P-N Junction diode and Zener Diode

• Introduction to Semiconductors
• PN Junction
• PN Junction Diode
 Construction
 Thermal Equilibrium
• IV characteristics of PN Junction Diode
 Forward Bias
 Reverse Bias
1. Avalanche Breakdown 2. Zener Breakdown
• Zener Diode
• IV characteristics of Zener Diode
• Zener Diode as Voltage Regulator

Zalte M.B
 Classification of Materials

 Based on Electrical Conductivity

Parameter Conductor Semiconductor Insulators
(e.g. e.g. Germanium, e.g.
Copper, Silicon Paper, Mica, glass,
Aluminium, Silver, GaAs quartz
Gold)
Resistivity 10-4 to 10-6 Ω-cm. 101 to 104 Ω-cm. 1010 to 1012 Ω-cm.

Zalte M.B
 Classification of Materials..
 Energy band diagrams insulator, semiconductor and conductor
Band structure of a material defines the band of energy levels that an electron can occupy.
• The electrons in the outermost shell
are known as valence electrons.
These valence electrons contain a
≈6eV series of energy levels and form an
≈1.1eV energy band known as valence
band. The valence band has the
highest occupied energy.

• The valence electrons can leave the outermost orbit even at room temperature and become
free electrons. The free electrons conduct current in conductors and are therefore known as
conduction electrons.
• The conduction band is one that contains conduction electrons and has the lowest
occupied energy levels.
• The gap between the valence band and the conduction band is referred to as forbidden
gap. As the name suggests, the forbidden gap doesn’t have any energy and no electrons
stay in this band.
Zalte M.B
 Semiconductor Materials
• Two types of semiconducting materials : silicon and germanium
both have four valance electrons
 atoms within the crystal structure are held together by covalent
bonds (atoms share valence electrons)
An intrinsic crystal is one that has no impurities
 Semiconductor Materials..
Covalent bonds in a silicon crystal. The actual crystal is 3-dimensional.
 Introduction to Semiconductor Materials..

Modified Semiconductor Materials

• Doping is the process of adding impurities to intrinsic semiconducting materials
to increase and control conductivity within the material.

 n-type material is formed by adding pentavalent (5 valence electrons) impurity

atoms (Pentavalent impurities : Phosphorous , Arsenic, Antimony)
-- electrons are called majority carriers in n-type material
-- holes are called minority carriers in n-type material

 p-type material is formed by adding trivalent (3 valence electrons) impurity

atoms (Tri-valent impurities : Boron (B), Gallium (G), Indium(In), Aluminium(Al))
-- holes are called majority carriers in p-type material
-- electrons are called minority carriers in p-type material

Zalte M.B
 Introduction to Semiconductor Materials..

Modified Semiconductor Materials

 P-N Junction
• A p-n junction is formed by joining p-type and n-type semiconductors together in very
close contact. The term junction refers to the boundary interface where the two regions of
the semiconductor meet.
• p-n junctions are created in a single crystal of semiconductor by doping, for example, by
ion implantation, diffusion of dopants, or by epitaxy (growing a layer of crystal doped with
one type of dopant on top of a layer of crystal doped with another type of dopant)

• p-n junctions are elementary “building blocks” of almost all semiconductor electronic
devices such as diodes, transistors, solar cells, LEDs, and integrated circuits; they are the
active sites where the electronic action of the device takes place.

Zalte M.B
 p-n junction in thermal equilibrium: with zero bias voltage applied
• The regions nearby the p-n interfaces lose their neutrality and become charged, forming the
space charge region or depletion layer.
 p-n junction in thermal equilibrium:
with zero bias voltage applied
• The electric field created by the space charge region opposes the diffusion process for both
electrons and holes.

• There are two concurrent phenomena: the diffusion process that tends to generate more
space charge, and the electric field generated by the space charge that tends to counteract
the diffusion.
• The space charge region is a zone with a net charge provided by the fixed ions (donors or
acceptors) that have been left uncovered by majority carrier diffusion.
• When equilibrium is reached, the charge density is approximated by the displayed step
function.

• The region is completely depleted of majority carriers (leaving a charge density equal to the
net doping level), and the edge between the space charge region and the neutral region is
quite sharp.

• The space charge region has the same charge on both sides of the p-n interfaces, thus it
extends farther on the less doped side.

Zalte M.B
• The applied forward potential establishes the electric field which acts against the field due to
potential barrier. Therefore, the resultant field is weakened and the barrier height is reduced
at the junction.
• Since the potential barrier voltage is very small, a small forward voltage is sufficient to
completely eliminate the barrier.
• Once the potential barrier is eliminated by the forward voltage, junction resistance becomes
almost zero and a low resistance path is established for the entire circuit. Therefore, current
flows in the circuit. This is called forward current.

Zalte M.B
 Reverse biasing of p-n junction

• The applied reverse voltage establishes an electric field which acts in the same direction as
the field due to potential barrier. Therefore, the resultant field at the junction is
strengthened and the barrier height is increased.

• The increased potential barrier prevents the flow of charge carriers across the junction.
Thus, a high resistance path is established for the entire circuit and hence current does not
flow.

Zalte M.B.
 VOLT-AMPERE (V-I ) CHARACTERISTICS OF P-N
JUNCTION DIODE
• The V-I characteristics of a semiconductor diode can be obtained with the help of the circuit
.

• The supply voltage V is a regulated power supply, the diode is forward biased in the circuit
shown. The resistor R is a current limiting resistor.
• By varying the supply voltage different sets of voltage and currents are obtained.
• By plotting these values on a graph, the forward characteristics can be obtained. It can be
noted from the graph the current remains zero till the diode voltage attains the barrier
potential.
• For silicon diode, the barrier potential is 0.7 V and for germanium diode, it is 0.3 V.
The barrier potential is also called knee voltage or cut-in voltage.
• The reverse characteristics can be obtained by reverse biasing the diode. It can be noted
that at a particular reverse voltage, the reverse current increases rapidly. This voltage is
called breakdown voltage.

Zalte M.B.
 DIODE CURRENT EQUATION
- ID is the total diode current
 VD
 - Is reverse saturation current
I D  I s  e nVT
 1 - VD applied voltage across the diode

  - η an ideality factor, value between 1&2.

- VT thermal voltage:

where k = 1.38 x 10-23 J/K , Boltzmann constant

kT
VT  q = 1.6x10-19 C , charge of electrons
q T= temperature in oK

At room temperature 27oC , T= 273+27= 300oK

Thermal Voltage VT ≈ 26mV

Zalte M.B.
 DIODE CURRENT EQUATION
 V 
 
D
 With Zero Voltage: VD  0,  I D  I s  e nVT
 1  I s e 0  1  0
 
 

 Under forward-biased condition, VD VD

VD > 0 So VD >> ηVT, then e nVT
 1 and ID  ISe nVT

 Under Reversed-biased Condition VD

VD < 0 So VD << ηVT, then e nVT
 1 and I D  I S

Zalte M.B.
 I-V Characteristics

 V D

I D  I s  e  1
VD
nVT ID  ISe nVT

 

I D  I S

When VD < VZK, the diode enters the breakdown region, the reverse current
increases sharply. VZK is known as the zener knee voltage.

Zalte M.B.
 Basic Definitions
• Knee Voltage or Cut-in Voltage
It is the forward voltage at which the diode starts conducting.

• Breakdown Voltage
It is the reverse voltage at which the diode (p-n junction) breaks down with a sudden
rise in reverse current.

• Peak-inverse Voltage (PIV)

It is the maximum reverse voltage that can be applied to a p-n junction without
causing damage to the junction. If the reverse voltage across the junction exceeds
its peak inverse voltage, then the junction exceeds its peak-inverse voltage, and the
junction gets destroyed because of excessive heat. In rectification, care should be
taken that reverse voltage across the diode during –ve half cycle of ac doesn’t exceed
the peak-inverse voltage of the diode.
and the voltage across the junction.

Zalte M.B.
 Basic Definitions

• Maximum Forward Current

It is the maximum instantaneous forward current that a p-n junction can conduct
without damaging the junction. If the forward current is more than the specified
rating then the junction gets destroyed due to overheating.

• Maximum Power Rating

It is the maximum power that can be dissipated at the junction without damaging
it.The power dissipated across the junction is equal to the product of junction current
and the voltage across the junction.

Zalte M.B.
 STATIC AND DYNAMIC RESISTANCE OF A DIODE

DC or Static Resistance

When diode is forward biased, it offers a definite

resistance in the circuit. This resistance is known as
dc resistance or static resistance (RF). It is simply
the ratio of the dc voltage (VD) across the diode to
the dc current (ID) flowing through it.

AC or Dynamic Resistance

The ac or dynamic resistance of a diode, at a particular dc

voltage, is equal to the reciprocal of the slope of the
characteristics at that point

Zalte M.B.
 BREAK DOWN Mechanisms In PN Junction

• Reverse bias voltage, at which the breakdown of a P-N junction diode occurs is
called the breakdown voltage.

• The breakdown voltage depends on the width of the depletion region, which, in
turn, depends on the doping level.

• There are two mechanisms by which breakdown can occur at a reverse biased P-N
junction
1. avalanche break down
2. Zener breakdown.

Zalte M.B.Type text her

 Avalanche breakdown
• Avalanche breakdown occurs in moderately and
lightly doped PN junctions with a wide depletion
region.

• Electron hole pairs thermally generated in the

depletion region are accelerated by the external
reverse bias. Electrons are accelerated towards the
n side and holes towards the p side.

• These electron can interact with other Si atoms and if they have sufficient energy can
knock out electrons from these Si atoms. This process is called impact ionization and leads
to production of a large number of electrons.

• This causes the rapid rise in current. The breakdown voltage decreases with increase in
dopant concentration.

• The breakdown region is the knee of the characteristic curve. After breakdown the current
is not controlled by the junction voltage but rather by the external circuit.

Zalte M.B.
 Zener breakdown
• With increase in doping concentration the
breakdown mechanism, changes from
Avalanche to a tunnelling mechanism. This
is called a Zener breakdown.
• The depletion width decreases with dopant concentration.
• It is possible for carriers to tunnel across the narrow depletion region.
• The electrons tunnel from the valence band on the p side to the conduction band on the n
side, driven by the externally applied reverse bias. Tunnelling also leads to a large increase
in current.
• The transition from avalanche to Zener as the primary breakdown mechanism with dopant
concentration is shown.

Zalte M.B.
 Zener Diode
• The Zener diode is like a general-purpose
signal diode consisting of a silicon PN
junction. When biased in the forward
direction it behaves just like a normal
signal diode passing the rated current.
• A reverse voltage applied across the Zener
diode exceeds the rated voltage of the
device, the diodes breakdown and high
current flows through diode.

• Zener diodes are primarily used as surge protectors in circuits, since there is a rapid
increase in current with a small change in voltage. Prior to breakdown there is a
high resistance small reverse saturation current but after breakdown the resistance
is very small.
• Zener diode is used as voltage regulators in circuits.

Zalte M.B.
 Zener Diode as Voltage Regulator
• Zener Diodes are widely used as Shunt Voltage
Regulators to regulate voltage across small loads.
• Zener Diodes have a sharp reverse breakdown
voltage and breakdown voltage will be constant for
a wide rang of currents. Thus Zener diode parallel
to the load such that the applied voltage will
reverse bias it.

• If the reverse bias voltage across the Zener diode

exceeds the knee voltage, the voltage across the
load will be constant.
• The value of Rs must be small enough to keep the Zener Diode in reverse breakdown
region. The minimum current required for a Zener Diode to keep it in reverse breakdown
region will be given in its datasheet. For example, a 5.6 V, 0.5 W Zener diode has a
recommended reverse current of 5 mA. If the reverse current is less than this value, the
output voltage Vo will be unregulated.
• The value of Rs must be large enough that the current through the zener diode should not
destroy it. That is the maximum power dissipation Pmax should be less than IzVz.

Zalte M.B.
Zener Diode as Voltage Regulator

Zalte M.B.
Zener Diode as Voltage Regulator..

Zalte M.B.
Zener Diode as Voltage Regulator..

Zalte M.B.
Zener Diode as Voltage Regulator..

Zalte M.B.
Zalte M.B.
 HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER
The circuit diagram of a half-wave rectifier is shown along with the I/P and O/P
Waveforms.

• The transformer is employed in order to step-down the supply voltage.

• The diode is used to rectify the ac signal while the pulsating dc is taken across the load resistor RL.
During the +ve half-cycle, the end X of the secondary is +ve and end Y is –ve. Thus, forward biasing the
diode.
• As the diode is forward biased, the current flows through the load RL and a voltage is developed
across it.
• During the –ve half-cycle the end Y is +ve and end X is –ve thus, reverse biasing the
diode. As the diode is reverse biased there is no flow of current through RL thereby the
output voltage is zero.

Zalte M.B.
5.1 Diode and Rectifiers EEEE-MBZ/KJSCE
 Efficiency of a Half wave Rectifier

dc Power ac Power Input

The efficiency is maximum if rf is negligible as compared to RL.

Therefore, maximum rectifier efficiency = 40.6%

Zalte M.B.
5.1 Diode and Rectifiers EEEE-MBZ/KJSCE
 Ripple Factor

• The pulsating output of a rectifier consists of dc component and ac component (also known as ripple).
The ac component is undesirable and accounts for the pulsations in the rectifier output. The
effectiveness of a rectifier depends on the magnitude of ac component in the output : the smaller this
component, the more effective is the rectifier. “ The ratio of rms value of ac component to the dc
component in the rectifier output is known as ripple factor”.

Ripple Factor for Half-wave Rectification

OR 𝑰𝒂𝒄 = 𝑰𝟐 𝒓𝒎𝒔 − 𝑰𝟐 𝒅𝒄

It is clear that ac component exceeds dc component in the output of a half-wave rectifier.

Zalte M.B.
5.1 Diode and Rectifiers EEEE-MBZ/KJSCE
 Transformer utilization factor

Transformer utilization factor is a quantitative indication of the utilization of VA Rating of

Transformer. The more the value of TUF, the more will be the utilization. In other words,
the VA rating of required transformer will be less if TUF is more and vice versa.

DC Power Output, Pdc = Average Current x Average Voltage

Zalte M.B.
5.1 Diode and Rectifiers EEEE-MBZ/KJSCE
 Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF) of Half
Wave Rectifier
• DC Power Output, Pdc = Average Current x Average Voltage
𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎 …………………(1)
𝑷𝒅𝒄 = 𝑿
𝝅 𝝅
• VA rating of Transformer
• The voltage of source is sinusoidal, therefore its rms value will be equal to
(Vm/√2).
• The rms value of the source current will be equal to the rms value of the load
current. As the rms value of load current for half wave rectifier is equal to
(Im/2), therefore the rms value of source current will also be equal to (Im/2).

𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎
𝑽𝑨 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 = 𝑿 …………………(2)
√𝟐 𝟐
From equation (1) and (2) 𝟐√𝟐
𝑻𝑼𝑭 = = 0.285
π𝟐

5.1 Diode and Rectifiers EEEE-MBZ/KJSCE

 Peak Inverse Voltage
During Negative Half cycle Diode D is Reverse biased shown by open
circuit so Voltage across is –Vm.

VDmax=-Vm

So PIV= Vm

Zalte M.B.
 FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER
Full-wave rectifiers are of two types:
1. Centre tapped full-wave rectifier 2. Bridge rectifier
Centre Tapped Full-wave Rectifier
• It employs two diodes and a centre tap transformer. The ac signal to be rectified is
applied to the primary of the transformer and the dc output is taken across the load, RL.
• During the +ve half-cycle end X is +ve and end Y is –ve. This makes diode D1 forward
biased and thus a current i1 flows through it and load resistor RL. Diode D2 is reverse
biased and the current i2 is zero.
• During the –ve half-cycle end Y is +ve and end X is –ve. Now diode D2 is forward biased
and thus a current i2 flows through it and load resistor RL. Diode D1 is reversed and the
current i1 = 0. Disadvantages
• Since each diode uses only one-half
of the transformer secondary
voltage the dc output is
comparatively small.
I1 • It is difficult to locate the centre-
tap on secondary winding of the
transformer.
I1 • The diodes used must have high
peak-inverse voltage

Zalte M.B.
5.1 Diode and Rectifiers EEEE-MBZ/KJSCE
 Peak Inverse Voltage
During Positive half cycle D1 conducts (Short circuit) and
Vm D2 off (open circuit) so VD2max= 2Vm
Vm

During negative half cycle D2 conducts (Short circuit) and

Vm
D1 off (open circuit) so VD1max= 2Vm

Vm
So PIV= 2Vm

Zalte M.B.
 Full-wave Bridge Rectifier
• It uses four diodes and one transformer.
• During the +ve half-cycle, end A is +ve and end B is –ve thus diodes D1 and D3 are forward bias while
diodes D2 and D4 are reverse biased thus a current flows through diode D1, load RL (C to D) and
diode D3.
• During the –ve half-cycle, end B is +ve and end A is –ve thus diodes D2 and D4 are forward biased
while the diodes D1 and D3 are reverse biased. Now the flow of current is through diode D4 load RL
(D to C) and diode D2. Thus, the waveform is same as in the case of centre-tapped full-wave rectifier.

Advantages
• The need for centre-tapped transformer is eliminated.
• The output is twice when compared to centre-tapped full-wave rectifier, for the same
secondary voltage.
• The peak inverse voltage is one-half (1/2) compared to centre-tapped full-wave rectifier.
• Can be used where large amount of power is required.
Disadvantages: • It requires four diodes. • The use of two extra diodes causes an additional voltage
drop thereby reducing the output voltage.

Zalte M.B.
5.1 Diode and Rectifiers EEEE-MBZ/KJSCE
 Peak Inverse Voltage
During the +ve half-cycle, end A is +ve and end B is –ve thus diodes D1 and D3 are
forward bias (Short circuit ) while diodes D2 and D4 are reverse biased (open circuit)

Vm

During the -ve half-cycle, end B is +ve and end A is –ve thus diodes D2 and D4 are
forward bias (Short circuit ) while diodes D1 and D3 are reverse biased (open circuit)

Vm
So PIV= Vm

ZaZalte M.BZalte M.B.

Zalte M.B.
 Efficiency of Full-wave Rectifier

ac power output

dc power output

The efficiency will be maximum if rf is negligible as compared to RL. Hence,

maximum efficiency = 81.2%. This is double the efficiency due to half-wave
rectifier. Therefore, a full-wave rectifier is twice as effective as a half-wave
rectifier.
ZaZalte M.BZalte M.B.
Zalte M.B.
5.1 Diode and Rectifiers EEEE-MBZ/KJSCE
Ripple Factor for Full-wave Rectification

Zalte M.B.
5.1 Diode and Rectifiers EEEE-MBZ/KJSCE
 Comparison of Rectifiers

8. TUF 0.285 0.672 0.810

ZalteZalte M.B. M.B.

Zalte M.B.
5.1 Diode and Rectifiers EEEE-MBZ/KJSCE
 FILTERS
• The output of the rectifier is pulsating dc, i.e., the output obtained by the rectifier is not pure dc but it
contains some ac components along with the dc o/p. These ac components are called ripples, which
are undesirable or unwanted.
• To minimize the ripples in the rectifier output filter circuits are used. These circuits are normally
connected between the rectifier and load

• Filter is a circuit which converts pulsating dc output from a rectifier to a steady dc output.
In other words, filters are used to reduce the amplitudes of the unwanted ac components
in the rectifier.
• Types of Filters
1. Capacitor filter (C-filter) 2. Inductor filter
3. Choke input filter (LC-filter) 4. Capacitor input filter ( Π filter)

Zalte M.B
5.1 Diode and Rectifiers EEEE-MBZ/KJSCE
 Capacitor Filter( C -Filter)

• When the input signal rises from o to a the diode is forward

biased therefore it starts conducting since the capacitor acts as
a short circuit for ac signal. It gets charged up to the peak of the
input signal and the dc component flows through the load, RL.
• When the input signal falls from a to b the diode gets reverse
biased. This is mainly because of the voltage across the
capacitor obtained during the period o to a is more when
compared to Vi. Therefore, there is no conduction of current
through the diode.
• The charged capacitor acts as a battery and it starts discharging through the load, RL. Meanwhile the
input signal passes through b, c, d sections. When the signal reaches the point d the diode is still
reverse biased since the capacitor voltage is more than the input voltage. At e the input voltage can
be expected to be more than the capacitor voltage. When the input signal moves from e to f the
capacitor gets charged to its peak value again. The diode gets reverse biased and the capacitor starts
discharging.
ZaZaZalte M.B. lteZalt

5.1 Diode and Rectifiers EEEE-MBZ/KJSCE

Ripple factor for the rectifiers with C-filter

Zalte M.B
5.1 Diode and Rectifiers EEEE-MBZ/KJSCE