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CHAPTER 3 SYSTEMS WITH TWO DEGREES OF FREEDOM 3.1 Examples of Two-Degree Systems In Chapters 1 and 2 we dealt only with systems having one degree of freedom. In this chapter and the next we shall discuss systems having several degrees of freedom, the simplest of which are systems with nvo degrees of freedom. The configuration of such a vibrating system is completely defined by two co- ordinates, or displacements, and two differential equations are required to describe its motions. Figure 3. 1a shows two masses m, and m, that are connected to ground and to each other by springs having constants k, and k,, respectively. It is assumed that the masses can move only in the a direction and that there is no friction or other type of damping in the system, As coordinates defining the motions of this system, we take the displacements x, and 2, of the masses from their positions of static equilibrium (corresponding to no deformations in the springs). Forcing functions Q; = A(t) and Q, = F,(1), applied to masses m, and m,, also appear in Figure 3.1a. In a displaced position during motion the forces exerted on the masses by the springs will be as shown in Fig, 3.1. Using Newton’s second law, we obtain the equations of motion for m, and my as Pid, = — Key, + ka(t — %) + (a) "mist, = — Kelta — 1) + On (6) Ife; > %, these expressions are unaltered, because in that case the compres sive spring force k(x, — z,) acting on each mass has a negative sign in eq. (a) and a positive sign in eq. (2). Rearranging terms in these equations yields mys + (ky + healt, — Kate = Qs G.la) gh, — kyr, + ky, = Or (3.1b) 219220 SYSTEMS WITH TWO DEGREES OF FREEDOM 4 ay we Ay m ky my DANII i NNN x rs a Jaz @) ay &, ce ee ” Fig. 3.1 Thus, we have two simultaneous linear second-order differential equations with constant coefficients, To investigate free vibrations for this system, we set Q, and Q, equal to zero and obtain the homogeneous equations . amyl + (ky + Ka)ay ky, = 0 ) gy — Katty + ket, = 0 @) In 4 manner analogous to that for a system with one degree of freedom, we assume solutions of the form ey A sin(pt + 6) ©) Bein(pt + 6) (f) ‘These expressions imply that in a natural mode of vibration both masses follow the same harmonic function, having the angular frequency p and the phase angle $. The symbols 4 and B represent maximum values, or amplitudes, of the vibratory motions. Substitution of eas. (e) and (f)into eqs. (e) and (d) produces the following algebraic equations that must be satisfied : (ky + hey = pim)d — kB = 0 ® — ke + (ky — ptm) B = 0 (i) One possible solution of these equations is that A = B = 0, which corre- sponds to the equilibrium position and yields no information about vibra- tions, The equations can have nonzero solutions only if the determinant of By 3.1 EXAMPLES OF TWO-DEGREE SYSTEMS. 221 the coefficients of A and B is equal to zero. Thus, (ka + ky — pm) — ky — hy (ke — pla) Expansion of this determinant results in (ky + ky = ptm )(Ey — ptm) — =0 @) v) or, mymap* — (yk, + malky + ke)|p* + kik, = 0 (ky This expression, which is quadratic in p%, is called the frequency equation (or characteristic equation} for the system. It has two roots (called characteristic values) that may be determined by the quadratic formula —b F Vb — dac 2a tO) 2 Pies where a=mm b= —lmky tml thy) 6 = kiks (im) Because the expression under the radical sign in eq, (2) is always positive, both of the roots p? and p3 are real. [t is also apparent that (he square-root term is less than —d and that both roots are positive. Furthermore, eq. (1) is written in such a manner that py < py. Thus, the characteristic equation yields two natucal frequencies of vibration that depend only upon the physical constants of the system, Substituting the characteristic values p} and pj into the homogencous alge- braic equations (g) and (A), we find that we cannot obtain actual values for Aand B, However, those equations can be used to provide values for the ratios 1, = A,[B, and r, = Ay[Bs, corresponding to p} and pi, respectively, Thus, at ky Ka = Pumy. ) Te gt pm k " ky ky = ph, zl 4A a © By kt ky ~ pm, ‘These amplitude ratios represent the shapes of the two natural modes of vibration (also called principal modes) of the system. They have dual definitions by virtue of eq. (/), and their values depend only upon the physical constants m, mz, k, and ky. Using the smaller angular frequency p, and the corresponding amplitude ratio ry in eqs. (e) and (/), we have a = 7B, sin(pyt + 4) (p) 4 = By sin(pyt + $y) (@)222 SYSTEMS WITH TWO DEGREES OF FREEDOM These expressions completely describe the first mode of vibration, which is also called the fundamental mode. It consists of a simple harmonic motion of both masses with the angular frequency p, and the phase angle qy, At any time during such motion, the displacement ratio x{/xj is the same as the amplitude ratio r,.-In each cycle of the vibration both masses pass twice through their equilibrium positions, and they reach their extreme positions simultaneously. Our analysis reveals no limitation on the phase angle; but by definition in eqs. (e) and (f), it must be the same for both masses, Substitution of the Jarger angular frequency p, and the corresponding amplitude ratio rz into eqs. (¢) and (f) yields x] = rpBy sin(pyt + do) @) xy = By sin(pat + $a) (s) which describe the second made of vibration. This simple harmonic motion of the two masses occurs at the angular frequency p, and with the common phase angle 4. In this case the displacement ratio is always ay jx, = ry The general solution of eqs. (¢) and (d) consists of the sum of the principal mode solutions in eqs. (p), (9), (r), and (5), Thus, we have ab ef = 1B, sin(pyt + oy) + reBs sin(pat + $0) oO a xg = B, sin(pt + fy) -+ By sin(pgt + go) (u) ‘These expressions contain four arbitrary constants (By, Ba, gy, and fg) that may be obtained by satisfying the four initial conditions of displacement and velocity of the two masses at time f= 0, Equations (¢) and (u) represent Tather complicated motions that are not periodic unless the natural frequen- cies p, and p, happen to be commensurate. The system performs a pure harmonic motion only if carefully started in one of its principal modes, When dealing with any system having two degrees of freedom, we will always be able to determine its frequencies and mode shapes in a mannet analogous to that shown above for the system in Fig, 3.1a. Because the equations of motion for all multi-degree systems have a similar mathematical form, further solutions of these equations will be deferred for the present They will be handled systematically by matrix methods later in this chapter and in Chapter 4, Asa second example of a system with two degrees of freedom, consider the Spring-suspended mass in Fig. 3.24. The three springs shown in the figure all tie in the same plane, and they have constants k,, k,, and ky, It is assumed that the mass is restrained to displace only in the plane of the springs (the ey plane); where its motion may be defined by the a and y components (cr and 4) of its translation relative to the equilibrium position, Forcing fune- tons Q, and Q,, acting jn the 2 and y directions, are also shown in Fig. 3.2a, x (by Fig. 3.2 If we consider only small displacements, the restoring forces Ry, Ry, and Ry (see Fig. 3.2b) exerted on the mass by the springs may be considered to have the same inclinations as the springs in the equilibrium position. With this assumption the equations of motion for the mass become 5 Ry, cos a + Oa (v) i and SRsina, + Qy () in which = ~ kia cosy + yy sin a) Substituting eq. (x) into eqs. (®) and (w) and rearranging terms, we obtain ity + 3 ky(, cos" ay + 4, Sin «COs &) = Oy (3.2a) 5 A ng, + Y bfx, sina, cos ay-+ ys sin® x)) = Q, (3.26) a Figure 3.3 shows a third example, consisting of two disks mounted on a shaft that is fixed at points A and B and restrained against lateral translation at points C and D, The three segments of the shaft have rotational spring constants ky, Aya, and ks, 28 indicated in the figure. Also shown are the rotational degrees of freedom ¢, and 4, of the disks, their mass moments of inertia /, and /,, and the applied torques 7, and 7, In this case the equations224 SYSTEMS WITH TWO DEGREES OF FREEDOM x x A af y bet {\G\ ae \B hr : = C I==C % = nh h . Ys 2 Fig. 3.3 of rotational motion are fib = — kad + kalbe — 6) + 7 7) haba = — lbs ~ $3) — Kaba + Te @) which upon rearrangement become Ub. + kn + kdb ~ kyabe = Ty (3a) Tba~ knits + kya + Keslbe = Ty (3.30) As a final exemple we consider the spring-connected pair of simple pen- dulums in Fig, 3.4, They have the same length ¢ and mass m, and the hinges at A and B allow them to swing freely only in the plane of the figure. The angles 6, and 9, define the configuration of the system during motion; and the forcing functions Py and P, act in the horizontal direction. Assuming 3.2. ACTION EQUATIONS: STIFFNESS COEFFICIENTS — 225 smali displacements of the system, we write the equations of motion as mb, = — mglb, + kbO, — 0) + Pye @’) mlb, = — mgl, — kh*O, — 9) + Pol 6) Rearranging terms in these expressions, we have mlb, + (kh + mgd), — kib, = PC (3.4a) nd*by ~ kh, + (kh? + mgd, = Pol (G.4b) it is apparent that the equations of motion for each of the examples ace of similar form. This similarity will be utilized in the next article. 3.2 Action Equations: Stiffness Coefficients Equations (3.1) and (3.1b) may be rewritten in marrix formt as follows: EPs SEE) es DO med Ly a ky ky Thay ' The same relationships can also be stated more concisely as MK +SX=Q (3.6) where it is understood that X, X, and Q are the column matrices x-["] ff) e-[f) and the coefficient matrices are s-[™ o-Ps s m=” a 6) Sy Sy — ky ko, Om, Equation (3.6) will be referred to asa set of action equations of motion ex- pressed in matrix notation. This terminology is adopted because it is representa- tive of a large class of equations of motion, wherein the units are either forces ormoments (more generally, actions). The stiffness matrix S consists of stiffness influence coefficients, and the mass matrix M contains m, and m, in diagonal positions, While the mass matrix is diagonal for most problems, there are certain vibrational systems for which it is not. Such cases are discussed in Art. 3.4. ‘We shall now concentrate upon the characteristics of the stiffness matrix S and the development of its contents in an organized fashion. Any verm S,, {For an introduction to matrix operations, see Matrix Algebra for Engineers by J. M, Gere and W. Weaver, Jr, Van Nostrand, Princeton, N.J., 1965,226 = SYSTEMS WITH TWO DEGREES OF “= =1 hy [sa 0 MAN aaa nikon Dt TTT * in this atsay i an aeton corresponditg toa displacement of type i, resulting ftom a unit displacement of typej. We develop ail such terms by inducing unt placements for each of the displacentent coordinates (one at a time) and calculating the required holding actions. Figures 3.52 and 3.5h illusteate des Process for the first example of the preceding article. In Fig, 3.5a a unit dis. placement x, = 1 is induced, whife 2, ~ 0, The static holding forces required for this condition are labeled S,, and Sq, (lashes on action vectors sere ns reminders that they are holding actions), The symbol S,, represents the hold ing action of type I required fora unit displacement of type 1, and S,, denotes the action of type 2 requited for a unit displacement of type |. Thelt values are Siy = Ay ++ ky and Sy, = Ky, and they constitute the first column of the stiffness matrix. Terms for the second column of § are obtained from Fin, 3.50, which shows a unit displacement of ay t (while 2, : 0), In this iN the holding forces are Sy, and Sy = ,, which ate the actions of types | and 2 required for a unit displacement of lype 2. For linearly elastk systems with small displacements the stffitess matcives are alwayesyimacteic and in this case we see that Syp = Sy = —k,. eossprimetsiey When the equations of motion for the second example in the precedin article {see Fig, 3.2 and eqs. (3.20, 6)] are cast into matrix form, we odtan [" 0 [* ef M84 sin ay c08 0], Q. 9 mILy cA in? ~ G2 ti sinaycose, —sinta, Jlyt Le f For a proof of this statement, see Analysii atement, talysis of Framed St Jere and Weaver, Je., Van Nostrand, Princeton, N.J., toes Pp. 34g, OY aM Gere and Ww PROBLEM SBT 3,2 227 The first column of the stiffness matrix in eq, (3.7) may be obtained directly from the condition 2, = 1 (while y, = 0) and the second column from the condition y, = 1 (while a, = 0). Similarly, the equations of motion for the third example [sce Fig. 3.3 and eqs. (3.32, b)] in the matrix format become [; Ei] Fen the hye \t if G aro f = 8) 2 B3Ldbe, mh Ke th b ide} LT. In this case the displacements are rotations, and the corresponding actions are torques, or moments, The coefficient matrix containing J, and J, will still be referred to as the “mass matrix,” which is, of course, a misnomer. As before, the terms in the stiffness matrix may be derived from the conditions 4, = 1 (for the first column) and b, = 1 (for the second column). Finally, the matrix form of the equations of motion for the last example {see Fig. 3.4 and eqs. (3.4a, b)] may be written as mee 0 176) kit + med — kh VP Ae r i] 8 A} _fP] sy L 0 mét}L8,, — kh? Keh® 4 mg} (Bs, Po However, in this case we have a mixture of stiffness and gravitational re- storing actions, If the influence coefficients for these two types of restoring actions are segregated into separate arrays, we have S*=S8+G6 (3.10) where fokit — kit med 0 S={ =|" ] (c) Le kh ke 0 mgt] ‘The former array contains the usual stiffness influence coeflicients, whereas the latter contains gravitational influence coefficients, which are defined as actions required for unit displacements in the presence of gravity. In the absence of gravity the terms in the gravitational matrix G are zero. PROBLEM SET 3.2 4.2-1, For the two-mass system shown in the figure (p. 228) determine the stiffness matrix S, and write the action equations of motion in matrix form. 3.2-2. Let the spring constants in Fig. 3.2 be ky = ky = ky = &, and assume the following values for the angles: %, = 0°, a = 120°, and a, 210°, Determine the stiffness matrix of the suspended mass in terms of k.228 SYSTEMS WITH TWO DEGREES OF FREEDOM a &, ky mt hg img es Bono 7 at baw * 7 bese Prob, 3.2+1 3.23. The figure shows a double pendulum with restraining springs attached to the masses 2m; and en, Use the small horizontal translations # and x, of the masses as displacement coordinates. Develop the stiffness matrix $ and the gravitational matrix G for this sysiem, and write the action equations of motion in matrix form, Ge fy Qi ADA ST fa he Qe ronnie tee oh Prob, 3,2-3 J prks The double pendulum in the figure has rotational springs across both of the hinges, Using the small horizontal translations 2, and 24 of tle muses oe dis- Placement coordinates, determine the matrices $ and G; and write the action 3.25. For the two-story building frame in the figure determine the stiffness matrix S, and write the action equations of motion in matrix form. For this purpose assume that the gitders are rigid, and use the smaif horizontal transiavions wand 2, as displacement coordinates. Columns in the frame are prismatic, haying flexural rigidities of Hf in the lower story and Ef, in the upper story. PROBLEM SET 3.2 229 ey ey: y a Jt m) — % a Prob, 3.2-4 Qe. r 7 7, / ! he f t @ t stet + iy 1 i / u ! wn TOME * Prob. 3.2-5 3.2.6, A rigid prismatic bar is supported vertically on a roller and restrained against lateral motion by horizontal springs at top and bottom (sve figure). Let the symbols ¢, A, and p represent the length, cross-sectional area, and mass density of the bar, Develop the stiffness, gravitational, and mass matrices for this system, using the small displacements and Jp of ts eenter of mass (point C)as displace- ment coordinates. Write the action equations of motion in matrix form, including the horizontal force Qg and torque Ty applied at point C.230° SYSTEMS WITH TWO DEGREES OP FREEDOM. AA ieee 0, A ree ae Vee Re" Te | ee ue j ky VY i x Prob, 32-6 3.3, Displacement Equations: Flexibility Coefficients For statically determinate systems it is sometimes mote convenient to work with displacement equations of motion instead of action equations. In this approach we write expressions for the displacement coordinates (translations or rotations) of a sysiem in terms of its flexibilities, For this purpose we introduce the notation ber {a) Which will be referred to as the flexibility constant of a spring that has a stiffness constant k (previously called the Spring constant), With this notation we determine the flexibility constants of the two sprin sin Fi Oy = Ik, and 5, = ky, pans Ble bs Suppose that the forces Q, and Q,, acting upon the masses in Fig. 3.1a, were to be applied statically (so that no inertia forces arise). Under this con- dition the displacements of the masses, in terms of the flexibility constants 6, and dy, would be (da = 51(Q, + Qa) (b) Cra = 6(Q1 +O.) + bu {e) ‘These expressions may be written in matrix form as follows: (‘] -(* & PQ nena asa. " 3.3 DISPLACEMENT EQUATIONS ay dy 1 | fy PN NANO { NSN : ee ud y——¥. (b) Fig. 3.6 Such displacement-action relationships can also be stated more concisely as Xa = FQ (e) where the symbol ¥ denotes the flexibility matrix : [i ’ _ (° a ] ~ Fy Fe Oy by + 6, This array contains flexibility influence coefficients, which are defined as displacements due to unit values of the actions corresponding to the displace- ments, ‘Terms in the flexibility matrix may be developed in a manner that is com- plementary to that used for obtaining stiffnesses. Any element F,, in the flexi- bility matrix is a displacement of type / due to a unit action of type j. We determine all such elements by applying unit actions corresponding to each of the displacement coordinates (one at a time) and calculating the resulting displacements. Figure 3.6@ and 3.60 illustrate this process for the system in Fig. 3.1, In Fig. 3.64, a unit force Q, = | is applied statically to the mass mm, while no force is applied to »,. The resulting static displacements are labeled F,, and F,, in the figure. The symbol #,, represents the displacement of type 1 due to a unit action of type I, and Fy is the displacement of type 2 due to a unit action of type 1. Using notation (a), we determine Fy, = Fa, = 6, = I/ky, and these terms constitute the first column of the flexibility matrix. Terms for the second column of F are obtained from Fig. 3.65, which shows a unit force Q, = | applied statically to the mass 7, while none is applied to my, In this case the flexibilities are Fi, = 5, = Ijk, and Fy, = 5, + 8, = (k, + Kelkiky, which are the displacements of types | and 2 due to a unit232. SYSTEMS WITH TWO DEGREES OF FREEDOM action of type 2. As withthe stiffness matrix, the flexibility matrix for a linearly clastic system is always symmeiricf (an inberent characteristic for the inverse of a symmetric matrix), and in this case we have Fyy = Py = dy, Now let the forces Q, and Q, be applied dynamically, in which case inettia forces —m,#, and —my#, must also be considered. We rewrite eq. (d) as [*| [; 4 Ie > me © = é Bi, oD 5; by + De] Os — matty, . If the masses and accelerations are. placed into separate arrays, equég) takes the expanded form s]_ fe & T/T fm 0 TPH : = - G1) My bb + by . 0 my] Lay which can also be represented succinctly as X = F(Q — MX) _ G12) This expression states. that the dynamic displacements are equal to the product of the flexibility matrix and the actions in the problem. Both the applied actions and the inertia actions are included within the parentheses on the right-hand side. . In order to compare this method with that in the preceding article, we solve eq. (3.6) for X, as follows: X = S-(Q ~ MX) ) In eq. (A) it is implied that the stiffness matrix $ is nonsingular and that its inverse S~ exists, Comparing eqs. (3.12) and (/), we see that Fast (3.13) which is a relationship that applies whenever F and § correspond to the same coordinates for the same system. For example, if we invert matrix F in eq. (and use the relationship (a), we find 4 - - ret [ 1+ Se ‘J _ [" + hy “| © Mob 5, 8 ah, ky which is the stiffness matrix for the system in Fig, 3.1a [sce eq. (4), Art. 3.2]. Of course, if the stiffness matrix of a system is singular, the corresponding flexibility matrix does not exist. # Symmetry of the flexibility matrix is duo to Maxwells reciprocal theoren, presented by J.C, Maxwell in 1864, 3.3. DISPLACEMENT EQUATIONS 233 Because the system in Fig, 3.1a is statically determinate, its flexibility matrix is easily derived, which is usually not true for statically indeterminate systems. ‘The majority of vibrational systems are more casily analyzed using action equations with stiffness coefficients, but many cases also occur where the complementary approach is more convenient, The following ex- amples illustrate the use of flexibility influence coefficients, Example , Figure 3.7a shows a cantilever beam with masses #1, and nz located at midlength and atthe free end, respectively. We shall assume that the beam is prismatic and has'a flexural rigidity of ZL. Considering only small displacements associated with flexural deformations, we take the translations y, and ¥vq in the y direction as the displacement coordinates. The displacement equations of motion are to be set up for this problem, using flexibility influence coefficients. Solition, To derive the required flexibility coefficients, we first apply a unit force Q, = I, as shown in Fig. 3.7h, and evaluate the terms oe se Fa = yg Fa ger wy ‘Then we apply a unit force Qy = 1, as given in Fig. 3.7e, to ohtain 5a a Fis = Gag Pan = Sy () Thus, the flexibility matrix is ppd $s ¥=7Eils 16 and the displacement equations of motion in the matrix format become Us a f2 5 Q amy 0 [tA [Jails velle)-[e nf) [aversion of the flexibility matrix produces gape = 1877 16 —s © =Plate 0: Wl-s 2 This inverse array may also be obtained directly by the procedure indicated in Figs. 3.Jdand 3.7e, However, the direct development of stiffnesscs for this type of problem is much more difficult than the determination of flexibilities. Therefore, if stifinesses234 SYSTEMS WITH TWO DEGREES OF FREEDOM. BIh ry —t be ha oean= (b) Qs Fig. 3.7 are desired, they are more convenieatly obtained by inversion of the flexibility matrix, as in this example. Example 2. The simple frame in Fig. 2.84 consists of two prismatic members with flexural rigidities £7, A mass a is connected to the frame at its free end, and. the small displacements # and y, at that point (due to fexural deformations) are of the same order of magnitude. Write action equations of motion for this system, using «4, and y; as displacement coordinates and omitting gravitational influences. Solution. As in the preceding example, the flexibilities are much easier to derive than the stiffnesses. Figures 3.8 and 3,8c show the eifects of unit loads Q, = | and: 3.3. DISPLACEMENT EQUATIONS. 2N5 Fat — ny TO beat fu Pol be (b) fe) Fig. 3.8 Qy = 1, applied one ata time. The resulting flexibility matrix is fs 3 r -al; 4 o By inversion we obtain 2-3 ‘Then the action equations of motion may be written as m OPEL) earl 2 = 3) fay Oe 0 ‘| th “es | [2 = (2 2236 «SYSTEMS WITH TWO DEGREES OF FREEDOM LR WT, = H| ] I i iz 4 flee ie x - 1 af Dn mG 2 (@) . Fig. 3.9 Example 3. As a third example of computing flexibilities, we consider the two rigid pendulums in Fig. 3.9a thet are connected by a torsion bar having rotational stiffness é,, Displacement equations of motion are to be set up for small rotations (8, and 9) of the pendulums about the # axis. ‘Solution, Since stiffness (und gravitational) coefficients are easy to derive for this system, they will be written directly as [see eq. (3.10)] ky — ky] [mgt 0 -_ = StaS4G=] It! g nye 0 PROBLEM SET 3.30 237 Because the stiffness mairix S is singular, the flexibility matrix F = $+ does not exist, However, the inverse of S* does exist, and we evaluate it to obtain Kee bmg? ke, angt(2k, + mgé) ky Keb onge, Fe = (S4? ‘The terms in the array F* cannot be segregated into flexibility and gravitational influence coefficients; so they will be referred to as psesloflexibitities. They may be derived directly by applying unit moments (or the equivalent elects in the forms of forces Py = t/¢and Py = 1/2), as indicated in Figs, 3.95 and 3.9¢, For the former figure we write the moment equilibrium condition ngiPh + mytFh = Pye = 1 w and the rotational compatibility condition CFS mgt Ww FR PRs Ee When eqs. (f) and (w) are solved simultaneously, we find ky + mgt Fa Mae glk, + mg?) ® ngeOk, + mgt) which are the same as the terms in the first column of the array in eq. (3). Simitarly, the terms in the second column of E* may be derived directly fromm the situation in Fig. 3.9¢, Then the displacement equations for this example, expressed in terms of ee (d-[o cele) ® PROBLEM SET 3.3 3.3-1. For the two-mass system of Prob, 3.2.1, determine flexibility coefficients by applying unit forces to masses my and mg, one at a time. Write the displacement equations of motion in matrix form, and check the relationship S = Fo, 3.3-2. Apply the displacement-equation method to the system in Fig, 3.3 of Att, 3.1. Derive the flexibility coefficients directly, and check the relationship S=FI 3.33. Reconsider the spring-connected pair of pendulums in Fig. 3.4 of Art, 3.1, and determine the pseudofloribility matrix F* by inversion of S*. In addition, derive the elements of F* directly by applying unit actions corresponding to the displacement coordinates 0, and Dg.238 SYSTEMS WITH TWO DEGREES OF FREEDOM 3.3.4. For the two-story frame in Prob. 3.2.5, determine flexibilities by applying unit loads, Write the displacement equations of motion in matrix form, and check the relationship $ = F-), 4.3.5. Develop the flexibility matrix Fy for the system of Prob. 3.2-6 in the absence of gravily. Invert Fo to obtain So: then ade Go to produce Sf; and invert Sf to determine F4, 3.3-6. The simply supported beam shown in the figure has masses i; and im, located at its third points. Assume that the beam is prismatic and has @ flexural rigidity of EY. Using the translations y, and yp as displacernent coordinates, derive the flexibility coefficients and write the displacement equations of motion in matrix form. Prob, 3.3-6 3.2-7. The figure shows an overhanging prismatic beam (flexural rigidity of Er with two masses m, and ag. Determine the flexibility matrix F; invert it to obtain the stiffness matrix S =F; and write the action equations of motion in matrix form. £72 412 12 Prob. 3.3-7 3.3.8. Assume that each member of the horizontal frame in the figure is prise matic, with flexural rigidity £f and torsional rigidity GJ. Derive the flexibility matrix for the vertical translations 4, and yg, invert it, and set up the action equations of motion in matrix form. 3.4 INERTIAL AND GRAVITATIONAL COUPLING 249 Prob. 3.3-8 3.4 Inertial and Gravitational Coupling For most of the two-degree systems considered so far in this chapter, the mass. and gravitational matrices have been diagonal. Coupling terms in the equa~ tions of motion often appear only as off-diagonal elements in the stiffness of ~~ flexibility matrices. This type of coupling will be referred to as elasticity coupling, because the terms are associated with either the stiffness or flexi- bility properties of elastic elements. It is also possible to generate off-diagonal terms in the mass and gravitational matrices, depending upon how the equa- tions of motion are written. Terms of the first type often occur in equations of motion for systems containing rigid bodies and will be called inertial coupling, while those of the second type will be referred to as gravitational coupling. To demonstrate how inertial coupling can arise, we shall write action equations of motion for the system in Fig. 3.10a for several choices of dis- placement coordinates. The rigid bar of mass m is supported at points 4 and D by springs having stiffness constants k, and ky. Il is restrained against translation in the « direction and can move only in the x-y plane. Point C represents the center of mass of the bar, and /y denotes its mass moment of inertia about a z axis (not shown) through C. The point labeled B is that for which kids = kals (@) A force at B in the y direction produces translation without rotation, and a moment produces rotation without translation. Figure 3.105 shows one choice of displacement coordinates for this system, which are taken to be g, (y translation of point 4) and 4, (rotation of the bar about point A). Also shown on the figure are applied actions (Q and 74) at A, spring forces at 4 and D, and inertial actions at C. When the last type of actions are shown on a free-body diagram, the body may be considered to¥ 34 INERTIAL AND GRAVITATIONAL COUPLING 241 be ina state of dynamic equilibrium, Then we apply d'Alembert’s principle to obtain the force equilibrium equation in the y direction as mia + E04) + kaya + kala + 04) = Ox (6) For the second equilibrium equation, we calculate moments with respect to point A and write Ga + O04 + Toba + kala + Oe = Ty 3) Equations (6) and (c) in matrix form become m md, “) [ee 2] [*] = 3.14 [". tnnalli! The wellod Le} OMe which exhibit both inertial coupling and elasticity coupling, As a second choice of displacement coordinates for this system, we take . Ye and Oy (the y translation of point B and the rotation of the bar about Jet BD point B) and the corresponding applied actions Q,, and Ty. Proceeding as before, we obtain the action equations of motion in matrix form as foo +) Q mé, y ki + &, 9 y Co, TES se al] 2 ints Te + mJ, 0 Kat kilt Le, Ts in which there is inertial coupling but no elasticity coupling. For the third choice of coordinates, we use the center of mass (point C) as the reference point for rigid-body motions of the bar. In this ease the displacement coordinates are ye and Og (y translation and rotation of the bar at point C), and the corresponding applied actions ate Qg and Tp. The equations of motion for this reference point become [" yr + [ kit he keh — wa] A _ [ 6.4) i 0 Igdld. keyly — kip ky? + kyl LOo. Te Which have elasticity coupling but no inertial coupling. Thus, it is apparent that the coupling in a set of equations of motion depends upon the choice of displacement coordinates, The terms in any mass matrix, such as that in eq, (3.14a), may be considered to be inertial influence coefficients, defined as actions required for unit accelerations. me (‘" ws . i m mé, | a Me Mul Ld, Ig + mé A typical term A4,, in a mass matrix is an action of type f required for a unit {instantaneous) acceleration of type j. This definition is analogous to that for a % 6242 SYSTEMS WITH TWO DEGREES OF FREEDOM a stiffness influence coefficient, and the formal procedure for determining columns of M is similar to that described previously for deriving columns of S. Figures 3.10¢ and 3.10d illustrate the process when point 4 is used as the reference for motions of the rigid bar. The actions M,, and Mg, required for a unit acceleration 9, = 1 (while 64 = 0), appear in Fig. 3,10c; and the actions M,, and Mg required for a unit acceleration 84 = 1 (while ¥, = 0) are indicated in Fig. 3.10d. (As visual aids, the accelerations are indicaied as if they were displacements, and double slashes on the arrows.at point 4 serve as reminders that the actions are those required for unit accelerations.) From conditions of dynamic equilibrium, we see that the inertial influence coefficients are My, = m, My, Miz = me, and Mos = Ie + me}, as given in eq, (€). Mis also possible to derive imverse inertial influence coefficients, defined as accelerations due to unit actions, that are analogous to flexibility influence coefficients, The inverse matrix M~ exists if the array M is nonsingular, and solving for the accelerations & in eq. (3.6) results in X = M-(Q — Sx) (3.15) which are acceleration equations of motion. Such equations are comparable to the displacement equations of motion (see eq. 3.12) discussed in the pre- ceding article, However, this concept is of secondary interest and will not be considered further in this article. To demonstrate the occurrence of gravitational coupling, let us reconsider the spring-connected pair of pendulums in Fig, 3.4. Their equations of motion (eqs. 3.4a and 3.4b), 2s previously written, have elasticity coupling only However, if eq. (3.4b) is added 10 eq. (3.4a) and the result is paired with eq. (3.4b), we obtain the equally valid set mi mei) {fo 0 mg met]\[O, T+) Ae oe al = | 0 mi JLoJ Le kht kee 0 mgdt/ 10, tJ where 7, = P,f and 7, = Pyé. The first equation in the new set express dynamic moment equilibrium about point A for the whole system in Fig. while the second equation represents moment equilibrium about point B for the right-hand pendulum only. By this Jincar combination of the original equations, we have introduced off-diagonal terms in both the mass matrix and the gravitational matrix, At the same time, the symmetry of the stiiTness matrix has been destroyed. Equation (¢) may also be visualized as the result of premultiplying eq, (3.9) in Art. 3.2 by the transposed operator A”, where ‘| . 1 f) 3.4 INERTIAL AND GRAVITATIONAL COUPLING — 2d and the superscript T denotes transposition. Thus, in succinct matrix notation we restate eq, (e) as A™MO + AS + GO = ATE (2) Symmetry in all of the coefficient matrices will be restored if we insert before 6 and @ in eq. (g) the identity matrix = AAt (a where Av! is the inverse of the operator A. 19 w= 1 4 @) Then eq. (g) becomes ATMAAO + ANS + G)AA7O = ATT a or Mas + (Sa + GO, =Ta (3.16) where O,=A°0 9. . T+T. Lia) seers? L—O, + 0). T. « . 5, » Pe 1 60, = A768 My = AMA = inf ! (H) —O, +, LL . 00 20 Sa = ATSA = ki" Ga = A"GA = med] OL 1 Equation (3.16) represents an alternative set of action equations of motion, wherein the generalized actions are T,; and the cosresponding generalized displacementsare © ,. Changing the coordinates (from © to 4) in this manner is referred to a8 a coordinate transformation, Symmetry in the transformed coefficient matrices is maintained by virtue of the fact that congruence trans- formations, such 2s My, = A™MA, etc., produce symmetric results. In the new coordinates we see that the equations have both inertial and gravitational coupling but that there is no elasticity coupling. Example 1. Figure 3.11 shows a rigid body of mass m connected to the end of a cantilever beam, Let fg represent the mass moment of inertia of the body about az axis through its center of mass (point C). This point is located on the « axis at the distance & from the end of the beam. We shall assume that the beam is prismatic and has a flexural rigidity of £7. Considering only small displacements in the x-1 plane due to flexural deformations, we will treat the system as onc having two degrees of freedom and write displacement equations of motion. Solution, If we choose the translation yy and the rotation By {for point Bon244 SYSTEMS WITH TWO DEGREES OF FREEDOM y Fig. 3.11 the rigid body) as displacement coordinates, the flexibility coefficients are easily obtained. In addition, the terms in the mass matrix are similar to these in eq. (d), except that 4; is replaced by the distance 6. Thus, we can write the displacement equations of motion for reference point B as [rel ~aedse “CJC os a, Sele) 6) CEL3¢ 6 \L7y) ~ Le tt ne Uy. which have both elasticity and inertial coupling. On the other hand, if point C is used as the reference point for rigid-body motions, we obtain the following displacement equations: al _f¢ “ + 30b ++ 368) wee) (27) [r ala od ~ BIL 3¢e + 26) 6 Tel LO od We. o which have a more complicated elasticity coupling but no inertial coupling. Example 2. Consider the double compound pendulum shown in Fig. 3.12a, con- sisting of two rigid bodies hinged together at point 2 and hinged to the support at point A. In the presence of gravity this system may oscillate in the x-y plane, and. we take the small rotations 0; and 6, as displacement coordinates. The bodies have masses om, and Mg; their centers of masses are located at points C, and C,; and their mass moments of inertia about ¢ axes through those points are denoted by J, and J,, Action equations of motion are to be written for this system. Solution. Using d’Alembert’s principle, we write a moment equation of dynamic equilibrium about point 4 for the whole system (see Fig. 3.12a) to obtain bby + 10, + mAb, + on, + AWE + hy) bomglyD, + mg, + hed) = Ty + Ty; Similarly, the moment-equilibriam condition about point B for the second body yields Lally + (0s + hldh, + maghPy = T, @. Fig. 3.12246 SYSTEMS WITH TWO DEGREES OF FREEDOM Putting eqs. (1) and (o) into matrix form, we have [* bain + mgd + hg) Ty + raghigl? + hey 4] ath; Ty + neh} | [i ha 4 [" +m, Ag its) [i Ty +7; 0 mfg. al - [ TY | o” Equation (p) resembles eq. (e) because the generalized actions do not correspond to the displacement coordinates, and the coefficient matrices are unsymmetric. However, if we subtract eq. (2) from eq. (1) and pair th i However, if 4, 4. (x) and pair the result with eq. (0), we . Ty Mb +GO0=T= [* @ where M and G are the following symmetric matrices: Me [* ch imght + mnt? myth, J * ” and ingly, dy + mmald, ¢ _ fen tm 0 oe ] © Oo Mefig® The first equation now represents dynamic moment equilibri i wilibrium abs the first body only. ‘ es pein ar _ The symmetric arrays M and G may be generated directly as inertial and gravita- tional influence cooficients, respectively. Figures 3.12b and 3.12¢ show sche- matically the conditions 6, = 1 (while 6, = 0) and 6, = 1 (while J, = 0) that are required for developing the terms in M. From the first of these figuzes we sce at May = mgd and um o My = Ty t any + migd(¢ + hy) — Moy ah tanh + nye ( which constitute the first column of M [see eq. (*)]. From Fj . 4 - @]. From Big, 3.12 ‘ terms for the second column as ‘ iB, 3.120 we obtain the Mog = 3 and May = I, + righ w Miz = Ly + Mighty ¢ ++ its} — Mos = rthty ov) The elements in G may be generated in similar fashion, using unit displacements instead of accelerations. 3.5 UNDAMPED FREE VIBRATIONS wT 3.5 Undamped Free Vibrations In Art. 3.1 we derived expressions for the natural frequencies and mode shapes for undamped free vibrations of the two-mass system in Fig. 3.14, ‘That task will now be repeated in a more formal manner that yields expressions applicable to all vibratory systems with two degrees of freedom. Both action equations and displacement equations will be considered, and the determina- tion of arbilrary constants from initial conditions of displacement and velocity will be covered, In addition, several special topics related to free vibrations will be discussed and illustrated with examples. If there are no loads applied to the two-mass system in Fig. 3.14, the action equations of motion [eq. (3.6)] become MX + SX = 0 (3.17) where the symbol 0 denotes a null Joad matrix. For the discussion in this article, we shall consider only diagonal mass matrices (as is the case for the system in Fig, 3.f@) and write eq. (3.17) in expanded form as My, 0 Sy) fe: a nn 4) fs SNP] (3.18) 0 Moy || He Sm Sop) | 0. For this homogencous set of equations, we assume: harmonic solutions of the fori introduced previously in Art. 3.1, Thus, Hy = Ly sin(pt + 9) (a) = ya sin(pt + $) (6) ‘Phe symbols zn, and tz in eqs. (a) and (b) represent maximum values, or amplitudes, of the vibratory motions. Substituting eqs. (a) and (8) into eq. (3.18) results in the following algebraic equations which must be satisfied: =P Myton + Satins + Satna = 0 ) — P Mysing + Sutin + Seana = 0 (a) Pe Sis lel " © Sor Sop — PM ap] Latina 0. In order to have nonzero solutions for the displacements, the determinant of the coefficient matrix in eq, (e) must be equal to zero. Thus, Su P'Ma Sie | Sn Su Mn 0)248 SYSTEMS WITH TWO DEGREES OF FREEDOM Expanding this determinant produces (Gu — 2a (Sze — p'Myp) ~ Sh, = 0 (g) Or, MuMilp')? — (MySe + MaSy)p" + SySvn (a) This characteristic equation is quadratic in p*, aud its roots represent the characteristic values for the system, Solving eq, (4) by the quadratic formula, we obtain bt Vea fiy= LEME te (3.19) 2a where G5 MyMy b= —(MuS t+ MySy) 6 = SySy—~ St = |S] (i) Expansion of the term b® ~ dae in eq. (3.9) using expressions (7) shows that it is always positive; therefore, both of the roots Pi and pj are real, Purther~ more, if the determinant of S (equal to the constant c) is not negative, the Square-root term will be smaller than or equal to b; so the roots p? and p3are both positive (or zero). . By substituting the characteristic values p? and Pi into the homogeneous equations (c) and (¢), we may evolve the solutions as the amplitude ratios, ry and r,, y =5, Sia — piM, n= ‘mt. ne a Ce TPM (3.20) ma. Su PM Sa py tout Sie Sea = BEM ay 6.208) Tee Sum PiMy = Sy Both of the definitions for each amplitude ratio are valid by virtue of eq. (g). As is the case for homogeneous algebraic equations in general, such solutions may be obtained only within arbitrary constants. That is, the ab- solute values of the amplitudes cannot be determined, but only their ratios, or mode shapes. The second subscript (1 or 2) on the amplitudes in eqs. (3.20a) and (3.20b) denote the natural modes (or principal modes) of vibration, corresponding to the roots p? and p3. As in Art. 3.1, the solution (eq. 3.19) of the characteristic equation is written in such a manner that p, < p,, The lower value is the angular frequency of the first mode {or fundamental mode), and the larger value is that for the second mode. To demonstrate the calculation of frequencies and mode shapes, fet the masses for the system in Fig. 3.1@ be ma, = m, = mand the stiffness constants 3.5 UNDAMPED FREE VIBRATIONS 249 4 \-o618 >| a1 to k 1 k | AORNAANAN RC) am PANN) te J ese y; (a) f= 1.618, . fol & [ T MPAA oe | I t jd Lu | : 1 i rs a Fig. 3.3 of the springs be ky =k, =k. Then My Sp = —k; Syq = k; and eq, (3.19) yields Gi) () Substitution of cach of these roots into either of the definitions for amplitude ratios in eqs. (3.20a) and (3.20b) produces the following mode shapes: first mode: second mode: Of course, the umplitudes of these two mode shapes may be scaled as desired, but their ratios remain constant. Figure 3.134 shows the two-mass system vibrating in its fundamental mode, where the amplitudes are normalized with respect to that of the second mass, Similarly, the shape of the second mode of vibration is depicted in Fig. 3.136, where the amplitudes are again normalized with respect to that of the second mass. If we work with displacement equations of motion instead of action250 SYSTEMS WITH TWO DEGREES OF FREEDOM equations, eq. (3.17) is replaced by FM X+X=0 (3.21) In expanded form, this set of equations may be written as ( nae [2 + [| _ (1 (22) FyMy FooMe |e * 0. Substituting eqs. (a) and (6) into eq. (3.22), we obtain the algebraic equations = PEM itint — PF i Maatne + Him = 0 i) } = P'FaMiitin ~ PPM ration + tne = 0 @ Ts [ne —F FiaMen Ie] _ (" wo Fal: Fale Alte! LO. in which A = 1/p®, For nontrivial solutions, the determinant of the coefficient matrix in eq. (p) must be set equal to zero, producing (FirMy, — APi2Maz — A) — PloMa Moa = (@®) B= (PyMy + PaMe)A + (FnPa — Fi}Mu Ma = 0 0 Expression (r) is the characteristic equation corresponding to the homo- geneous displacement equations of motion, and iis roots are the reciprocals of the squares of the angular frequencies, We calculate the roots either from or, d+ vd? -4 aisha ke (3.232) or from 1 2 2 ete (3.23b) Pa ay dt Vd —4e where d= — (FuMa t+ Fralas) @) = (Fu, — Fi) MyMoo = [P| MiMog In eqs. (3.23a) and (3.23b) the value A, (the larger value of 4) corresponds to (pf (the smaller value of p*), and the value A, (the smaller value of 2) cozre- sponds to p3 (the larger value of p*), Both of the roots (and their reciprocals) will ke real and positive if the determinant of F is positive. Upon substituting the characteristic values A, and Ag into the homogeneous equations [sce eq. (p)], we obtain dual definitions for the amplitude ratios ry 3.5 UNDAMPED FREE VIBRATIONS 25h and ry as efit Pian FaeMen =) a2) Teer Fifty Ay — Pod me FeMy _ FaMa — 4 mea Fula > Pub which are all valid by virtue of eq. (9). If we again assume equal masses and equal spring constants for the system in Fig, 3.14, the flexibility influence coefficients are F,, = 4, Fz = Fu = 5, and F,, = 26 (where 6 = 1/k). Then eq. (3.23a) gives the values (3.240) = _ B+ V5imd md 4 2 0,382 @ Or 5imd md. aD 68 ® which are the reciprocals of those in eqs. (f) and (k). Substitution of eqs. (1) and (1) into eqs. (3.24a) and (3.240) yields the following amplitude ratios: -1+¥5 first mode: ry = Be aoite ws = 0.618 Te. 2 -1l— 5 second mode: ry = SEE = _=1=35 _ igs may L— J5 2 which are the same as eqs. (/) and (m). Hence, we see that the frequencies and mode shapes are invariant with the type of formulation. Having determined the vibrational characteristics of a given system, we can write the complete solution for free vibrations by superposition of the natural modes, as follows: By = Phan SINCE ty) + Potime.2 SiN(pa! + fo) (») fy = Lge, SiD(Pyt Ey) + a,2 SiM(Pat ++ $2) () In the first of these expressions, 7y%mn2,1 ANd rytme,e are used in place Of %y1,1 and @y1,2, respectively. Equations (e) and (w) may also be written in the equivalent forms By = (Cy COS pit + Cy sin py) + ra(Cy COS pot + Cy sin pot) (3.25a) tq = Cy cos pyt + Cysin pyt + Cy 00s pat + Cy sin pat (3.25b)252 SYSTEMS WITH TWO DEGREES OF FREEDOM Velocity expressions are obtained by differentiating eqs, (3.25a) and (3.25b) with respect to time, = purs(C, sin pyt — Cy 008 pt) — parg(Cy sin pyt ~ C005 py!) (3.250) ~ pilCy sin pyt ~ Cy 008 pyt) — py(Cy sin pat — Cy 008 pst) 3.254) The four arbitrary constants Cy-C, in eqs. (3.25a) through (3.25d) may be determined from the four initial conditions of displacement and velocity. For a two-degree system at time ¢ = 0, these conditions will be denoted by the symbols 1, #1) %oa, aNd agg, Substituting the initial conditions into eqs. (G.25a) through (3.254), we evaluate the constants as ®or = PaXeg tor — Trtoy C= Ee Cs mor nt - ” 026 Cy "For — Yor = Toe = or non “Spl = 1) To demonstrate the use of these expressions, we will calculate the response of the system in Fig. 3.1@ to the initial conditions ey = ayy = 1 and ay, = #q = 0. The values of p,, ps, ry, and ry are already available [see eqs. (J), (), (D, and (m0) for the system with equal masses and equal spring constants, Substituting the known values and conditions into eqs. (3.26), we find the constants to be Cy = LA71, Cy = 0, Cy = —0,171, and C, = 0. Then from eqs. (3.254) and (3.25b) the response of the system becomes & = 0.724 cos pit + 0.277 008 pat () &% = L171 cos pit — 0.171 cos pyt o In this case there are only cosine terms in the response because the initial velocities are zero, If the initial displacements were zero and the initial veloc- ities were nonzero, only sine terms would appear in the response. Further- more, both of the natural modes of the system contribute terms to the response, except in cases where the initial conditions coincide with a possible motion of one of those modes. For example, if the initial displacements exactly match the pattern of the first mode (ry ft, =), While 8 = ty, = 0, the response becomes Hy = 1 COS pyl By = Typ COS Pit which consists of pure first-mode response. Tn summary, the assumption of natural modes of vibration in the form of eqs. (4) and (6) enables us to convert homogeneous differential equations for 3.5 UNDAMPED FREE VIBRATIONS 253 : | 1 1 1 wel hb Wh ‘ Wah WANAIAAAINN m n me m (a) ) Pig. 3.14 free vibrations [such as eqs. (3.17) or (3.21)] 10 a set of algebraic equations, Setting the determinant of their coefficient matrix equal to zero, we obtain the characteristic equation and evaluate the frequencies and mode shapes, In this manner the form of the solution is ascertained, but the amounts of the modes contributing to the total response must be determined from the initial con- ditions, For the purpose of discussing several special situations related to free vibrations, we will consider again the spring-eonnected pair of simple pendulums in Fig, 3.4. For this system the terms in the diagonal mass matrix (see eq. (3.9), Art. 3.2] are My) = My = m2. In addition, the array S*, containing gravitational terms, replaces the matrix S; so we have Sf = Sh = Ki* + mgd, and Sh, = Sf = —kh?, Using these terms, we obtain from eq. (3.19) the natural angular frequencies as = le = fe 2k Maye PV Gt @ ‘Then the amplitude ratios may be found from eqs. (3.20a) and (3.20b) to be simply n=l neat (a’) The two natural modes of vibration are shown in Figs. 3. f4a and 3.145, where the amplitudes are normalized with respect to that of the right-hand pendu- lum. In the first mode the pendulums swing in the same direction and at the same amplitude (as if they were one), without deforming the spring, In the254 SYSTEMS WITH TWO DEGE S OF FREEDOM second mode they swing in opposite directions at equal amplitudes, and the spring is periodically stretched and compressed. ‘This system is symmetric with respect to a vertical plane midway between the pendulums. We see from Fig. 3.146 that the second natural mode is symmetric with respect to that plane, and it is called a symmetric mode of vibration. Half the system may be used to represent this mode by restraining the midpoint of the spring against motion (in which case the effective stiffness constant is 2k for half the spring). On the other hand, the first natural mode in Fig. 3.14a is antisymmetric with respect to the plane of symmetry; and it is referred to as an antisymmetric mode of vibration, In this case half the system can be used if the midpoint of the spring is allowed to displace freely across the plane of symmetry (so that the effective stiffness constant of half the spring is zero). In general, a vibratory system having a single plane of symmetry will possess only symmetric and antisymmetric modes with respect to that plane, and (wo reduced systems may be analyzed instead. One of the reduced systems must be restrained at the plane of symmetry to allow only symmetric patterns of displacements, while the other is allowed to displace only in antisymmetric configurations If the spring-connected pendulums are not subjected to a gravitational field, the matrix S* reverts to S, which is singular. In this situation the roots in eqs. (z) become A=0 p= Am (') Now the first mode of the system consists of a rigid-body motion that en- counters no resistance, The natural frequency of such a rigid-body mode is zero, and its period is infinite. Characteristic equations having only positive roots are referred to as positive-definite, while those with one or more zero roots are called positive-semidefinite. For this reason vibrational systems with one or more tigid-body modes are sometimes referred to as semidefinite systems. As another consideration for the pair of pendulums, suppose that gravity is present but that the stiffness of the connecting spring is zero. In this case the second angular frequency in eqs. (z) becomes the same as the first, and we have repeated rooss. The pendulums are able to oscillate independently at the same frequency, and there is no inherent relationship between their ampli- tudes. On the other hand, if the spring connecting the pexdulums has a small (but nonzero) stiffness constant, the two parts of the system are said to be lightly coupled. In such a case the frequency of the second mode will be only slightly higher than that of the first mode [sce eqs. (z)]. Suppose that we start vibrations of the system by the initial conditions 05; = 04592 = 0, and 3.5 UNDAMPED FREE VIBRATIONS — 255 Using eqs. (3.26), we evaluate C,= ~ Cy = ,/2 and 05 and from eqs. (3.25a} and (3.25b) the response is found to be 0, t De)t , 9, = 5 (008 pal + 008 pal) = 9, 805 (r= Po it pe (4 9, . = Pelt / Oy = 5 (60s put ~ 608 pat) = Oe sin (= PM a’) When the frequencies p, and ps are close to one another, each of the dis- placements 0, and 9, consists of the product of a trigonometric function of low frequency (py — p2)/2 and one of high frequency (p; + p,)/2. Conse- quently, the phenomenon called beating will occur. At the beginning of the response, the left-hand pendulum will oscillate with amplitude 6,, while the right-hand pendulum is stationary. Gradually, the amplitude of the former decreases, whereas that of the latter increases. At time ¢ = a/(p, — p,) the left-hand pendulum is stationary, while the right-hand pendulum oscillates with amplitude 9,. Then the vibration of the former begins to increase while that of the latter decreases, until at time f = 2n/(p, — pp) the initial conditions are again attained, The phenomenon repeats itself indefinitely if there is no damping in the system. As the spring stiffness is made smaller and smaller, the period of the beats increases, Of course, when k = 0 there is no inter- action at all between the pendulums, and the modal relationships are un- defined. Example 1. Referring to the system in Fig. 3.3, assume that each portion of the shaft has the same rotational stiffness constant ky and that J, = 2h. If the whole system is rotating at a constant angular velocity 4, when the shaft is suddenly stopped at points A and B, determine the resulting ftee-vibrational response. Solution. From eq. (3.8) in Art, 3.2 we see that Myre A, Ma =, Si = Spy = 2k,, and Sy, = Sy, = —k,. Using these values in eq. (3.19), we determine the characteristic values to be and from eqs. (3.20a) and (3.20b) the amplitude ratios are w= = 0.732 n= TENS ~2.732 ) + For a previous discussion of beating, see Art, 1.7.2156 SYSTEMS WITH TWO DEGREES OF FREEDOM ¢ 0732 1 2732 ‘The shapes of the first and second modes are indicated in Figs. 3.1Sa and 3.15, respectively, where the amplitudes are normalized with respect to that of the right- hand disk. ‘ Using eqs. (3.26), we evaluate the constants C, =Cy=0, Cy = 1.35244 VIE, and Cy = —0.05024, V G/k,. Then from egs. (3.25a) and (3.25b) the re sponse is found to be 41 = (0.992 sin pyr + 0.137 sph lt (e) , , Ir, . by, = (1.352 sin pt ~ 0.0502 sin pth, [7 «) Example 2. The system in Fig, 3.10 of the preceding article may be considered to be a simplified representation of an automobile supported on its front and rear springs. To avoid inertial coupling, we shall use the center of mass at point Cas a reference for bouncing and pitching motions, Assume the following values for the properties of the automobile: mg =32201b ky = 2000 Ibfft_ ky = 2500 Ib, ft Io = 1500Ib-seft 4 =4ft 4 = bit Determine the frequencies and mode shapes of the system, and caleulate the free vibrational response to an initial vertical translation A without rotation Yogq = 3 f¢ = 05 For = Yoo =O» Solution, Referring to eq. (3.14c) of the preceding article, we see that My, = nt = 100 Ib-sec4{ft; Myq =o = 1500 Ib-sec'-fly Spy = ky + ky = 4500 Ib/it, Sig Soy = heat, — ky4y = 7000 Ib, and Syy = hye? + keye? = 122,000 Ib-ft. With 3.5 UNDAMPED FREE VIBRATIONS — 257 | bene @) Fig, 3.16 these values eqs. (3.19), (3.20a), and (3:20b) yield pr = 6.13 radfsec py = 9.42 radjsee (ry % LO2eps 7, 0.67 eps) ry = —9.40 fifrad = —1.97 in fécgree ry = 1.59 fifrad = 0.333 in fdegree Figures 3.15a and 3.166 show the first and second mode shapes, normalized with respect to rotations. They are equivalent to rigid-body rotations about node points O' and O", which are located at distances 9.40 ft to the right and 1.39 ft to the left of point C. fo its first mode the automobile is mostly bouncing, whereas in its second mode it is mostly pitching. Due to the given initial conditions, the consiants from eqs. (3.26) are C, = —C, = -A/10.99 and C, = C, = 0, Finally, the response of the automobile is found from eqs. (3.25a) and (3.25b) to be Ye = (0.856 cos pyt + 0.145 cos p,thd «) Og = — 0.0911 (cos pyt — cos py!) Gi) which is a complicated nonperiodic combination of pitching and bouncing,258 SYSTEMS WITH TWO DEGREES OF FREEDOM PROBLEM SET 3.5 2.5.1, For the system in Prob, 3.2-1 (see Art, 3.2), assume that my = my = and that ky = ky = ky = k. Determine the characteristic values p? and p} and the modal ratios +, and rp, Let the initial conditions be2,, = 2, = Aand dy, = tog = 0, and calculate the free-vibrationai response. Ans. re lyr = od 3.5.2. Using the parameters specified in Prob. 3.2.2 (see Art. 3.2) for the system in Fig. 3.2, calculate the characteristic values p} and p?; and determine the modal ratios r; and ry, In addition, evaluate the response of the system to the initial con- ditions #4, = A, tay =O, or = for =O. Ans. = —VI2j ry = V2 35-3. Let in = my =m, 4 =a = 4, and ky =k, =0 for the system in Prob, 3.2-3 (see Art. 3.2), and determine pj, p3, r1, and rg, Then calculate the re- sponse to the initial conditions 4, = ty, =O and fg, = aiyg =v. Ans. 1 = VW + YDs ry = — V2) 3.5.4, For the two-story frame in Prob. 3.2-5 (see Art. 3.2), let wn = 2005 my = 13 fy =A, = hy and Bl, = Ef, = EL Evaluate p?, p2, ry, and ry; and deter- mine the free-vibrational response due to the sudden release of a static load (Qy)y1 at the lower level. Ans. ry = VE srg = VIVE 3.5-5. Assume that i, =m, = m for the system in Fig. 3.7a (see Example 1, Art, 3.3), and calculate Ay, ayy ry, and rp from eqs. (3.232), (3.24a), and (3.246). Then fing the response due to suddenly releasing a static load (Qz}q. at the free end of the beam. Ans. ry = 0.1685 7 = —2.86 35-6, Deter 1 dg, #4, and ry for the system in Fig. 3.8a (see Example 2, Act. 3.3). Due to impact, the mass acquires an initial velocity v, in the x direction (oy = U yi Yor = 95 Zo) = Yor = 0). Calculate the free-vibrational response to these initial conditions. Ans, 1 = DAL; ty = 0.414 35-7, Let my = my = m for the system in Prob. 3.3-6 (seo Art. 3.3), and evaluate Ay, 4g, r1, and rp, Suppose that the beam is dropped upon its supports fram a height # and is retained by the supports thereafter. Determine the free-vibrational response to this initial condition, Ans. t= lirg = 1 3.5.8, Assuming that the system in Prob. 3.3-8 (see Art. 3.3) has equal masses my = my = mrand that R = EYGI = 14, find the values of 4, Ag, ry) and ry. In addition, calculate the response to the sudden release of a static load (Qy)q. appliod at the first mass. Ans. ry =U + VBiry = 10 — V3 3.6 UNDAMPED FORCED VIBRATIONS 259 3.5-9. Assuming that the mass matrix M for a two-degree system is filled instead of diagonal, derive expressions for p3, p3,r1, and rp using action equations with stiffness cocflicients. 3.5-10. Repeat Prob. 3.5-9 using displacement equations with flexibility coefficients. 35-1, Solve Example 2 of this articte using point A as the reference point for tigid-body motions. Action equations for this reference point were derived as eq. (4a) in Art. 3.4. (Expressions from Prob. 3.5-9 are required to solve this problem.) Ans, 4 = 13.40 fifrad; r, = —2.41 ftfrad 3.512, For the system in Fig. 3.11 (see Example |, Art. 3.4), let b = 4/3 and Te = 2mb?; and calculate 1, 4g, 71, and rp. Use point B as the reference for rigid- body motions, for which displacement equations are given as eq. (D in Art. 3.4. (Expressions from Prob, 3.5-10 are required to solve this problem.) Ans. ry = 057805 r, = 0.5786 3.6 Undamped Forced Vibrations We shall now consider harmonic excitations of systems with two degrees of freedom, For example, suppose that the two-mass system in Fig. 3.l@ is subjected to the sinusoidal forcing functions Q = Pysin ot Q, = P, sin ot (a) which have the same angular frequency w but different magnitudes P, and P,, In this case the action equations of motion [see eq. (3.6)] become MX + SK = Psin wt (3.27) r-(7 In this article we shail again consider only cases with diagonal mass matrices and write eq. (3.27) in the expanded form M; 0 ae Si, Sy Py [ mn I | + [ io "| (“| = [ | si wt 3.28) 0 MajLé Sr Shoj Le, P; A particular solution of these equations may be taken as where a = A; sin wt %, = A, sin wt Or X = Asin wt (b) where the amplitudes of steady-state responses are wll260 SYSTEMS WITH TWO DEGREES OF FREEDOM Substituting oq. (6) into eq. (3.28) produces the following algebraic equations; [so Su 1-2) ® Sa Sa ~o'Mallat Le, Solving for A, we obtain A= BP @ in which the matrix B is the inverse of the coefficient matrix in eq. (¢). Thus, [* a at [* - 0M, —Sp | By, B, CL -Sy Su - eM and C= (Sy — @' Mn)S ~ @'Maz) — Sip a” The terms in B are influence coefficients (also called sransfer functions) that may be defined as amplitudes of steady-state response due to unit harmonic forcing functions, Substituting eq. (W) into eq. (6) gives the final form of the solution as X = BPsin we 3.29) which represents simple harmonic motions of the two masses at the angular frequency w. For slowly varying disturbing forces (i., when w > 0), the matrix B becomes the inverse of the stiffness matrix, which is the flexibility matrix. Comparing the expression for C in eq. (f) with the characteristic equation {eq. (g) in Art, 3.5], we conclude that when @ = p, or w = py the amplitudes become infinitely large. Thus, for a two-degree system there are two condi- tions of resonance, one corresponding to each of the two natural frequencies of fiee vibration, The ratio of the amplitudes 4, and A, from eq. (d) is Ay Sa = oF), ~ SPs © A SuPi + Su ~ w'My)P2 When Py = Oand w = p, or w = ps, this ratio approaches the second forms of r; or r, given by eqs. (3.202) and (3.206) in Art, 3.5, On the other hand, when P, = 0, the ratio approaches the first forms of r, or ry at the resonance conditions. More generally, if we divide the numerator and denominator of eq, (g) by —Syy, we see that Ar Pit Pe A, P+ Pin This result means that for each condition of resonance the forced vibrations are in the corresponding principal mode. = 1,2) (G30) 3.6 UNDAMPED FORCED VIBRATIONS 261 To construct a response spectrum for the steady-state amplitudes of a two-degree sysiem, we must assume specific values for the parameters of a problem. Thus, for the two-mass system in Fig. 3.14, we take mm, = 2m, My =m, and k, = k, =k. For convenience in plotting, we introduce the notation math (hy my 2m and calculate the characteristic values of the system (see eq. 3.19) in terms of Bh as i = 0.586p2 ph = 3414p? a) When matrix B is evaluated in terms of p§, it becomes x — 0°f2pi 1 | Uy CL 2d = okay) a where. = R20 — @*/2p0)* — 1] (ky In this case the units for all of the terms in the B matrix are the same; so it can be made dimensiontess by the simple operation of multiplying it by &. Heace, we let p= ke © X = B(P{k) sin wt (m) Equation (m) is analogous to eq, (1.24) in Art. £.6, and the @ matrix may be considered to be an array of magnification factors (without taking absolute values), Figure 3.17 shows a dimensionless plot of the magnification factors 1 = w?/2pi 2 ~ w*/2ph)* — a 21 — w*/2p?)* — 1 which are associated with the function (P,{k) sin wf. Both of these factors are unity when o and as « increases they are both positive, indicating that the masses are vibrating in phase with the disturbing force P, sin wf. As w approaches the value of the first natural frequency p,, both factors approach infinity. When @ becomes slightly greater than p,, both factors become negative, indicating that the masses are out of phase with the force but are still in phase with each other. With further increase in w both factors diminish until (when @ = ¥/2 p,) the factor Bi, becomes zero, while Bq, has the value and rewrite eq. (3.29) as Bu = (n) Bu = (0)262. SYSTEMS WITH TWO DEGREES OF FREEDOM 4 T T mat 3 t aL ay, ! ! 2 T + |_ Am I 1 i t —| fe fur fax 0 i a Le Tax i “1 t TN ~ | | a i 1 | 3 l 1 vo Ll Ny -4 4 M oO 05 I Lo 45 ; 20 25 3.0 \ eto \ : Pilpe pal po Fig. 3.17 —1. When w exceeds the value V2 79, Bu is positive, while By, remains nega- tive. This means that the masses are out of phase with each other but that the first mass is in phase with the force again, The factors become infinite a second time when w = p,; and as w increases well beyond p,, the motions of the masses tend toward zero The fact that f,, becomes zero when w = V2 p. is of particular interest. At this frequency the first mass is stationary while the second mass moves in opposition to the forcing function at the amplitude — P,j/k. It is seen from the definition of f,, in eq. (2) that it becomes zero when = VSial My (p) which is equal to Vigfn, = V2 p, Cor the two-mass system. To show how this condition can be used advantageously, consider the motor of mass mm, supported on a beam of stiffness &, in Fig. 3.184. The rotating force vector P, due to unbalance of the rotor can cause heavy vibrations of the system when the angular frequency is at the critical value «,, = Vy. To suppress these forced vibrations, we attach an ausiliary mass my with a spring of stiff- ness iy, as shown in Fig. 3,185. [f7m, and ky are selected so that Vkegjitig = Wey, we have a two-degree system for which the vibrations of the motor vanish, while the auxiliary mass vibrates at the amplitude —P,/k,. Such an auxiliary system is called a dynamic damper, because it can prevent vibrations of con- stant-speed ‘machinery in the absence of actual damping. To design the 3.6 UNDAMPED FORCED VIBRATIONS 203 “damper” we first select the spring k, so that the amplitude ~P,/ky is of reasonable magnitude and then select the mass so that V/Agli, = Wee: To be effective at speeds other than w,., the dynamic damper requires actual damping (see the example at the end of Art. 3.8). As discussed previously in Art. 1.6, forced vibrations may also result from periodic ground motions, For example, suppose that the ground in Fig. 3.la translates in the 2ditection in accordance with the simple harmonic function 2, = dsin wt, where d is the displacement amplitude. In this case the action equations of motion are ings = — Kye — %) + Kolm ~ 2) 9) mye, = — Kye, — %) (r) ‘These equations may be written in matrix form as MX + SX = P, sin wt (3.31) ~ The'array Pein eq: B31) Consists of the maximum forces transmitted to the masses through the springs, due to the ground displacements, In this case only one of the terms in P, is nonzero, and we have P= (‘| © 9 On the other hand, suppose that horizontal ground accelerations are specified as #, = asin of, where a is the acceleration amplitude. In this case we change coordinates to the relative displacements at = ty ty ay = a, — a, ( Py we . Re (a) Py ‘ot hy < N ‘a ma () Fig. 3.18264 SYSTEMS WITH TWO DEGREES OF FREEDOM The corresponding accelerations are af = 4, ~ 4, af = a, — dy (7) Then the action equations in the relative coordinates may be written as MX* + SX* = P*sin wt (3.32) For the two-mass system in Fig. 3.¢, the array P* in eq. (3.32) becomes my Pim -| |. () Me, Thus, we can always put problems of forced vibrations due to support motions into the same mathematical form as that for applied actions corre- sponding to the displacement coordinates. In addition, it is always possible to culeulate equivalent loads, corresponding to the displacement coordinates, due to applied actions that do not correspond to those coordinates. If we analyze forced vibrations with displacement equations instead of action equations, eq. (3.27) is replaced by : PMX + X = FP sin of (3.33) Or, in expanded form, we have : [ee Fly [* + (| . FP nel iinet 0.34 FM FxMua| | ay ay Fa Fy JL, Substitution of eq. (4) into eq. (3.34) yields LOM — oF My TPA, Fy Eyl fP; [ OF My 1 oral ~ [r rl iA » In this case the solution for A may be written as A= DFP re) where the matrix D is the inverse of the coefficient matrix on the left-hand side of eq, (1). Thus, va [2 >| yy [tei OF May | Oo Da Dal HL oPyMy 1 ~ oh yMy, % where = (l= OF yi) = oF Ma) — 0° FM, My @) # Gere and Weaver, Analysis of Framed Sirncures, pp. 136-138 3.6 UNDAMPED FORCED VIBRATIONS — 265 ‘The terms in D are influence coefficients that may be defined as amplitudes of steady-state response due to unit harmonic displacements of the masses. Substituting eq. (x) inio eq. (6) produces the solution as X = DEP sin wi (3.35) Comparing eq, (3.35) with eq. (3.29), we conclude that DF =B (3.36a) Therefore, D=BS (3.36b) Although both B and S are symmetric, their product D is usually unsym= metric, We may also introduce the notation Ay = FP G37) Using this identifier, we rewrite eq. (3,33) as FMX +X = A,, sin wt (3.38) Then the solution in eq. (3,35) becomes X = DAysin of (3.39) which is analogous to eq. (u) in Example 4 of Art, 1.6. The matrix A,, con- sists of terms that are defined as displacements of the masses due 10 static application of the maximum values of the forcing funetions, As formed in eq. (3.37), the terms in A,, arise from applied actions corresponding to the dis- placement coordinates; but similar terms may also arise from actions of other types, or from support motions. Harmonic translations of ground for the system in Fig. 3.1a are particularly easy to analyze using eq. (3.38). If the ground displacement is given by a = dsin wt us before, the array Ay becomes simply ou-[" 7" which represents rigid-body motion of the system. On the other hand, the ground accelerations given by @, = asin wi are more difficult to handle, Equation (3.38) in relative coordinates [sce eqs. (4) and (2)] becomes FMX* + X* = AX sin wt (3.40) where At = EP* Cs) Example 1. Assume that the two-mass system in Fig. 3.la is subjected to the Sinusoidal ground displacement wy = dsin wf, As was done for the plot of the
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