑟 3 against
the direction of dipole moment.
Electric flux: ∅=∆𝑆
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗. 𝐸⃗⃗ =|𝐸⃗⃗ ||∆𝑆
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 ; It is a scalar; SI unit: NC-1m2 or Vm.
𝑞
Gauss’ theorem in electrostatics:∅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
0 𝜀
Electric field is conservative. This means that the work done is the
independent of the path followed and the total work done in a closed path is zero.
Potential due to a system of charges: v in1 i kq
total ri
Potential due to a dipole at a point on its axial line:
𝑘 |𝑝⃗| 𝑘 |𝑝⃗|
𝑉𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 = [or] 𝑟 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑟2
Potential due to a dipole at a point on its equatorial line:𝑉𝑒𝑞 = 0
1 1
Potential difference 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 = 𝑘𝑞 [𝑟 − 𝑟 ]
𝐴 𝐵
𝑘𝑞1 𝑞2
Potential energy of two charges: U = 𝑟
⃗⃗⃗⃗. 𝐸⃗⃗ = p E [𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃0 - 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 ]
Potential energy of a dipole : U = 𝑝
Electro static of conductors
a. Inside a conductor Electrostatic field is zero
b. On the surface E is always Normal t
c. No charge inside the conductor
d. Potential is constant inside and on the surface
Equipotential surfaces: The surfaces on which the potential is same
everywhere.
o Work done in moving a charge over a equipotential surfaces is zero.
o No two equipotential surfaces intersect.
o Electric field lines are always perpendicular to the equipotential surfaces.
𝑑𝑉 1
o As E= - 𝑑𝑟 If Vis constant, E∝ 𝑟 and if E is constant, V∝ 𝑟
Capacitor: An instrument to store charges and electrostatic potential energy.
Q
Capacitance: C , ,Ratio of charge and unit potential difference. Scalar,
V
SI unit: farad [F]
6
Q C
Q
𝐶 V
𝑉 𝑉 𝑜𝑟 𝑄
𝜀0 × 𝐴
Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor: 𝐶 = 𝑑
Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with a dielectric medium in between:
𝜀0
𝐶𝑚 =(𝑑−𝑡+ 𝑡 𝐴
) 𝐾
𝜀0 × 𝐴
If t =0 ⇒𝐶0 = 𝑑
𝐾𝜀0 × 𝐴
If t =d ⇒𝐶𝑚 = ⇒ 𝐶𝑚 = 𝐾𝐶0
𝑑
𝐶𝑚
𝐶0 K
Grouping of capacitors:
n
1 1
Capacitors in series:
c i 1 ci
n
Capacitors in parallel : c ci
i 1
1 2 1 1 Q2
Energy stored in capacitors: U CV QV
2 2 2 C
1
Area shaded in the graph = U =2 𝑄𝑉
V
Q
1 𝜎2
Energy density :𝑈𝑑 = 2 𝜀0 𝐸 2=2𝜀
0
Introducing dielectric slab between the plates of the charged capacitor
with:
Property⇣ Battery connected Battery disconnected
Charge K Q0 Q0
Potential difference V0 V0/K
Electric field E0 E0/K
Capacitance KC0 KC0
Energy 1 2 1
K times2 𝜀0 𝐸 1/K times2 𝜀0 𝐸 2
[Energy is supplied [Energy used for
By battery] Polarization]
7
On connecting two charged capacitors:
𝐶 𝑉 +𝐶 𝑉
Common Potential:𝑉 = 1 𝑉1 +𝑉2 2
1 2
1 𝐶1 ×𝐶2
Loss of energy ∆𝑈 = 2 𝐶 (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )2
1 +𝐶2
10
Wheatstone bridge – It is an arrangement of four resistances P. Q, R and S joined to
form a quadrilateral ABCD with a battery between A and C and a sensitive
galvanometerbetween B and D. The resistances are so adjusted that no current flows
through the galvanometer.
P R
The bridge is then said to be balanced. In the balanced condition,
Q S
A Wheatstone bridge is most sensitive when the resistances in its four arms
are of the same order. Slide wire bridge or metre bridge - It is an application of
Wheatstone bridge in which R is fixed and a balance point is obtained by varying
P and Q i.e., by adjusting the position of a jockey on a 100 cm long resistance wire.
If the balance point is obtained at length 1, then
R l 100 l
S R
S 100 l l
11
Magnetic field due to a small element,
µ0 𝐼𝑑𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
dB = 4𝜋 𝑟2
µ0 𝐼𝑑𝑙
Since, θ = 90, sin90 = 1 dB = 4𝜋 𝑟2
µ0 𝐼
Total magnetic field, B = ∫dB = 4𝜋 𝑟2
∫dl
µ0 𝐼
B= 2𝑟
12
WKT,
Line integral of magnetic field,
∮ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 = ∮ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 [since,
θ = 0]
= B∮ 𝑑𝑙= B × 2πr
→1
According to Ampere’s circuital
law, ∮ 𝐵. ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = μ0
⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑙
I →2
Eq. 1 = Eq. 2
µ0𝐼
B × 2πr = μ0 I B = 2𝜋𝑟
MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A CURRENT CARRYING SOLENOID:
Let, n → Number of turns per unit Note:
length If no. of turns is given, then:
I → Current through the solenoid n → Number of turns
L → Length of the solenoid B= 𝐿
µ0𝑛𝐼
B = μ0 n I
FORCE ON A MOVING CHARGE [ LORENTZ FORCE]:
Force, F α BF α q F α vsinθ
ie, F α BqvsinθF = K Bqvsinθ In SI unit, K = 1
F = Bqvsinθ
The direction is given by Fleming’s left-hand rule.
Note:
Two pairs of Special case: Lorentz force,
perpendicular vectors, If, θ = 0, F = 0 𝐹⃗ = 𝐹⃗ e +𝐹⃗ m
1. 𝐹⃗ and 𝑣⃗ θ = 180, F = 0 𝐹⃗ = q [𝐸⃗⃗ + (𝑉
⃗⃗× 𝐵⃗⃗)]
2. 𝐹⃗ and 𝐵⃗⃗ θ = 90, F= Bqv
RADIUS OF PATH FOLLOWED BYMOVING CHARGE IN THE
MAGNETIC FIELD:
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉 is perpendicular to 𝐵⃗⃗:
Radius, Time period, Frequency,
Magnetic Lorentz force = 2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋 𝑚𝑣
T = 𝑣 = 𝑣 𝐵𝑞 1 𝐵𝑞
Centripetal force = 2𝜋𝑚
𝑇
𝑚𝑣2 𝑚𝑣
Bqv = = 2𝜋𝑚
𝑟 𝐵𝑞 T= 𝐵𝑞
FORCE ON A CURRENT:
13
B → Mag. Field , Vd → Drift velocity
Il →Current element, l → Length of the
conductor
A → Area of cross-section, n → number
density
WKT
I = nAeVdIl = nAelVd
In general form, ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗d
𝐼𝑙 = -nAel𝑉
Force experienced by one electron,𝐹⃗ = -e
⃗⃗d × 𝐵⃗⃗) Special case:
(𝑉
If θ = 0, F = 0
Total no. of electrons, N = nAl
If θ = 90, F = BIl (maximum)
Total force experienced by the conductor,
𝐹⃗ = N𝑓⃗ = nAl𝑓⃗
𝐹⃗ = -neAl (𝑉 ⃗⃗d× 𝐵⃗⃗)
⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐵
𝐹⃗ = (𝐼𝑙 ⃗⃗) F = BIlsinθ
µ0 2𝐼1𝐼2
llly, F2 = 4𝜋 →3
𝑟
Force per unit length, µ0 2𝐼1𝐼2
F = 4𝜋 𝑟
ONE AMPERE:
The electric current flowing through a conductor is said to be 1 ampere when it is
separated by 1 meter from similar conductor carrying same current in the same
direction experiences a repulsive for of 2×10-7 N per meter length.
TORQUE ACTING ON A CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR:
14
⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐵
𝐹⃗ 1 = 𝐼𝑏 ⃗⃗= IbBsin (90+θ)
= IbBcosθ → 1
IIIy,
𝐹⃗ 2= IbBsin (90-θ)
= IbBcosθ→ 2
𝐹⃗ 1 and 𝐹⃗ 2is equal, opposite and acting on a same line.
Hence, the cancel each other.
15
𝜙 𝑛𝐵𝐴
(i.e.) 𝐼 = 𝐾
● Voltage sensitivity: It is defined as deflection per unit potential difference.
𝜙 𝑛𝐵𝐴 𝜙 𝑛𝐵𝐴
i.e.) 𝐼𝑅 = 𝐾𝑅 𝑉 = 𝐾𝑅
Note: Change in current sensitivity may not necessarily change the voltage
sensitivity.
Conditions for sensitivity:
a. n is large b. B is large c. A is large d. K is small (small for phosphor
bronze, quartz fiber.
●Ammeter:
It is an instrument used for measuring current in the electrical circuits.
Galvanometer can be converted into an ammeter by connecting a shunt resistance in
parallel.
𝐼𝑔𝑅𝑔
Resistance of the ammeter, Ra S=
𝑅𝑔𝑆 𝐼−𝐼𝑔
= 𝑅𝑔+𝑆
●Voltmeter:
It is the instrument used to measure potential difference across a conductor.
Galvanometer is modified into voltmeter by
connecting a large resistance in series.
WKT, V = IR V = (Rg+R) Ig
𝑉
𝑉 R =𝐼𝑔- Rg
Rg+R = 𝐼𝑔
Resistance of voltmeter, Rv = Rg + R
MAGNETISM:
Magnetic pole: The preferred regions of attraction near the two ends of a magnet
where the magnetic force due to a bar magnet is maximum are called the poles of
the magnet.
Characteristics:
1. Attracting property.
2. Directive property.
3. Unlike poles attract each other and like poles repel each other.
4. Magnetic poles exist in pairs.
5. Inductive property.
Key points:
When a magnet having pole strength ‘m’ is cut into equal parts.
a. Longitudinally, the new pole strength is m/2.
b. Vertically/Transversely, the new pole strength will remain same as ‘m’.
Magnetic dipole:
16
An arrangement of two magnetic poles of equal and opposite separated by a finite
distance is called magnetic dipole.
Magnetic dipole moment:
The product of strength of either pole and the magnetic length of the magnet is
called magnetic dipole moment.
Current loop as a magnetic dipole:Magnetic dipole moment, Mα IM α AM α IA
M = KIAIn SI units, K = 1M = IA
In case of ‘n’ turns;
Note: M=
⃗⃗⃗
● Torque:τ = MBsinθ𝜏⃗ = 𝑀 × 𝐵 ⃗⃗ nIA
● Potential energy:P.E = MB (cosθ1– cosθ2)
SOME IMPORTANT TERMS:
𝐵0
1. Magnetic intensity (H):H = µ0 [SI unit = A/m]
𝑀
2. Intensity of magnetization (I):I = 𝑉 [SI unit = A/m]
𝐵. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
3. Magnetic flux (ϕ):ϕ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∆𝑆
4. Magnetic induction (B):
No. of mag. field lines of induction crossing the unit area normally through the
magnetic
substance. Its SI unit is Tesla.
5. Magnetic susceptibility (χm):
𝐼
χm = 𝐻 [Dimensionless physical quantity]
6. Magnetic permeability (μ):
𝐵
Μ = 𝐻 [SI unit = Tm/ A]
Relation b/w B,H,I three physical quantities is;B = μ 0 (H + I)
DIAMAGNETIC MATERIAL;
It consists of only paired electrons.Thus, the magnetic moment due to orbital motion
of one electron is cancelled by the magnetic moment due to orbital motion of
another electron. It makes the net magnetic moment zero. When a diamagnetic
substance is subjected to an external mag. field, the atoms acquire feeble mag.
moment due to Lorentz force exerted by external mag. field.
PARAMAGNETIC
MATERIAL:The atom of a paramagnetic substancepossesses mag. moment due to
the orbital motion of the unpaired electrons. As the interaction b/w the atomic
magnet is very weak, therefore, they may be independent of each other. Due to
thermal agitation, the atomic magnets are randomly oriented.
17
S. PROPERT DIAMAGNETIC PARAMAGNETIC FERROMAGNETIC
NO IES
1. Nature Non-polar dielectric Polar dielectric Ferro electric type
dielectric
2. Magnetizi Feebly magnetized Feebly magnetized Strongly magnetized
ng in the opposite along the mag. field along the mag. field
capacity direction
3. Magnetic Little less Little more Very strong
field B < B0 B > B0 B >> B0
inside the
specimen
4. Magnetic
field lines
5. Non- Tends to move from Tends to move from Tends to move from
uniform stronger to weaker weaker to stronger weaker to stronger region
region slowly. region slowly. quickly.
6. Liquid
substance
19
Where, θ is the smaller angle between and , which normal to the surface area
makes with
SI unit of f is weber and magnetic flux is a scalar quantity.
Faraday's laws of electromagnetic induction:
First law − whenever the amount of magnetic flux linked with a circuit changes,
an emf is induced in the circuit. The induced emf lasts as long as the change in
magnetic flux continues.
Second law − the magnitude of emf induced in a circuit is directly proportional to
the rate of change of magnetic flux linked with the circuit.
According to Faraday’s second law, induced emf
For N turns,
Lenz’s Law-The direction of the induced emf or induced current is such that it
opposes the change that is producing it.
Lenz Law and Principle of Conservation of Energy
Consider that at any time t, the part of the coil is inside the magnetic
field. Let l be the length of the arm of the coil.
Area of the coil inside the magnetic field at time t,
20
Where,
v→Velocity with the coil pulled out of the magnetic field
If e is the induced emf, then according to Faraday’s law,
From Fleming’s Right hand rule, the current due to induced emf will flow from the
end R to Q i.e., along QPSR in the coil.
Power
Current I in the loop is,
Due to the presence of the magnetic field, there is a force on the arm PQ. This force
is directed outwards in the direction opposite to the velocity of the rod. The
magnitude of this force is,
Alternatively, the arm PQ is being pushed with a constant speed v. The power
required to do this is,
The agent that does this work is mechanical. This mechanical energy is dissipated as
joule heat and is given by,
21
Self Induction:
Self Induction is the phenomenon of inducing emf in the self coil due to
change in current and hence the change in magnetic flux in the coil.
The induced emf opposes the growth or decay of current in the coil and
hence delays the current to acquire the maximum value.
Thus, self inductance is defined as the magnetic flux linked with a coil
when unit current flows through it.
Also, E = - dΦ / dt or E = - L (dI / dt)
If dI / dt = 1, then L = E
Thus, self inductance is defined as the induced emf set up in the coil
through which the rate of change of current is unity.
Φ = μ0N2IA / l
But, Φ = LI
So, L = μ0N2A / l = μ0n2Al
Mutual Induction
The phenomenon according to which an opposing emf is produced in a coil as a
result of change in current, hence, the magnetic flux linked with a neighbouring coil
is called mutual induction.
Coefficient of mutual induction −
Φ∝I
Φ = MI… (i)
Where, M is called coefficient of mutual induction
If ‘e’ is the induced emf produced in the S-coil, then
22
Mutual inductance of two long co-axial solenoids:
Magnetic Field due to primary solenoid is
B1 = μ0n1I1
Magnetic Flux linked across one turn of the G
secondary solenoid is
S
Φ21 per turn = B1 A = μ 0 n1 I1 A = μ0N1I1A / l A
Magnetic Flux linked across N turns of the secondary P
solenoid is I1 l
Φ21 = μ0N1N2I1A / l
ALTERNATING CURRENT
An alternating current is that which changes continuously in magnitude and
periodically in direction. It can be represented by a sine curve or a cosine curve i.e.,
q = ∫ I0 sin ωt dt
0
q = 2 I0 / ω = 2 I0 T / 2π = I0 T / π
23
Root Mean Square or Virtual or Effective Value of
Alternating Current:
Root Mean Square (rms) value of alternating current is that steady current
which would produce the same heat in a given resistance in a given time as
is produced by the given alternating current in the same resistance in the
same time.
dH = I2R dt = I02 R sin2 ωt dt
T
H = ∫ I02 R sin2 ωt dt
0
I = E/ R
= (E0 / R) sin ωt E = E0 sin ωt
E = E0 sin ωt y
E,I I = I0 sin ωt
E0 E0
I0
I0
0
π/2 π 3π/2 2π 5π/2 3π 7π/2 4π θ = ωt
Through a pure inductor, alternating current lags behind the alternating EMF by
phase. angle of 90o
24
AC Circuit with a Pure Inductor:
E = E0 sin ωt
Induced emf in the inductor is - L (dI / dt) L
q = CE = CE0 sin ωt
E = E0 sin ωt
I = dq / dt
= (d / dt) [CE0 sin ωt] (where I0 = E0 / (1 / ωC) and
I = [E0 / (1 / ωC)] ( cos ωt ) XC = 1 / ωC = E0 / I0)
XC is Capacitive Reactance.
I = I0 sin (ωt + π / 2)
Its SI unit is ohm.
E = E0 sin ωt
y E0
E,I I = I0 sin (ωt + π / 2) I0
E0
I0
π/2
0 ωt
π/2 π 3π/2 2π 5π/2 3π 7π/2 4π θ = ωt
0 x
T/4 T/2 3T/4 T 5T/4 3T/2 7T/4 2T
t
25
Variation of XL with Frequency:
XL
I0 = E0 / ωL and XL = ωL
XL is Inductive Reactance and ω = 2π f
XL = 2π f L i.e. XL α f
0 f
0 f
TIPS:
1) Inductance (L) can not decrease Direct Current. It can only decrease
Alternating Current.
2) Capacitance (C) allows AC to flow through it but blocks DC.
L R
AC Circuit with L, C, R in Series C
Combination: VR
VL
The applied emf appears as VC
Voltage drops VR, VL and VC
across R, L and C respectively.
E = E0 sin ωt
1) In R, current and voltage are in
phase. VL VL
2) In L, current lags behind voltage by
- VC
π/2
π/2 π/2
3) In C, current leads the voltage by 0
π/2 π/2 I VR I VR
E = √ [VR2 + (VL – VC)2] VC VC
E
I = E
√ [R2 + (XL – XC)2] VL - VC Φ
Z = √ [R2 + (XL – XC)2] I VR
E = √ [VR2 + (VL – VC)2]
Z = √ [R2 + (ω L – 1/ωC)2]
XL – XC ω L – 1/ωC
tan Φ = or tan Φ =
R R
RESONANCE IN AC CIRCUIT
When XL = XC i.e. ω L = 1/ωC, tan Φ = 0 or Φ is 0° and
The impedance offered by the circuit is minimum and the current is maximum.
This condition is called resonant condition of LCR circuit and the frequency is
called resonant frequency
POWER IN AC CIRCUIT: THE POWER FACTOR
26
P
L C Oscillations:
L L
+ + + + + + + +
L C C C
- - - - - - - -
L L L
- - - - - - - - - - -
C C C
+ + + + + + + + + + +
L L
+ + + + + + + +
L
C C
- - - - - - - -C
TRANSFORMER
Principle − It works on the principle of electromagnetic induction. It converts low
voltage high current into high voltage
low current or vice versa.
Construction
27
Step-down transformer Step-up transformer
Working
Alternating emf is supplied to the primary coil PP’. The resulting current produces
an induced current in secondary.
Magnetic flux linked with primary is also linked with the secondary. The
induced emf in each turn of the secondary is
equal to that induced in each turn of the primary.
Let,
EP − Alternating emf applied to primary
nP − Number of turns in the primary
28
Hysteresis loss − Alternately magnetizing and demagnetizing, the iron core cause
loss of energy. It is minimized
using a special alloy of iron core with silicon.
Magnetic loss − It is due to the leakage of magnetic flux.
AC Generator
29
= NBA cosθ= NBA cosωt …(i)
Where, ‘ω’ is angular velocity of the coil
∴e = NAB ω sinωt
31
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
∙ An arrangement of electromagnetic radiations according to their
wavelength or frequency. ∙ Some of the waves in the increasing order of
frequency (decreasing order of
wavelength) are :
Radio waves, microwaves, infra
red, visible light, ultra violet, x-rays, Gamma rays
Radio waves
• Radio waves are produced by the accelerated motion of charges in
conducting wires.
• They are used in radio and television communication systems.
• They are generally in the frequency range from 500 kHz to about 1000
MHz.
• The AM (amplitude modulated) band is from 530 kHz to 1710 kHz.
• Higher frequencies up to 54 MHz are used for short wave bands. TV waves
range from 54 MHz to 890 MHz.
• The FM (frequency modulated) radio band extends from 88 MHz to 108
MHz.
• Cellular phones use radio waves to transmit voice communication in
the
ultrahigh frequency (UHF) band.
Microwaves
• Microwaves are produced by special vacuum tubes such as klystrons,
magnetrons and Gunn diodes.
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• Microwaves are used for the radar systems used in aircraft navigation.
Radar also provides the basis for the speed guns
used to time fast balls, tennis serves, and automobiles.
• Used in Microwave ovens.
• In such ovens, the frequency of the microwaves is selected to match the
resonant frequency of water molecules so that energy from the waves is
transferred efficiently to the kinetic energy of the molecules. This raises
the temperature of any food containing water.
• Also used in satellite communication.
Infrared waves
• Infrared waves are produced by hot bodies and molecules.
• Infrared waves are referred to as heat waves. This is because water
molecules present in most materials readily absorb infrared waves (many
other molecules, for example, CO2, NH3, also absorb infrared waves).
After absorption, their thermal motion increases, that is, they heat up and
heat their surroundings.
• Infrared radiation plays an role in maintaining the earth’s warmth or average
temperature through the greenhouse effect.
• Incoming visible light is absorbed by the earth’s surface and reradiated as
infrared radiations. This radiation is trapped by greenhouse gases such as
carbon dioxide and water vapour.
• Infrared detectors are used in Earth satellites, both for military purposes
and to observe growth of crops.
• Electronic devices (for example
semiconductor light emitting diodes) also emit infrared and are widely
used in the remote switches of household electronic systems such as TV
sets, video recorders and hi-fi systems.
• Used in secret signaling and burglar alarms.
• Used in the treatment of dislocations, paralysis etc.
• Used to take the photographs of distant objects.
• Used in physiotherapy
• Used for determination of molecular structure.
Visible rays
• It is the part of the spectrum that is detected by the human eye.
• It runs from about a wavelength range of about 700 – 400 nm.
• Visible light emitted or reflected from objects around us provides us
information about the world. Our eyes are sensitive to this range of
wavelengths.
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• Different animals are sensitive to different range of wavelengths. For
example,
snakes can detect infrared waves, and the ‘visible’ range of many insects
extends well into the ultraviolet.
Ultraviolet rays
• Ultraviolet (UV) radiation is produced by special lamps and very hot
bodies
• The sun is an important source of ultraviolet light. But most of it is absorbed
in the ozone layer in the atmosphere at an altitude of about 40 – 50 km.
• UV light in large quantities has harmful effects on humans. Exposure to
UV
radiation induces the production of more melanin, causing tanning of the
skin.
• UV radiation is absorbed by ordinary glass. Hence, one cannot get tanned
or sunburn through glass windows.
• Welders wear special glass goggles or face masks with glass windows to
protect their eyes from large amount of UV produced by welding arcs.
• Due to its shorter wavelengths, UV radiations can be focused into
very
narrow beams for high precision applications such as LASIK (Laser assisted
in situ keratomileusis) eye surgery.
• UV lamps are used to kill germs in water purifiers.
• Ozone layer in the atmosphere plays a protective role.
• Used in the manufacture of fluorescent tubes
• Used in the determination of age of written documents
• Used in the detection of finger prints. • Helps to produce vitamin D in
our skin. X-rays
• Beyond the UV region of the electromagnetic spectrum lies the X-ray region.
• W Roentgen discovered x-rays
• One common way to generate X-rays is to bombard a metal target by high
energy electrons.
• X-rays are used as a diagnostic tool in medicine and as a treatment for
certain forms of cancer.
• Because X-rays damage or destroy living tissues and organisms, care must be
taken to avoid unnecessary or over exposure.
• Used to study structure of atoms
molecules and crystals
• Used to detect cracks and holes inside a sheet of metal.
• Used to detect hidden materials.
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Gamma rays
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Unit - VI Optics (Chapters 9&10)
QUICK REVISION NOTES
RAY OPTICS
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Total Internal Reflection:
N N N N
Rarer μa
r =90° (air)
ic i>ic i
Denser μg
O (glass)
RelationbetweenCriticalAngleandRefractive Index:
Critical angle is theangle ofincidence in thedensermediumforwhichthe angle
ofrefractioninthe rarermediumis 90°.
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Refraction at Convex Surface:
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Refraction at Concave Surface:
(From Rarer Medium to Denser Medium
- Virtual Image)
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Refraction of Light through Prism:
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Refractive Index of Material of Prism:
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Focal length of the objective is much greater than that of the eyepiece.
Aperture of the objective is also large to allow more light to pass through it.
WAVE OPTICS
Wavefront:
A wavelet is the point of disturbance due to propagation of light.
A wavefront is the locus of points (wavelets) having the same phase of oscillations.
A line perpendicular to a wavefront is called a ‘ray’.
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Amplitude of secondary wavelet is proportional to % (1+cos0). Obviously, for
the backward wavelet 0= 180° and (1+cose) is 0.
AB – Incident wavefront
CD – Reflected wavefront
XY – Reflecting surface
If c be the speed of light, t be the time taken by light to go from B to C or A to D or
E to G through F, then
For rays of light from different parts on the incident wavefront, the values of AF are
Different. But light from different points of the incident wavefront should take the
Same time to reach the corresponding points on the reflected wavefront.
So, t should not depend upon AF. This is possible only if sin i – sin r = 0.
i.e. sin i = sin r or i = r
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Condition for Constructive Interference of Waves:
For constructive interference, I should be maximum which is possible
only if cos Φ = +1.
i.e.Φ = 2nπ where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, …….
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Young’s double slit Experiment:
Distribution of Intensity:
Suppose the two interfering waves have same amplitudes ‘a’,then
Imaxα(a+a)2i.e.Imaxα4a2
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All the bright fringes have this same intensity.
Imin=0
All the dark fringes have zero intensity.
INTENSITY
Y 0 Y
Conditions for sustained interference:
• The two sources producing interference must be coherent.
• The two interfering wave trains must have the same plane of polarisation.
• The two sources must be very close to each other and the pattern must be
observed at a larger distance to have sufficient width of the fringe.(Dλ/ d)
• The sources must be monochromatic. Otherwise, the fringes of different
colours ill overlap.
• The two waves must be having same amplitude for better contrast between
bright and dark fringes.
Diffraction of light at a single slit:
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Unit - VII Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter (Chapter- 11)
QUICK REVISION NOTES IN POINTS
1) WORK FUNCTION - The minimum energy needed by an electron to come out
from a metal surface (ϕ0).
2) ELECTRON EMISSION - The electrons from a metal surface can be emitted by
supplying energy greater than W0 by suitably heating (thermionic emission) or
applying strong electric field (field emission) or irradiating it by light of suitable
frequency (photoelectric emission).
3) K.E GAINED BY AN ACCELERATED ELECTRON - An electron accelerated
from rest through a p.d. of V volts. Gain in K. E = 1/2 x m x v 2 = eV
4) ELECTRON VOLT - Kinetic energy gained by an electron when accelerated
through a p.d. of V volts. 1eV = 1.6 x 10 - 19 J , 1 MeV = 1.6 x 10-3 J
5) PARTICLE NATURE OF LIGHT - THE PHOTONS - According to Planck's
quantum theory of radiation, an electromagnetic wave travels in the form of discrete
packets of energy called quanta. One of quantum of light radiation is called a
photon.
6) PHOTON PICTURE OF ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION –
1. In its interaction with matter, radiation behaves as if it is made of particles, called
photons.
2. Each photon carries an energy (E = hv) and momentum p (= h / λ ) , which
depend on the frequency of radiation and not on its intensity.
3. Photons are electrically neutral not deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
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4. In a photon-electron collision, total energy and total momentum are conserved but
the number of photons may not be conserved. 5. The rest mass of a photon is zero.
6. The equivalent mass of a photon is given by
E = mc2 = hv or m = (hv)/(c2)
7) PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT - The phenomenon of emission of electrons
from a metal surface, when electromagnetic radiations of sufficiently high frequency
are incident on it. Metals like Li, Na, K, Ce show photoelectric effect with visible
light while metals like Zn, Cd, Mg respond to ultraviolet light.
8) PHOTOELECTRIC CURRENT - The current constituted by photoelectrons. It
depends on (i) the intensity of incident light, (ii) p.d. applied between the two
electrodes, and (iii) the nature of emitter material.
9) CUT OFF OR STOPPING POTENTIAL - The minimum value of negative
potential applied to the anode of a photocell to make the photoelectric current zero.
It depends on (i) frequency of incident light, and (ii) the nature of emitter material.
For a given frequency of incident light, it is independent of its intensity. It is related
to the maximum K.E. of the emitted electrons as , Kmax 1/2 mv2max = eVo
10) THERSHOLD FREQUENCY - The minimum value of the frequency of
incident radiation below which the photoelectric emission stops altogether. It is a
characteristic of the metal.
11) LAWS OF PHOTOELECTRIC EMISSION -
1. For a given metal and a radiation of fixed frequency, the rate of emission of photo
electrons is proportional to the intensity of incident radiation.
2. For every metal, there is a certain minimum frequency below which no
photoelectrons are emitted, howsoever high is the intensity of incident radiation.
This frequency is called threshold frequency.
3. For the radiation of frequency higher than the threshold frequency, the maximum
kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is directly proportional to the frequency of
incident radiation and is independent of the intensity of incident radiation.
4. The photoelectric emission is an instantaneous process.
12) FAILURE OF WAVE THEORY TO EXPLAIN PHOTOELECTRIC
EFFECT - The picture of continuous absorption of energy from the radiation could
not explain
1. the independent of Kmax on intensity,
2. the existence of threshold frequency v0 , and
3. the instantaneous nature of photoelectric emission.
13) EINSTEIN’S THEORY OF PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT -
When a radiation of frequency v is incident on a metal surface, it is absorbed in the
form of discrete photons each of energy hv. Photoelectric emission occurs because
of single collision of a photon with a free electron. The energy of the photon is used
to
1. free the electron from the metal surface. It is equal to the work function W0, of the
metal.
2. provide kinetic energy to the emitted electron.
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hv = Kmax + W0
or Kmax=1/2 mv2max =hv-W0
This is Einstein's photoelectric equation.
14) EXPLANATION OF PHOTOELECTRIC EMISSION ON THE BASIS OF
EINSTEIN’S PHOTOELECTRIC EMISSION -
1. Clearly, above the threshold frequency v0, Kmax ∝ v i.e., the maximum K.E. of the
emitted electrons depends linearly on the frequency of incident radiation.
2. When v < v0 Kmax becomes negative. The kinetic energy becomes negative which
has no physical meaning. Hence there is no photo electric emission below the
threshold frequency v0.
3. It is obvious from the photo-electric equation that the maximum K.E. of photo-
electrons does not depend on the intensity of incident light.
15) DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION - Light has dual nature. It manifests itself
as a wave in diffraction, interference, polarisation, etc., while it shows particle
nature in photoelectric effect, Compton scattering, etc.
16) DUAL NATURE OF MATTER - According to de-Broglie hypothesis,
material particles in motion display wave like properties. This hypothesis was based
on (i) de-Broglie concept of nature loves symmetry, and (ii) matter can be converted
into energy and vice versa. So moving particles like protons, neutrons, electrons,
etc. are associated with de-Broglie waves and their wavelength is given by λ = h/p =
h/mv
17) DAVISSION AND GERMER EXPERIMENT - This electron diffraction
experiment has verified and confirmed the wave-nature of electrons.
18) DE-BROGLIE WAVELENGTH OF AN ELECTRON - The wavelength
associated with an electron beam accelerated through a potential difference of V
volts is given by,
λ=√2𝑚𝑒𝑣 = 1.227/√𝑉 nm
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But in solids atoms are so close such that outer orbits are very close (or)
overlaped to form energy band.
Inside the crystal each electron has a unique position and no two electrons
see exactly same pattern of surrounding charges and each electron has
different energy level.
Different energy level with continuous energy variation form energy bands
(According to Pauli’s principle)
The energy band formed by a series of energy bands containing valance
electrons is valance band.
At 0 K, electrons start filling energy level in valance band starting from the
lowest one.
The highest energy level, occupied by an electron in the valance band at 0K
is called Fermi level.
The lowest unfilled energy band formed just above valance band is called
conduction band.
Depending on the forbidden energy gap between valance band and
conduction band, the solids are classified as conductors, insulators and
semiconductors.
Distinction between Conductors (metals), insulators and semiconductors on the
basis of Energy bands
Conductors (Metals) :
In conductors either conduction and valence band partly overlap each other
or the conductionband is partially filled. Forbidden energy gap does not exists (
. This makes a large number of free electrons available for electrical
conduction. So the metals have high conductivity.
Semiconductors :
In semiconductors, conduction band is empty and valance band is totally
filled. is quite small ( 3 eV). At , electrons are not able to cross this energy gap
and semiconductor behaves as an insulator. But at room temperature, some
electrons are able to jump to conduction band and semiconductor acquires
small conductivity
Insulators
In insulators, conduction band is empty and valance band is totally filled. is
very large ( 6 eV). It is not possible to give such large amount of energy to
electrons by any means. Hence conduction band remains total empty and the
crystal remains as insulator
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Intrinsic Semiconductor -
1. It is a pure semiconductor
2. ne nh
3. Low conductivity at room temperature
4. Its electrical conductivity depends on temperature only.
Extrinsic Semiconductor-
1.It is a semiconductor with added impurity
2. ne nh
3. High conductivity at room temperature
4. Its electrical conductivity depends on temperature and the amount of
doping.
n-type semiconductor-
1.It is obtained by adding controlled amount of pentavalent impurity to
a pure semiconductor
2. ne nh
3. Its electrical conductivity is due to free electrons
p-type semiconductor-
1.It is obtained by adding controlled amount of trivalent impurity to a
pure semiconductor
2. nh ne
3. Its electrical conductivity is due to holes
In semi conductors the total current I is the sum of electron current Ie
and holes current Ih
I = Ie + Ih
Electrical conductivity e h ne ee nh he
p-n junction : When a semiconductor crystal is so prepared that, it’s one
half is p-type and other is n-type, then the contact surface dividing the
two halves, is called p-n junction
Due to different concentration gradient of the charge carriers on two
sides of the junction, electrons from n-side starts moving towards p-side
and holes start moving from p-side to n-side. This process is called
Diffusion.
Due to diffusion, positive space charge region is created on the n-side of
thejunction and negative space charge region is created on the p-side of
the junction. Hencean electric field called Junction field is set up from n-
side to p-side which forces the minority charge carriers to cross the
junction. This process is called Drift.
Forward biasing :When the positive terminal of external battery is
connected to p-side and negative terminal to the n-side, then the p-n
junction is said to be forward biased
Reverse biasing :When the positive terminal of external battery is
connected to n-side and negative terminal to the p-side, then the p-n
junction is said to be reverse biased
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V-I characteristics : A graph showing the variation of current through a
p-n junction with the voltage applied across it, is called the voltage –
current (V-I) characteristics of that p-n junction.
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